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ISO 3166-2:NO | Changes | Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
Publication Date issued Changes made (corrected ) Alphabetical re-ordering Online BrowsingPlatform (OBP) 2018-11-26 Subdivisions deleted: Sør-Trøndelag Nord-TrøndelagSubdivisions added: Trøndelag 2019-04-09 Code change:Trøndelag: → 2020-11-24 Subdivisions deleted: Østfold Akershus Hedmark Oppland Buskerud Vestfold Telemark Aust-Agder Vest-Agder Hordaland Sogn og Fjordane Troms FinnmarkSubdivisions added: Viken Innlandet Vestfold og Telemark Agder Vestland Troms og Finnmark |
ISO 3166-2:NO | See also | See also
Subdivisions of Norway
FIPS region codes of Norway
NUTS codes of Norway
Neighbouring countries: FI, RU, SE |
ISO 3166-2:NO | References | References |
ISO 3166-2:NO | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: NO
Counties of Norway, Statoids.com
2:NO
*ISO 3166-2
Category:Norway geography-related lists |
ISO 3166-2:NO | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, Changes, See also, References, External links |
Kusel (district) | One source | Kusel () is a district (Kreis) in the south of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north-west clockwise) Birkenfeld, Bad Kreuznach, Donnersbergkreis, Kaiserslautern, Saarpfalz and Sankt Wendel (the last two belonging to the state of Saarland). |
Kusel (district) | History | History
The district of Kusel was created at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1939 it was renamed as Landkreis Kusel. The boundary was altered slightly as part of the communal reform of 1969/72 with some parts of the district of Birkenfeld being added to Kusel. |
Kusel (district) | Geography | Geography
The district of Kusel lies in the North Palatine Uplands (Nordpfälzer Bergland), to the north of the industrial areas of the Saarland. The largest rivers are the Lauter (also called the Waldlauter, to distinguish it from other rivers in German-speaking Europe named Lauter) and the Glan. |
Kusel (district) | Coat of arms | Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: Gespalten: Vorne in Schwarz ein linksgewendeter, rot bewehrter goldener Löwe, hinten in Silber ein rot bewehrter, blauer Löwe.
The district's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Per pale sable a lion rampant sinister Or armed and langued gules and argent a lion rampant azure armed and langued of the third.
The two charges, both lions, are both heraldic devices borne by former lords, the one on the dexter (armsbearer's right, viewer's left) side by the Counts of Veldenz and the one on the sinister (armsbearer's left, viewer's right) side by Electoral Palatinate, which acquired the area in the 15th century. The arms were approved on 13 December 1965. |
Kusel (district) | Towns and municipalities | Towns and municipalities
Verbandsgemeinden1. Kusel-Altenglan
Albessen
Altenglan
Bedesbach
Blaubach
Bosenbach
Dennweiler-Frohnbach
Ehweiler
Elzweiler
Erdesbach
Etschberg
Föckelberg
Haschbach am Remigiusberg
Herchweiler
Horschbach
Körborn
Konken
Kusel1, 2
Neunkirchen am Potzberg
Niederalben
Niederstaufenbach
Oberalben
Oberstaufenbach
Pfeffelbach
Rammelsbach
Rathsweiler
Reichweiler
Ruthweiler
Rutsweiler am Glan
Schellweiler
Selchenbach
Thallichtenberg
Theisbergstegen
Ulmet
Welchweiler2. Lauterecken-Wolfstein
Adenbach
Aschbach
Buborn
Cronenberg
Deimberg
Einöllen
Eßweiler
Ginsweiler
Glanbrücken
Grumbach
Hausweiler
Hefersweiler
Heinzenhausen
Herren-Sulzbach
Hinzweiler
Hohenöllen
Homberg
Hoppstädten
Jettenbach
Kappeln
Kirrweiler
Kreimbach-Kaulbach
Langweiler
Lauterecken1, 2
Lohnweiler
Medard
Merzweiler
Nerzweiler
Nußbach
Oberweiler im Tal
Oberweiler-Tiefenbach
Odenbach
Offenbach-Hundheim
Reipoltskirchen
Relsberg
Rothselberg
Rutsweiler an der Lauter
Sankt Julian
Unterjeckenbach
Wiesweiler
Wolfstein23. Oberes Glantal
Altenkirchen
Börsborn
Breitenbach
Brücken
Dittweiler
Dunzweiler
Frohnhofen
Glan-Münchweiler
Gries
Henschtal
Herschweiler-Pettersheim
Hüffler
Krottelbach
Langenbach
Matzenbach
Nanzdietschweiler
Ohmbach
Quirnbach
Rehweiler
Schönenberg-Kübelberg1
Steinbach am Glan
Wahnwegen
Waldmohr1seat of the Verbandsgemeinde; 2town |
Kusel (district) | References | References |
Kusel (district) | External links | External links
Official website (German)
Category:Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate |
Kusel (district) | Table of Content | One source, History, Geography, Coat of arms, Towns and municipalities, References, External links |
Ramón Luis Rivera | short description | Ramón Luis Rivera Rivera (born June 21, 1929) is a Puerto Rican politician affiliated with the New Progressive Party. He served as Mayor of Bayamón from 1977 until 2001. |
Ramón Luis Rivera | Early life | Early life
Rivera was born in Aguas Buenas. Rivera began his primary studies in his hometown of Aguas Buenas, but completed high school at the Dr. Agustín Stahl High School in Bayamón. He then completed an Associate degree in Administration from the Metropolitan School of Commerce. Rivera served in the United States Army. From 1952 to 1954, he served during the Korean War. He was stationed in Germany until being honorably discharged. Rivera worked for 15 years for Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith. |
Ramón Luis Rivera | Political career | Political career
Rivera began his political career in 1968, when he was elected as member of the Municipal Assembly of Bayamón. In 1972, Rivera was elected to the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico representing District 6.
After one term as Representative, Rivera ran for Mayor at the 1976 general election. He defeated incumbent Manuel Aponte Borrero. His main concerns towards Bayamón were in the tourism and business industries. During his 24-year tenure, many buildings and other types of structures were inaugurated, including the Parque De Las Ciencias, the Parque del Trensito (which had, at the time it opened, Puerto Rico's only running train and a DC-3 plane formerly used by United Airlines), the city hall, which is a building that crosses over an avenue, the Ruben Rodriguez Coliseum, the Canton Mall, a small, pedestrian suspension bridge at Lomas Verdes neighborhood and many others. In addition, a large industrial park with such notable companies as 7 Up and Wrangler also opened, in the area known as Lomas Verdes. 7UP has a bottling facility there.
Rivera was a member of the New Progressive Party (PNP). Rivera was the president of the New Progressive Party from 1988 until 1989. In 2000, he announced he would not run for mayor again, and his son, Ramón Luis Rivera Jr. was then elected as mayor. Rivera Jr. has held that position ever since. Rivera Sr. has since retired from public life. |
Ramón Luis Rivera | See also | See also
List of Puerto Ricans
Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Politics of Puerto Rico |
Ramón Luis Rivera | External links | External links
Ramón Luis Rivera Biography
Biography - in Spanish.
Category:1929 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Aguas Buenas, Puerto Rico
Category:Mayors of Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Category:New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico) politicians
Category:New Progressive Party members of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico
Category:Presidents of the New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)
Category:Puerto Rican party leaders
Category:Puerto Rican Roman Catholics
Category:United States Army soldiers
Category:20th-century members of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico |
Ramón Luis Rivera | Table of Content | short description, Early life, Political career, See also, External links |
ISO 3166-2:JP | Short description | ISO 3166-2:JP is the entry for Japan in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g. provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Japan, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 47 prefectures.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Japan. The second part is two digits (01–47), which is the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0401 code of the prefecture. The codes are assigned roughly from north to south. |
ISO 3166-2:JP | Current codes | Current codes
thumb|350px|Map of Japan with each prefecture labelled with the second part of its ISO 3166-2 code (with leading digit 0 omitted)
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Code Subdivision name (ja)(ISO 3602:1989) Subdivision name (ja)For reference only—the Japanese name in kanji not included in the ISO 3166-2 standard. Subdivision name (en) 愛知 Aichi 秋田 青森 愛媛 岐阜 Gifu 群馬 広島 Hiroshima 北海道 Hokkaido 福井 Fukui 福岡 Fukuoka 福島 Fukushima 兵庫 Hyogo 茨城 石川 Ishikawa 岩手 香川 鹿児島 Kagoshima 神奈川 高知 Kochi 熊本 京都 Kyoto 三重 宮城 宮崎 長野 長崎 奈良 新潟 大分 Oita 岡山 沖縄 大阪 Osaka 佐賀 埼玉 滋賀 Shiga 島根 Shimane 静岡 Shizuoka 千葉 Chiba 徳島 Tokushima 東京 Tokyo 栃木 Tochigi 鳥取 富山 和歌山 山形 山口 Yamaguchi 山梨 Yamanashi
Notes |
ISO 3166-2:JP | See also | See also
Administrative divisions of Japan
FIPS region codes of Japan |
ISO 3166-2:JP | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: JP
Districts of Japan, Statoids.com
2:JP
*ISO 3166-2
Category:Japan geography-related lists |
ISO 3166-2:JP | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, See also, External links |
Pasquale Paoli | short description | thumb|270px|Commemorative plaque to Paoli at the monastery of Saint Anthony of Casabianca.
thumb|upright=1.21|Paoli's name listed on the south face of the Burdett-Coutts Memorial Sundial in London
Filippo Antonio Pasquale de' Paoli (; or ; ; 6 April 1725 – 5 February 1807) was a Corsican patriot, statesman, and military leader who was at the forefront of resistance movements against the Genoese and later French rule over the island. He became the President of the Executive Council of the General Diet of the People of Corsica and wrote the Constitution of the state.
The Corsican Republic (1755–1769) was a representative democracy asserting that the elected Diet of Corsican representatives had no master. Paoli held his office by election and not by appointment. It made him commander-in-chief of the armed forces as well as chief magistrate. Paoli's government claimed the same jurisdiction as the Republic of Genoa. In terms of de facto exercise of power, the Genoese held the coastal cities, which they could defend from their citadels, but the Corsican republic controlled the rest of the island from Corte, its capital. Downloadable Google Books.
Following the French conquest of Corsica in 1768, Paoli oversaw the Corsican resistance. Following the defeat of Corsican forces at the Battle of Ponte Novu he was forced into exile in Britain where he was a celebrated figure. He returned after the French Revolution, of which he was initially supportive. He later broke with the revolutionaries and helped to create the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom which lasted between 1794 and 1796. After the island was re-occupied by France he again went into exile in Britain where he died in 1807.
Paoli was idolized by a young Napoleon Bonaparte, who was a Corsican nationalist at the time. The Bonapartes had assisted him during the French invasion but refused to go into exile with him and pledged allegiance to King Louis XV. Paoli saw the Bonapartes as collaborators, and upon regaining power during the French Revolution he tried to prevent Napoleon from returning to his position in the Corsican National Guard. In May 1793, Paolists detained Napoleon on his way to his post (though he was soon released), ransacked his home, and formally outlawed the Bonapartes via the Corsican parliament. These events and others in 1793 accelerated Napoleon's transition from Corsican to French nationalism. Napoleon never fully outgrew his fondness of Paoli, and had mixed feelings about him throughout the rest of his life. |
Pasquale Paoli | Biography | Biography |
Pasquale Paoli | Early years | Early years
Paoli was born in the hamlet of Stretta, Morosaglia commune, part of the ancient parish of Rostino, Haute-Corse, Corsica. He was the second son of the physician and patriot Giacinto Paoli, who was to become one of three "Generals of the People" in the Corsican nationalist movement that rebelled against rule by the Republic of Genoa, which at that time they regarded as corrupt and tyrannical. Prior to that century Corsicans more or less accepted Genoan rule. By 1729, the year of first rebellion, the Genovese were regarded as failing in their task of government. The major problems were the high murder rate because of the custom of vendetta, the raiding of coastal villages by the Barbary pirates, oppressive taxes and economic depression.
In the rebellion of 1729 over a new tax, the Genovese withdrew into their citadels and sent for foreign interventions: first from the Habsburg Holy Roman Empire, and then from their enemies in the War of Austrian Succession, Bourbon France. Defeated by professional troops, the Corsicans ceded violence, but kept their organisation. After surrendering to the French in 1739, Giacinto Paoli went into exile in Naples with his then 14-year-old son, Pasquale. An older brother, Clemente, remained at home as a liaison to the revolutionary diet, or assembly of the people.
Corsica was subsequently distracted by the aforementioned War of the Austrian Succession, during which troops of a number of countries temporarily occupied the cities of Corsica. In Naples, Giacinto perceiving that he had a talented son, spared no effort or expense in his education, which was primarily classical. The enlightenment of which Pasquale was to become a part was neo-classical in its art, architecture and sentiments. Paoli is said once to have heard an old man on the road reciting Virgil, walked up behind him, clapped him on the back, and resumed reciting at the point where the other had left off.
In 1741, Pasquale joined the Corsican regiment of the royal Neapolitan army and served in Calabria under his father.
Corsican exiles in Italy were seeking assistance for the revolution, including a skilled general. In 1736 the exiles of Genoa had discovered Theodor von Neuhoff, a soldier of fortune whom they were willing to make king, but he was unsuccessful, and in 1754, languished in a debtors' prison in London. The young Pasquale became of interest when in opposition to a plan to ask the Knights of Malta to assume command, he devised a plan for a native Corsican government. In that year, Giacinto decided that Pasquale was ready to supplant Theodor, and wrote to Vincente recommending that a general election be held. The subsequent popular election called by Vincente at Caccia made Pasquale General-in-Chief of Corsica, commander of all resistance.
Corsica at that time was still under the influence of feuding clans, as a result of which only the highland clans had voted in the election. The lowlanders now held an election of their own and elected Mario Matra as commander, who promptly attacked the supporters of Paoli. Moreover, Matra called on the Genovese for assistance, dragging Paoli into a conflict with them. Matra was killed shortly in battle and his support among the Corsicans collapsed.
Paoli's next task was to confine the Genovese to their citadels. His second was to frame a constitution, which when ratified by the population in 1755, set up a new republic, a representative democracy. Its first election made Paoli president, supplanting his former position. |
Pasquale Paoli | President of the Corsican Republic | President of the Corsican Republic
thumb|200px|The Flag of the Corsican Republic (1755–1769)
In November 1755, the people of Corsica ratified a constitution that proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, independent from the Republic of Genoa. This was the first constitution written under Enlightenment principles. The new head of state, called the General, Paoli, was elected over rival candidate Emmanuele Matra by representatives of the pievi (68 ancient administrative units, each grouping several parishes), although only 16 of the 68 were represented. The president and author of the constitution occupied himself with building a modern state. For example, he founded a university at Corte. Linda Colley credits Paoli as writing the first ever written constitution of a nation state. |
Pasquale Paoli | French invasion | French invasion
Seeing that they had in effect lost control of Corsica, Genoa responded by ceding Corsica to the French by the treaty of Versailles in May 1768, as this was the only way to repay France for the debts incurred for the defence of the island. In September 1768, France proceeded to the conquest of the island. Paoli fought a guerilla war from the mountains but in 1769 he was defeated in the Battle of Ponte Novu by vastly superior forces and took refuge in England. Corsica officially became a French province in 1789. |
Pasquale Paoli | First exile | First exile
In London, Paoli attracted the attention of the Johnsonian circle almost immediately for which his expansive personality made him a natural fit. By the time Paoli entered the scene it had in part taken the form of The Club of mainly successful men of a liberal frame of mind. Such behaviour as Paoli showing his bullet-ridden coat to all visitors and then demanding a gratuity for the observation were amusing to the group, which had begun when its members were starting their careers and according to its chronicler James Boswell were themselves needy.
Paoli's memoirs were recorded by Boswell in his book, An Account of Corsica.
After a series of interviews with King George III, Paoli was given a pension by the Crown with the understanding that if he ever returned to Corsica in a position of authority, he would support British interests against the French. This was not, however, a cynical arrangement. Paoli became sincerely pro-British and had a genuine affection for his new friends, including the King, a predisposition that in the French Revolution led him into the royalist camp. The arrangement also was not a treaty of any sort, as at the time neither Paoli nor King George III would have any idea of future circumstances. |
Pasquale Paoli | President of the department of Corsica | President of the department of Corsica
By the time of the French Revolution the name of Paoli had become something of an idol of liberty and democracy. In 1790 the revolutionary National Assembly in Paris passed a decree incorporating Corsica into France, essentially duplicating the work of 1780 but under a new authority. It granted amnesty to exiles, on which Paoli embarked immediately for Corsica. He arrived in time for the election of departmental officers at Orezza, ran for president, and was elected unanimously. Napoleon Bonaparte, organiser of the elections and active Jacobin, did not run at this time, but he was as much an admirer of Paoli as anyone.
Napoleon, on leave from his artillery regiment, returned to the regiment at Auxonne, where he was working on a history of Corsica. Writing to Paoli, he asked his opinion on some of it and for historical documents. The differences between the two men became apparent. Paoli thought the history amateurish and too impassioned and refused the documents; Napoleon at this point had no idea of Paoli's regal connections in Britain or moderate, even sympathetic, sentiments about royalty. |
Pasquale Paoli | President of the British protectorate | President of the British protectorate
Paoli split from the French Revolution over the issue of the execution of the King and threw in his lot with the royalist party. He did not make these views generally known, but when the revolutionary government ordered him to take Sardinia he put his nephew in charge of the expedition with secret orders to lose the conflict. In that case he was acting as a British agent, as the British had an interest in Sardinia they could not pursue if the French occupied it.
He had however also sent Napoleon Bonaparte as a colonel in command of two companies of Corsican guard (unofficially reinforced by 6000 revolutionaries from Marseille), which participated in the assault on La Maddalena Island in February 1793. It failed because the commander, Pietro Paolo Colonna-Cesari, failed to take appropriate military action, because the island had been reinforced just prior to the attack, and because the defenders seemed to know exactly where and when the revolutionaries were going to strike.
Napoleon perceived the situation during the first confrontation with his commander and assumed de facto command, but the attack failed and he barely escaped. Enraged, after having been a strong supporter and admirer of Paoli, he and the entire Bonaparte family denounced Paoli as a traitor before the French National Convention. Arrest warrants were issued and sent to Corsica along with a force intended to take the citadels from the royalists, who had supplanted the Genovese after the sale of Corsica. Combining the Paolists and royalists defeated the Bonapartes and drove them from the island.
Paoli then summoned a consulta (assembly) at Corte in 1793, with himself as president and formally seceded from France. He requested the protection of the British government, then at war with revolutionary France. In 1794, the British sent a fleet under Admiral Samuel Hood. This fleet had just been ejected from the French port of Toulon by a revolutionary army following the plan of Napoleon Bonaparte, for which he was promoted to Brigadier General. The royalists at Toulon also had requested British protection. Napoleon was now dispatched to deal with Italy as commander of the French forces there.
For a short time, Corsica was a protectorate of King George III, chiefly by the exertions of Hood's fleet (e.g. in the Siege of Calvi), and Paoli's co-operation. This period has become known as the "Anglo-Corsican Kingdom" because George III was accepted as sovereign head of state, but this was not an incorporation of Corsica into the British Empire. The relationship between Paoli's government and the British was never clearly defined, resulting in numerous questions of authority. At last, the Crown invited Paoli to resign and return to exile in Britain with a pension, which, having no other options now, he did. Not long after, the French reconquered the island and all questions of Corsican sovereignty came to an end until the 20th century. |
Pasquale Paoli | Second exile and death | Second exile and death
thumb|200px|The Cenotaph of Pasquale Paoli, in Westminster Abbey (London)
Paoli set sail for England in October 1795, where he lived out his final years. Pasquale Paoli died on 5 February 1807, and was buried in Old St. Pancras Churchyard in London. His name is listed on the 1879 Burdett-Coutts Memorial Sundial amongst the important graves lost.
A bust was placed in Westminster Abbey. In 1889, his bones were brought to Corsica in a British frigate and interred at the family home under a memorial in the Italian language. |
Pasquale Paoli | Personal life | Personal life
Pasquale never married and as far as is known had no heirs. Information about his intimate life is mainly lacking. It was rumoured that he had an affair with Maria Cosway but this is unsubstantiated. Robert Harvey claims he was a homosexual, when discussing how Carlo Buonaparte became Paoli's personal secretary.The War of Wars, Robert Harvey, Constable and Robinson Ltd, 2006, pp. 59 |
Pasquale Paoli | Paoli and Italian irredentism | Paoli and Italian irredentism
Insofar as Italian irredentism was a political or historical movement, Pasquale Paoli lived long before its time and did not have anything to do with the movement that ended with the occupation of Corsica by Italian fascist troops in late 1942, during World War II.
There is no question, however, that Paoli was sympathetic to Italian culture and regarded his own native language as an Italian dialect (Corsican is an Italic language closely related to Tuscan, Sicilian and, to some extent, Sardinian language). He was considered by Niccolò Tommaseo, who collected his Lettere (Letters), as one of the precursors of the Italian irredentism. The "Babbu di a Patria" (Father of the fatherland), as Pasquale Paoli was nicknamed by the Corsicans, wrote in his LettersN. Tommaseo. "Lettere di Pasquale de Paoli" (in Archivio storico italiano, 1st series, vol. XI). the following appeal in 1768 against the French invaders:
thumb|200px|A monument to Pasquale Paoli at Ile Rousse in Corsica: the Corsican hero made Italian the official language of his Corsican Republic in 1755
We are Corsicans by birth and sentiment, but first of all we feel Italian by language, origins, customs, traditions; and Italians are all brothers and united in the face of history and in the face of God ... As Corsicans we wish to be neither slaves nor "rebels" and as Italians we have the right to deal as equals with the other Italian brothers ... Either we shall be free or we shall be nothing... Either we shall win or we shall die (against the French), weapons in hand ... The war against France is right and holy as the name of God is holy and right, and here on our mountains will appear for Italy the sun of liberty....
(Siamo còrsi per nascita e sentimento ma prima di tutto ci sentiamo italiani per lingua, origini, costumi, tradizioni e gli italiani sono tutti fratelli e solidali di fronte alla storia e di fronte a Dio… Come còrsi non-vogliamo essere né schiavi né "ribelli" e come italiani abbiamo il diritto di trattare da pari con gli altri fratelli d'Italia… O saremo liberi o non saremo niente… O vinceremo con l'onore o soccomberemo (contro i francesi) con le armi in mano... La guerra con la Francia è giusta e santa come santo e giusto è il nome di Dio, e qui sui nostri monti spunterà per l'Italia il sole della libertà…)
Paoli wanted Italian to be the official language of his Corsican Republic. His Corsican Constitution of 1755 was written in Italian and the short-lived university he founded in the city of Corte in 1765 used Italian as teaching language. |
Pasquale Paoli | Paoli commemorated in the United States | Paoli commemorated in the United States
The American Sons of Liberty movement were inspired by Paoli. Ebenezer McIntosh, a leader of the Sons of Liberty, named his son Paschal Paoli McIntosh in honour of him. In 1768, the editor of the New York Journal described Paoli as "the greatest man on earth". Several places in the United States are named after him. These include:
Paoli, Colorado
Paoli, Indiana
Paoli, Kentucky
Paoli, Oklahoma
Paoli, Pennsylvania, which was named after "General Paoli's Tavern" a meeting-point of the Sons of Liberty and homage to the "General of the Corsicans".
Paoli, Wisconsin |
Pasquale Paoli | See also | See also
Corsican Italians
History of Corsica |
Pasquale Paoli | References | References |
Pasquale Paoli | Further reading | Further reading
James Boswell, Account of Corsica and Memoirs of P Paoli (1768)
Carrington, Dorothy. "The Corsican constitution of Pasquale Paoli (1755–1769)". English Historical Review 88.348 (1973): 481–503. online
Long, Luke. "The Corsican crisis in British politics 1768–1770". Global Intellectual History (2019): 1–31.
McLaren, Moray. "Pasquale Paoli: Hero of Corsica". History Today (Nov 1965) 15#11 pp 756–761.
Thrasher, Peter Adam. Pasquale Paoli. An Enlightened Hero, 1725–1807. London. Constable, 1970. |
Pasquale Paoli | External links | External links
Category:1725 births
Category:1807 deaths
Category:18th-century politicians
Category:Corsican nationalists
Category:Corsican politicians
Category:Fellows of the Royal Society
Category:Heads of state of former countries
Category:Heads of state of states with limited recognition
Category:Italian revolutionaries
Category:People from Haute-Corse
Category:18th century in Corsica
Category:People from the Republic of Genoa |
Pasquale Paoli | Table of Content | short description, Biography, Early years, President of the Corsican Republic, French invasion, First exile, President of the department of Corsica, President of the British protectorate, Second exile and death, Personal life, Paoli and Italian irredentism, Paoli commemorated in the United States, See also, References, Further reading, External links |
Frederick Wedmore | Short description | thumb|Frederick Wedmore
Frederick Wedmore (9 July 1844 – 25 February 1921) was a British art critic and man of letters.
Wedmore was born at Richmond Hill,Richmond Hill is a street in Clifton, Bristol that runs roughly west to east and has a midpoint about 150 meters south of The Lido Bristol. Clifton, the eldest son of Thomas Wedmore of Druids Stoke, Stoke Bishop. His family were Quakers, and he was educated at a Quaker private school and then in Lausanne and Paris. After a short experience of journalism in Bristol he came to London in 1868, and began to write for The Spectator. His early works included two novels, but the best examples of his prose are perhaps to be found in his volumes of short stories, Pastorals of France (1877), Renunciations (1893), Orgeas and Miradou (1896), reprinted in 1905 as A Dream of Provence.
In 1900 he published another novel, The Collapse of the Penitent. As early as 1878 he had begun a long connection with the London Standard as art critic. He began his studies on etching with a noteworthy paper in The Nineteenth Century (1877–1878) on the etchings of Charles Meryon. This was followed by The Four Masters of Etching (1883), with original etchings by Sir FS Haden, , JM Whistler, and Alphonse Legros; Etching in England (1895); an English edition (1894) of E Michel's Rembrandt: His Life, His Works, and His Time In Two Volumes; and a study and a catalogue of Whistler's Etchings (1886, 2nd edition 1899). His other works include Studies in English Art (2 vols., 1876–80), The Masters of Genre Painting (1880), On Books and Arts (1899), English Water Colour (1902), Turner and Ruskin (2 vols., 1900).
He was knighted in 1912. He published that year his Memories, a book of reminiscences, social and literary. He also published Painters and Painting (1913) and a novel, Brenda Walks On (1916). He died at Sevenoaks. |
Frederick Wedmore | Family | Family
His daughter, Millicent Wedmore (born 1879), herself the author of two volumes of verse, helped him to edit during World War I Poems of the Love and Pride of England. |
Frederick Wedmore | Notes | Notes |
Frederick Wedmore | External links | External links
Category:1844 births
Category:1921 deaths
Category:English art critics |
Frederick Wedmore | Table of Content | Short description, Family, Notes, External links |
Francis Seymour Haden | Short description | thumb|
Sir Francis Seymour Haden PPRE (16 September 1818 – 1 June 1910), was an English surgeon, better known as an original etcher who championed original printmaking. He was at the heart of the Etching Revival in Britain, and one of the founders of the Society of Painter-Etchers, now the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers, as its first president. He was also a collector and scholar of Rembrandt's prints. |
Francis Seymour Haden | Life | Life
thumb|Mytton Hall, Lancashire, drypoint, 1859
Haden was born at 62 Lower Sloane Street, Chelsea, London. His father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known doctor and lover of music. He was educated at Derby School, Christ's Hospital, and University College, London, and also studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842. |
Francis Seymour Haden | Artistic career | Artistic career
thumb|Thames Fishermen, drypoint with etching, 1859
In 1843–44, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Colonel Guibout, he travelled to Italy and made his first sketches and six etchings from nature. Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but between 1845 and 1848 he studied intently, the portfolios of prints belonging to a second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. Arranging the prints in chronological order, he studied in particular, the works of the great original engravers, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt.
As mentioned in "Print REbels" primarily celebrating the bicentenary of Haden: Exquisite line, especially drypoint burr, sometimes calligraphic in sensibility, can be seen across Haden's prints, the majority which are landscapes. Added to this is his range and intensity of expression. He expresses the maximum by means of the minimum to achieve the essence of his subject matter: what Haden himself called "the labour of omission". Haden's printmaking was mutually invigorated by his younger brother-in-law, James McNeill Whistler, at the Haden home in Lower Sloane Street in 1855. An etching press was installed there and for a while Haden and Whistler collaborated on a series of etchings of the Thames. However, the relationship and project did not last.Garton & Co.
thumb|Kilgaren Castle, etching, 1864
Haden followed the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British exponent of that art from 1865 but brought about its revival in England. His strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir William R Drake RE, resulted in the foundation of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers, styled the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers since 1990. As President Haden ruled the Society for thirty years with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. "As PRE," Frederick Keppel, author and print collector wrote: "Sir Francis Seymour Haden did great work in maintaining sound doctrine in etching. Nothing was admitted that was "commercial" in character, and etchings that were done after paintings by other hands were vigorously ruled out." In fact, as regarding the RE Members, "he ruled them with a rod of iron," However, "membership was eagerly sought for – so much that many famous et hers weren't never elected though they thrived hard to be."
Notwithstanding Haden's study of the old masters of his art, Haden's own plates were very individual. He preferred to work directly onto the plate in front of the subject. Malcolm Salaman Hon RE wrote of Haden drawing from nature; "with that breadth, freedom, and spontaneity of effect, which, while suggesting a sketch,
represented a true etcher's drawing". Even when working from a picture by another artist his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's Calais Pier, which is a classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, 263 in number, one of the most notable was the large Breaking up of the Agamemnon.[4]
thumb|Old Chelsea, Out of Whistler's Window (Battersea Reach), etching with drypoint, 1863
thumb|Breaking Up of the Agamemnon, etching,1870
An early plate, rare and most beautiful, is Thames Fisherman. Mytton Hall is broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading to an old manor-house (now a hotel in Lancashire) in September sunlight. Sub Tegmine was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and Early Morning—Richmond", full of the poetry and freshness of the hour, was done, according to Haden, actually at sunrise. [4]
Also mentioned in Print REbels: ‘Haden’s finest and rarest compositions were created along the River Muteen, by Greenpark in Dundrum, County Tipperary and at Glenmalure, County Wicklow. This surgeon-etcher visited Ireland four times between 1859 and 1864. Impressions of A River in Ireland, A Bye Road in Tipperary and Sunset in Ireland are hailed internationally amongst the finest landscape etchings of the 19th century. Kenneth Guichard writes in British Etchers 1850-1950 published in London, 1977:
‘Sunset in Ireland must be one of the greatest prints ever produced in etching, one can feel the dew beginning at the end of a balmy evening in Tipperary.” [4]
This is fortified in Raymond Lister and Robin Garton’s book, Great Images of Printmaking in 1978:
‘1863 was a sublime year for Haden in printmaking. Sunset in Ireland is one of the greatest etchings of its period. It has the potency of ‘A River in Ireland’, but its textures are still richer, with their hint of that humid dusk often encountered in Ireland. There too, a note of mystery in the river as it curves into wooded reaches. In places the lines of shading seem almost careless, where much of the composition is cross-hatched by diagonal lines. The apparent carelessness is all part of Haden’s calculated and brilliant gift of suggestion. The plate was etched on the spot at Dundrum Park in Tipperary’. [4]
Other notable plates include are Combe Bottom, Shere Mill Pond (both the small study and the larger plate), The Towing Path, Kilgaren Castle, The Three Sisters, Battersea Reach – Out of Whistler's Window, Penton Hook, Grim Spain and Evening Fishing, Longparish'. ‘Sunset in Ireland’ is Haden's acknowledged pastoral masterpiece. A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and completed by Harrington in 1880. During later years also Haden began to practise mezzotint engraving, with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure etching and in drypoint. His mezzotints include An Early Riser, a stag seen through the morning mists, Grayling Fishing and A Salmon Pool on the Spey. He also created paintings and charcoal drawings of trees and park-like country.
Writings
thumb|An Early Riser, mezzotint, 1897
Haden's studies of Rembrandt, besides influencing his original work, led to his important monograph on the Dutch artist's etchings. Haden was the first to catalogue Rembrandt's etchings chronologically and in "states". Through books and lectures, and with the aid of an exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1877, he tried to give a true reflection of Rembrandt's work, excluding from his oeuvre a large number of plates previously attributed to him. Haden's reasons were founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, The Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered, privately printed in 1877, and in The Etched Work of Rembrandt: True and False (1895). 102 of Rembrandt's etchings from Haden's collection were exhibited alongside the RE Annual exhibition in 1890.
Other books written by Haden not already mentioned are:Etudes a l'eau forte (Paris, 1865) Cremation: a Pamphlet (London, 1875)About Etching (London, 1879)The Relative Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal Academy (London, 1883)Address to Students of Winchester School of Art (Winchester, 1888)The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation (London, 1888).The Art of the Painter-Etcher (London, 1890)
As the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth to earth" burial. During the London 'Burial Crisis' of the late 1840s, following several epidemics, he aired a proposal to ship the bodies of London's dead to the Thames Estuary for use in land reclamation but this met with little approval.
Honours and legacy
thumb|left|Mezzotint portrait, 1901, by George Percy Jacomb-Hood
Among numerous distinctions Haden received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made an honorary member of the Institut de France, Académie des Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes Français. Haden was knighted in 1894 for his services "to the advancement of original etching and engraving".Print REbels, was an exhibition commemorating 200 years since the birth of Haden and celebrating the origins of the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers, founded by Haden, was launched by the society at the Bankside Gallery, London. It toured UK museums and galleries at Cambridge, Cheltenham, Marlborough, Devon and Wales as well as Spain in 2018 and 2019. In July and August 2021 this exhibition travelled to Dublin, Republic of Ireland, at the Knight of Glin Exhibition Room, Assembly House, headquarters of the Irish Georgian Society. A 346 page catalogue/book, written by Edward Twohig RE and published by the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers in April 2018, comprehensively mirrors Haden's achievements and influence. A limited edition "REbels Portfolio" by current Members of the Royal Society of Painter-Printmakers was created, also, in celebration. Box sets of this portfolio are in the permanent collection of the British Museum; Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge and the Royal Collection.
Family
thumb|Haden's daughter, Annie, was painted by James Abbott McNeill Whistler
In 1847 he married the musician Dasha Whistler, the half-sister of the artist James McNeill Whistler (the siblings sharing the same father only); and his eldest son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850), was educated at Marlborough College in Wiltshire and had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal Colony from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. His daughter Anne was the mother of the mystery writer Molly Thynne.
BibliographyA Catalogue Raisonné of the Prints of Sir Francis Seymour Haden'' by Dr Richard S. Schneiderman (1983) . |
Francis Seymour Haden | References | References |
Francis Seymour Haden | External links | External links
Sir Francis Seymour Haden at artoftheprint.com
H. Nazeby Harrington: The Engraved Work of Sir Francis Seymour Haden, P.R.E. An Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue. Henry Young & Sons, Liverpool 1910.
British Museum: http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/search.aspx?searchText=Seymour+haden+
Portrait of Sir Francis Seymour Haden by Alphonse Legros at University of Michigan Museum of Art
Category:1818 births
Category:1910 deaths
Category:Artists from the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea
Category:Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Category:English etchers
Category:Health professionals from London
Category:Knights Bachelor
Category:People educated at Derby School
Category:People educated at Christ's Hospital
Category:People from Chelsea, London
Category:University of Paris alumni |
Francis Seymour Haden | Table of Content | Short description, Life, Artistic career, References, External links |
Geranium maderense | Short description | Geranium maderense, known as giant herb-Robert or the Madeira cranesbill, is a species of flowering plant in the family Geraniaceae, native to the island of Madeira. It is sometimes confused with another Madeira endemic, Geranium palmatum.
Growing to tall and wide, it is a mound-forming evergreen perennial with deeply divided ferny leaves. Spectacular pink flowers on hairy red stems are produced in large panicles in summer. It is grown as an ornamental plant in temperate regions, where it is hardy in mild or coastal areas down to . It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. |
Geranium maderense | References | References |
Geranium maderense | External links | External links
thumb|Geranium maderense, Palheiro Gardens, Madeira|left
maderense
Category:Endemic flora of Madeira
Category:Garden plants of Europe
Category:Habitats Directive species |
Geranium maderense | Table of Content | Short description, References, External links |
Free reed aerophone | Short description | 200px|thumb|right|The reeds of an early 20th-century button accordion, with closeup
A free reed aerophone is a musical instrument that produces sound as air flows past a vibrating reed in a frame. Air pressure is typically generated by breath or with a bellows.Philip V. Bohlman (editor), The Cambridge History of World Music. Cambridge University Press
( 2013) In the Hornbostel–Sachs system, it is number 412.13 (a member of interruptive free aerophones). Free reed instruments are contrasted with non-free or enclosed reed instruments, where the timbre is fully or partially dependent on the shape of the instrument body, Hornbostel–Sachs number: 42 (flute, reed, and brass).Kartomi, Margaret Joy (1990). On concepts and classifications of musical instruments. University of Chicago Press. p. 173. ISBN 9780226425498 |
Free reed aerophone | Operation | Operation
The following illustrations depict the type of reed typical of harmonicas, pitch pipes, accordions, and reed organs as it goes through a cycle of vibration. One side of the reed frame is omitted from the images for clarity; in reality, the frame completely encloses the reed. Airflow over one side of the reed (labeled “AR”) creates a region of low pressure on that side (see the Bernoulli's principle article for details), causing the reed to flex towards the low-pressure side. The reed frame is constructed so that the flexing of the reed obstructs the airflow, which reduces or eliminates the low-pressure region and allows the reed to flex back.
thumbA reed is fixed by one end in a close-fitting frame. The loose end has a slight rising bend.thumbAir depression is applied under the reed; the reed prevents air flow, except for a small, high-velocity flow at the tip.thumbThe reed is sucked through the opening, allowing the air to pass.thumbThe elasticity of the reed forces it back through the frame.
Each time the reed passes through the frame, it interrupts air flow. These rapid, periodic interruptions of the air flow create the audible vibrations perceived by the listener.
In a free-reed instrument, it is generally the physical characteristics of the reed itself, such as mass, length, cross-sectional area, and stiffness, which determine the pitch of the musical note produced. Of secondary importance to the pitch are the physical dimensions of the chamber in which the reed is fitted, and of the air flow. As an exception, the pitch of the Chinese bawu and hulusi are determined by fingering recorder-like tone holes along the instrument body. |
Free reed aerophone | History | History
100px|thumb|right|Sheng with 17 pipes; height is 55 cm (22 inches)
Various free reed instruments appear to have been invented since antiquity. The most likely precursor to free reed aerophones is the Jew's harp, an instrument known to many cultures throughout the world, and by many names (e.g., k'uang in ancient China). In this instrument, the main sound producer is the vibrating reed tongue itself, rather than the air flow.
Among the ancient instruments, the khene of Laos, the shēng of China and the later shō version of Japan have survived to modern times.
The sheng was traditionally made with bamboo pipes, and was first mentioned in the Shi Jing (11th to 7th centuries BC) of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC). A free reed organ was invented in the Arab world in the 13th century, while the German Heinrich Traxdorf (fl. 15th century) of Nuremberg built one around 1460 AD. In Copenhagen, one of these instruments with brass pipes and free reeds in-caved into the sides of the pipes inspired the organ builder Kirsnick to fit similar reeds into portable organs.Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 5 March 1823. Nr. 10, Vol. 15, pg. 149–155. (online) In 1780 Kirsnick moved to Saint Petersburg improved these new organ pipes to an adjustable pitch with a hook. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein also built his speaking machine in Copenhagen and he was in contact with Kirsnick. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein got an award for the machine in Petersburg but he never moved to Petersburg. His machine or a copy of this machine came to Paris very shortly after 1780. Georg Joseph Vogler put all his effort to get this new type of organ pipes in use in church organs so he started with changing organs in Rotterdam (1790), London (1790),He was in London 1890 and recorded this in his autobiography, but it is unclear whether this was after or before his visit to Warschau in the same year. It is also unclear if he did make changes to church organs there. His Orchestrion that he was carrying with him was not using free reeds at this time. Frankfurt (1791), Stockholm (1791), Paris (1796), Berlin (1800), Prague (1802), Vienna (1804), Salzburg Munich (1805), – up to 30 documented rebuilds of organs with new free reed type organ pipes. He also held lessons at universities and did all to promote this new type of reeds, not only in German-speaking regions of Europe. The actual work was done by different organ builders, and very many people were involved, so it is nearly impossible that any organ builder in Europe did not know about free reeds after 1800. In the two years from 1802 to 1804 in Vienna, he spent time with Johann Nepomuk Mälzel and Mälzel changed the type of reeds used in his Panharmonicon to free reed pipes. Vogler, Maelzel and Friedrich Kaufmann were then at the same time in Paris in 1807. From there, Mälzel went to Regensburg and Vienna, where he constructed a new Panharmonicon and the mechanischer Trompeter; after that he went on tour again to Paris, London and other places; maybe he went for the first time to Boston and New York as well, but up to now we don't know of any notice in a newspaper about it. Friedrich Kaufmann, a clock maker, went back home to Dresden and copied Mälzel's machines. The mechanischer Trompeter still can be seen in a museum in Munich. |
Free reed aerophone | Free reed aerophones in the United States | Free reed aerophones in the United States
In the United States, organ builder William M. Goodrich is often claimed to have invented the free reed. He tells that he worked in 1810 to 1812 with Johann Nepomuk Mälzel's Pan Harmonicon that was sent to Boston and then exhibited in several towns. Mälzel had a very good relationship to Vogler while in Europe so his Pan Harmonicon used free reeds. It is not known with certainty whether Mälzel was personally in America around 1811. What is clear is that he arrived New York on February 7, 1826, which might have been either his first or his second visit to the New World. He also visited Boston around that time.
1823 Pan Harmonicun copied;
There is a story that in 1821 James H. Bazin repaired a free reed pipe and used this type of reeds for constructing, in 1836, the "lap organ".
From 1833, Prescott built similar instruments. |
Free reed aerophone | Melodeons in 1840 | Melodeons in 1840
thumb|Free reed from a melodion, 1867
By 1840, there were 40 melodeon builders in America. |
Free reed aerophone | Europe | Europe
Cyrill Demian's (see below) patent of 1829See "Demian's Accordion Patent translated from archaic German by Karl and Martin Weyde" at however states that the reeds in his instrument "were known for more than 200 years as Regale, Zungen, Schnarrwerk, in organs." He compares the reeds used by him with beating reeds. |
Free reed aerophone | The accordion in Russia | The accordion in Russia
The earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in Tula, Russia by from 1820, and from 1830.Mirek, Alfred. Garmonika. Proshloe i nastoiashchee. Nauchno-istoricheskaia entsyklopedicheskaia kniga. Moscow, 1994. p.50 By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread;<ref>[http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/__Raritetnye_knigi/IRGO_Etnograficheskij_sbornik_02_1854.pdf Etnograficheskii sbornik Russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva. Vol.2] , Saint Petersburg, 1854. p.26, 162.</ref> together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production rate was over 700,000.Mirek, Alfred. Iz istorii akkordeona i baiana. Moscow, 1967. p.43-45 By the 1860s, Novgorod, Vyatka and Saratov Governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included Oryol, Ryazan, Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Simbirsk and others, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument.Banin A.A. Russkaia instrumentalnaia muzyka folklornoi traditsii. Moscow, 1997. (p.144) The first chromatic piano-like accordions in Russia were built in 1871 by Nikolay Ivanovich Beloborodov.Fadeyev, I.G. and I.A. Kuznetsov. Remont garmonik, bayanov, i akkordeonov. Izdaniye 2-e, ispravlennoye i dopolnenoye. Moscow: Legkaya industriya, 1971. p.9-10.
In 1907, St. Petersburg master accordion maker V. S. Sterlingov created a chromatic button accordion for the player Ya. F. Orlandskiy-Titarenko featuring 52 melody keys and 72 chords of the Stradella bass system. Orlandskiy-Titarenko called his new instrument the bayan (after the legendary bard Boyan), and it was the ancestor of the modern instrument with that name. However, its layout on the melody side was different from the layout of the modern bayan. The modern bayan's B-system layout (or "Moscow system") became more popular than the early instrument's "Leningrad system" (which was more similar to the Khromka garmon) around 1930–35.Fadeyev, 12-13.
Between 1953 and 1968, the yearly production of button accordions (garmons and bayans) in the Soviet Union ranged between 597,307 and 921,674 instruments, while the yearly production of piano accordions ranged between 7,124 and 120,313 instruments (averaging around 50,000).Fadeyev, 15.
Examples
Querhammerflügel with Aeoline, circa 1810, made by Johann Kasper Schlimbach at Königshofen Bayern, using steel reeds and frames made in one part.
The accordion, patented in 1829 by Armenian-Austrian inventor Cyrill Demian.
The concertina, patented in two forms (perhaps independently) by:
Sir Charles Wheatstone, in 1829 and 1844;
Carl Friedrich Uhlig, 1834.
The harmoneon, patented in 1952 by Pierre Monichon, a French musicologist and accordionist.
Additionally, there are other free-reed instruments, such as the well-known and versatile harmonica (one of the smallest free reeds). The harmonium, or pump-organ, has numerous forms, including the orthotonophonium and the peti or samvadini (the Indian floor harmonium, used often as accompaniment in Indian classical music performances). The martinshorn hails from Germany, while the melodica has seen many applications across numerous styles of music, including reggae and Caribbean music.
The bandoneon (Spanish: bandoneón''), a slightly larger concertina, was named by German inventor Heinrich Band; by the late 1800s, the instrument was significantly popular across parts of South America, notably Argentina and Uruguay; compared to the standard concertina, which was and is widely utilised in various genres of folk and traditional music, the bandoneon's original intended use was to only be played for Christian devotional or religious ceremonies, such as masses (liturgy), weddings, and other related holy or sacred events. |
Free reed aerophone | Related instruments | Related instruments
In the related woodwind instruments, a vibrating reed is used to set a column of air in vibration within the instrument. In such instruments, the pitch is primarily determined by the effective length of that column of air. Although the Chinese sheng, Japanese sho and Laotian khene have pipes, the pipes do not determine the pitch. In these instruments, the pipes serve as resonating chambers.
The pump organ and Indian harmonium instruments also use free reeds. |
Free reed aerophone | Notes | Notes |
Free reed aerophone | References | References |
Free reed aerophone | External links | External links
What Is A Free Reed?
The Classical Free Reed, Inc. website
Reeds World Musical Instrument Gallery
The Roots of Reeds – an exhibition curated by the Museum of Making Music, Carlsbad, CA – detailing the history and migration of reed instruments.
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Free reed aerophone | Table of Content | Short description, Operation, History, Free reed aerophones in the United States, Melodeons in 1840, Europe, The accordion in Russia, Related instruments, Notes, References, External links |
Charles Meryon | Short description | alt=A painting of Meryon seated in a chair|thumb|Portrait of Meryon, 1853 etching by Félix Bracquemond
alt=A drawing of a gargoyle with bats flying around it|thumb|Le Stryge (The Gargoyle or The Vampire), 1853. Now Meryon's most famous print, though somewhat untypical.
Charles Meryon (sometimes Méryon,"Méryon" was common in 19th-century sources (but never for his father), but is now not usual, even in French 23 November 1821 – 14 February 1868) was a French artist who worked almost entirely in etching, as he had colour blindness. Although now little-known in the English-speaking world, he is generally recognised as the most significant etcher of 19th century France. His most famous works are a series of views powerfully conveying his distinctive Gothic vision of Paris. He also had mental illness, dying in an asylum.
Meryon's mother was a dancer at the Paris Opera, who moved to London around 1814 to dance there. In 1818 she had a daughter by Viscount Lowther, the future William Lowther, 2nd Earl of Lonsdale, a wealthy aristocrat and politician, and 1821 Charles Meryon by Dr Charles Lewis Meryon, an English doctor, returning to Paris for the birth, and remaining there for the rest of her life. The household in Paris was supported financially by both fathers, but more so by Lowther, whose indirect funding remained important throughout Meryon's life; he made very little money from his art.
Starting at the age of 16, Meryon spent ten years as a naval cadet and finally officer, which included tours of the Mediterranean, and a four year voyage around the world, for most of it based in New Zealand, where the French then maintained an imperial toe-hold. On his return he fought and was wounded in a pro-government militia during political disturbances in 1848.
thumb|alt=A drawing of Meryon seated in a bed|Meryon by Léopold Flameng, 1858, print based on a drawing made the night before he entered the asylum
He had become seriously interested in art during his naval career, starting to take lessons. He gradually and reluctantly realized that his colour-blindness ruled out painting, and by 1848 settled on etching, then out of favour as a medium for fine art, though about to undergo a considerable revival. His best period lasted between 1850 and about 1856, before his increasing mental illness reduced his output. He spent fourteen months in an asylum in 1858 and 1859, then continued to work until 1866, when he re-entered the asylum for the final time. |
Charles Meryon | Birth and childhood | Birth and childhood
Meryon's mother, Pierre-Narcisse Chaspoux, was a Parisian, born in 1791, who became a dancer in the Paris Opera in 1807 with the stage name of Narcisse Gentil. Her appearances there stop in 1814, and it was presumably about this time that she moved to London, where she became the mistress of Viscount Lowther, the future William Lowther, 2nd Earl of Lonsdale, then an unmarried Tory MP, junior minister, and friend of the Prince Regent. She had a daughter Frances (Fanny) by him in 1818. She was also friendly with Dr Charles Lewis Meryon, who had been a fellow boarder at 10 Warwick Street, Charing Cross, off Cockspur Street, around 1818. In 1821, when she was appearing as a dancer at the London Opera, Pierre-Narcisse became pregnant by Meryon, and returned to Paris with Fanny, Dr Meryon having left for Florence. Charles Meryon was born in the rue Rameau, round the corner from the then site of the Opera.Collins, 1–6
His father, Dr Meryon, had been working at St Thomas' Hospital at this time, but had spent the years 1810 to 1817 in the Middle East as (at that point unqualified) doctor to the aristocratic traveller Lady Hester Stanhope, who he was later to visit in Lebanon three times, seeing her for the last time in 1838.Collins, 5–9 He continued to correspond with Pierre-Narcisse, and pay maintenance for his son, probably of 600 francs a year. The letters became increasingly uncomfortable, and she only found out about his marriage, which had been in 1823, by accident in 1831.Collins, 7–11 Equally, Pierre-Narcisse was rather more generously supported by Lowther, who saw her and Fanny when he was in Paris, but she was keen to keep him unaware of the existence of Charles, although the two fathers were acquaintances in London. Both fathers apparently continued to know her under her stage name of "Narcisse Gentil".Collins, 8, 16
Charles was registered at birth as a "Chaspoux", and eventually (in 1829) baptised in the Church of England by the chaplain of the British Embassy in Paris. In 1824 his father legally acknowledged paternity, and he was re-registered as "Meryon", although apparently usually known as "Gentil" as a child.Collins, 14–15 For over a year after his birth he lived with friends of his mother some 20 kilometres outside Paris, visited not very frequently by his mother, sister and grandmother. He could walk at 9 months. He was moved back to Paris in January 1823, and from late 1825 Fanny was at a boarding school.Collins, 14–17
By late in 1826 he had entered the "Pension Savary", one of a number of small boarding schools in the Paris suburb of Passy; Camille Pissarro was a pupil some years later. He remained there until 1836, apart from a period with his father in 1834–35, and it seems to have been a generally happy time in his life.Collins, 17–18 In 1834 his father, with his wife and children, was living in Marseille, where Charles joined them for an extended visit in May 1834; he had previously seen him on a few occasions. They spent the winter in north Italy, reaching as far as Florence; Charles was back in Paris by May 1835. Although in most respects he enjoyed the visit, and had happy memories of it, it appears that "the relationships within the family were not explained" to Charles, and perhaps other members, and this, the last time he would see his father, contributed to a growing resentment Charles felt towards him.Collins, 18–21
Meryon's mother died in October 1838, when he was already in the French Naval School in Brest in Brittany.Collins, 23–24 After this his half-sister Fanny went to live in England, where she married in 1840. She remained in touch with him for the rest of his life. He had his grandmother still in Paris, until her death in 1845, and various cousins and family friends in and around Paris.Collins, 31, 89 |
Charles Meryon | In the Navy | In the Navy |
Charles Meryon | Training | Training
Meryon later said that he first became attracted to a naval career by "the animation of the quays of Marseilles", on his visit to his father, and from his letters to his father it is clear this had become a clear intention by the end of 1835.Collins, 22 He entered the Naval school in Brest in November 1837, having come 47th in the competitive entry exam, out of 68 candidates who passed.Collins, p. 22
By the end of his first half-year he was ranked 15th, then 19th six months later. By September 1839 he was 11th out of 60 remaining in his class. He "consistently scored a near-perfect mark in Drawing", did well in English (after greatly improving this when with his father) and Gunnery. The training in drawing covered not only making charts and sketches of coastlines, important skills for naval officers, but "picturesque and linear" drawing of heads and landscapes.Collins, p. 29
The school for future naval officers had only been founded in 1827. It was based on the ship Orion and the course lasted two years. The pupils almost never set foot on shore, and Meryon's claim to have not done so for 22 months seems plausible. The routine and discipline were harsh, but Meryon made life-long friends, including Ernest Mouchez.Collins, pp. 28–30
Meryon joined his first ship, the Alger at Toulon in October 1839, as a cadet, second class. Initially he lodged onshore.Collins, 32 After a trip to Algiers carrying troops, the ship left Toulon to join the French Levant squadron in the Aegean Sea in February 1840, allowing Meryon to visit Athens, Corinth, Argos, Melos and Mycenae.Collins, 34 In April 1840 he transferred to the Montebello near modern İzmir (then Smyrna) in Turkey,Collins, 35 with which he revisited Greece, then France, before visiting Tunis, then of great political interest to the French, and Carthage. In January 1842 he was promoted to cadet, first class.Collins, pp. 36–37 |
Charles Meryon | Voyage around the world | Voyage around the world
alt=A sketch of a palm tree|thumb|Drawing made in Tahiti, 1844–45
In the corvette "Le Rhin" he made a voyage round the world from 1842 to September 1846. The purpose of the voyage was to promote French interests in New Zealand, which the French government was not yet ready to accept as wholly a British territory; there were also French whaling interests to protect. A small French settlement on the South Island had been established on an earlier voyage. The French naval "New Zealand station" was to end while the Rhin was returning home, when the replacement ship, the Seine, was wrecked on the coast of New Caledonia.Collins, 40, 50–52
The French base in New Zealand was Akaroa, or Port Louis-Philippe as the French still called it, then a small whaling-station, with a mostly French population. The Rhin reached it on 18 January 1843, and was replaced in April 1846.Collins, 40 The outward voyage began on 15 August 1842, heading across the Atlantic, passing Tenerife, but not landing until Bahia in Brazil was reached in October, where they spent nearly two weeks. They then changed direction, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, and arriving at Hobart, Tasmania in late December,Collins, 43–46 staying only a week, before sailing for Akaroa, which they reached on 11 January 1843.Collins, 50
alt=A drawing of a Maori man with facial tattoos|thumb|Drawing Head of a Maori, made during his voyage
Relations between the French and British populations, and even their officials, were cordial or friendly, despite the British tightening their control over this period, for example restricting the fishing rights allowed to French boats. But both sides were aware the question of French claims would be settled back in Europe.Collins, 49–52, 61, 72–74 In May and June 1843 the Rhin visited Wellington for ten days, then Auckland.Collins, 53–56 In October they set off for Australia, via Kororareka near the tip of the North Island, today Russell, New Zealand, where they stayed until early November. Less than 18 months later the so-called Flagstaff War between the British and Māori was to break out there.Collins, 57–58 In November Meryon was, back in Paris, promoted to ensign, the lowest rank of naval officer, although the news did not reach him on the Rhin until July the next year.Collins, 67
At the end of August 1844 the Rhin sailed for Valparaiso in Chile "to buy stores, particularly wine, which was very expensive in Sydney".Collins, 67 After staying two weeks they set off on the return voyage on 6 November 1844, stopping at the Marquesas and Tahiti, which had just come under French "protection", and where there were a total of seven French naval ships at that point. The Rhin reached Akaroa again on 8 February 1845, hoping to find that its replacement ship had arrived, and they could return to France. But the ship had not come, and in March tensions between the Maori and Europeans had sharply increased, increasing the warmth of local Franco-British relations.Collins, 72–74
The replacement ship Seine finally arrived on 8 March 1846, and the Rhin set sail for home on the 16th. They passed Cape Horn in early May, and landed at Saint Helena on 14 June, staying a week. Meryon's visit to Napoleon's final home would come to haunt him in later years. After a brief stop at Ascension Island, they passed into the Mediterranean and spent four days at the French North African port of Mers El-Kebir from 18 August. They finally landed at Toulon on 28 August, four years and 13 days after they left it.Collins, 85–86 |
Charles Meryon | Art during his naval career | Art during his naval career
Meryon had sketched in Athens, Algiers and other exotic places he had visited, and by late 1840 decided to take lessons in drawing from the Toulon artist Vincent Courdouan, who was then 30.Collins, 37–38 He had thought of painting in watercolour, but decided he did not have time to learn this at first, but studied using sepia washes. He took full watercolour up in November 1841, when a letter to his father is the first documented mention of his colour-blindness; possibly he had not realized he had the condition before. At this time he seems to have hoped the condition would improve. Courdouan's style made much use of strong contrasts of light and dark tones, which is also characteristic of Meryon's art in the 1850s.Collins, 38, 104
Throughout his voyage on the Rhin he made drawings, many of which he turned into etchings some twenty years later. He also dabbled in sculpture, having bought some plaster of Paris in Sydney in 1843. He made busts and heads of Maori people, none of which have survived. After a dead whale washed up at Akaroa he made a coloured plaster model of whale nearly two metres long, which was later placed on display in the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle (National Museum of Natural History) in Paris, before being transferred to the Muséum d'Histoire naturelle de La Rochelle (in La Rochelle) in 1926.Collins, 65—66
A number of drawings he made of Maori men with heavily tattooed faces survive,Collins, 67 but most of his drawings from the voyage show landscapes, houses, or boats sailing near the coast. His drawing of full human figures (or animals) shows his lack of training, but these views of areas where very few Western artists had reached by the 1840s are rather conventional. Some critics have been intrigued by the contrast between his lack of artistic engagement with the very different visual cultures he encountered on his voyage, some at this date relatively little subdued by Western expansion, and his exploration of his return to Paris of a sometimes sinister exoticism based on Gothic Paris. In particular Le Stryge has the forceful demonic energy which at that date French culture often attributed to exotic cult images from parts of the world where the West was just reaching.Connelly, Frances F., The Sleep of Reason: Primitivism in Modern European Art and Aesthetics, 1725–1907, pp. 79–87, 100–104, 1999, Pennsylvania State University Press, 0271041838
In his last Paris etchings, or his last revisions of them, the fantastic flying creatures that appear in the sky in prints like Le Ministere de la Marine ("The Admiralty"), the last Paris scene, of 1865, include fishing boats from Oceania, and whales hunted or ridden, by harpoon-wielding horsemen. In this case the figures in the sky were present from the first state of the print.Collins, 223–225; Mayor, #701 |
Charles Meryon | Return to Paris | Return to Paris
thumb|alt=A drawing of a bridge in Paris with boats in the water under it and large buildings surrounding it|left|Le Petit Pont ("The Small Bridge"), 1850
On his return from the Rhin voyage in August 1846, Meryon was given eight months leave, and went to Paris. He hoped, and rather expected, to be placed at the end of his leave with the team working on the official scientific publication of the voyage, especially as regards the illustrations; the French Navy had a tradition of taking these books very seriously.Collins, 90–91
In July 1847 he visited his sister Fanny in London, where she lived with her husband Henry Broadwood, like Fanny's father a Conservative Member of Parliament, from the piano-making family. The visit to London was notable for his refusal to visit his father, who was then living there.Collins, 95 The two had corresponded during the Rhin voyage, and the day he docked in Toulon he wrote to his father offering to visit him in Nice, not realizing he was no longer there.Collins, 87 In London, and in the main art cities of Belgium, which he visited on his way back to Paris, he spent much of his time on conventional museum visiting, also going to the theatre in London.Collins, 94
1848 saw rising political tensions in Paris, which overthrew the monarchy in February and culminated in the June Days uprising, when Meryon's immediate neighbourhood saw some intense fighting around the barricades thrown up by the insurgents. He was a member of the National Guard (probably obligatory for a naval officer on leave), which played a crucial role in resisting the uprising on behalf of the French Second Republic, which Meryon generally supported. He "spent almost three days in the street, broken only by hours snatched for sleep", and was slightly wounded.Collins, 96-97
In May 1847, when his extended leave came to an end, he should have returned to Toulon, but had not. The work on the naval publication, and much else in naval administration, had been thrown into confusion by the political situation, and in July 1848 Meryon decided to resign his commission, possibly to prepare his own book on the voyage, but apparently also because of his health, his doubts about his ability to command men, and because his next posting was unclear. Because he had not reported back to Toulon, at least months of his pay were caught in a bureaucratic tangle, recorded at great length in the naval records. Although the final recommendation for a ministerial decision, the following March, supported paying him, it is not clear whether this actually happened. Several of the memorandums mention his dire financial circumstances.Collins, 97–98 |
Charles Meryon | Professional artist | Professional artist
In a letter to his father dated 5 November 1846 Meryon announced that he was "getting ready to give myself completely to the study of Art". He first approached a minor pupil of Jacques-Louis David, who worked at the War Ministry, who agreed to take him as a student in August 1847, setting him drawing exercises copying famous classical statues and drawings, in the "conventional" academic curriculum.Collins, 99 An early notebook (1847–48) with an ambitious list of possible subjects shows a predominance of maritime subjects, many with specific settings drawn from his voyage, such as a scene of Maoris fighting and an Assassination of Captain Cook (in Hawaii in 1779).Collins, 100-102
thumb|Central section of the book illustration after Meryon's Assassination of Captain Marion du Fresne in New Zealand
At least two finished pastel drawings survive from this period: a dramatic whaling scene, and the Assassination of Captain Marion du Fresne in New Zealand (by Maoris in 1772, at the Bay of Islands, killing 27 in total). Meryon knew the setting well, and the work was exhibited in the annual Paris Salon at the Louvre in 1848. In 1883 it was turned into an etching by Victor-Louis Focillon (father of the art historian Henri Focillon),record for the etching, National Library of New Zealand which was adapted as a book illustration. His drawing is now in the National Library of New Zealand, and remains the best known depiction of the incident.the drawing in the National Library of New Zealand; Collins, 100–104
The drawing seems to have been intended to be redone on a larger scale in oils, and many writers on Meryon have thought that it was the failed attempt to do this that made Meryon realize the impossibility of pursuing a career in a technique using colour. In early 1848 he met the engraver Eugène Bléry, who according to some accounts had taken an interest in his du Fresne drawing.Collins, 104–105 Bléry (1805–87) was a respected and technically very competent etcher, mostly producing landscapes. A precursor of the Etching Revival, he worked in front of his chosen scene not just in making drawings, but etching his plates. Unlike Meryon, he had little interest in architectural subjects, but both enjoyed strong contrasts of light and dark.Collins, 106 Meryon later claimed that his long-term aim in learning printmaking was to participate in illustrating an account, either the official one or his own, of the voyage of the Rhin.Collins, 108-109
Meryon joined Bléry's workshop, and was soon on excellent terms with him and his family. In September 1848 he joined Mme Bléry and her daughter on a holiday, and sketching tour, in Normandy for several weeks, when M Bléry could not leave Paris. By December he had accepted an invitation to move in to their house.Collins, 108 He started to produce etchings, mostly copying landscape and animal paintings, or other prints, that allowed him to develop his technique, and could also be sold print-dealers, if only for modest sums.Collins, 109-110
He entered the studio of the engraver Eugène Bléry, from whom he learnt something of technical matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Méryon had no money, and was too proud to ask help from his family. He was forced to earn a living by doing work that was mechanical and irksome. Among learners' work, done for his own advantage, are to be counted some studies after the Dutch etchers such as Zeeman and Adriaen van de Velde. Having proved himself a skilled copyist, he began doing original work, notably a series of etchings which are the greatest embodiments of his greatest conceptions—the series called "Eaux-fortes sur Paris." These plates, executed from 1850 to 1854, are never found as a set and were never expressly published as such, but they nonetheless constituted in Méryon's mind an harmonious series. |
Charles Meryon | Mature work | Mature work
thumb|270px|La Galerie de Nôtre-Dame in Paris (1853), 274 × 161 mm
Besides the twenty-two etchings "sur Paris", Meryon did seventy-two etchings of one sort and another ninety-four in all being catalogued in Frederick Wedmore's Méryon and Méryon's Paris; but these include the works of his apprenticeship and of his decline, adroit copies in which his best success was in the sinking of his own individuality, and more or less dull portraits. Yet among the seventy-two prints outside his professed series there are at least a dozen famous ones. Three or four beautiful etchings of Paris do not belong to the series at all. Two or three others are devoted to the illustration of Bourges, a city in which the old wooden houses were as attractive to him for their own sakes as were the stonebuilt monuments of Paris. Generally it was when Paris engaged him that he succeeded the most. He would have done more work if the material difficulties of his life had not pressed upon him and shortened his days.
He was a bachelor, yet almost as constantly occupied with love as with work. The depth of his imagination and the surprising mastery which he achieved almost from the beginning in the technicalities of his craft were appreciated only by a few artists, critics and connoisseurs, and he could not sell his etchings or could sell them only for about lod. apiece. Disappointment told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, poverty must have affected him. He became subject to hallucinations. Enemies, he said, waited for him at the corners of the streets; his few friends robbed him or owed him that which they would never pay. A few years after the completion of his Paris series he was placed in the asylum at Charenton. Briefly restored to health, he came out and did a little more work, but at bottom he was exhausted. In 1867 he returned to his asylum, and died there in 1868. In middle age, just before he was confined, he associated with Félix Bracquemond and Léopold Flameng, skilled practitioners of etching. The best portrait we have of him is one by Bracquemond under which the sitter wrote that it represented "the sombre Méryon with the grotesque visage."
There are twenty-two pieces in the Eaux-fortes sur Paris. Some of them are insignificant. That is because ten out of the twenty-two were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running commentary on some more important plate. But each has its value, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate—not a picture at all—is devoted to the record of verses made by Méryon, the purpose of which is to lament the life of Paris. Méryon aimed to illustrate its misery and poverty, as well as its splendour. His etchings are no mere views of Paris. They are "views" only so far as is compatible with their being likewise the visions of a poet and the compositions of an artist.
Méryon's epic work was coloured strongly by his personal sentiment, and affected here and there by current events — in more than one case, for instance, he hurried with particular affection to etch his impression of some old-world building which was on the point of destruction, as Napoleon III tore down buildings to reconstruct Paris with wide boulevards. Nearly every etching in the series reveals technical skill, but even the technical skill is exercised most happily in those etchings which have the advantage of impressive subjects, and which the collector willingly cherishes for their mysterious suggestiveness or for their pure beauty.
Méryon also taught; among his pupils was the etcher Gabrielle-Marie Niel. |
Charles Meryon | Style | Style
left|thumb|400px|Abside de Notre Dame, 1854, fourth state of nine.
The Abside de Notre Dame is the general favourite and is commonly held to be Méryon's masterpiece. Light and shade play wonderfully over the great fabric of the church, seen over the spaces of the river. As a draughtsman of architecture, Méryon was complete; his sympathy with its various styles was broad, and his work on its various styles unbiased and of equal perfection—a point in which it is curious to contrast him with J. M. W. Turner, who, in drawing Gothic architecture, often drew it with want of appreciation. It is evident that architecture must enter largely into any representation of a city, however much such representation may be a vision, and however little a chronicle. Even the architectural portion of Méryon's labour is only indirectly imaginative; to the imagination he has given freer play in his dealings with the figure, whether the people of the street or of the river or the people who, when he is most frankly or even wildly symbolical, crowd the sky.
Generally speaking, his figures are, as regards draughtsmanship, "landscape-painter's figures." They are drawn more with an eye to grace than to academic correctness. But they are not "landscape-painter's figures" at all when what we are 'concerned with is not the method of their representation but the purpose of their introduction. They are seen then to be in exceptional accord with the sentiment of the scene. Sometimes, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who tell the story of the picture. Sometimes, as in the case of La Rue des Mauvais Garçons—with the two passing women bent together in secret converse—they at least suggest it. And sometimes, as in L'Arche du Pont Notre Dame, it is their expressive gesture and eager action that give vitality and animation to the scene.
thumb|Le Pont Neuf, 1853
thumb|Le Ministere de la Marine ("The Admiralty"), the last Paris scene, 1865
Dealing perfectly with architecture, and perfectly, as far as concerned his peculiar purpose, with humanity in his art, Méryon was little called upon by the character of his subjects to deal with Nature. He drew trees but badly, never representing foliage happily, either in detail or in mass. But to render the characteristics of the city, it was necessary that he should know how to portray a certain kind of water—river-water, mostly sluggish—and a certain kind of sky—the grey obscured and lower sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney. This water and this sky Méryon is thoroughly master of; he notes with observant affection their changes in all lights.
In his technique, Méryon experimented variously in his brief career, and at times within individual works. In two different impressions of his Paris view La Pompe Notre Dame de Paris (1852) he could employ crisp lines through a well wiped plate without surface tone, or leave softer edges and richer darks by ample surface tone. His aesthetics were often dictated by his paper, of which he endeavored to acquire the finest available. His more defined works he printed on 'Hudelist' paper, from a mill in Hallines in the North of France, which had the uniform, smooth quality ideal for sharp images. His more gauzy works, by contrast, were printed on a softer, felt-like Morel Lavenere paper produced in Glaignes, which was highly absorbent—and pale green, which Méryon in his colour blindness would not have perceived as the typical viewer. Ultimately, however, his stated preference was for cleanly-wiped, clear prints of a uniform quality, which determination ironically positioned him against the Etching Revival he helped inspire.van Breda, Jacobus. "Charles Meryon: Paper and Ink," Art in Print, Vol. 3 No. 3 (September–October 2013). |
Charles Meryon | Mental illness | Mental illness
As early as his voyage on the Rhin in his naval period, Meryon had displayed behaviours that were initially interpreted as eccentricity, for which there was considerable tolerance in Parisian artistic circles, but later came to be seen by friends as "the beginnings of a dysfunction".Collins, 180 By the mid-1850s he had periods of depression when he could do nothing, and developed a conviction that he was being persecuted by Emperor Napoleon III; he traced this to "tactless words on the abuse of force" which he had inscribed in 1846 in the visitor's book at Longwood, Saint Helena, where Napoleon I had died. He thought several other artists who had died had been done away with by the government, probably by poison.Collins, 180
He developed an obsession with a very young girl in the neighbourhood, Louise Neveu, who lived next door to him between at least 1851 and 1856. His "aggressive and persistent but unsuccessful courting" was an attempt to marry her, for which he negotiated with her parents through a friend. Her father "thought him potentially violent", and he later "threatened visitors with a pistol". There may have been another young girl, as various accounts mention the daughter of the owner of the restaurant where he usually ate, who was not Neveu.Collins, 182–183 Several accounts mention his obsessive digging-up of the back-garden of the house he was staying, apparently looking for buried bodies.Collins, 183
In 1858 he agreed to admit himself to the leading Charenton asylum,Collins, 184–185 a doctor having certified him as "suffering from a profound disturbance of the mental faculties" on 10 May. Two days later, his initial examination at Charenton assessed him as having "Deep melancholy, ideas of persecution which he considers to be deserved. depressive ideas. he considers himself deeply guilty towards Society."Collins, 187 This stay lasted fourteen months until 10 September 1859, by which time he was assessed as improved, including by himself in a later letter.Collins, 189
After seven years, during which both his life and his art had shown signs that his condition had remained with him to some degree,Collins, Chapter 9 he was readmitted to Charenton for the final time on 10 October 1866. Their records of "regular monthly assessments offer a story of persistent violent outbursts, intense melancholy, recurrent hallucinations and the conviction that even his old friends were conspiring against him".Collins, 245 Although he was sometimes well enough to be taken out for trips, his condition deteriorated, he stopped eating, and he died in Charenton on 14 February 1868.Collins, 253
thumb|Portrait of Charles Meryon, etching by Félix Bracquemond, 1854, the inscribed text ending "the grotesque face of the sombre Meryon" added by Meryon
Retrospective diagnoses assess Meryon's behavior exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia. |
Charles Meryon | Value of Meryon's prints | Value of Meryon's prints |
Charles Meryon | To 1911 | To 1911
It is worthwhile to note the extraordinary enhancement in the value of Méryon's prints. Probably of no other artist of genius, not even of Whistler, could there be cited within the same period a rise in prices of at all the same proportion. Thus the first state of the "Stryge" – that "with the verses" – selling under the hammer in 1873 for £5, sold again under the hammer in 1905 for £100. The first state of the "Galerie de Notre Dame" – selling in 1873 for £5 and at M. Wasset's sale in 1880 for £11, fetched in 1905, £52. A "Tour de l'Horloge," which two or three years after it was first issued sold for half a crown, in May 1903 fetched f70. A first state (Wedmore's, not of course M. Delteil's "first state," which, like nearly all his first states, is in fact a trial proof) of the "Saint Étienne du Mont," realizing about £2 at M. Burty's sale in 1876, realized £60 at a sale in May 1906. The second state of the "Morgue" (Wedmore) sold in 1905 for £65; and Wedmore's second of the "Abside," which used to sell throughout the seventies for £4 or £5, reached in November 1906 more than £200. At no period have even Dürers or Rembrandts risen so swiftly and steadily. |
Charles Meryon | Modern | Modern
Though while alive he sold prints for francs,Mayor in 2014 prints were for sale under US$1000. Four of the Paris prints sold at Christie's in London for £4,375 in 2009,Christie's, London, South Kensington, 16 September 2009, Sale 5867, Lot 327 but an especially good impression of one of these had fetched £11,500 in 1998.Christie's, Sale 5992, "19th and 20th Century Prints", London, 2 July 1998, Lot 27, Le Petit Pont In 2018 Meryon's etchings fetch on the market (in the UK) from between £1,500 to £7,500 GBP.Meryon auction lots on www.invaluable.com |
Charles Meryon | Gallery of etchings | Gallery of etchings
Etchings of Paris: |
Charles Meryon | Notes | Notes |
Charles Meryon | References | References
Collins, Roger, Charles Meryon: A Life, 1999, Garton & Company, , 9780906030356
Mayor, A. Hyatt, Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, #s 700–702, 1971 (originally), The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)
Van Breda, Jacobus, "Charles Meryon: Paper and Ink", Art in Print, vol. 3, no. 3, 2013, pp. 17–22. JSTOR, Accessed 22 Nov. 2020. |
Charles Meryon | Further reading | Further reading
Catalogues
Schneiderman, Richard J., The Catalogue Raisonné of the Prints of Charles Meryon, 1990, Garton & Company, , 9780906030233 (now the standard catalogue)
Catalogue Raisonne of the Etchings of Charles Meryon – Loÿs Delteil, Harold J. L. Wright, 1924
Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of Méryon (London, 1879)
Books
PG Hamerton, Etching and Etchers (1868)
Francis Seymour Haden, Notes on Etching
Henri Béraldi, Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neuviéme siècle
Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907);
Loÿs Delteil, Charles Méryon (1907)';
Frederick Wedmore, Méryon and Méryon's Paris, with a descriptive catalogue, of the artist's work (1879; 2nd ed., 1892); and Fine Prints (1896; 2nd ed., 1905). |
Charles Meryon | External links | External links
Charles Méryon exhibition catalogs
Category:1821 births
Category:1868 deaths
Category:19th-century French engravers
Category:19th-century French male artists
Category:Artists from Paris
Category:19th-century French etchers
Category:People with schizophrenia |
Charles Meryon | Table of Content | Short description, Birth and childhood, In the Navy, Training, Voyage around the world, Art during his naval career, Return to Paris, Professional artist, Mature work, Style, Mental illness, Value of Meryon's prints, To 1911, Modern, Gallery of etchings, Notes, References, Further reading, External links |
City of Portland (train) | Short description | The City of Portland was a named passenger train on the Union Pacific Railroad between Chicago, Illinois, and Portland, Oregon. The first trip left Portland on June 6, 1935, using the streamlined M-10001 trainset. With only one set of equipment, the train left each terminal six times a month. A broken axle derailed the trip that left Chicago on July 23, 1935, and the repaired train resumed service with the trip leaving Portland on February 6, 1936. In May 1936 it started running five times a month instead of six, allowing more time in Chicago between trips. (In July 1935 it was scheduled to arrive Chicago at 9:30 AM and leave at 6:15 PM the same day.)
It was the first streamliner with sleeping cars and the first streamliner running from Chicago to the Pacific coast; its 39-hour-45-minute schedule became the standard. (In April 1935 the fastest train took 59 hr 20 min Chicago to Portland.) The M-10001 was withdrawn in March 1938 and replaced with another articulated trainset, the former City of Los Angeles M-10002. In July 1941 M-10002 was replaced with a train powered by the EMC E3 set inherited from City of Los Angeles pulling the former M-10004 cars, with some former M-10001 cars added. Service was expanded following the war as the train was joined, then replaced, by full-size trains powered by E6 and E7 locomotives. The train was the first of the 40-hour Coast streamliners to run daily, in February 1947. Starting in October 1955 the Milwaukee Road was used instead of the Chicago and North Western between Chicago and Omaha; from January 1959 until 1967 the train ran via Denver. The train was discontinued May 1, 1971, with the takeover of Union Pacific's passenger services by Amtrak. The route roughly follows the trail of the defunct Amtrak route, the Pioneer, except that the latter diverted to Ogden, Utah, while the City of Portland did not enter Utah.Streamliner Schedules, City of Portland, July, 1956 schedule http://www.streamlinerschedules.com/concourse/track7/cityportland195607.html
In addition to baggage, coach, and sleeping cars, about 1955 the City of Portland added an Astra Dome dome coach, dome observation lounge and dome dining car to each consist. The dome dining cars were unique to Union Pacific and were only operated on this train and the City of Los Angeles. |
City of Portland (train) | Major cities served | Major cities served
Prior to 1955:
Chicago, Union Station
Cedar Rapids, Union Station
Omaha, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station
Following 1955 rerouting via Milwaukee Road:
Chicago, Union Station
Marion station (Cedar Rapids via bus connection)
Omaha, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station
Following 1959 rerouting:
Chicago, Union Station
Marion station (Cedar Rapids via bus connection)
Omaha, Union Station
Denver, Union Station
Boise, Union Pacific Depot
Portland, Union Station |
City of Portland (train) | See also | See also
Passenger train service on the Chicago and North Western Railway
Passenger train service on the Union Pacific Railroad |
City of Portland (train) | References | References |
City of Portland (train) | External links | External links
Passenger trains operating on the eve of Amtrak
Category:Passenger trains of the Union Pacific Railroad
Category:Passenger trains of the Chicago and North Western Railway
Category:Passenger trains of the Milwaukee Road
Category:Named passenger trains of the United States
Category:Railway services introduced in 1935
Category:Night trains of the United States
Category:Railway services discontinued in 1971 |
City of Portland (train) | Table of Content | Short description, Major cities served, See also, References, External links |
Benjamin Peter James Bradshaw | # | redirect Ben Bradshaw |
Benjamin Peter James Bradshaw | Table of Content | # |
Culture (band) | Short description | Culture are a Jamaican roots reggae group founded in 1976. Originally they were known as the African Disciples. The one constant member until his death in 2006 was Joseph Hill. |
Culture (band) | History | History
The group formed in 1976 as the vocal trio of Joseph Hill (formerly a percussionist in Studio One house band the Soul Defenders), his cousin Albert "Ralph" Walker, and Roy "Kenneth" Dayes, initially using the name The African Disciples.Thompson, Dave (2002) Reggae & Caribbean Music, Backbeat Books, , p. 83-85 Roy Dayes also used the name "Kenneth Paley", which is the name that appears on the Culture records released by Virgin Records. The African Disciples soon changed their name to Culture, and auditioned successfully for the "Mighty Two": producer Joe Gibbs and engineer Errol Thompson. While at Gibbs' studio, they recorded a series of singles, starting with "See Dem a Come" and including "Two Sevens Clash" (which predicted the apocalypse on 7 July 1977), many of which ended up on their debut album Two Sevens Clash.Barrow, Steve & Dalton, Peter (2004). The Rough Guide to Reggae, third ed. Rough Guides. . p. 163."Joseph Hill and Culture: Age-Defying Reggae", The Washington Post, 8 May 2006, p. C04Porter, Christopher (2006) "Joseph Hill and Culture: Age-Defying Reggae", The Washington Post, 8 May 2006 The song was sufficiently influential that many in Kingston stayed indoors on 7 July, fearing that the prophecy would come true.Norris, Michele (2007) "Birth of a Phenomenon: 'Two Sevens Clash'", NPR, 12 July 2007 A second Gibbs-produced album, Baldhead Bridge, followed in 1978, by which time the group had moved on to record for producer Sonia Pottinger. The group entered into a long-running dispute with Gibbs over royalties to the first album.
Two Sevens Clash meanwhile had become a big seller in the United Kingdom, popular with punk rock fans as well as reggae fans and boosted by the support of John Peel on his BBC Radio 1 show, and reached number 60 on the UK Albums Chart in April 1978."Obituary: Joseph Hill", Liverpool Daily Post, 22 August 2006"Culture(Link redirected to OCC website)", Chart Archive, retrieved 15 September 2012 This prompted Virgin Records to sign the group to its Front Line label, releasing Harder than the Rest (1978) and International Herb (1979). Culture also released records on other labels in Jamaica, including a dub version of Harder than the Rest, Culture in Dub (1978, High Note), and an album of different recordings of the same album, Africa Stand Alone (April 1978). An album recorded for Pottinger in 1979 with a working title of Black Rose remained unreleased until tracks emerged in 1993 on Trod On.
Culture performed at the One Love Peace Concert in 1978.
In 1981 the three singers went their own ways.Pareles, Jon (1988) "Pop: Culture, Rockers Reggae Band", The New York Times, 16 January 1988, retrieved 15 September 2012 Hill carried on using the Culture name, and recorded the Lion Rock album, which was reissued in the United States by Heartbeat Records. Hill and his new band recorded a session for long time supporter John Peel in December 1982, and the group went on to record further studio sessions for Peel in 1998 and 2002, and their performance at the Royal Festival Hall in July 1998 was broadcast on his show."Culture", Keeping It Peel, BBC, retrieved 15 September 2012 For their part, Walker and Dayes recorded a handful of songs on their own; a few of which turned up on an album titled Roots & Culture. Hill performed at the Reggae Sunsplash festival in 1985 and in 1986 the original line-up reformed to record two highly regarded albums – Culture in Culture and Culture at Work.
Several albums followed in the 1990s on Shanachie Records and Ras Records, often recorded with Sly and Robbie, with Dayes leaving the group again around 1994, with Reginald Taylor replacing him.Quillen, Shay (1990) "Culture adds synthesized sounds to 'Nuff Crisis'", The Cavalier Daily, 1 February 1990, p. 4, retrieved 15 September 2012Stoute, Lenny (1994) "Reggaeman pounds Culture message home", Toronto Star, 28 July 1994, p. E5 Dayes subsequently worked as a solo artist under the name Kenneth Culture.Campbell, Howard (2016) "Kenneth Culture continues journey ", Jamaica Observer, 27 May 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016
By 2001 Telford Nelson had replaced Taylor.Cooke, Mel (2003) "Culture remains humble ", Jamaica Gleaner, 13 September 2003, retrieved 15 September 2012Heim, Joe (2001) "Culture, Partying On In Rastafarian Harmony", The Washington Post, 26 March 2001
Joseph Hill, who came to symbolise the face of Culture, died in Berlin, Germany on 19 August 2006 while the group was on tour, after collapsing following a performance.Francis, Petrina (2006) "Reggae Icon, Joseph Hill, Dies ", Jamaica Gleaner, 20 August 2006, retrieved 15 September 2012 His son, Kenyatta Hill, who had acted as the group's sound engineer on tour, performed with his father's band at the Western Consciousness show in 2007, which was dedicated to Joseph Hill, and became the lead singer of Culture; Walker and Nelson continue to provide backing vocals.Cooke, Mel (2007) "Culture tribute for Western Consciousness 2007 ", Jamaica Gleaner, 13 April 2007, retrieved 15 September 2012Frater, Adrian (2007) "Kenyatta Hill keeps the voice of Culture alive ", Jamaica Gleaner, 21 January 2007, retrieved 15 September 2012"Joseph 'Culture' Hill lives on", The Weekly Gleaner, 1 September 2011
In 2011, Live On was released, featuring Kenyatta's performances of his father's songs, including "Two Sevens Clash" and "International Herb". |
Culture (band) | Discography | Discography |
Culture (band) | Studio albums | Studio albums
Two Sevens Clash (1977), Joe Gibbs Music
Baldhead Bridge (1978), Joe Gibbs Music
Harder than the Rest produced by Sonia Pottinger (1978), Virgin Records/Front Line
Africa Stand Alone (1978), April
Cumbolo produced by Sonia Pottinger (1979), Virgin/Front Line
International Herb produced by Sonia Pottinger (1979), High Note/Virgin
More Culture aka Innocent Blood (1981), Joe Gibbs Music
Lion Rock (1982), Sonic Sounds
Culture in Culture (1985), Music Track
Culture at Work (1986), Blue Mountain/Shanachie
Nuff Crisis! (1988), Blue Mountain
Good Things (1989), RAS
Three Sides to My Story (1991), Shanachie
Wings of a Dove (1992), Shanachie
One Stone (1996), Gorgon/RAS
Trust Me (1997), RAS
Payday (1999), RAS
Humble African (2000), VP
World Peace (2003), Heartbeat
Pass the Torch (Tafari Records) (2007) (Seven versions of old tunes by Joseph Hill, and seven tunes by his son Kenyatta Hill)Steckles, Gary (2008) "Spin Control", Chicago Sun-Times, 27 January 2008
Live On (2011), Zojak Worldwide |
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