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Catherine Yass | Works | Works
Yass is noted for her films and brightly coloured photographs. Many of her works are mounted on light boxes.
Yass has also worked with video. Descent (2002) is one film and two light boxes.
In 2000, Yass designed the Christmas tree for Tate Britain, and in the same year along with Richard Wentworth she designed the public square around The New Art Gallery Walsall. Yass has had solo exhibitions including Lighthouse at Alison Jacques Gallery, London (2012); a mid-career retrospective at De La Warr Pavilion, Bexhill-on-Sea (2011); Flight, The Phillips Collections, Washington D.C.; The China Series, Stedelijk-Hertogenbosch Museum, The Netherlands (2009); Descent, St Louis Art Museum, St Louis, MO (2009).
Yass participated in the 13th Montreal Photo Biennale (2013). Her work is in the collections of the Jewish Museum, New York, the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, and the Tate Britain. it is also in the National Museum of Women in the Arts collection.
In July 2014 Yass was refused permission to drop a piano from the 27-story Balfron Tower in Poplar, London as part of a "community workshop to explore how sound travels". |
Catherine Yass | References | References |
Catherine Yass | External links | External links
images of Yass' work at the Galerie Lelong & Co
Category:1963 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century English women artists
Category:21st-century English women artists
Category:20th-century British women photographers
Category:21st-century British women photographers
Category:21st-century English photographers
Category:Artists from London
Category:Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
Category:Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
Category:English women photographers
Category:English contemporary artists |
Catherine Yass | Table of Content | Short description, Biography, Works, References, External links |
Lewis acids and bases | Short description | thumb|right|400px|Diagram of some Lewis and
A Lewis acid (named for the American physical chemist Gilbert N. Lewis) is a chemical species that contains an empty orbital which is capable of accepting an electron pair from a Lewis base to form a Lewis adduct. A Lewis base, then, is any species that has a filled orbital containing an electron pair which is not involved in bonding but may form a dative bond with a Lewis acid to form a Lewis adduct. For example, NH3 is a Lewis base, because it can donate its lone pair of electrons. Trimethylborane [(CH3)3B] is a Lewis acid as it is capable of accepting a lone pair. In a Lewis adduct, the Lewis acid and base share an electron pair furnished by the Lewis base, forming a dative bond. In the context of a specific chemical reaction between NH3 and Me3B, a lone pair from NH3 will form a dative bond with the empty orbital of Me3B to form an adduct NH3•BMe3. The terminology refers to the contributions of Gilbert N. Lewis. From p. 142: "We are inclined to think of substances as possessing acid or basic properties, without having a particular solvent in mind. It seems to me that with complete generality we may say that a basic substance is one which has a lone pair of electrons which may be used to complete the stable group of another atom, and that an acid substance is one which can employ a lone pair from another molecule in completing the stable group of one of its own atoms. In other words, the basic substance furnishes a pair of electrons for a chemical bond, the acid substance accepts such a pair."
The terms nucleophile and electrophile are sometimes interchangeable with Lewis base and Lewis acid, respectively. These terms, especially their abstract noun forms nucleophilicity and electrophilicity, emphasize the kinetic aspect of reactivity, while the Lewis basicity and Lewis acidity emphasize the thermodynamic aspect of Lewis adduct formation. |
Lewis acids and bases | Depicting adducts | Depicting adducts
In many cases, the interaction between the Lewis base and Lewis acid in a complex is indicated by an arrow indicating the Lewis base donating electrons toward the Lewis acid using the notation of a dative bond — for example, ←. Some sources indicate the Lewis base with a pair of dots (the explicit electrons being donated), which allows consistent representation of the transition from the base itself to the complex with the acid:
A center dot may also be used to represent a Lewis adduct, such as . Another example is boron trifluoride diethyl etherate, . In a slightly different usage, the center dot is also used to represent hydrate coordination in various crystals, as in for hydrated magnesium sulfate, irrespective of whether the water forms a dative bond with the metal.
Although there have been attempts to use computational and experimental energetic criteria to distinguish dative bonding from non-dative covalent bonds, for the most part, the distinction merely makes note of the source of the electron pair, and dative bonds, once formed, behave simply as other covalent bonds do, though they typically have considerable polar character. Moreover, in some cases (e.g., sulfoxides and amine oxides as and ), the use of the dative bond arrow is just a notational convenience for avoiding the drawing of formal charges. In general, however, the donor–acceptor bond is viewed as simply somewhere along a continuum between idealized covalent bonding and ionic bonding. |
Lewis acids and bases | Lewis acids | Lewis acids
thumb|270px|left|Major structural changes accompany binding of the Lewis base to the coordinatively unsaturated, planar Lewis acid BF3
Lewis acids are diverse and the term is used loosely. Simplest are those that react directly with the Lewis base, such as boron trihalides and the pentahalides of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony.
In the same vein, can be considered to be the Lewis acid in methylation reactions. However, the methyl cation never occurs as a free species in the condensed phase, and methylation reactions by reagents like CH3I take place through the simultaneous formation of a bond from the nucleophile to the carbon and cleavage of the bond between carbon and iodine (SN2 reaction). Textbooks disagree on this point: some asserting that alkyl halides are electrophiles but not Lewis acids, while others describe alkyl halides (e.g. CH3Br) as a type of Lewis acid. The IUPAC states that Lewis acids and Lewis bases react to form Lewis adducts, and defines electrophile as Lewis acids. |
Lewis acids and bases | Simple Lewis acids | Simple Lewis acids
Some of the most studied examples of such Lewis acids are the boron trihalides and organoboranes:
BF3 + F− →
In this adduct, all four fluoride centres (or more accurately, ligands) are equivalent.
BF3 + OMe2 → BF3OMe2
Both BF4− and BF3OMe2 are Lewis base adducts of boron trifluoride.
Many adducts violate the octet rule, such as the triiodide anion:
I2 + I− →
The variability of the colors of iodine solutions reflects the variable abilities of the solvent to form adducts with the Lewis acid I2.
Some Lewis acids bind with two Lewis bases, a famous example being the formation of hexafluorosilicate:
SiF4 + 2 F− → |
Lewis acids and bases | Complex Lewis acids | Complex Lewis acids
Most compounds considered to be Lewis acids require an activation step prior to formation of the adduct with the Lewis base. Complex compounds such as Et3Al2Cl3 and AlCl3 are treated as trigonal planar Lewis acids but exist as aggregates and polymers that must be degraded by the Lewis base.Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. . A simpler case is the formation of adducts of borane. Monomeric BH3 does not exist appreciably, so the adducts of borane are generated by degradation of diborane:
B2H6 + 2 H− → 2
In this case, an intermediate can be isolated.
Many metal complexes serve as Lewis acids, but usually only after dissociating a more weakly bound Lewis base, often water.
[Mg(H2O)6]2+ + 6 NH3 → [Mg(NH3)6]2+ + 6 H2O |
Lewis acids and bases | H<sup>+</sup> as Lewis acid | H+ as Lewis acid
The proton (H+) is one of the strongest but is also one of the most complicated Lewis acids. It is convention to ignore the fact that a proton is heavily solvated (bound to solvent). With this simplification in mind, acid-base reactions can be viewed as the formation of adducts:
H+ + NH3 →
H+ + OH− → H2O |
Lewis acids and bases | Applications of Lewis acids | Applications of Lewis acids
A typical example of a Lewis acid in action is in the Friedel–Crafts alkylation reaction.March, J. “Advanced Organic Chemistry” 4th Ed. J. Wiley and Sons, 1992: New York. . The key step is the acceptance by AlCl3 of a chloride ion lone-pair, forming and creating the strongly acidic, that is, electrophilic, carbonium ion.
RCl +AlCl3 → R+ + |
Lewis acids and bases | Lewis bases | Lewis bases
A Lewis base is an atomic or molecular species where the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) is highly localized. Typical Lewis bases are conventional amines such as ammonia and alkyl amines. Other common Lewis bases include pyridine and its derivatives. They are nucleophilic in nature.
Some of the main classes of Lewis bases are:
amines of the formula NH3−xRx where R = alkyl or aryl. Related to these are pyridine and its derivatives.
phosphines of the formula PR3−xArx.
compounds of O, S, Se and Te in oxidation state −2, including water, ethers, ketones
The most common Lewis bases are anions. The strength of Lewis basicity correlates with the of the parent acid: acids with high 's give good Lewis bases. As usual, a weaker acid has a stronger conjugate base.
Examples of Lewis bases based on the general definition of electron pair donor include:
simple anions, such as H− and F−
other lone-pair-containing species, such as H2O, NH3, HO−, and CH3−
complex anions, such as sulfate
electron-rich -system Lewis bases, such as ethyne, ethene, and benzene
The strength of Lewis bases have been evaluated for various Lewis acids, such as I2, SbCl5, and BF3.Christian Laurence and Jean-François Gal "Lewis Basicity and Affinity Scales : Data and Measurement"
Wiley, 2009. .
Heats of binding of various bases to BF3 Lewis base Donor atom Enthalpy of complexation (kJ/mol)QuinuclidineN150Et3NN135PyridineN128AcetonitrileN60DMAO112DMSOO105THFO90.4Et2OO78.8AcetoneO76.0EtOAcO75.5TrimethylphosphineP97.3TetrahydrothiopheneS51.6 |
Lewis acids and bases | Applications of Lewis bases | Applications of Lewis bases
Nearly all electron pair donors that form compounds by binding transition elements can be viewed ligands. Thus, a large application of Lewis bases is to modify the activity and selectivity of metal catalysts. Chiral Lewis bases, generally multidentate, confer chirality on a catalyst, enabling asymmetric catalysis, which is useful for the production of pharmaceuticals. The industrial synthesis of the anti-hypertension drug mibefradil uses a chiral Lewis base (R-MeOBIPHEP), for example.
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Lewis acids and bases | Hard and soft classification | Hard and soft classification
Lewis acids and bases are commonly classified according to their hardness or softness. In this context hard implies small and nonpolarizable and soft indicates larger atoms that are more polarizable.
typical hard acids: H+, alkali/alkaline earth metal cations, boranes, Zn2+
typical soft acids: Ag+, Mo(0), Ni(0), Pt2+
typical hard bases: ammonia and amines, water, carboxylates, fluoride and chloride
typical soft bases: organophosphines, thioethers, carbon monoxide, iodide
For example, an amine will displace phosphine from the adduct with the acid BF3. In the same way, bases could be classified. For example, bases donating a lone pair from an oxygen atom are harder than bases donating through a nitrogen atom. Although the classification was never quantified it proved to be very useful in predicting the strength of adduct formation, using the key concepts that hard acid—hard base and soft acid—soft base interactions are stronger than hard acid—soft base or soft acid—hard base interactions. Later investigation of the thermodynamics of the interaction suggested that hard—hard interactions are enthalpy favored, whereas soft—soft are entropy favored. |
Lewis acids and bases | Quantifying Lewis acidity | Quantifying Lewis acidity
Many methods have been devised to evaluate and predict Lewis acidity. Many are based on spectroscopic signatures such as shifts NMR signals or IR bands e.g. the Gutmann-Beckett method and the Childs method.
The ECW model is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, −ΔH. The model assigned E and C parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an EA and a CA. Each base is likewise characterized by its own EB and CB. The E and C parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is
−ΔH = EAEB + CACB + W
The W term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths. and that single property scales are limited to a smaller range of acids or bases. |
Lewis acids and bases | History | History
thumb|MO diagram depicting the formation of a dative covalent bond between two atoms
The concept originated with Gilbert N. Lewis who studied chemical bonding. In 1923, Lewis wrote An acid substance is one which can employ an electron lone pair from another molecule in completing the stable group of one of its own atoms.Miessler, L. M., Tar, D. A., (1991) p. 166 – Table of discoveries attributes the date of publication/release for the Lewis theory as 1923. The Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory was published in the same year. The two theories are distinct but complementary. A Lewis base is also a Brønsted–Lowry base, but a Lewis acid does not need to be a Brønsted–Lowry acid. The classification into hard and soft acids and bases (HSAB theory) followed in 1963. The strength of Lewis acid-base interactions, as measured by the standard enthalpy of formation of an adduct can be predicted by the Drago–Wayland two-parameter equation. |
Lewis acids and bases | Reformulation of Lewis theory | Reformulation of Lewis theory
Lewis had suggested in 1916 that two atoms are held together in a chemical bond by sharing a pair of electrons. When each atom contributed one electron to the bond, it was called a covalent bond. When both electrons come from one of the atoms, it was called a dative covalent bond or coordinate bond. The distinction is not very clear-cut. For example, in the formation of an ammonium ion from ammonia and hydrogen the ammonia molecule donates a pair of electrons to the proton;Traditionally, but not precisely, H+ ions are referred as "protons". See the identity of the electrons is lost in the ammonium ion that is formed. Nevertheless, Lewis suggested that an electron-pair donor be classified as a base and an electron-pair acceptor be classified as acid.
A more modern definition of a Lewis acid is an atomic or molecular species with a localized empty atomic or molecular orbital of low energy. This lowest-energy molecular orbital (LUMO) can accommodate a pair of electrons. |
Lewis acids and bases | Comparison with Brønsted–Lowry theory | Comparison with Brønsted–Lowry theory
A Lewis base is often a Brønsted–Lowry base as it can donate a pair of electrons to H+; the proton is a Lewis acid as it can accept a pair of electrons. The conjugate base of a Brønsted–Lowry acid is also a Lewis base as loss of H+ from the acid leaves those electrons which were used for the A—H bond as a lone pair on the conjugate base. However, a Lewis base can be very difficult to protonate, yet still react with a Lewis acid. For example, carbon monoxide is a very weak Brønsted–Lowry base but it forms a strong adduct with BF3.
In another comparison of Lewis and Brønsted–Lowry acidity by Brown and Kanner, 2,6-di-t-butylpyridine reacts to form the hydrochloride salt with HCl but does not react with BF3. This example demonstrates that steric factors, in addition to electron configuration factors, play a role in determining the strength of the interaction between the bulky di-t-butylpyridine and tiny proton. |
Lewis acids and bases | See also | See also
Acid
Base (chemistry)
Acid–base reaction
Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
Chiral Lewis acid
Frustrated Lewis pair
Gutmann–Beckett method
ECW model
Philosophy of chemistry |
Lewis acids and bases | References | References |
Lewis acids and bases | Further reading | Further reading
Category:Acid–base chemistry
Category:Acids
Category:Bases (chemistry) |
Lewis acids and bases | Table of Content | Short description, Depicting adducts, Lewis acids, Simple Lewis acids, Complex Lewis acids, H<sup>+</sup> as Lewis acid, Applications of Lewis acids, Lewis bases, Applications of Lewis bases, Hard and soft classification, Quantifying Lewis acidity, History, Reformulation of Lewis theory, Comparison with Brønsted–Lowry theory, See also, References, Further reading |
Animacy | Short description | Animacy (antonym: inanimacy) is a grammatical and semantic feature, existing in some languages, expressing how sentient or alive the referent of a noun is. Widely expressed, animacy is one of the most elementary principles in languages around the globe and is a distinction acquired as early as six months of age.
Concepts of animacy constantly vary beyond a simple animate and inanimate binary; many languages function off an hierarchical general animacy scale that ranks animacy as a "matter of gradience". Typically (with some variation of order and of where the cutoff for animacy occurs), the scale ranks humans above animals, then plants, natural forces, concrete objects, and abstract objects, in that order. In referring to humans, this scale contains a hierarchy of persons, ranking the first- and second-person pronouns above the third person, partly a product of empathy, involving the speaker and interlocutor.
It is obvious that the ability to distinguish between animate and inanimate is very important from an evolutionary point of view. In order to survive, an animal must be able to quickly and accurately distinguish between its sexual partners, rivals, predators, animals that it eats, etc., and inanimate objects. As for people, the ability to distinguish between animate and inanimate arises in infancy, even before children have mastered speech. Apparently, there is a brain mechanism responsible for this process. Thus, neurophysiological studies have experimentally shown that this process includes two stages - categorization of objects by shape, followed by the second stage - activation of attention specifically to animate objects (the temporoparietal areas of the cortex are responsible for the first stage, and the frontal areas are responsible for the second). |
Animacy | Types of Animacy | Types of Animacy
De Swart and de Hoop (2018) emphasize the importance of distinguishing between three types of animacy: biological, conceptual, and grammatical. Each of these types plays a unique role in understanding how humans perceive and express the distinction between animate and inanimate entities.
Biological animacy refers to entities that are biologically alive and is defined by physical properties like the capacity to die. Living entities, such as humans, animals, and plants, are considered biologically "animate," whereas non-living entities, like rocks or water, are classified as "inanimate." This type of animacy forms the foundation of how humans instinctively categorize the world around them.
Conceptual animacy is based on the speaker’s perception and cultural background. It concerns what is perceived as alive, influenced by the “ego’s” perspective and societal beliefs. This type often diverges from biological animacy. For example, in some cultures or languages, inanimate objects like the sun or mountains are considered "animate" due to mythology or cultural beliefs. Conceptual animacy reflects how humans personify or attribute agency to non-living entities.
Grammatical animacy demonstrates how biological and conceptual animacy are represented in the grammar of languages. It operates as a semantic feature or condition influencing linguistic structures, such as verb agreement or case marking. For instance, in Russian, animacy distinctions affect object marking in sentences; animate nouns, such as humans and animals, are treated differently than inanimate nouns. This type of animacy illustrates the interaction between cognitive perceptions and linguistic systems.
The animacy hierarchy (e.g., human > animal > inanimate) is widely applied in linguistic analysis to explain various phenomena. Animate entities are more likely to act as agents or subjects in sentences (agentivity), receive distinct grammatical treatment in case marking or agreement, and be referenced explicitly in discourse. Additionally, animacy hierarchies are not static; cultural factors or temporary discourse contexts can shift these classifications.
Although animacy distinctions appear universally across languages, their specific implementation varies. For example, Navajo uses animacy to govern verb marking, while Slavic languages reflect animacy distinctions in noun declensions. However, the universality of animacy as a linguistic feature is debated due to its variability across languages. Cultural and functional factors can lead to unique animacy hierarchies, showing that animacy is both a universal and context-dependent concept. |
Animacy | Techniques for Expressing Animacy in Language | Techniques for Expressing Animacy in Language
Animacy can function in language as either a feature (AnimF) or a condition (AnimC), with some languages employing both simultaneously. These two roles highlight distinct ways animacy interacts with linguistic systems.
Animacy as a Feature (AnimF) operates as a semantic characteristic that influences specific word or morpheme classes. It is used to encode grammatical values such as person, number, case, and gender, introducing a semantic distinction based on animacy. AnimF may involve changing the shape of a word or adding morphological material to reflect whether an entity is animate or inanimate. However, it does not fundamentally alter the grammatical feature itself; instead, it adds a layer of semantic meaning. For instance, it often distinguishes between animate and inanimate entities while maintaining the existing grammatical structure.
Animacy as a Condition (AnimC) demonstrates how animacy governs various grammatical features within a language. It influences linguistic paradigms by reorganizing them based on the animacy of entities. For example, in Bunak, a prefixed bound pronoun is attached to a verb only if the direct object is animate. Animacy also affects gender agreement, where animacy distinctions can control gender markers even in systems that are not primarily animacy-based. Similarly, case marking and agreement controllers may vary depending on animacy. For instance, certain languages use different case markers or allomorphs for animate versus inanimate nouns. AnimC showcases how semantic properties like animacy can streamline linguistic structures and reduce morphological complexity.
To express animacy distinctions, languages employ a variety of techniques: |
Animacy | Affixation | Affixation
Prefixes or suffixes are added to roots or stems to mark animacy distinctions. Prefixation typically involves free elements, clitics, or true prefixes, while suffixation often adds markers for features like case or number alongside animacy. |
Animacy | Alternation | Alternation
This involves changing the morphological or phonological structure of a word without adding new material. It may include pure alternation, adjustments in grammatical features, or techniques to either create or avoid syncretism (merging distinct forms). |
Animacy | Overt Free Elements | Overt Free Elements
Independent words are introduced in sentences to signify animacy, rather than altering the morphology of existing words. |
Animacy | Reduplication | Reduplication
Parts of a word are repeated, often in pluralization, to mark distinctions between animate and inanimate nouns. |
Animacy | Zero-Marking | Zero-Marking
In some languages, animate entities are marked explicitly, while inanimate entities remain unmarked. |
Animacy | Morpheme Order | Morpheme Order
The arrangement of morphemes within a word or phrase can reflect animacy distinctions. |
Animacy | Complex Techniques | Complex Techniques
These involve multiple processes, such as combining morphological and phonological strategies, to mark animacy distinctions. |
Animacy | Morphophonemic Techniques | Morphophonemic Techniques
Phonological changes such as vowel alternation, nasalization, tone, stress, and glottalization are used to express animacy distinctions. |
Animacy | Mixed Techniques | Mixed Techniques
These combine two or more of the above methods, such as blending morphological and morphophonemic strategies, to create more nuanced animacy markers. |
Animacy | Examples | Examples
The distinction between he, she, and other personal pronouns, on one hand, and it, on the other hand is a distinction in animacy in English and in many Indo-European languages. The same can be said about distinction between who and what. Some languages, such as Turkish, Georgian, Spoken Finnish and Italian, do not distinguish between s/he and it. In Finnish, there is a distinction in animacy between , "he/she", and , "it", but in Spoken Finnish can mean "he/she". English shows a similar lack of distinction between they animate and they inanimate in the plural.
There is another example of how animacy plays some role in English. For example, the higher animacy a referent has, the less preferable it is to use the preposition of for possession (that can also be interpreted in terms of alienable or inalienable possession):
My face is correct while the face of mine would sound strange.
The man's face and the face of the man are both correct, but the former is preferred.
The clock's face and the face of the clock are both correct.
Examples of languages in which an animacy hierarchy is important include the Totonac language in Mexico and the Southern Athabaskan languages (such as Western Apache and Navajo) whose animacy hierarchy has been the subject of intense study. The Tamil language has a noun classification based on animacy. |
Animacy | Proto-Indo-European language | Proto-Indo-European language
Because of the similarities in morphology of feminine and masculine grammatical gender inflections in Indo-European languages, there is a theory that in an early stage, the Proto-Indo-European language had only two grammatical genders: "animate" and "inanimate/neuter"; the most obvious difference being that inanimate/neuter nouns used the same form for the nominative, vocative, and accusative noun cases. The distinction was preserved in Anatolian languages like Hittite, all of which are now extinct.
The animate gender would then later, after the separation of the Anatolian languages, have developed into the feminine and masculine genders. The plural of neuter/inanimate nouns is believed to have had the same ending as collective nouns in the singular, and some words with the collective noun ending in singular were later to become words with the feminine gender. Traces can be found in Ancient Greek in which the singular form of verbs was used when they referred to neuter words in plural. In many Indo-European languages, such as Latin and the Slavic languages, the plural ending of many neuter words in the merged nominative–accusative–vocative corresponds to the feminine singular nominative form. |
Animacy | Navajo (Diné) | Navajo (Diné)
Like most other Athabaskan languages, Southern Athabaskan languages show various levels of animacy in their grammar, with certain nouns taking specific verb forms according to their rank in this animacy hierarchy. For instance, Navajo (Diné) nouns can be ranked by animacy on a continuum from most animate (a human) to least animate (an abstraction) (Young & Morgan 1987: 65–66):
Adult human/lightning > infant/big animal > medium-sized animal > small animal > natural force > abstraction
Generally, the most animate noun in a sentence must occur first while the noun with lesser animacy occurs second. If both nouns are equal in animacy, either noun can occur in the first position. Both sentences (1) and (2) are correct. The prefix on the verb indicates that the first noun is the subject and indicates that the second noun is the subject.
Sentence (3), however, sounds wrong to most Navajo speakers because the less animate noun occurs before the more animate noun:
In order to express that idea, the more animate noun must occur first, as in sentence (4):
There is evidence suggesting that the word order itself is not the important factor. Instead, the verb construction usually interpreted as the passive voice (e.g. "the girl was pecked by the bird") instead indicates that the more animate noun allowed the less animate noun to perform the action (e.g. "the girl let herself be pecked by the bird"). The idea is that things ranked higher in animacy are presumed to be in control of the situation, and that the less-animate thing can only act if the more-animate thing permits it. |
Animacy | Japanese | Japanese
Although nouns in Japanese are not marked for animacy, it has two existential/possessive verbs; one for implicitly animate nouns (usually humans and animals) and one for implicitly inanimate nouns (often non-living objects and plants). The verb iru (, also written ) is used to show the existence or possession of an animate noun. The verb aru (, sometimes written when existential or when possessive) is used to show the existence or possession of an inanimate noun.
An animate noun, here 'cat', is marked as the subject of the verb with the subject particle ga (), but no topic or location is marked. That implies the noun is indefinite and merely exists.
In the second example, a topic is introduced, in this case "I", with the topic particle wa (). The animate noun is again marked with a subject particle, and no location is denoted. That implies that the topic owns or is holding onto the noun.
In the third example, the noun is marked as the topic (and by default functions as the subject of the verb) while a location, here the top of a chair, is marked with the location particle ni (). That implies that the noun is a definite noun and is at the specified location.
In all these cases, if the noun is not animate, such as a stone, instead of a cat, the verb iru must be replaced with the verb aru ( or [possessive] / [existential, locative]).
In some cases in which "natural" animacy is ambiguous, whether a noun is animate or not is the decision of the speaker, as in the case of a robot, which could be correlated with the animate verb (to signify sentience or anthropomorphism) or with the inanimate verb (to emphasise that is a non-living thing). |
Animacy | Ryukyuan languages | Ryukyuan languages
The Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands agree in animacy in their case systems.Shimoji, Michinori; Pellard, Thomas, eds. (2010). An Introduction to Ryukyuan languages. Tokyo: ILCAA. . Retrieved August 21, 2012. |
Animacy | Slavic languages | Slavic languages |
Animacy | Overview | Overview
Slavic languages that have case (all of them except Bulgarian and Macedonian) have a somewhat complex hierarchy of animacy in which syntactically animate nouns may include both animate and inanimate objects (like mushrooms and dances). Overall, the border between animate and inanimate places humans and animals in the former and plants, etc., in the latter, thus basing itself more so on sentience than life.
Animacy functions as a subgender through which noun cases intersect in a phenomenon called syncretism, which here can be either nominative-accusative or genitive-accusative. Inanimate nouns have accusative forms that take on the same forms as their nominative, with animate nouns marked by having their accusative forms resemble the genitive.
For example, syncretism in Polish conditioned by referential animacy results in forms like the following:
NOM stół 'table' -> ACC stół, like nom -> GEN stołu (exhibiting nom-acc syncretism);
NOM kot 'cat' -> ACC kota, like gen -> GEN kota (exhibiting gen-acc syncretism).
That syncretism also occurs when restricted by declension class, resulting in syncretism in multiple pronominal forms, such as the Russian reflexive pronoun (), personal pronouns, and the indefinite interrogative and relative pronoun kto.
In their plural forms, nouns of all genders may distinguish the categories of animate vs. inanimate by that syncretism, but only masculine nouns of the first declension (and their modifiers) show it in the singular (Frarie 1992:12), and other declensions and genders of nouns "restrict (morphological) expression of animacy to the plural" (Frarie 1992:47).
Masc nouns that show acc-gen (sg & plural) syncretism: [muʂ] husband, [sɨn] son, [lʲef] lion, [konʲ] horse.
Fem animate nouns that show acc-gen (plural) syncretism: [ˈʐɛnʲɕːɪnə] woman, [ˈɫoʂətʲ] horse.
Neut animate nouns that show acc-nom (sg) and acc-gen (plural) syncretism: 'animal', 'insect'.
Elsewhere, animacy is displayed syntactically, such as in endings of modifiers for masc nouns of the second declension. |
Animacy | Animacy as a "subgender" | Animacy as a "subgender"
While animacy is viewed as primarily semantic when approached diachronically, a synchronic view suggests animacy as a sublevel of gender. Syntactic gender is defined through patterns in agreement, not necessarily semantic value. For example, Russian has "common gender" nouns that refer to traditionally masculine roles but act as syntactically feminine.
Animacy occurs as a subgender of nouns and modifiers (and pronouns only when adjectival) and is primarily reflected in modifier-head agreement (as opposed to subject-predicate agreement). |
Animacy | Controversy | Controversy
Some consider the system to be based on marking inanimacy in which case the gen-acc distinguishes a "non-inanimate" subgender of nouns and modifiers, and others claim that ultimately it is indeed animacy that is marked. |
Animacy | Sinhala | Sinhala
In spoken Sinhala, there are two existential/possessive verbs: hiţinawā / innawā are used only for animate nouns (humans and animals), and තියෙනවා tiyenawā for inanimate nouns (like non-living objects, plants, things): |
Animacy | Spanish | Spanish |
Animacy | Nouns | Nouns
In Spanish, the preposition (meaning "to" or "at") has gained a second role as a marker of concrete animate direct objects:
{|
|
| "I can see that cathedral."
| (inanimate direct object)
|-
|
| "I can see that person."
| (animate direct object)
|-
|
| "I come to Spain."
| ( used in its literal sense)
|}
The usage is standard and is found around the Spanish-speaking world. |
Animacy | Pronouns | Pronouns
Spanish personal pronouns are generally omitted if the subject of the sentence is obvious, but when they are explicitly stated, they are used only with people or humanized animals or things. The inanimate subject pronoun in Spanish is , like it in English (except "ello" can only be used to refer to verbs and clauses, not objects, as all nouns are either masculine or feminine and are referred to with the appropriate pronouns).
Spanish direct-object pronouns () do not differentiate between animate and inanimate entities, and only the third persons have a gender distinction. Thus, for example, the third-person singular feminine pronoun, , could refer to a woman, an animal (like , butterfly), or an object (like , house), if their genders are feminine.
In certain dialects, there is a tendency to use (which is usually an indirect object pronoun, meaning "to him/her") as a direct-object pronoun, at the expense of the direct-object pronouns , if the referent is animate. That tendency is especially strong if (a) the pronoun is being used as a special second-person pronoun of respect, (b) the referent is male, (c) certain verbs are used, (d) the subject of the verb happens to be inanimate. |
Animacy | Arabic | Arabic
In Classical and Modern Standard Arabic and some other varieties of Arabic, animacy has a limited application in the agreement of plural and dual nouns with verbs and adjectives. Verbs follow nouns in plural agreement only when the verb comes after the subject. When a verb comes before an explicit subject, the verb is always singular. Also, only animate plural and dual nouns take plural agreement; inanimate plural nouns are always analyzed as singular feminine or plural feminine for the purpose of agreement. Thus, Arabic (Al-muhandisūn yaṭīrūn ’ilā ’Almāniyā, "The engineers fly to Germany") is masculine plural agreement, but (Al-ṭā’irāt taṭīr ’ilā ’Almāniyā, "The planes fly to Germany") is feminine singular. Compare them to (Taṭīr al-muhandisāt ’ilā ’Almāniyā) and (Al-muhandisāt yaṭirna ’ilā ’Almāniyā) for "The [female] engineers fly to Germany."
In general, Arabic divides animacy between (thinking, or rational) and (unthinking, or irrational). Animals fall in the latter category, but their status may change depending on the usage, especially with personification. Different writers might use (Al-ġurbān yaṭīrūn ’ilā ’Almāniyā) or (Al-ġurbān taṭīr ’ilā ’Almāniyā) for "The ravens fly to Germany." |
Animacy | Animacy hierarchy and morphosyntactic alignment | Animacy hierarchy and morphosyntactic alignment |
Animacy | Split ergativity | Split ergativity
Animacy can also condition the nature of the morphologies of split-ergative languages. In such languages, participants more animate are more likely to be the agent of the verb, and therefore are marked in an accusative pattern: unmarked in the agent role and marked in the patient or oblique role.
Likewise, less animate participants are inherently more patient-like, and take ergative marking: unmarked when in the patient role and marked when in the agent role. The hierarchy of animacy generally, but not always, is ordered:
{|
| 1st person
| > || 2nd person
| > || 3rd person
| > || proper names
| > || humans
| > ||
| > || inanimates
|}
The location of the split (the line which divides the inherently agentive participants from the inherently patientive participants) varies from language to language, and, in many cases, the two classes overlap, with a class of nouns near the middle of the hierarchy being marked for both the agent and patient roles. |
Animacy | Hierarchical alignment | Hierarchical alignment
In a direct–inverse language, clauses with transitive verbs can be expressed with either a direct or an inverse construction. The direct construction is used when the subject of the transitive clause outranks the object in salience or animacy. The inverse construction is used when the "notional object" outranks the "notional subject". |
Animacy | Thematic roles | Thematic roles
A noun essentially requires the traits of animacy in order to receive the role of Actor and Experiencer. Additionally, the Agent role is generally assigned to the NP with highest ranking in the animacy hierarchy – ultimately, only animate beings can function as true agents. Similarly, languages universally tend to place animate nouns earlier in the sentence than inanimate nouns.
Animacy is a key component of agency – combined with other factors like "awareness of action". Agency and animacy are intrinsically linked – with each as a "conceptual property" of the other. |
Animacy | See also | See also
Grammatical gender
Noun class
Classifier (linguistics) |
Animacy | References | References
LOCAT:location |
Animacy | Sources | Sources
Crespo Cantalapiedra, I. (2024). La diversidad en las lenguas: la animacidad. Online book (in Spanish).
Frishberg, Nancy. (1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 1, p. 259–266. New York: Seminar Press.
Hale, Kenneth L. (1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta (eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane, p. 300–309. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Thomas E. Payne, 1997. Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists. Cambridge University Press. .
Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr. (1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. .
Category:Nouns by type
Category:Grammatical gender
Category:Linguistic morphology
Category:Syntax–semantics interface |
Animacy | Table of Content | Short description, Types of Animacy, Techniques for Expressing Animacy in Language, Affixation, Alternation, Overt Free Elements, Reduplication, Zero-Marking, Morpheme Order, Complex Techniques, Morphophonemic Techniques, Mixed Techniques, Examples, Proto-Indo-European language, Navajo (Diné), Japanese, Ryukyuan languages, Slavic languages, Overview, Animacy as a "subgender", Controversy, Sinhala, Spanish, Nouns, Pronouns, Arabic, Animacy hierarchy and morphosyntactic alignment, Split ergativity, Hierarchical alignment, Thematic roles, See also, References, Sources |
Thermidor | Short description | Thermidor () was the eleventh month in the French Republican calendar. The month was named after the French word thermal, derived from the Greek word thermos 'heat'.
Thermidor was the second month of the summer quarter (mois d'été). It started July 19 or 20. It ended August 17 or 18. It follows Messidor and precedes Fructidor. During Year 2, it was sometimes called Fervidor.
Because of the Thermidorian Reaction—9 Thermidor Year II—the overthrow of revolutionary radical Maximilien Robespierre and his followers in that month, the word "Thermidor" has come to mean a retreat from more radical goals and strategies during a revolution, especially when caused by a replacement of leading personalities. |
Thermidor | Day name table | Day name table
Like all French Republican Calendar months, Thermidor lasted 30 days and was divided into three 10-day weeks called décades (decades). Every day had the name of an agricultural plant, except the 5th (Quintidi) and 10th day (Decadi) of every decade, which had the name of a domestic animal or an agricultural tool, respectively.
1re Décade
2e Décade
3e Décade
Primidi
1.
Epeautre (Spelt)
11.
Panic (Eryngo)
21.
Carline (Silver Thistle)
Duodi
2.
Bouillon blanc (Mullein)
12.
Salicor (Glasswort)
22.
Caprier (Caper)
Tridi
3.
Melon (Melon)
13.
Abricot (Apricot)
23.
Lentille (Lentil)
Quartidi
4.
Ivraie (Ryegrass)
14.
Basilic (Basil)
24.
Aunée (Elecampane)
Quintidi
5.
Bélier (Ram)
15.
Brebis (Ewe)
25.
Loutre (Otter)
Sextidi
6.
Prêle (Horsetail)
16.
Guimauve (Marsh Mallow)
26.
Myrthe (Myrtle)
Septidi
7.
Armoise (Mugwort)
17.
Lin (Flax)
27.
Colza (Rapeseed)
Octidi
8.
Carthame (Safflower)
18.
Amande (Almond)
28.
Lupin (Lupin)
Nonidi
9.
Mûre (Blackberry)
19.
Genthiane (Gentian)
29.
Coton (Cotton)
Decadi
10.
Arrosoir (Watering Can)
20.
Écluse (Lock)
30.
Moulin (Mill)
|
Thermidor | Conversion table | Conversion table
Table for conversion between Republican and Gregorian Calendar for the month "Thermidor" I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 July 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 August VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 July 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 August |
Thermidor | Thermidor in revolution | Thermidor in revolution
The Thermidorian Reaction, Revolution of Thermidor, or simply Thermidor refers to the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) in which the Committee of Public Safety led by Maximilien Robespierre was sidelined and its leaders arrested and guillotined, resulting in the end of the Reign of Terror. The new regime, known as The Directory, introduced more conservative policies aimed at stabilizing the revolutionary government.
Consequently, for historians of revolutionary movements, the term Thermidor has come to mean the phase in some revolutions when the political pendulum swings back towards something resembling a pre-revolutionary state, and power slips from the hands of the original revolutionary leadership. Leon Trotsky, in his book The Revolution Betrayed, refers to the rise of Joseph Stalin and the accompanying post-revolutionary bureaucracy as the "Soviet Thermidor". |
Thermidor | Thermidor in culture | Thermidor in culture
The food Lobster Thermidor was named, directly or indirectly, after the month. Sometimes it is said that it was first prepared for Napoleon I during the month of Thermidor. Others say that it was created by Tony Girod at the Café de Paris, to celebrate the opening of a play called Thermidor.
Thermidor is the name of a story revolving around the end of the French Revolution in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman, issue #29.
There is a song recorded by J-pop artist Nana Mizuki by the name of "Thermidor". Its lyrics talk about a person in love that is also rethinking their personal feelings after realizing that the person they love has changed, and so has the person. Its lyrics mimic the modern definition of Thermidor. |
Thermidor | External links | External links
Summer Quarter of Year II (facsimile)
Category:French Republican calendar months
Category:July
Category:August
Category:Maximilien Robespierre
sv:Franska revolutionskalendern#Månaderna |
Thermidor | Table of Content | Short description, Day name table, Conversion table, Thermidor in revolution, Thermidor in culture, External links |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | Other uses | Andrés Rodríguez Pedotti (June 19, 1923 – April 21, 1997) was a military officer and politician, being President of Paraguay from February 3, 1989, to August 15, 1993. He led the coup d'état on February 2 and 3, 1989, against the dictator Alfredo Stroessner Matiauda. |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | 1989 coup d'état | 1989 coup d'état
Rodríguez had been Alfredo Stroessner's closest confidant for 35 years. The two became so close that Rodríguez's daughter married Stroessner's elder son. Under Stroessner's rule, Rodríguez became one of the richest men in Paraguay. Despite only earning the equivalent of $500 per month, he owned the nation's largest brewery, a chain of currency exchanges, an import-export company, a copper wire company, and several ranches.
However, relations between the two grew increasingly strained in the late 1980s. As the decade wore on, Rodríguez cultivated ties with the "traditionalists" in the long-dominant Colorado Party. This element of the party had supported Stroessner throughout his three-decade rule, but had come to favor a more humane way of governing. Matters came to a head in January 1989, when Stroessner relieved several generals of their commands and replaced them with men thought to be unquestionably loyal to him. Later that month, in what was viewed as a direct strike at Rodríguez, Stroessner closed all of the country's currency exchanges. On February 2, Stroessner summoned his former ally and gave him an ultimatum—either accept appointment as defense minister (which would have effectively been a demotion) or retire. It was reported that Rodríguez avoided the reunion (and attempted to quell rumors of him planning a coup) by faking a leg injury, going as far as having a fake cast put on one of his legs.
Rodríguez gave his answer on the night of February 2 when he launched a violent coup. Rebel troops and tanks surrounded the headquarters of the Presidential Guard in Asunción (where Stroessner had sought refuge). The coup had the backing of much of the Roman Catholic Church and of the United States, who no longer required Stroessner as an ally in the Cold War. With this support, the coup quickly succeeded, with Stroessner resigning only hours after hostilities began. However, some 500 soldiers on both sides are believed to have died as a consequence of Stroessner's capture. He was released and fled into exile a few days later, eventually taking refuge in Brazil.
A couple of weeks following the coup, former interior minister Edgar Ynsfrán told reporters that Rodríguez had begun planning the coup toward the end of December 1988. Ynsfrán had served as interior minister during the most repressive phase of the Stronato, but had switched to supporting Rodríguez and now favored a more humane approach to governance. |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | Presidency | Presidency
At the time, Paraguay did not have a vice president. Per the Constitution, if a president died, resigned, or became permanently disabled, a provisional president was to be chosen by Congress and the Council of State within 24 hours. Accordingly, Congress and the Council of State met soon after the coup and designated Rodríguez as provisional president.
Upon taking office, Rodríguez canceled most of Stroessner's most repressive measures, which came as a surprise given his previous closeness to Stroessner. He abolished the death penalty, freed political prisoners, and tried to imprison some leading members of the Stroessner government. He formally canceled the state of siege that had been in place for virtually all of Stroessner's rule; while it had nominally been repealed in 1987, its substance had remained in place in the form of draconian security laws and close restrictions on press freedom (opposition leaders had been arrested, and the Colorados had been the only party that had been allowed to campaign unmolested in the 1988 elections). He also welcomed back several longtime exiles.
Over the course of the following week, the military was purged of Stroessner's loyalists, and the commanders of the six rebellious army divisions were promoted to replace them.
As provisional president, Rodríguez dissolved the Chamber of Deputies on February 9 under a provision in the 1967 constitution that allowed the president to dissolve the legislature if he felt it had acted in a manner that distorted the constitutional separation of powers. He issued a decree setting new elections in May, and announced that all non-Communist parties would be allowed to compete. He intended to use this as a tool to purge the militants. This was a remarkable turn in a country where the opposition had been barely tolerated for much of its history, particularly during Stroessner's rule. Indeed, at the time of the coup, the country had only known two years of pluralism in its entire history. A presidential election for the balance of Stroessner's term was also on the same day as the congressional elections. The constitution required new elections within 90 days of a president resigning less than two years into his term, with the winner serving the unexpired portion of the term. Rodríguez ran as the Colorado candidate and was elected with 76 percent of the vote in what was the closest thing the country had seen to a free and fair election up to that time.History Library of Congress Country Studies
Soon after the ouster of Stroessner, the Rodríguez government was contacted by representatives of the People's Republic of China, inviting Paraguay to end its long-standing diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) and to recognize PRC instead. However, Rodríguez accepted the arguments of the Taiwanese ambassador Wang Sheng that continuing the relationship with ROC, and thus keeping Taiwan's development assistance and access to Taiwan's markets, would be more advantageous for Paraguay. Partial view on Google Books. pp 289. 293. |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | End of rule and death | End of rule and death
On June 20, 1992, Paraguay adopted a new constitution. It limited the president to a single five-year term, with no possibility of reelection. The ban on reelection retroactively applied to Rodríguez, even though he had promised that he would not run for a full term. Rodríguez called this provision evidence of a lack of confidence in his word, and boycotted the inauguration ceremony. Fears of a coup were only allayed when he signed the new constitution into law on June 22. He stepped down as president on August 15, 1993, the first Paraguayan president in decades to leave office at the end of his term. He was succeeded by Juan Carlos Wasmosy, who like Rodríguez was a member of the Colorado Party.
Rodríguez died in New York City in 1997 after a long battle with cancer. |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | References | References |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | External links | External links
Biography by CIDOB
Category:1923 births
Category:1997 deaths
Category:People from Guairá Department
Category:Paraguayan people of Spanish descent
Category:Paraguayan people of Italian descent
Category:Paraguayan Roman Catholics
Category:Colorado Party (Paraguay) politicians
Category:20th-century presidents of Paraguay
Category:Paraguayan generals
Category:Paraguayan anti-communists
Category:Leaders who took power by coup
Category:Paraguayan emigrants to the United States
Category:Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Category:American people of Paraguayan descent |
Andrés Rodríguez (politician) | Table of Content | Other uses, 1989 coup d'état, Presidency, End of rule and death, References, External links |
Dilithium | short description | Dilithium, Li2, is a strongly electrophilic, diatomic molecule comprising two lithium atoms covalently bonded together. Li2 has been observed in the gas phase.
It has a bond order of 1, an internuclear separation of 267.3 pm and a bond energy of 102 kJ/mol or 1.06 eV in each bond.Chemical Bonding, Mark J. Winter, Oxford University Press, 1994,
The electron configuration of Li2 may be written as σ2.
Being the third-lightest stable neutral homonuclear diatomic molecule (after dihydrogen and dihelium), dilithium is an extremely important model system for studying fundamentals of physics, chemistry, and electronic structure theory.
It is the most thoroughly characterized compound in terms of the accuracy and completeness of the empirical potential energy curves of its electronic states. Analytic empirical potential energy curves have been constructed for the X-state, a-state, A-state,W. Gunton, M. Semczuk, N. S. Dattani, K. W. Madison, High resolution photoassociation spectroscopy of the 6Li2 A-state, https://arxiv.org/abs/1309.5870 c-state, B-state, 2d-state, l-state, E-state, and the F-state. The most reliable of these potential energy curves are of the Morse/Long-range variety (see entries in the table below).
Li2 potentials are often used to extract atomic properties. For example, the C3 value for atomic lithium extracted from the A-state potential of Li2 by Le Roy et al. in is more precise than any previously measured atomic oscillator strength.
This lithium oscillator strength is related to the radiative lifetime of atomic lithium and is used as a benchmark for atomic clocks and measurements of fundamental constants.
Electronic state Spectroscopic symbol Term symbol Bond length (pm) Dissociation energy (cm−1) Bound vibrational levels References 1 (Ground) X 11Σg+ 39 2 a 13Σu+ 11 3 b 13Πu 4 A 11Σg+ 118 5 c 13Σg+ 104 6 B 11Πu 118 7 E 3(?)1Σg+ |
Dilithium | See also | See also
Morse/Long-range potential
Dilithium (Star Trek) |
Dilithium | References | References |
Dilithium | Further reading | Further reading
Category:Lithium
Category:Homonuclear diatomic molecules
Category:Allotropes
de:Dilithium
it:Litio#Dilitio |
Dilithium | Table of Content | short description, See also, References, Further reading |
Dan Georgakas | Short description | Dan Georgakas (; March 1, 1938 – November 23, 2021) was an American anarchist poet and historian, who specialized in oral history and the American labor movement, best known for the publication Detroit: I do mind dying: A study in urban revolution (1975), which documents African-American radical groups in Detroit during the 1960s and 1970s. |
Dan Georgakas | Early life | Early life
Dan Georgakas was born March 1, 1938, to Xenophon and Sophia Georgakas in Detroit, Michigan. |
Dan Georgakas | Career | Career
In 1966, Georgakas and painter Ben Morea helped found the Anarchist group Up Against the Wall Motherfucker affiliated with New York City's Lower East Side.
In 1967, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest," initiated by an editor of the New York Times Magazine. Inspired by the civil disobedience of Henry David Thoreau, the manifesto united 528 American writers and publishers who refused to pay the 10% tax for the Vietnam War.
In 1975, Georgakas co-published with Marvin Surkin Detroit: I do mind dying: a study in urban revolution. The book traces workers' struggles of the 1970s in the car factories. It highlights: conditions of line work, corruption of union apparatus, daily racism in American society.
In the late 1980s, Georgakas began co-writing the Encyclopedia of the American Left (1990, 1998) with Mari Jo Buhle and husband Paul Buhle.
Georgakas had spoken at annual seminars for the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW).
Georgakas had long served on the editorial board of Cineaste magazine and specializes in Latin American cinema.
Georgakas had taught at New York University, Columbia University, the University of Oklahoma, the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and Queens College.
Before his death, Georgakas had been serving as director of the Greek American Studies Project of the Center for Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies; he also specialized in Latin American cinema. |
Dan Georgakas | Legacy | Legacy
In 1967, Georgakas and Surkin helped coin the term "New Detroit".
Georgakas has left the bulk of his papers to the Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs at Wayne State University, with writings on cinema in the Tamiment Library of New York University. |
Dan Georgakas | Works | Works
Written: Georgakas' written works include:
Richard Trevellick and the labor reformers (1960?)
"The Black Jacobins in Detroit" (chapter) (1963)
Romiossini The Story of the Greeks, with Giannēs Ritsos
"Conversation over Tea" in Phylon (1963)
Michigan labor and the Civil War, with Albert A Blum (1965?)
Manifesto for the grey generation, with Friederike Poessnecker and Carl Weissner (1966)
"And All Living Things Their Children" (1968) Poetry published by Screeches Press, UK
Detroit: I do mind dying: a study in urban revolution, with Marvin Surkin (1975)
"Dark Odyssey" in Senses of Cinema (1980)
The Methuselah Factors: Strategies for a Long and Vigorous Life (1980)
Encyclopedia of the American Left, with Mari Jo Buhle and Paul Buhle (1990, 1998)
"The Films of Theo Angelopoulos" in Journal of Modern Greek Studies (2000)
"Stella Michael Cacoyannis, Greece 1955" in The Cinema of the Balkans, London and New York (2006)
My Detroit: Growing Up Greek and American in Motor City (2006)
"HUAC and the Red Trilogy of World War II: The North Star, Mission to Moscow, Ballad of Russia" in New Politics (2013)
"Radical America" in New Politicas (2018)
"This week in history: Radical feminist Voltairine de Cleyre" in People's World (2016)
Film: Georgakas' has appeared in documentaries, including:
Detroit: Run of a City (2005)
I'm Standin' Over Here Now (2013)
Dan Georgakas: A Diaspora Rebel'' (2015) |
Dan Georgakas | References | References
Category:1938 births
Category:2021 deaths
Category:21st-century American historians
Category:Activists from Detroit
Category:American anarchists
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American people of Greek descent
Category:Historians from Michigan
Category:Labor historians |
Dan Georgakas | Table of Content | Short description, Early life, Career, Legacy, Works, References |
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | Short description | thumb|336px|Demonstration of Xiaolin Wu's algorithm
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm is an algorithm for line antialiasing.
thumb|Anti-Aliased Lines (blue) generated with Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm alongside standard lines (red) generated with Bresenham's line algorithm |
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | Antialiasing technique | Antialiasing technique
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm was presented in the article "An Efficient Antialiasing Technique" in the July 1991 issue of Computer Graphics, as well as in the article "Fast Antialiasing" in the June 1992 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal.
Bresenham's algorithm draws lines extremely quickly, but it does not perform anti-aliasing. In addition, it cannot handle any cases where the line endpoints do not lie exactly on integer points of the pixel grid. A naive approach to anti-aliasing the line would take an extremely long time. Wu's algorithm is comparatively fast, but is still slower than Bresenham's algorithm. The algorithm consists of drawing pairs of pixels straddling the line, each coloured according to its distance from the line. Pixels at the line ends are handled separately. Lines less than one pixel long are handled as a special case.
An extension to the algorithm for circle drawing was presented by Xiaolin Wu in the book Graphics Gems II. Just as the line drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham's line drawing algorithm, the circle drawing algorithm is a replacement for Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm. |
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | Algorithm | Algorithm
function plot(x, y, c) is
plot the pixel at (x, y) with brightness c (where 0 ≤ c ≤ 1)
// integer part of x
function ipart(x) is
return floor(x)
function round(x) is
return ipart(x + 0.5)
// fractional part of x
function fpart(x) is
return x - ipart(x)
function rfpart(x) is
return 1 - fpart(x)
function drawLine(x0,y0,x1,y1) is
boolean steep := abs(y1 - y0) > abs(x1 - x0)
if steep then
swap(x0, y0)
swap(x1, y1)
end if
if x0 > x1 then
swap(x0, x1)
swap(y0, y1)
end if
dx := x1 - x0
dy := y1 - y0
if dx == 0.0 then
gradient := 1.0
else
gradient := dy / dx
end if
// handle first endpoint
xend := round(x0)
yend := y0 + gradient * (xend - x0)
xgap := rfpart(x0 + 0.5)
xpxl1 := xend // this will be used in the main loop
ypxl1 := ipart(yend)
if steep then
plot(ypxl1, xpxl1, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(ypxl1+1, xpxl1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
else
plot(xpxl1, ypxl1 , rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(xpxl1, ypxl1+1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
end if
intery := yend + gradient // first y-intersection for the main loop
// handle second endpoint
xend := round(x1)
yend := y1 + gradient * (xend - x1)
xgap := fpart(x1 + 0.5)
xpxl2 := xend //this will be used in the main loop
ypxl2 := ipart(yend)
if steep then
plot(ypxl2 , xpxl2, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(ypxl2+1, xpxl2, fpart(yend) * xgap)
else
plot(xpxl2, ypxl2, rfpart(yend) * xgap)
plot(xpxl2, ypxl2+1, fpart(yend) * xgap)
end if
// main loop
if steep then
for x from xpxl1 + 1 to xpxl2 - 1 do
begin
plot(ipart(intery) , x, rfpart(intery))
plot(ipart(intery)+1, x, fpart(intery))
intery := intery + gradient
end
else
for x from xpxl1 + 1 to xpxl2 - 1 do
begin
plot(x, ipart(intery), rfpart(intery))
plot(x, ipart(intery)+1, fpart(intery))
intery := intery + gradient
end
end if
end function |
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | References | References
|
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | External links | External links
Xiaolin Wu's homepage
Xiaolin Wu's homepage at McMaster University
Category:Anti-aliasing algorithms
Category:Articles with example pseudocode |
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm | Table of Content | Short description, Antialiasing technique, Algorithm, References, External links |
Tantric Buddhism | # | redirect Vajrayana |
Tantric Buddhism | Table of Content | # |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Short description | The office of chief governor of Ireland existed under various names from the 12th-century Anglo-Norman invasion to the creation of the Irish Free State on 6 December 1922. Common names were (Chief) justiciar (13th–14th centuries); (King's) lieutenant (14th–16th century); (Lord) Deputy (15th–17th centuries), and Lord Lieutenant (standard after 1690). The unofficial term Viceroy was also common.
Reasons for difficulty in stating terms of office include that many left the office empty for a period (sometimes to return to the Court of St. James's, sometimes to return to their British estates) before either being replaced or returning. There is difficulty in getting clear information before 1529; in the earlier years, there were frequent long vacancies, during which a Lord Deputy or Lord Justice would act as chief governor. The Irish Act of Union merged the Kingdom of Ireland with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new United Kingdom came into being on 1 January 1801 resulting in the disappearance of the separate Irish Parliament: Though many expected the office of Lord Lieutenant to be abolished, it survived. Periodic debates throughout the nineteenth century erupt over whether it should be replaced by a 'Secretary of State for Ireland'. The office of Chief Secretary for Ireland (in effect number two in Irish government ranking) grew in importance, with the Lord Lieutenant gradually reduced to a largely though not completely ceremonial role.
The office was replaced by the Governor-General of the Irish Free State. In Northern Ireland the position was replaced by that of Governor of Northern Ireland. |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Medieval | Medieval
Source: |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the House of Anjou | Under the House of Anjou
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath: 1172–73A New History of Ireland, vol IX, pp. 470–4.
William FitzAldelm: 1173
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (Strongbow): 1173–1176
William FitzAldelm: 1176–1177
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath: 1177–1181
John fitz Richard, Baron of Halton, Constable of Chester and Richard Peche, Bishop of Lichfield, jointly: 1181
Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath and Hubert Walter, Bishop of Salisbury, jointly: (1181–1184)
Philip de Worcester: 1184–1185
John de Courcy: 1185–1192
William le Petit & Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath: 1192–1194
Walter de Lacy, Lord of Meath & John de Courcy: 1194–1195
Hamo de Valognes: 1195–1198
Meiler Fitzhenry: 1198–1208
John de Gray, Bishop of Norwich: 1208–1213
William le Petit 1211: (during John's absence)
Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of Dublin: 1213–1215
Geoffrey de Marisco: 1215–1221 |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the House of Plantagenet | Under the House of Plantagenet
Henry de Loundres, Archbishop of Dublin: 1221–1224
William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke: 1224–1226
Geoffrey de Marisco: 1226–1228
Richard Mor de Burgh: 1228–1232
Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent: 1232 (held the office formally, but never came to Ireland)A New History of Ireland, vol IX, pp 471, 481
Maurice FitzGerald, 2nd Lord of Offaly: 1232–1245
Sir John Fitz Geoffrey: 1246–1256
Sir Richard de la Rochelle: 1256
Alan de la Zouche: 1256–1258
Stephen Longespée: 1258–1260
William Dean: 1260–1261
Sir Richard de la Rochelle: 1261–1266
David de Barry: 1266–1268
Robert d'Ufford: 1268–1270
James de Audley: 1270–1272
Maurice Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald: 1272–1273
Geoffrey de Geneville: 1273–1276
Sir Robert D'Ufford: 1276–1281
Stephen de Fulbourn, Archbishop of Tuam: 1281–1288
John de Sandford, Archbishop of Dublin: 1288–1290
Sir Guillaume de Vesci: 1290–1294
Sir Walter de la Haye: 1294
William fitz Roger, prior of Kilmainham: 1294
Guillaume D'Ardingselles: 1294–1295
Thomas Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald: 1295
Sir John Wogan: 1295–1308
Edmund Butler: 1304–1305 (while Wogan was in Scotland)
Piers Gaveston: 1308–1309
Sir John Wogan: 1309–1312
Edmund Butler, Earl of Carrick: 1312–1314
Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun: 1314–1315
Edmund Butler, Earl of Carrick: 1315–1318
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March: 1317–1318
William FitzJohn, Archbishop of Cashel: 1318
Alexander de Bicknor, Archbishop of Dublin: 1318–19
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March: 1319–1320
Thomas FitzGerald, 2nd Earl of Kildare: 1320–1321
Sir Ralph de Gorges: 1321 (appointment ineffective)
John de Bermingham, 1st Earl of Louth: 1321–1324
John D'Arcy: 1324–1327
Thomas FitzGerald, 2nd Earl of Kildare: 1327–1328
Roger Utlagh: 1328–1329
John D'Arcy: 1329–1331
William Donn de Burgh, 3rd Earl of Ulster: 1331–1331
Anthony de Lucy: 1331–1332
John D'Arcy: 1332–1338 (Lords Deputy: Sir Thomas de Burgh: 1333–1337 and Sir John Charlton: 1337–1338)
Thomas Charleton, Bishop of Hereford: 1338–1340
Roger Utlagh: 1340
Sir John d'Arcy: 1340–1344 (Lord Deputy: Sir John Morice (or Moriz))
Sir Raoul d'Ufford: 1344–1346 (died in office in April 1346)
Roger Darcy: 1346
Sir John Moriz, or Morice: 1346–1346
Sir Walter de Bermingham: 1346–1347
John L'Archers, Prior of Kilmainham: 1347–1348
Sir Walter de Bermingham: 1348–1349
John, Lord Carew: 1349
Sir Thomas de Rokeby: 1349–1355
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1355–1355
Maurice FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Desmond: 1355–1356
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1356
Sir Thomas de Rokeby: 1356–1357
John de Boulton: 1357
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1357
Almaric de St. Amaud, Lord Gormanston: 1357–1359
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1359–1360
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare: 1361
Lionel of Antwerp, 5th Earl of Ulster (later Duke of Clarence): 1361–1364
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1364–1365
Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence: 1365–1366
Thomas de la Dale: 1366–1367
Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond: 1367–1369, a.k.a. Gearóid IarlaGearóid Iarla FitzGerald (1335–1398)
Sir William de Windsor: 1369–1376
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond: 1376–1378
Alexander de Balscot and John de Bromwich: 1378–1380
Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March: 1380–1381
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March: 1382 (first term, aged 11, Lord Deputy: Sir Thomas Mortimer)
Sir Philip Courtenay: 1385–1386
Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland: 1386
Alexander de Balscot, Bishop of Meath: 1387–1389
Sir John Stanley, King of Mann: 1389–1391 (first term)
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond: 1391
Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester: 1392–1395
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March: 1395–1398 (second term)
Thomas Holland, Duke of Surrey: 1399 |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the Houses of York and Lancaster | Under the Houses of York and Lancaster
Sir John Stanley: 1399–1402 (second term)
Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence: 1402–1405 (aged 13)
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond: 1405
Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Earl of Kildare: 1405–1408
Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence: 1408–1413
Sir John Stanley: 1413–1414 (third term)
Thomas Cranley, Archbishop of Dublin: 1414
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1414–1421 (first term)
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond: 1419–1421 (first term)
Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March: 1423–1425
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1425 (second term)
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond: 1425–1427
Sir John Grey: 1427–1428
John Sutton, later 1st Lord Dudley: 1428–1429
Sir Thomas le Strange: 1429–1431
Thomas Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley: 1431–1436
Lionel de Welles, 6th Baron Welles: 1438–1446
John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury: 1446 (third term)
Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York: 1447–1460 (Lord Deputy: Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare)
George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence: 1462–1478 (Lords Deputy: Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond/Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Kildare)
John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk: 1478
Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York: 1478–1483 (aged 5. Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
Edward of Middleham: 1483–1484 (aged 11. Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln: 1484–1485 |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the House of Tudor | Under the House of Tudor
Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford| 1485–1494 (Lord Deputy:Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare)
Henry, Duke of York: 1494–?1519 (Aged 4. Lords Deputy: Sir Edward Poynings/Gerald FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare/Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare)
Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk: 1519–1523 (Lord Deputy:Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey) |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Lords Deputy | Lords Deputy |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the House of Tudor | Under the House of Tudor
Piers Butler, Earl of Ossory: 1523–1524
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare: 1524–1529
Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset: 22 June 1529 (aged 10)
Sir William Skeffington: 1529–1532
Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare: 1532–1534
Sir William Skeffington: 30 July 1534
Leonard Grey, 1st Viscount Grane: 23 February 1536 – 1540 (executed, 1540)
Lords Justices: 1 April 1540
Sir Anthony St Leger: 7 July 1540 (first term)
Sir Edward Bellingham: 22 April 1548
Lords Justices: 27 December 1549
Sir Anthony St Leger: 4 August 1550 (second term)
Sir James Croft: 29 April 1551
Lords Justices: 6 December 1552
Sir Anthony St Leger: 1 September 1553 – 1556 (third term)
Thomas Radcliffe, Viscount FitzWalter: 27 April 1556
Lords Justices: 12 December 1558
Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex (Lord Deputy): 3 July 1559
Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex (Lord Lieutenant): 6 May 1560
Sir Henry Sidney: 13 October 1565
Lord Justice: 1 April 1571
Sir William FitzWilliam: 11 December 1571
Sir Henry Sidney: 5 August 1575
Lord Justice: 27 April 1578
Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey of Wilton: 15 July 1580
Lords Justices: 14 July 1582
Sir John Perrot: 7 January 1584
Sir William FitzWilliam: 17 February 1588
Sir William Russell: 16 May 1594
Thomas Burgh, 3rd Baron Burgh: 5 March 1597
Lords Justices: 29 October 1597
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex 12 March 1599
Lords Justices: 24 September 1599
Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy (Lord Deputy): 21 January 1600 |
List of chief governors of Ireland | Under the House of Stuart | Under the House of Stuart
Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy (Lord Lieutenant): 25 April 1603
Sir Arthur Chichester: 15 October 1604
Sir Oliver St John: 2 July 1616
Henry Cary, 1st Viscount Falkland: 18 September 1622
Lords Justices: 8 August 1629
Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth later Earl of Strafford: 3 July 1633 (executed May 1641)
Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester (Lord Lieutenant): 14 June 1641
James Butler, 1st Marquess of Ormonde: 13 November 1643 (appointed by the king)
Philip Sidney, Viscount Lisle: 9 April 1646 (appointed by parliament, commission expired 15 April 1647)
James Butler, 1st Marquess of Ormonde: 30 September 1648 (appointed by the King) |
List of chief governors of Ireland | During the Interregnum | During the Interregnum
Oliver Cromwell (Lord Lieutenant): 22 June 1649
Henry Ireton (Lord Deputy): 2 July 1650 (d. 20 November 1651)
Charles Fleetwood (Lord Deputy): 9 July 1652
Henry Cromwell (Lord Deputy): 17 November 1657
Henry Cromwell (Lord Lieutenant): 6 October 1658, resigned 15 June 1659
Edmund Ludlow (Commander-in-Chief): 4 July 1659 |
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