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Polonaise | References | References |
Polonaise | External links | External links
Polonaise ‒ The Royal Dance Every Polish Teenager Has to Master
Category:Polish styles of music
Category:Polish dances
Category:Dance forms in classical music
Category:Triple time dances |
Polonaise | Table of Content | short description, Influence of Polonaise in music, National dance, Gallery, See also, References, External links |
Milan Cathedral | Short description | thumb|Milan Cathedral, front façade
thumb|Plate celebrating the laying of the first stone in 1386
Milan Cathedral ( ; ), or Metropolitan Cathedral-Basilica of the Nativity of Saint Mary (), is the cathedral church of Milan, Lombardy, Italy. Dedicated to the Nativity of St. Mary (), it is the seat of the Archbishop of Milan, currently Archbishop Mario Delpini.
The cathedral took nearly six centuries to complete: construction began in 1386, and the final details were completed in 1965. It is the largest church in the Italian Republic—the larger St. Peter's Basilica is in the State of Vatican City, a sovereign state—and one of largest in the world.See List of largest church buildings in the world. |
Milan Cathedral | History | History
thumb|left|upright|Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral by Anthony van Dyck
Milan's layout, with streets either radiating from the Duomo or circling it, reveals that the Duomo occupies what was the most central site in Roman Mediolanum, that of the public basilica facing the forum. The first cathedral, the "new basilica" () dedicated to St Thecla, was completed by 355. It seems to share, on a slightly smaller scale, the plan of the contemporaneous church recently rediscovered beneath Tower Hill in London. An adjoining basilica was erected in 836. The old octagonal baptistery, the Battistero Paleocristiano, dates to 335 and still can be visited under the cathedral. When a fire damaged the cathedral and basilica in 1075, they were rebuilt as the Duomo.Duomo is a generic term in Italian meaning "Cathedral", which technically refers to a church which is the official seat of an archbishop. It is derived from domus, a Latin term for "home" or "house", referring to the role of the church as the home of God. |
Milan Cathedral | Construction begins | Construction begins
In 1386, Archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo began construction of the cathedral. Start of the construction coincided with the ascension to power in Milan of the archbishop's cousin Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and was meant as a reward to the noble and working classes, who had suffered under his tyrannical Visconti predecessor Barnabò. The construction of the cathedral was also dictated by very specific political choices: with the new construction site the population of Milan intended to emphasize the centrality of Milan in the eyes of Gian Galeazzo, a prominence questioned by the choice of the new lord to reside and maintain his court, like his father Galeazzo II, in Pavia and not in Milan. Before actual work began, three main buildings were demolished: the palace of the Archbishop, the Ordinari Palace and the Baptistry of St. Stephen at the Spring, while the old church of Sta. Maria Maggiore was exploited as a stone quarry. Enthusiasm for the immense new building soon spread among the population, and the shrewd Gian Galeazzo, together with his cousin the archbishop, collected large donations for the work-in-progress. The construction program was strictly regulated under the "Fabbrica del Duomo", which had 300 employees led by first chief engineer Simone da Orsenigo. Orsenigo initially planned to build the cathedral from brick in Lombard Gothic style.
Visconti had ambitions to follow the newest trends in European architecture. In 1389, a French chief engineer, Nicolas de Bonaventure, was appointed, adding to the church its Rayonnant Gothic. Galeazzo gave the Fabbrica del Duomo exclusive use of the marble from the Candoglia quarry and exempted it from taxes. Ten years later another French architect, Jean Mignot, was called from Paris to judge and improve upon the work done, as the masons needed new technical aid to lift stones to an unprecedented height. Mignot declared all the work done up until then as in pericolo di ruina ("peril of ruin"), as it had been done sine scienzia ("without science"). In the following years, Mignot's forecasts proved untrue, but they spurred Galeazzo's engineers to improve their instruments and techniques. However, relations between Gian Galeazzo and the top management of the factory (chosen by the citizens of Milan) were often tense: the lord (who in 1395 had become Duke of Milan) intended to transform the cathedral into the dynastic mausoleum of the Visconti, inserting the central part of the cathedral funeral monument of his father Galeazzo II and this met with strong opposition from both the factory and the Milanese, who wanted to underline their autonomy. A clash arose, which forced Gian Galeazzo to decide on the foundation of a new construction site intended exclusively for the Visconti dynasty: the Certosa di Pavia. Work proceeded quickly, and at the death of Gian Galeazzo in 1402, almost half the cathedral was complete. Construction, however, stalled almost totally until 1480, for lack of money and ideas: the most notable works of this period were the tombs of Marco Carelli and Pope Martin V (1424) and the windows of the apse (1470s), of which those extant portray St. John the Evangelist, by Cristoforo de' Mottis, and Saint Eligius and San John of Damascus, both by Niccolò da Varallo. In 1452, under Francesco Sforza, the nave and the aisles were completed up to the sixth bay.
thumb|Giovanni Antonio Amadeo on "Amadeo's Little Spire"
In 1488, both Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante created models in a competition to design the central cupola; Leonardo later withdrew his submission. From 1500 to 1510, under Ludovico Sforza, the octagonal cupola was completed, and decorated in the interior with four series of 15 statues each, portraying saints, prophets, sibyls and other Figures from the Bible. The exterior long remained without any decoration, except for the Guglietto dell'Amadeo ("Amadeo's Little Spire"), constructed 1507–1510. This is a Renaissance masterwork which nevertheless harmonized well with the general Gothic appearance of the church.
During the subsequent Spanish domination, the new church proved usable, even though the interior remained largely unfinished, and some bays of the nave and the transepts were still missing. In 1552 Giacomo Antegnati was commissioned to build a large organ for the north side of the choir, and Giuseppe Meda provided four of the sixteen reliefs which were to decorate the altar area (the program was completed by Federico Borromeo). In 1562, Marco d'Agrate's St. Bartholomew and the famous Trivulzio candelabrum (12th century) were added. |
Milan Cathedral | Borromeo | Borromeo
thumb|upright|Plan of the Cathedral in the 16th century
After the accession of Carlo Borromeo to the archbishop's throne, all lay monuments were removed from the Duomo. These included the tombs of Giovanni, and Filippo Maria Visconti, Francesco I and his wife Bianca, Galeazzo Maria, which were brought to unknown destinations. However, Borromeo's main intervention was the appointment, in 1571, of Pellegrino Pellegrini as chief engineer— a contentious move, since to appoint Pellegrino, who was not a lay brother of the duomo, required a revision of the Fabbrica's statutes.
Borromeo and Pellegrini strove for a new, Renaissance appearance for the cathedral, that would emphasise its Roman / Italian nature, and subdue the Gothic style, which was now seen as foreign. As the façade still was largely incomplete, Pellegrini designed a "Roman" style one, with columns, obelisks and a large tympanum. When Pellegrini's design was revealed, a competition for the design of the façade was announced, and this elicited nearly a dozen entries, including one by Antonio Barca.
This design was never carried out, but the interior decoration continued: in 1575-1585 the presbytery was rebuilt, while new altars and the baptistry were added. The wooden choir stalls were constructed by 1614 for the main altar by Francesco Brambilla. In 1577 Borromeo finally consecrated the whole edifice as a new church, distinct from the old Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Tecla (which had been unified in 1549 after heavy disputes). |
Milan Cathedral | 17th and 18th centuries | 17th and 18th centuries
thumb|right|The cathedral as it appeared in 1745
At the beginning of the 17th century Federico Borromeo had the foundations of the new façade laid by Francesco Maria Richini and Fabio Mangone. Work continued until 1638 with the construction of five portals and two middle windows. In 1649, however, the new chief architect Carlo Buzzi introduced a striking revolution: the façade was to revert to the original Gothic style, including the already finished details within big Gothic pilasters and two giant belfries. Other designs were provided by, among others, Filippo Juvarra (1733) and Luigi Vanvitelli (1745), but all remained unapplied. In 1682 the façade of Santa Maria Maggiore was demolished and the cathedral's roof covering was completed.
In 1762 one of the main features of the cathedral, the Madonnina's spire, was erected at the dizzying height of 108.5 m. The spire was designed by Carlo Pellicani and sports at the top a famous polychrome Madonnina statue, designed by Giuseppe Perego that befits the stature of the cathedral. Given Milan's notoriously damp and foggy climate, the Milanese consider it a fair-weather day when the Madonnina is visible from a distance, as it is so often covered by mist. |
Milan Cathedral | Completion | Completion
thumb|Design for the crowning of Ferdinand I of Austria at the Duomo in 1838, by Alessandro Sanquirico
On 20 May 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte, about to be crowned King of Italy, ordered the façade to be finished by Pellicani. In his enthusiasm, he assured that all expenses would fall to the French treasurer, who would reimburse the Fabbrica for the real estate it had to sell. Even though this reimbursement was never paid, it still meant that finally, within only seven years, the cathedral's façade was completed. Pellicani largely followed Buzzi's project, adding some neo-Gothic details to the upper windows. As a form of thanksgiving, a statue of Napoleon was placed at the top of one of the spires. Napoleon was crowned King of Italy at the Duomo.
In the following years, most of the missing arches and spires were constructed. The statues on the southern wall were also finished, while in 1829–1858, new stained glass windows replaced the old ones, though with less aesthetically significant results. The last details of the cathedral were finished only in the 20th century: the last portal was inaugurated on 6 January 1965. This date is considered the very end of a process which had proceeded for generations, although even now, some uncarved blocks remain to be completed as statues. The Allied bombing of Milan in World War II further delayed construction. Like many other cathedrals in cities bombed by the Allied forces, the Duomo suffered some damage, although to a lesser degree compared to other major buildings in the vicinity such as the La Scala Theatre. It was quickly repaired and became a place of solace and gathering for displaced local residents.
The Duomo's main façade went under renovation from 2003 to early 2009: as of February 2009, it has been completely uncovered, showing again the colours of the Candoglia marble.http://chambersarchitects.com/blog/milan_cathedral/ Cathedral Renovations 2003-2009
In November 2012 officials announced a campaign to raise funds for the cathedral's preservation by asking patrons to adopt the building's spires. The effects of pollution on the 14th-century building entail regular maintenance, and recent austerity cuts to Italy's cultural budget have left less money for the upkeep of cultural institutions, including the cathedral. To help make up funds, Duomo management launched a campaign offering its 135 spires up for "adoption". Donors who contribute €100,000 (about $110,505) or more will have a plaque with their name engraved on it placed on the spire. |
Milan Cathedral | Architects and engineers | Architects and engineers
1387 Simone da Orsenigo
1387 Zeno da Campione
1387 Marco da Campione detto da Frixono
1389 Giacomo da Campione
1389 Nicola Bonaventura o da Benaventis di Francia
1389 Stefanino o Tavannino di Castelseprio
1391 Giovanni Fernach di Frimburgo
1391 Giovannino de Grassi
1391 Lorenzo degli Spazii da Campione o di Laino
1391 Marco da Carona
1391 Enrico di Gamodia (Gmüden)
1394 Beltramo da Conigo
1394 Ulrico Füssingen di Ulma
1398 Salomone de Grassi
1399 Antonio o Antonino da Paderno
1399 Gasparino da Carona
1399 Giacomolo da Venezia di Parigi
1399 Giovanni Mignoto
1399 Giovanni Cona o Cova di Bruges
1399 Arasmino de Sirtori
1400 Filippo degli Organi
1401 Polino da Orsenigo
1404 Antonio da Paderno
1406 Cristoforo de Chiona
1407 Leonardo da Sirtori
1409 Giovanni Magatto
1415 Antonio da Muggiò
1416 Bartolomeo di Modena
1420 Antonio da Gorgonzola
1430 Franceschino da Cannobio
1451 Giorgio degli Organi da Modena
1451 Giovanni Solari
1452 Antonio da Firenze detto il Filarete
1458 Donato de Sirtori
1459 Boniforte o Guinforte Solari
1476 Pietro Antonio Solari
1483 Giovanni Nexemperger di Graz
1486 Giovanni Antonio Amadeo
1490 Gian Giacomo Dolcebuono
1506 Cristoforo Solari detto il Gobbo
1512 Gerolamo della Porta
1519 Bernardo Zenale di Treviglio
1524 Giangiacomo della Porta
1526 Cristoforo Lombardo
1539 Baldassarre Vianelli
1547 Vincenzo da Seregno o Seregni
1567 Pellegrino Pellegrini, called il Tibaldi
1587 Martino Bassi
1591 Lelio Buzzi
1598 Aurelio Trezzi
1609 Alessandro Bisnato
1617 Fabio Mangone
1617 Giovanni Paolo Bisnato
1631 Francesco Maria Ricchino
1638 Carlo Buzzio o Buzzi
1658 Girolamo Quadrio
1679 Andrea Biffi
1686 Giambattista Quadrio
1723 Antonio Quadrio
1743 Bartolomeo Bolla o Bolli
1760 Francesco Croce
1773 Giulio Galliori
1795 Felice Soave
1801 Giovanni Antonio Antolini
1803 Leopoldo Pollak
1806 Giuseppe Zanoja
1806 Giuseppe Pollak
1806 Carlo Amati
1813 Pietro Pestagalli
1854-1860 Office vacant
1861 Giuseppe Vandoni
1877 Paolo Cesa-Bianchi
1904 Gaetano Moretti
1907 Luca Beltrami
1912 Adolfo Zacchi
1963 Antonio Cassi Ramelli
1964 Carlo Ferrari da Passano
1988 Benigno Mörlin Visconti Castiglione |
Milan Cathedral | Architecture and art | Architecture and art
thumb|upright|Tourists on the roof|alt=A stone rooftop, sloping down from a level centre to edges where intricately decorated stone spires rise, with statues atop, proceeding toward a rear wall with some more spires. Near the walls, people are gathered. Above is a blue sky largely covered with thin clouds
thumb|right|Interior view of the Duomo di Milano
thumb|upright|Statue on the roof|alt=view of a male statue on the roof of the Duomo
thumb|upright|Statue on the roof|alt=view of a female statue on the roof of the Duomo
The plan consists of a nave with four side aisles, crossed by a transept and then followed by choir and apse. The height of the nave is about , with the highest Gothic vaults in a completed church (not as high as the of Beauvais Cathedral, but it was never completed).
The roof is open to tourists (for a fee), which allows many a close-up view of some spectacular sculpture that would otherwise be unappreciated. The roof of the cathedral is renowned for the forest of openwork pinnacles and spires, set upon delicate flying buttresses.
The cathedral's five broad naves, divided by 40 pillars, are reflected in the hierarchic openings of the façade. Even the transepts have aisles. The nave columns are high, and the apsidal windows are . It is a brick building, faced with marble from the quarries which Gian Galeazzo Visconti donated in perpetuity to the cathedral chapter. Maintenance and repairs are very complicated.
In 2015, Milan's cathedral developed a new lighting system using LEDs. |
Milan Cathedral | Aesthetic judgements | Aesthetic judgements
The cathedral was built over several hundred years in a number of contrasting styles. Reactions to it have ranged from admiration to disfavour. The Guida d’Italia: Milano 1998 (Touring Club Editore, p. 154) points out that the early Romantics tended to praise it in "the first intense enthusiasms for Gothic". As the Gothic Revival brought in a purer taste, condemnation was often equally intense.
John Ruskin commented acidly that the cathedral steals "from every style in the world: and every style spoiled. The cathedral is a mixture of Perpendicular with Flamboyant, the latter being peculiarly barbarous and angular, owing to its being engrafted, not on a pure, but a very early penetrative Gothic … The rest of the architecture among which this curious Flamboyant is set is a Perpendicular with horizontal bars across: and with the most detestable crocketing, utterly vile. Not a ray of invention in a single form… Finally the statues all over are of the worst possible common stonemasons’ yard species, and look pinned on for show. The only redeeming character about the whole being the frequent use of the sharp gable ... which gives lightness, and the crowding of the spiry pinnacles into the sky." (Notebooks[M.6L]). The plastered ceiling painted to imitate elaborate tracery carved in stone particularly aroused his contempt as a "gross degradation".The Seven Lamps of Architecture, Bibliolife Reproduction Series p. 41
While appreciating the force of Ruskin's criticisms, Henry James was more appreciative: "A structure not supremely interesting, not logical, not … commandingly beautiful, but grandly curious and superbly rich. … If it had no other distinction it would still have that of impressive, immeasurable achievement … a supreme embodiment of vigorous effort."Italian Hours, Bibliobazaar, p. 92 |
Milan Cathedral | Main monuments and sights | Main monuments and sights
thumb|upright|Saint Bartholomewthumb|upright|The Gold Madonna at the top of the cathedral
thumb|upright|Artwork on the door of the cathedral
The interior of the cathedral includes numerous monuments and artworks. These include:
At the left of the altar is located the most famous statue in the cathedral, Saint Bartholomew Flayed (1562) by Marco d'Agrate, which shows the saint carrying his own flayed skin thrown over his shoulders like a stole.
The Archbishop Ariberto da Intimiano's sarcophagus, which is overlooked by a Crucifix in copper laminae (a replica).
The sarcophagi of the archbishops Ottone Visconti and Giovanni Visconti, created by a Campionese master in the 14th century.
The sarcophagus of Marco Carelli, who donated 35,000 ducati to accelerate the construction of the cathedral.
The three magnificent altars by Pellegrino Pellegrini, which include the notable Federico Zuccari's Visit of St. Peter to St. Agatha jailed.
In the right transept, the monument to Gian Giacomo Medici di Marignano, called "Medeghino", by Leone Leoni, and the adjacent Renaissance marble altar, decorated with gilt bronze statues.
The presbytery is a late Renaissance masterpiece composing a choir, a Temple by Pellegrini, two pulpits with giant atlantes covered in copper and bronze, and two large organs. Around the choir, the two sacristies' portals, some frescoes and a fifteenth-century statue of Martin V by Jacopino da Tradate can be seen.
The transepts house the Trivulzio Candelabrum, which is in two pieces. The base (attributed to Nicolas of Verdun, 12th no century), characterized by a fantastic ensemble of vines, vegetables and imaginary animals; and the stem, of the mid-16th century.
In the left aisle, the Arcimboldi monument by Alessi and Romanesque figures depicting the Apostles in red marble and the neo-Classic baptistry by Pellegrini.
A small red light bulb in the dome above the apse marks the spot where one of the nails reputedly from the Crucifixion of Christ has been placed. The Holy Nail is retrieved and exposed to the public every year, during a celebration known as the Rite of the Nivola.Il rito della Nivola
In November and December, in the days surrounding the birthdate of Saint Charles Borromeo, a series of large canvases, the Quadroni are exhibited along the nave.
Since September 2005, in the cathedral's crypt, beside the relics of Saint Charles Borromeo, there has been a video installation by English artist Mark Wallinger. Entitled Via Dolorosa, it consists of an 18-minute film reproducing scenes of the Passion excerpted from the film Jesus of Nazareth by Franco Zeffirelli.
In November 2014 a white marble sculpture by Tony Cragg inspired by the Madonna statue on the rooftop was installed.
The 5-manual, 225-rank pipe organ, built jointly by the Tamburini and Mascioni Italian organ building firms on Mussolini's command, is currently the largest organ in all of Italy.
The American writer and journalist Mark Twain visited Milan in the summer of 1867. He dedicated chapter 18 of Innocents Abroad to Milan Cathedral, including many physical and historical details, and a visit to the roof. He describes the Duomo as follows:
Oscar Wilde visited Milan in June 1875. In a letter to his mother, he wrote: "The Cathedral is an awful failure. Outside the design is monstrous and inartistic. The over-elaborated details stuck high up where no one can see them; everything is vile in it; it is, however, imposing and gigantic as a failure, through its great size and elaborate execution."
In Italian Hours, Henry James describes: a certain exhibition that I privately enjoyed of the relics of St. Charles Borromeus. This holy man lies at his eternal rest in a small but gorgeous sepulchral chapel … and for the modest sum of five francs you may have his shrivelled mortality unveiled and gaze at it with whatever reserves occur to you. The Catholic Church never renounces a chance of the sublime for fear of a chance of the ridiculous--especially when the chance of the sublime may be the very excellent chance of five francs. The performance in question, of which the good San Carlo paid in the first instance the cost, was impressive certainly, but as a monstrous matter or a grim comedy may still be. The little sacristan, having secured his audience, … lighted a couple of extra candles and proceeded to remove from above the altar, by means of a crank, a sort of sliding shutter, just as you may see a shop-boy do of a morning at his master's window...The black mummified corpse of the saint is stretched out in a glass coffin, clad in his mouldering canonicals, mitred, crosiered and gloved, glittering with votive jewels. It is an extraordinary mixture of death and life; the desiccated clay, the ashen rags, the hideous little black mask and skull, and the living, glowing, twinkling splendour of diamonds, emeralds and sapphires. The collection is really fine, and many great historic names are attached to the different offerings. Whatever may be the better opinion as to the future of the Church, I can't help thinking she will make a figure in the world so long as she retains this great fund of precious "properties," this prodigious capital decoratively invested and scintillating throughout Christendom at effectively-scattered points. |
Milan Cathedral | Astronomical observations | Astronomical observations
thumb|A beam of sunlight is approaching the sign of Gemini on the meridional line indicating the nearing solar noon on the first day of Gemini season
From 1 December 1786, the Austrian Empire adopted “transalpine time”. The astronomers at Brera Astronomical Observatory were engaged by Count Giuseppe Di Wilczek, the plenipotentiary governor of Lombardy, to build a meridian line inside the Duomo. The meridian was constructed by Giovanni Angelo Cesaris and Francesco Reggio, with Roger Boscovich acting as a consultant.
The meridian line was laid on the floor of the Duomo at the west end so as to be accessible and not interfere with religious services. A hole was inserted in the roof near the south wall at a height of . The Duomo is not quite wide enough for a hole at this height so the meridian line extends up the north wall for about . As the beam of light crossed the brass line and indicated solar noon, a signal was given towards the tower of the Palazzo dei Giureconsulti. A person there alerted Sforzesco Castle and a cannon was fired to announce solar noon to the city. This signal was then used to set all of the city clocks to the same time.
The line was examined in 1976 by the architects of the Duomo and astronomers from Brera. There was a deviation in azimuth by up to and in level by up to but the accuracy of the line still enabled the fixing of solar noon to within 2 seconds. |
Milan Cathedral | See also | See also
Anor Londo (Dark Souls)
Early Christian churches in Milan
History of early modern period domes
History of Italian Renaissance domes
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
Italian Gothic architecture
Mailänder Dom (Fassade), Mailand
List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe
List of largest church buildings in the world
List of highest church naves
Gothic art in Milan |
Milan Cathedral | References | References |
Milan Cathedral | External links | External links
Photos and details
Duomo in Google Maps
Virtual model of Piazza del Duomo
Interactive Panorama: Milan Cathedral (roof)
Corpus of architectural drawings of the Cathedral of Milan research project by the Polytechnic University of Milan
Duomo
Milan
Milano
Category:Cathedrals in Lombardy
Category:Tourist attractions in Milan
Category:Burial sites of the House of Visconti |
Milan Cathedral | Table of Content | Short description, History, Construction begins, Borromeo, 17th and 18th centuries, Completion, Architects and engineers, Architecture and art, Aesthetic judgements, Main monuments and sights, Astronomical observations, See also, References, External links |
ISO 3166-2:AU | Short description | ISO 3166-2:AU is the entry for Australia in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Australia, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for six states and two territories. Lesser territories that are under the administration of the commonwealth government, such as the Jervis Bay Territory, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the Coral Sea Islands, are not listed.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Australia. The second part is two or three letters, which is the conventional abbreviation of the state or territory (defined in Australian Standard AS ). |
ISO 3166-2:AU | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Code Subdivision name (en) Subdivision category state state state state state state territory territory
The external territories of Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Norfolk Island have their own ISO 3166-1 codes and are not included in Australia's entry in ISO 3166-2. There are no ISO 3166-2 codes for:
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Australian Antarctic Territory (part of Antarctica with country code AQ)
Coral Sea Islands
Jervis Bay Territory |
ISO 3166-2:AU | Changes | Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
Newsletter Date issued Description of change in newsletter Code/Subdivision change Change of subdivision code in accordance with Australian Standard AS 4212-1994 Codes: New South Wales: → Queensland: → Tasmania: → Victoria: → Australian Capital Territory: →
The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:
Effective date of change Short description of change (en) 2015-11-27 Update List Source 2016-11-15 Update List Source; update Code Source |
ISO 3166-2:AU | External territories | External territories
Four of the external territories of Australia are officially assigned their own country codes in ISO 3166-1, with the following alpha-2 codes:
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Christmas Island
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Norfolk Island
Under the definitions in ISO 3166-1, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands and the Coral Sea Islands are covered by Australia, and the Australian Antarctic Territory is covered by Antarctica, with alpha-2 code . |
ISO 3166-2:AU | See also | See also
Subdivisions of Australia
FIPS region codes of Australia |
ISO 3166-2:AU | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: AU
States of Australia, Statoids.com
ISO page for Australia
2:AU
*ISO 3166-2
Category:Australia geography-related lists |
ISO 3166-2:AU | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, Changes, External territories, See also, External links |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | Short description | ISO 3166-2:NZ is the entry for New Zealand in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166.
Currently for New Zealand, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 16 regions and one special island authority
Some New Zealand outlying islands that are outside the authority of any regions are not assigned codes, specifically:
Kermadec Islands
New Zealand Subantarctic Islands
Three Kings Islands
Each code consists of two parts separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of New Zealand. The second part is three letters: regions and special island authority. |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
(en): English
(mi): Māori
Click on the button in the header to sort each column.
Code Subdivision name (en) Subdivision name (mi) Subdivision category Auckland Tāmaki-Makaurau region Bay of Plenty Toi Moana region Canterbury Waitaha region Chatham Islands Territory Wharekauri special island authority Gisborne Te Tairāwhiti region Greater Wellington Te Pane Matua Taiao region Hawke's Bay Te Matau-a-Māui region Manawatū-Whanganui Manawatū Whanganui region Marlborough region Nelson Whakatū region Northland Te Tai tokerau region Otago Ō Tākou region Southland Te Taiao Tonga region Taranaki Taranaki region Tasman Te tai o Aorere region Waikato Waikato region West Coast Te Tai o Poutini region
The self-governing countries in free association with New Zealand (the Cook Islands and Niue) and the dependent territory of Tokelau have their own ISO 3166-1 codes and are not included in New Zealand's entry in ISO 3166-2. |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | Changes | Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.
Newsletter Date issued Description of change in newsletter Code/Subdivision change Addition of the country code prefix as the first code element, addition of names in administrative languages, update of the administrative structure and of the list source Subdivisions added: Chatham Islands Territory Online BrowsingPlatform (OBP) 2014-11-03 Change subdivision category of NZ-AUK (TBD) 2015-11-27 Deletion of all unitary authorities; deletion of islands NZ-N, NZ-S; Change of subdivision name of NZ-GIS, NZ-MBH, NZ-NSN, NZ-TAS, change of subdivision category from regional council to region; update List Source (TBD) 2022-11-29 Change of subdivision name of NZ-AUK, NZ-BOP, NZ-STL, NZ-GIS, NZ-HKB, NZ-NTL, NZ-WTC in mri; Change of subdivision name of NZ-WGN, NZ-MWT in eng and mri; Addition of subdivision name for NZ-WKO in eng; Addition of subdivision name for NZ-TAS in mri; Update List Source (TBD) 2023-11-23 Deletion of the space before the dash of NZ-AUK in mri Subdivision changed: |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | See also | See also
Subdivisions of New Zealand
FIPS region codes of New Zealand |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: NZ
Regions of New Zealand, Statoids.com
2:NZ
*ISO 3166-2
Category:New Zealand geography-related lists |
ISO 3166-2:NZ | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, Changes, See also, External links |
Motif (software) | Short description | In computing, Motif refers to both a graphical user interface (GUI) specification and the widget toolkit for building applications that follow that specification under the X Window System on Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The Motif look and feel is distinguished by its use of rudimentary square and chiseled three-dimensional effects for its various user interface elements.
Motif is the toolkit for the Common Desktop Environment and IRIX Interactive Desktop, thus it was the standard widget toolkit for Unix. Closely related to Motif is the Motif Window Manager (MWM).
After many years as proprietary software, Motif was released in 2012, as free software under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL-2.1-or-later). |
Motif (software) | History | History
thumb|Screenshot of plan, an application that uses the Motif toolkit. The "chiseled" look of Motif is clearly visible.
Motif was created by the Open Software Foundation (OSF) to be a standard graphical user interface for Unix platforms. Rather than create a new interface from scratch, OSF opened a Request For Technology (RFT) in 1988 to solicit existing technologies from third parties. OSF intended to either adopt an existing interface wholesale, or create one using a combination of technologies from multiple existing products. Forty products were submitted, from which OSF selected twenty-three finalists. Among the finalists were Adobe Inc.'s Display Postscript, Sun Microsystems' OPEN LOOK, Digital Research's GEM, IXI Limited's X.desktop, Apollo Computer's Open Dialogue, Carnegie Mellon University's Andrew User Interface System, Digital Equipment Corporation's XUI, and Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft's CXI and PM/X. Ultimately, OSF selected a combination of the look and feel, window manager and Common User Access compliance from HP and Microsoft's CXI, along with the widget toolkit API and User Interface Language (UIL) from DEC's XUI. Motif was first shipped by OSF in 1989. |
Motif (software) | Standardization | Standardization
thumb|The Common Desktop Environment is built on top of Motif.
Motif is the basic building block of the Common Desktop Environment, which was the standard desktop for commercial Unix.
The IEEE 1295 standard (now withdrawn) defines the "Motif API". As of version 2.1, Motif supports Unicode, which made it widely used in several multilingual environments. |
Motif (software) | Licensing | Licensing
thumb|450px|X Window System graphics stack: Motif is a library with graphical control elements. |
Motif (software) | Proprietary | Proprietary
Motif was originally made available under a license requiring royalty payments. |
Motif (software) | Open Motif | Open Motif
A version called Open Motif (substantially the same codebase under a different license) was released on May 15, 2000, under a license which allowed royalty-free distribution of Open Motif if the platform upon which it is used was open sourcebut was not an open source license itself. The name was criticized by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for likelihood to mislead people into thinking it was proper open source or free software, particularly for the Open Group's statement that they had "released the source code of Motif to the Open Source community". The initial release of Open Motif was version 2.1.30 in May 2000; Open Motif 2.3 was released in June 2007, followed by a 2.3.1 bug fix release in September 2008 and a 2.3.2 bug fix release in March 2009.
During the time when Motif was closed source software, the LessTif project was created with the aim of creating a free software implementation, under the LGPL. |
Motif (software) | GNU LGPL | GNU LGPL
In October 2012, Motif was released as a source code distribution under the GNU LGPL-2.1-or-later. Motif's source code is available on SourceForge. |
Motif (software) | See also | See also
IBM Common User Access
LessTif
MoOLIT |
Motif (software) | References | References
Category:Software using the GNU Lesser General Public License
Category:X-based libraries
Category:Formerly proprietary software |
Motif (software) | Table of Content | Short description, History, Standardization, Licensing, Proprietary, Open Motif, GNU LGPL, See also, References |
Widget toolkit | Short description | A widget toolkit, widget library, GUI toolkit, or UX library is a library or a collection of libraries containing a set of graphical control elements (called widgets) used to construct the graphical user interface (GUI) of programs.
Most widget toolkits additionally include their own rendering engine. This engine can be specific to a certain operating system or windowing system or contain back-ends to interface with multiple ones and also with rendering APIs such as OpenGL, OpenVG, or EGL.
The look and feel of the graphical control elements can be hard-coded or decoupled, allowing the graphical control elements to be themed/skinned. |
Widget toolkit | Overview | Overview
thumb|A window using the Standard Widget Toolkit
Some toolkits may be used from other languages by employing language bindings. Graphical user interface builders such as e.g. Glade Interface Designer facilitate the authoring of GUIs in a WYSIWYG manner employing a user interface markup language such as in this case GtkBuilder.
The GUI of a program is commonly constructed in a cascading manner, with graphical control elements being added directly to on top of one another.
Most widget toolkits use event-driven programming as a model for interaction.Past, Present and Future of User Interface Software Tools. Brad Myers, Scott E. Hudson, Randy Pausch, Y Pausch. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 2000. The toolkit handles user events, for example when the user clicks on a button. When an event is detected, it is passed on to the application where it is dealt with. The design of those toolkits has been criticized for promoting an oversimplified model of event-action, leading programmers to create error-prone, difficult to extend and excessively complex application code. Finite-state machines and hierarchical state machines have been proposed as high-level models to represent the interactive state changes for reactive programs. |
Widget toolkit | Windowing systems | Windowing systems
A window is considered to be a graphical control element. In some windowing systems, windows are added directly to the scene graph (canvas) by the window manager, and can be stacked and layered on top of each other through various means. Each window is associated with a particular application which controls the widgets added to its canvas, which can be watched and modified by their associated applications. |
Widget toolkit | See also | See also
WIMP (computing)
Layout manager
List of widget toolkits |
Widget toolkit | References | References
Category:Graphical user interfaces |
Widget toolkit | Table of Content | Short description, Overview, Windowing systems, See also, References |
ISO 3166-2:CA | Short description | ISO 3166-2:CA is the entry for Canada in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Canada, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for ten provinces and three territories.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Canada. The second part is two letters, which is the postal abbreviation for the province or territory. |
ISO 3166-2:CA | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the official languages of Canada: English and French.
thumb|300px|right|Map of Canada with each province or territory labelled with the second part of its ISO 3166-2 code.
Code Subdivision name in English Subdivision name in French Subdivision category Alberta Alberta Province British Columbia Colombie-Britannique Province Manitoba Manitoba Province New Brunswick Nouveau-Brunswick Province Newfoundland and Labrador Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador Province Northwest Territories Territory Nova Scotia Nouvelle-Écosse Province Nunavut Nunavut Territory Ontario Ontario Province Prince Edward Island Île-du-Prince-Édouard Province Quebec Québec Province Saskatchewan Saskatchewan Province Yukon Yukon Territory |
ISO 3166-2:CA | Changes | Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
Newsletter Date issued Description of change in newsletter Code/Subdivision change Addition of 1 new territory Subdivisions added: Nunavut Correction of name form of CA-NF Codes: Newfoundland → Newfoundland and Labrador Change of code element of Newfoundland and Labrador Online BrowsingPlatform (OBP) 2014-10-29 Change spelling of CA-YT; update List Source Name change: Yukon Territory → Yukon |
ISO 3166-2:CA | See also | See also
Administrative divisions of Canada
Geographical Names Board of Canada
List of FIPS region codes (A–C)#CA:_Canada
Neighbouring countries: GL (DK), PM (FR), RU, US |
ISO 3166-2:CA | References | References |
ISO 3166-2:CA | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: "CA"
"Canada Provinces", Statoids
2:CA
*ISO 3166-2
Category:Lists of Canadian abbreviations |
ISO 3166-2:CA | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, Changes, See also, References, External links |
Robert Bloomfield | About | Robert Bloomfield (3 December 1766 – 19 August 1823) was an English labouring-class poet, whose work is appreciated in the context of other self-educated writers, such as Stephen Duck, Mary Collier and John Clare. |
Robert Bloomfield | Life | Life
Robert Bloomfield was born into a poor family in the village of Honington, Suffolk.David Kaloustian, "Bloomfield, Robert (1766–1823)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 Retrieved 4 March 2012 His father was a tailor, who died of smallpox when his son was a year old. It was from his mother Elizabeth, who kept the village school, that he received the rudiments of education.
Bloomfield was apprenticed at the age of eleven to his mother's brother-in-law, and worked on a farm that was part of the estate of the Duke of Grafton, his future patron. Four years later, owing to his small and weak stature (in adulthood just five feet tall), he was sent to London to work as a shoemaker under his elder brother George. One of his early duties was to read the papers aloud while the others in the workshop were working, and he became particularly interested in the poetry section of The London Magazine.Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties, New York, 1860, pp. 104–106; Google Books He had his first poem, "The Village Girl", published in 1786. When his brother George returned to Suffolk in that year, he set up on his own as a cobbler and in 1790 married Mary Ann Church, by whom he was to have five children.
The poem that made his reputation, The Farmer's Boy, was composed in a garret in Bell Alley, Coleman Street. It was influenced by James Thomson's poem The Seasons. Bloomfield was able to carry in his head some fifty to a hundred finished lines of it at a time, until an opportunity arose to write them down. The manuscript was declined by several publishers and was eventually shown by his brother George to Capel Lofft, a radical Suffolk squire of literary tastes, who arranged for its publication with woodcuts by Thomas Bewick in 1800.
The success of The Farmer's Boy was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the next two years. It was also reprinted in several American editions, appeared in German translation in Leipzig, in French as Le Valet du Fermier in Paris, and in Italian translation in Milan. There was even a Latin translation of parts of it – De Agricolae Puero, Anglicano Poemate celeberrimo excerptum, et in morem Latini Georgici redditum – made by the lively Suffolk vicar William Clubbe.See Illustrations of the literary history of the 18th century on Google Books The poem was particularly admired by the Suffolk-born painter John Constable, who used couplets from it as tags for two of his paintings: "A Ploughing Scene" (shown at the Royal Academy in 1814) and "A Harvest Field, Reapers, Gleaners" (shown at the British Institution in 1817), which he marked as derived from "Bloomfield's poem".The Letters of |Robert Bloomfield and his Circle", Romantic Circles It was also admired by Robert Southey, a Romantic poet and future poet laureate.
thumb|160px|left|Robert Bloomfield House in Shefford, Bedfordshire, where the poet died in 1823
While this success helped to reduce his poverty for a while, it also took him away from his work. As a result, the Duke of Grafton, who lived at Euston Hall near the village of Bloomfield's birth, settled on him a small annuity of £15 and used influence to gain him employment in the Seal Office to the King's Bench Court and then at Somerset House, although he did not work for long at either. Meanwhile, Bloomfield's reputation was increased by the appearance of his Rural Tales (1802), several poems of which were set to music by his brother Isaac. Another of them, "The Miller's Maid", was turned into an opera in 1804 by John Davy (1763–1824) and formed the basis for a two-act melodrama by John Faucit Saville in 1821.Open Library Other publications by Bloomfield included Good Tidings (in praise of inoculation at the instigation of Edward Jenner, 1804); Wild Flowers or Pastoral and Local Poetry (1806); and The Banks of the Wye (a poetic journal of a walking tour taken in the footsteps of Wordsworth, 1811).
Unfortunately Vernor and Hood, his publishers, failed, and in 1812 Bloomfield had to move from London into a cottage rented to him by a friend in the Bedfordshire village of Shefford. There one of his daughters died in 1814 and his wife became insane. To support himself, he tried to carry on a business as a bookseller but it failed, and in his later years he was reduced to making Aeolian harps, which he sold among his friends.Chamber's Cyclopaedia of English Literature, Edinburgh, 1844, vol. 2, pp. 283–284, at Google Books, With failing eyesight and his own reason threatened by depression, he died in great poverty on 19 August 1823. His collection of books and manuscripts, and his household effects, had to be auctioned to pay his debts and cover the funeral expenses. To assist in that fund-raising came the publication in that year of his drama, Hazlewood Hall, and in the following year of The Remains of Robert Bloomfield, which included writing for children, on which he had been working for some years, and a selection of his correspondence.
thumb|160px|right|Bloomfield's grave in the churchyard of All Saints church in Campton in Bedfordshire
Robert Bloomfield is buried in the churchyard of the Church of All Saints in nearby Campton, Bedfordshire. |
Robert Bloomfield | Poetry | Poetry
Bloomfield's poetry invites comparison with that of George Crabbe, who was also a native of Suffolk.Simon J. White, Robert Bloomfield, Romanticism and the Poetry of Community, Ashgate Publishing 2007, p. 37 Both wrote much in couplets of iambic pentameters, and both provide descriptions of rural life at its hardest and least inviting. Bloomfield, however, is more cheerful in tone and his verse is denser and more vigorous. Here, for instance, is the episode in "The Farmer's Boy" where Giles chops up turnips to feed to the livestock in winter:
On GILES, and such as Giles, the labour falls,
To strew the frequent load where hunger calls.
On driving gales sharp hail indignant flies,
And sleet, more irksome still, assails his eyes;
Snow clogs his feet; or if no snow is seen,
The field with all its juicy store to screen,
Deep goes the frost, till every root is found
A rolling mass of ice upon the ground.
No tender ewe can break her nightly fast,
Nor heifer strong begin the cold repast,
Till Giles with pond'rous beetle foremost go,
And scatt'ring splinters fly at every blow;
When pressing round him, eager for the prize,
From their mixt breath warm exhalations rise.
However, such verse varies little from the work of many of Bloomfield's contemporaries, such as James Montgomery and Ebenezer Elliot, whose names, like his, were well known in their time but are scarcely remembered now. Besides such formal productions, he told many light-hearted stories in octosyllabics, some of which are incidentally interesting for their employment of Suffolk dialect words, particularly in "The Horkey". His work served as an inspiration to John Clare, who began publishing his own rural poetry in 1820 and praised Bloomfield's highly.
Robert's brother, Nathaniel, also published a collection of poetry in 1803, An Essay on War, in Blank Verse, and Other Poems.Available on Internet Archive. Byron commented on the brothers in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (lines 775–786),Byron's Works (1826) p.601. linking Robert's name favourably with other poets of humble beginnings such as Burns and Gifford, but dismissing Nathaniel's writing as routine and uninspired. Byron returned to the charge in Hints from Horace with the apostrophe:
Hark to those lines, narcotically soft,
The cobbler-laureats sing to Capel Lofft! (lines 733–734)
Although a note makes it clear that Nathaniel is his principal target, he also seems to include his "brother Bobby" in the accusation that Lofft "has spoiled some excellent shoemakers and been accessory to the poetic undoing of many of the industrious poor."Available online. |
Robert Bloomfield | Later reputation | Later reputation
The Robert Bloomfield Masonic lodge No 8328 was founded in 1971 at Biggleswade Masonic Centre, where it continues to meet.Robert Bloomfield Lodge No 8328 – Lane's Masonic Records – The Library and Museum of Freemasonry, London Shefford's secondary school, later a middle school (for pupils aged 9–13), was named after the poet.Schools.net In 2000 the Robert Bloomfield SocietySociety website was founded to promote awareness of his life and work and has encouraged scholarly publications relating to him. A revised and enlarged selection of his poems was published by Trent Editions in 2007. Recent studies see his poetry in its social as well as its literary context.See Simon White's introduction to Robert Bloomfield: lyric, class and the Romantic canon, Cranbury NJ, 2006, p. 17 ff. |
Robert Bloomfield | References | References |
Robert Bloomfield | External links | External links
Robert Bloomfield at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)]
Birkett Foster’s 1857 edition of the complete poems
The Banks of Wye, an electronic edition edited by Tim Fulford
Category:1766 births
Category:1823 deaths
Category:English poets
Category:People from the Borough of St Edmundsbury
Category:English male poets
Category:People from Shefford, Bedfordshire |
Robert Bloomfield | Table of Content | About, Life, Poetry, Later reputation, References, External links |
Princess Edward | '''Princess Edward''' | Princess Edward may refer to:
Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1786–1861), wife of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn
Katharine, Duchess of Kent (born 1933), wife of Prince Edward, Duchess of Kent
Sophie, Duchess of Edinburgh (born 1965), wife of Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh |
Princess Edward | Table of Content | '''Princess Edward''' |
Voxel | short description | thumb|A set of voxels in a stack, with a single voxel shaded
thumb|Illustration of a voxel grid containing color values
A voxel is a three-dimensional counterpart to a pixel. It represents a value on a regular grid in a three-dimensional space. Voxels are frequently used in the visualization and analysis of medical and scientific data (e.g. geographic information systems (GIS)).Chmielewski, Sz., Tompalski, P. (2017). "Estimating outdoor advertising media visibility with voxel-based approach". Applied Geography, 87:1–13 . Preprint download: They are also commonly used in video games, both as a technological feature, as in Outcast, and a graphical style, which was popularised by Minecraft.
As with pixels in a 2D bitmap, voxels themselves do not typically have their position (i.e. coordinates) explicitly encoded with their values. Instead, rendering systems infer the position of a voxel based upon its position relative to other voxels (i.e., its position in the data structure that makes up a single volumetric image). Some volumetric displays use voxels to describe their resolution. For example, a cubic volumetric display might be able to show 512×512×512 (or about 134 million) voxels.
In contrast to pixels and voxels, polygons are often explicitly represented by the coordinates of their vertices (as points). A direct consequence of this difference is that polygons can efficiently represent simple 3D structures with much empty or homogeneously filled space, while voxels excel at representing regularly sampled spaces that are non-homogeneously filled.
One of the definitions is:
Voxel is an image of a three-dimensional space region limited by given sizes, which has its own nodal point coordinates in an accepted coordinate system, its own form, its own state parameter that indicates its belonging to some modeled object, and has properties of modeled region.
This definition has the following advantage. If fixed voxel form is used within the whole model it is much easier to operate with voxel nodal points (i.e. three coordinates of this point). Yet, there is the simple form of record: indexes of the elements in the model set (i.e. integer coordinates). Model set elements in this case are state parameters, indicating voxel belonging to the modeled object or its separate parts, including their surfaces. |
Voxel | Etymology | Etymology
The word voxel originated by analogy to "pixel", with vo representing "volume" (instead of pixel's "picture") and el representing "element"; a similar formation with el for "element" is the word "texel".
The term hypervoxel is a generalization of voxel for higher-dimensional spaces. |
Voxel | Rendering | Rendering
A volume described as voxels can be visualized either by direct volume rendering or by the extraction of polygon iso-surfaces that follow the contours of given threshold values. The marching cubes algorithm is often used for iso-surface extraction, however other methods exist as well.
Both ray tracing and ray casting, as well as rasterisation, can be applied to voxel data to obtain 2D raster graphics to depict on a monitor. |
Voxel | Incremental error rasterisation | Incremental error rasterisation
Another technique for voxels involves raster graphics where one simply raytraces every pixel of the display into the scene, tracking an error term to determine when to step. A typical implementation will raytrace each pixel of the display starting at the bottom of the screen using what is known as a y-buffer. When a voxel is reached that has a higher y value on the display it is added to the y-buffer overriding the previous value and connected with the previous y-value on the screen interpolating the color values. There is a major downside to voxel rasterization when transformation is applied which causes severe aliasing. The advantage was the ability to rasterise using cheap integer calculations on a CPU without hardware acceleration.
Outcast, and other 1990s video games employed this graphics technique for effects such as reflection and bump-mapping and usually for terrain rendering. Outcast'''s graphics engine was mainly a combination of a ray casting (heightmap) engine, used to render the landscape, and a texture mapping polygon engine used to render objects. The "Engine Programming" section of the games credits in the manual has several subsections related to graphics, among them: "Landscape Engine", "Polygon Engine", "Water & Shadows Engine" and "Special effects Engine". Although Outcast is often cited as a forerunner of voxel technology, this is somewhat misleading. The game does not actually model three-dimensional volumes of voxels. Instead, it models the ground as a surface, which may be seen as being made up of voxels. The ground is decorated with objects that are modeled using texture-mapped polygons. When Outcast was developed, the term "voxel engine", when applied to computer games, commonly referred to a ray casting engine (for example the Voxel Space engine). On the engine technology page of the game's website, the landscape engine is also referred to as the "Voxels engine". The engine is purely software-based: it does not rely on hardware-acceleration via a 3D graphics card."Voxel terrain engine ", introduction. In a coder's mind, 2005.
John Carmack also experimented with voxels for the Quake III Arena engine. One such problem cited by Carmack was the lack of graphics cards designed specifically for such rendering requiring them to be software rendered.Comanche was also the first commercial flight simulation based on voxel technology. NovaLogic used the proprietary Voxel Space engine developed for the company by Kyle Freeman (written entirely in Assembly language) to create open landscapes. This rendering technique allowed for much more detailed and realistic terrain compared to simulations based on vector graphics at that time.
Gallery
Data
A voxel represents a single sample, or data point, on a regularly spaced, three-dimensional grid. This data point can consist of a single piece of data, such as an opacity, or multiple pieces of data, such as a color in addition to opacity. A voxel represents only a single point on this grid, not a volume; the space between each voxel is not represented in a voxel-based dataset. Depending on the type of data and the intended use for the dataset, this missing information may be reconstructed and/or approximated, e.g. via interpolation.
thumb|In computed tomography (abdominal CT pictured), voxels are generated by multiplying the field of view (FOV) by the scan range.
The value of a voxel may represent various properties. In CT scans, the values are Hounsfield units, giving the opacity of material to X-rays.Novelline, Robert. Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology. Harvard University Press. 5th edition. 1997. . Different types of value are acquired from MRI or ultrasound.
Voxels can contain multiple scalar values, essentially vector (tensor) data; in the case of ultrasound scans with B-mode and Doppler data, density, and volumetric flow rate are captured as separate channels of data relating to the same voxel positions.
While voxels provide the benefit of precision and depth of reality, they are typically large data sets and are unwieldy to manage given the bandwidth of common computers. However, through efficient compression and manipulation of large data files, interactive visualization can be enabled on consumer market computers.
Other values may be useful for immediate 3D rendering, such as a surface normal vector and color.
Technologies to extend voxels into 4 and 5 dimensions of data are under investigation.
Uses
Uses of voxels include volumetric imaging in medicine and representation of terrain in games and simulations. Voxel terrain is used instead of a heightmap because of its ability to represent overhangs, caves, arches, and other 3D terrain features. These concave features cannot be represented in a heightmap due to only the top 'layer' of data being represented, leaving everything below it filled (the volume that would otherwise be the inside of the caves, or the underside of arches or overhangs).
Computer games
3D Dot Game Heroes uses voxels to present retro-looking graphics.
7 Days to Die is a voxel-based open world survival horror game developed by The Fun Pimps Entertainment.
Ace of Spades used Ken Silverman's Voxlap engine before being rewritten in a bespoke OpenGL engine.
Amok uses voxels for its environments.
Armored Fist 3 is a computer game made by NovaLogic that used voxel-based rendering technology.
Blade Runner is a video game that used voxels to render characters and artifacts.
Castle Story, a castle building Real Time Strategy game in development, has terrain consisting of smoothed voxels.
Cloudpunk, a cyberpunk adventure game, is almost entirely voxel-based.
Comanche, a series of computer games made by NovaLogic that used the Voxel Space voxel rasterization for terrain rendering.
Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun, Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 and Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge are computer games made by Westwood Studios that used voxels to render most vehicles.
Crysis, as well as Cryengine 2 and Cryengine 3, use a combination of heightmaps and voxels for their terrain systems.
Cube World, an action role-playing game, features procedurally generated voxel landscapes.
Delta Force is a computer game made by NovaLogic that used the in-house Voxel Space rendering engine.
Dual Universe is a single-shard universe MMORPG game that uses voxels to build spaceships, civilizations, and space stations.
Enshrouded is a voxel-based survival RPG by Keen Games released in 2024.
EverQuest Next and EverQuest Next: Landmark, cancelled MMORPGs by Sony Online Entertainment, made extensive use of voxels for world creation as well as player generated content
Hexplore, a multi-player role playing game, uses a voxel engine allowing the player to rotate the isometric rendered playfield.
Hytale is an upcoming RPG Sandbox voxel-based game which is developed by Hypixel Studios and funded by Riot Games.
Master of Orion III uses voxel graphics to render space battles and solar systems. Battles displaying 1000 ships at a time were rendered slowly on computers without hardware graphic acceleration.
Medieval Engineers is the second voxel-based engineering game by Keen Software House inspired from medieval technology.
Minecraft is a sandbox video game that uses voxels to store terrain data, but does not use voxel rendering techniques. Instead it uses polygon rendering to display each voxel as a cubic "block".
Moonglow Bay is a fishing role-playing video game, released in 2021 and developed by Bunnyhug, using voxel art style.
Miner Wars 2081 is a 6DOF open world game made by Keen Software House that uses its own VRage voxel rendering engine to let the user deform the terrain of asteroids allowing tunnels to be formed.
Nivalis is an upcoming cyberpunk slice-of-life, set in voxel-based world, previously featured in Cloudpunk.
No Man's Sky is a space exploration game consisting of procedurally generated star systems containing explorable planets, moons and asteroids made up of voxels. The voxel engine allows for both terrain destruction and creation.
Outcast, is a third-person action computer game made by former Belgian video game developer Appeal, with landscapes rendered by a voxel engine.
Phase Zero is a 2002 unreleased action-shooter video game for Atari Jaguar, with landscapes rendered by the engine Voxel Space.
Planet Coaster is a 2016 construction and management simulation developed and published by Frontier Developments which uses a voxel-based terrain editor.
Resogun is a 2013 voxel-based side-scrolling shoot 'em up video game developed by Finnish developer Housemarque.
Roblox uses voxels for terrain, as well as for primitive global illumination and shadows.
Robocraft, a vehicular combat game in which players build combat machines out of voxels and premade components
Shadow Warrior and Blood use Build engine for first-person shooter game voxel rendering, instead of sprites, as an option for many of the items pickups and scenery. Duke Nukem 3D has a fan-created pack in a similar style.
Shattered Steel featured deforming landscapes using voxel technology.
Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri uses voxel models to render units.
SkySaga: Infinite Isles is a voxel-based sandbox MMORPG, being developed by Radiant Worlds and published by Smilegate.
Space Engineers is a voxel-based sandbox game set in space, developed and published by Keen Software House.
Starbase, a voxel-based massively multiplayer online role-playing game set in space, being developed and published by Frozenbyte.
StarMade, a voxel-based sandbox game set in space, developed and published by Robin "Schema" Promesberger.
Teardown, a voxel-based game featuring fully destructible environments, developed and published by the studio Tuxedo Labs
The Sandbox Trove is a voxel-based MMORPG with building elements, developed and published by Trion Worlds.
Vangers is a computer game uses voxels for its two-level terrain system.
Veloren, is an action-adventure role-playing game set in a vast fantasy world.
Vox, released in 2012, is a voxel based exploration/RPG game focused on player generated content.
Voxatron, a computer game produced by Lexaloffle, is composed and generated fully using voxels.
Werewolf vs. Comanche is a computer game made by NovaLogic that used voxel-based rendering technology. It was originally bundled and shipped with the Comanche 2 game although they were two separate games.
Worms 4: Mayhem uses a voxel-based engine to simulate land deformation similar to the older 2D Worms games.
Luanti (previously Minetest) is a moddable sandbox video game that uses voxels to store terrain data, but does not use voxel rendering techniques. Instead, it uses polygon rendering to display each voxel as a cubic "block"
Editors
While scientific volume visualization does not require modifying the actual voxel data, voxel editors can be used to create art (especially 3D pixel art) and models for voxel based games. Some editors are focused on a single approach to voxel editing while others mix various approaches. Some common approaches are:
Slice based: The volume is sliced in one or more axes and the user can edit each image individually using 2D raster editor tools. These generally store color information in voxels.
Sculpture: Similar to the vector counterpart but with no topology constraints. These usually store density information in voxels and lack color information.
Building blocks: The user can add and remove blocks just like a construction set toy.
There are a few voxel editors available that are not tied to specific games or engines. They can be used as alternatives or complements to traditional 3D vector modeling.
Extensions
A generalization of a voxel is the toxel'', or temporal voxel. This is used in the case of a 4D dataset, for example, an image sequence that represents 3D space together with another dimension such as time. In this way, an image could contain 100×100×100×100 toxels, which could be seen as a series of 100 frames of a 100×100×100 volume image (the equivalent for a 3D image would be showing a 2D cross section of the image in each frame). Although storage and manipulation of such data requires large amounts of memory, it allows the representation and analysis of spacetime systems. |
Voxel | See also | See also
Maxel – material element
Hogel - holographic element
Pixel – picture element
Plane partition
Resel – resolution element
Sparse voxel octree
Texel – texture element
Tixel - tactile element
Tomography
Volume mesh
Volume rendering |
Voxel | References | References |
Voxel | External links | External links
Fundamentals of voxelization "Archived"
Category:3D computer graphics
Category:3D imaging
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Cubes |
Voxel | Table of Content | short description, Etymology, Rendering, Incremental error rasterisation, See also, References, External links |
Parque de las Ciencias | short description | Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré is an educational and recreational park located in Bayamón, Puerto Rico, owned by the Municipality of Bayamón, focused on STEAM education. It is one of multiple touristic attractions inaugurated under the leadership of longtime mayor Ramón Luis Rivera and is named after former Governor of Puerto Rico Luis A. Ferré. After two major closings, in November 2022, the Municipality of Bayamón announced the contracting of Educational Park Management as the new operator of the park which reopened on September 18, 2024. |
Parque de las Ciencias | Park features | Park features
The park occupies and connects with several main highways. Some of the main features of the park are a natural observatory set on a hill at 285 feet (87m) above sea level, a zoo, and an artificial lake. It also features exhibitions of archaeology, space exploration, transportation, science and health, among many others. The park also includes a section dedicated to late comedian José Miguel Agrelot and child entertainer Joaquín Monserrat, who was most famous for his character "Pacheco". In October 2023, Educational Park Management announced a collaboration with Guinness World Records for a new attraction and exhibition at the park upon its reopening. |
Parque de las Ciencias | Operations | Operations
thumb|right|Military aircraft pictured on the lawn of the science park in 1996, with the park's observatory in the background.
The park has had two major closings, the first from February 2011 to January 10, 2016, for renovations that cost $11 million, and the second closing in September 2017, due to the aftermath of both Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria. In November 2022, the Municipality of Bayamón announced the contracting of Educational Park Management as the new operator of the park for a future reopening. The park officially reopened on September 18, 2024, at an estimated cost of $20 million and a corporate sponsorship from Claro Puerto Rico. |
Parque de las Ciencias | See also | See also
Tourism in Puerto Rico
Bayamón, Puerto Rico |
Parque de las Ciencias | References | References |
Parque de las Ciencias | External links | External links
Parque de las Ciencias at the Bayamón website.
Article about the park
TripAdvisor reviews of the park
Category:Science museums in Puerto Rico
Category:Transport museums in Puerto Rico
Category:Museums in Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Category:1988 establishments in Puerto Rico
Category:Museums established in 1988 |
Parque de las Ciencias | Table of Content | short description, Park features, Operations, See also, References, External links |
ISO 3166-2:US | short description | ISO 3166-2:US is the entry for the United States in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for the United States, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for the following subdivisions:
50 states
one district (i.e., the District of Columbia, the capital of the country, also known as Washington, D.C.)
six insular areas (including the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands, a collection of nine islands or groups of islands). (The subdivision category name used to refer to the grouping of insular areas is "outlying area" per the standard, but these locales are not "outlying" from a local perspective.)
Each code consists of two parts separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the United States. The second part is two letters, which is the postal abbreviation of the state, district, or outlying area, except the United States Minor Outlying Islands which do not have a postal abbreviation. |
ISO 3166-2:US | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
thumb|300px|right|Map of the United States with each state and the District of Columbia labelled with the second part of its ISO 3166-2 code
Code Subdivision name in English Subdivision category Alabama State Alaska State Arizona State Arkansas State California State Colorado State Connecticut State Delaware State Florida State Georgia State Hawaii State Idaho State Illinois State Indiana State Iowa State Kansas State Kentucky State Louisiana State Maine State Maryland State Massachusetts State Michigan State Minnesota State Mississippi State Missouri State Montana State Nebraska State Nevada State New Hampshire State New Jersey State New Mexico State New York State North Carolina State North Dakota State Ohio State Oklahoma State Oregon State Pennsylvania State Rhode Island State South Carolina State South Dakota State Tennessee State Texas State Utah State Vermont State Virginia State Washington State West Virginia State Wisconsin State Wyoming State District of Columbia District American Samoa Outlying area Guam Outlying area Northern Mariana Islands Outlying area Puerto Rico Outlying area United States Minor Outlying Islands Outlying area Virgin Islands, U.S. Outlying area |
ISO 3166-2:US | Subdivisions included in ISO 3166-1 | Subdivisions included in ISO 3166-1
Besides being included as subdivisions of the United States in ISO 3166-2, the outlying areas are also officially assigned their own country codes in ISO 3166-1.
Code Subdivision name in English Alpha-2 code ISO 3166-2 codes American Samoa ISO 3166-2:AS Guam ISO 3166-2:GU Northern Mariana Islands ISO 3166-2:MP Puerto Rico ISO 3166-2:PR United States Minor Outlying Islands ISO 3166-2:UM Virgin Islands, U.S. ISO 3166-2:VI |
ISO 3166-2:US | See also | See also
FIPS region codes of United States
FIPS state codes of the United States
Political divisions of the United States
Neighboring countries: CA, MX |
ISO 3166-2:US | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: US
States of the United States, Statoids.com
2:US
Category:Lists of subdivisions of the United States
Category:Lists of United States abbreviations |
ISO 3166-2:US | Table of Content | short description, Current codes, Subdivisions included in ISO 3166-1, See also, External links |
ISO 3166-2:SE | Short description | ISO 3166-2:SE is the entry for Sweden in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently for Sweden, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 21 counties.
Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Sweden. The second part is one or two letters, which is the alphabetic code () of the county, and was used in vehicle registration plates until 1973. |
ISO 3166-2:SE | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
In ISO 3166-2, the numeric code (länskod) of each county is shown for information purposes in square brackets after the name of the county. However, these alternative code elements are not official ISO 3166-2 codes, since this part of ISO 3166 does not allow for duplicate coding of identical subdivisions.
Subdivision names are sorted in Swedish alphabetical order: a–z, å, ä, ö.
Click on the button in the header to sort each column. |
ISO 3166-2:SE | Counties | Counties
thumb|380px|Map of Sweden with each county labelled with the second part of its ISO 3166-2 code.
Code Subdivision name (sv) Subdivision name (en)For reference only, English name not included in the ISO 3166-2 standard. Alternative code Blekinge län Blekinge [] Dalarnas län Dalarna [] Gotlands län Gotland [] Gävleborgs län Gävleborg [] Hallands län Halland [] Jämtlands län Jämtland [] Jönköpings län Jönköping [] Kalmar län Kalmar [] Kronobergs län Kronoberg [] Norrbottens län Norrbotten [] Skåne län Scania [] Stockholms län Stockholm [] Södermanlands län Södermanland [] Uppsala län Uppsala [] Värmlands län Värmland [] Västerbottens län Västerbotten [] Västernorrlands län Western Northland [] Västmanlands län Västmanland [] Västra Götalands län Västra Götaland [] Örebro län Örebro [] Östergötlands län Östergötland []
Notes |
ISO 3166-2:SE | Changes | Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:
Newsletter Date issued Description of change in newsletter (corrected ) Name precision of the administrative division, Alphabetical re-ordering and source list update. |
ISO 3166-2:SE | See also | See also
Subdivisions of Sweden
FIPS region codes of Sweden
NUTS codes of Sweden
Neighbouring countries: FI (also AX), NO |
ISO 3166-2:SE | External links | External links
ISO Online Browsing Platform: SE
Counties of Sweden, Statoids.com
2:SE
*ISO 3166-2
Category:Sweden geography-related lists |
ISO 3166-2:SE | Table of Content | Short description, Current codes, Counties, Changes, See also, External links |
Adiós | wiktionary | Adiós (Spanish: 'goodbye') or Adios may refer to: |
Adiós | Music | Music |
Adiós | Albums | Albums
Adios (Böhse Onkelz album), 2004
Adiós (Flans album), 1990
Adiós (Glen Campbell album), the final album by Glen Campbell, 2017
Adios (KMFDM album), 1999
Adios: The Greatest Hits, the final album by Christian rock band Audio Adrenaline |
Adiós | Songs | Songs
"Adiós" (Ricky Martin song), 2014
"Adiós" (María Becerra song), 2023
"Adiós", a song by Alejandra Guzmán from the album A + No Poder
"Adiós", a song by Allison from Memorama
"Adios" a song by Benjamin Clementine
"Adiós", a song by Don Omar
"Adios", a song composed by Enric Madriguera, performed instrumentally by Glenn Miller Orchestra, Billy May, and others
"Adios", a song by Everglow from their second single album Hush
"Adiós", a song by Glen Campbell from Adiós
"Adiós", a song by Gustavo Cerati from the album Ahí vamos
"Adiós", a song by Jesse & Joy from their studio album Electricidad
"Adiós", a song by Juan Gabriel from his studio album Siempre en Mi Mente
"Adiós", a song by Kany García from her eponymous album
"Adiós", a song by La Oreja de Van Gogh from their album Lo Que te Conté Mientras te Hacías la Dormida
"Adios", a song by Linda Ronstadt from Cry Like a Rainstorm, Howl Like the Wind
"Adios", a song by Migos from Y.R.N. (Young Rich Niggas)
"Adios", a song by Nellie McKay from the album Home Sweet Mobile Home
"Adiós", a song by Rammstein from the album Mutter
"Adiós", a song by RBD from their last studio album Para Olvidarte de Mí
"Adiós", a song by Sebastián Yatra
"Adiós", a song by Selena Gomez from the extended play Revelación
"Adios", a song by Twelve Foot Ninja from the album Outlier |
Adiós | Other uses | Other uses
Adios (horse), a champion harness racing sire
Adiós, Navarre, a place in Spain |
Adiós | See also | See also
Adieu (disambiguation)
Goodbye (disambiguation) |
Adiós | Table of Content | wiktionary, Music, Albums, Songs, Other uses, See also |
ISO 3166-2:NO | Short description | ISO is the entry for Norway in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.
Currently, for Norway, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for the following subdivisions:
11 counties
two arctic regions (i.e., Svalbard and Jan Mayen, territories in the Arctic region separated from metropolitan Norway)
Each code consists of two parts separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Norway. The second part is two digits.
Collectively Svalbard and Jan Mayen is also assigned its own country code in ISO 3166-1, with alpha-2 code . |
ISO 3166-2:NO | Current codes | Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).
Click on the button in the header to sort each column. Note that subdivision names will be sorted in Norwegian alphabetical order: a-z, æ, ø, å.
thumb|360px|A map of mainland Norway with its 11 first-order subnational divisions
Code Subdivision name(nb, nn) Subdivision name(en) For reference only, English name not included in the ISO 3166-2 standard. Subdivision category Agder Agder county Innlandet Inland county Jan Mayen Jan Mayen arctic region Møre og Romsdal More and Romsdal county Nordland Northland county Oslo Oslo county Rogaland Rogaland county Svalbard Svalbard arctic region Troms og FinnmarkRomsa ja Finnmárku (se)Tromssan ja Finmarkun (fkv) Troms and Finnmark county TrøndelagTrööndelage (sma) Trondelag county Vestfold og Telemark Vestfold and Telemark county Vestland Westland county Viken Viken county
Notes
The dependent territory of Bouvet Island has its own ISO 3166-1 code and is not included in Norway's entry in ISO 3166-2. There are no ISO 3166-2 codes for Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land, which are part of Antarctica with country code AQ. |
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