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Tamaulipas | Crime | Crime
This state is known to be the site of a territorial struggle between the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas. The resulting deaths and unresolved kidnappings from the gang violence have been described as a "humanitarian tragedy".
The state of Tamaulipas is one of the most affected by violence in the country, mainly caused by organized crime. In February 2010, an armed conflict broke out between the criminal groups known as the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas, resulting in many border cities becoming "ghost towns"; such is the case of the border strip known as "La Frontera Chica" made up of the cities of Miguel Alemán, Mier, Camargo and Nueva Ciudad Guerrero.
In November 2010, the Mexican army, together with the Federal Police and the Navy, launched an operation around the north of the state of Tamaulipas, allowing hundreds of families to return to their homes after months of exile in other states, mainly in municipalities like Mier, where around 4,000 people returned.
According to INEGI, in 2012 Tamaulipas contained 9 municipalities with a homicide rate higher than 100 per 100,000 inhabitants: Cruillas (106), San Fernando (175), Llera (159), Mier (156), Güémez (141), Hidalgo (135), Nuevo Laredo (134), González (109) and Soto la Marina (100). On the other hand, the municipalities that had had the most intentional homicides in 2012 were Nuevo Laredo (536 homicides), Victoria (165) and San Fernando (102).
In 2013, 880 homicides were recorded in the state, giving a rate of 25 per 100,000 inhabitants. This placed it that year in the 9th position of the states with the most homicides in Mexico. In 2013, Tamaulipas reached the first national place in kidnappings with 275 known cases and the ninth place in violent highway robbery (68 cases).
As of 2021, Tamaulipas continues to be affected by violence, this being one of the factors that have greatly hindered the economic and social activity of the state. In 2014 it was estimated that the losses due to violence by each company in Tamaulipas reached an average of 95 thousand pesos per year (fourth highest in the country). This placed it above the national average in terms of cost of crime for each company (13,600 pesos against the national average of 12,800). |
Tamaulipas | See also | See also
Sierra de Tamaulipas |
Tamaulipas | Notes | Notes |
Tamaulipas | References | References |
Tamaulipas | External links | External links
Tamaulipas state government
Ley de Escudo de Armas y el Himno de Tamaulipas
Category:States of Mexico
Category:States and territories established in 1824
Category:1824 establishments in Mexico |
Tamaulipas | Table of Content | short description, Etymology, History, Spanish era, Independent Mexico, Geography, Climate, Government and infrastructure, Economy, Demographics, Education, Transportation, Airports, Media, Notable natives and residents, State anthem, Crime, See also, Notes, References, External links |
Green River | '''Green River''' | Green River may refer to: |
Green River | Rivers | Rivers |
Green River | Canada | Canada
Green River (British Columbia), a tributary of the Lillooet River
Green River, a tributary of the Saint John River, also known by its French name of Rivière Verte
Green River (Ontario), a tributary of the Crowe River |
Green River | United States | United States
Green River (Illinois), a tributary of the Rock River
Green River (Kentucky), a tributary of the Ohio River
Green River (Housatonic River tributary), a tributary of the Housatonic River in Massachusetts and New York
Green River (Hoosic River tributary), a tributary of the Hoosic River in Massachusetts
Green River (Deerfield River tributary), a tributary of the Deerfield River in Massachusetts and Vermont
Green River (Cold River tributary), a river of Massachusetts
Green River, a tributary of the Jordan River in Antrim County, Michigan
Green River, part of the Elk River Chain of Lakes Watershed in Antrim County, Michigan
Green River (North Carolina)
Green River (North Dakota), a tributary of the Heart River
Green River (Oregon), a tributary of Five Rivers
Green River (Missouri), a river of Missouri
Green River (Tennessee), a tributary of the Buffalo River
Green River (Texas), a tributary of the Rio Grande
Green River (Batten Kill), a river of Vermont
Green River (Lamoille River tributary), a river of Vermont
Green River (Colorado River tributary), major tributary of the Colorado River, headwaters in Wyoming, flowing into Utah with a loop into Colorado
Green River (Duwamish River tributary), a tributary of the Duwamish River in the U.S. state of Washington
Green River (North Fork Toutle River tributary), the largest tributary of the North Fork Toutle River in the U.S. state of Washington
Green River (Toutle River tributary), a river of Washington |
Green River | Elsewhere | Elsewhere
Green River (Northern Cape), a river in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa
Yeşilırmak (river), a river of northern Turkey |
Green River | Places | Places
Green River, Illinois, an unincorporated community in Henry County
Green River, Michigan, an unincorporated community
Green River, Utah, a city in Emery County
Green River station (Utah), an Amtrak train station
Green River, Wyoming, a city in Sweetwater County
Green River station (Wyoming), a former Amtrak train station
Green River, a ghost town in British Columbia
Green River, a community in Pickering, Ontario
Rivière-Verte, New Brunswick, a village in Madawaska County
Green River Rural LLG, local-level government in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea |
Green River | Music | Music
Green River (band), a grunge band from Seattle, Washington
Green River (album), a 1969 album by Creedence Clearwater Revival
"Green River" (song), a 1969 song from that album
"Green River", a song by C. W. McCall on the album Black Bear Road
"Green River", a song by Waylon Jennings from the album Nashville Rebel
"Green River", a song by The Everly Brothers from the album Stories We Could Tell
"Green River", a song from the Dixie Chick's debut album Thank Heavens for Dale Evans
"Green River", a song by Hooded Fang from the 2010 album titled Album
"Green River", a song by Real Estate from the album Real Estate
"Green River", an instrumental by Church of Misery from the album Master of Brutality |
Green River | Other uses | Other uses
Green River (soft drink), a bright green, lime-flavored soft drink which originated in Chicago. It was created by the Schoenhofen Edelweiss Brewing Company in 1919, and is currently manufactured by WIT Beverage Company
Novell "Green River", codename for Novell NetWare 4.11
Green River Community College, community college in Auburn, Washington
Green River Formation, a geologic formation in the States of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah in the United States of America
Green River Killer or Gary Ridgway, an American serial killer
Green River Launch Complex, a missile testing ground outside Green River, Utah, operated by the U. S. Air Force from 1964 to 1973
Green River Ordinance, a common United States city ordinance prohibiting door-to-door solicitation |
Green River | See also | See also
Green Creek (disambiguation) |
Green River | Table of Content | '''Green River''', Rivers, Canada, United States, Elsewhere, Places, Music, Other uses, See also |
Juan Downey | Short description | Juan Downey (May 11, 1940 – June 9, 1993) was a Chilean artist who was a pioneer in the fields of video art and interactive art. |
Juan Downey | Early life and education | Early life and education
Downey was born in Santiago, Chile.Juan Downey, 53, A Pioneer Of Video as a Medium for Art - NYTimes.com His father, David Downey V., was a distinguished architect in Chile, and following in his father's footsteps, Juan Downey studied to complete a Bachelor of Architecture in 1964 from the Pontificia Universidad Católica of Chile. In 1961, to further his studies and develop his artistic practice, Downey traveled to Europe. He spent a few months in Barcelona and Madrid, followed by Paris, where he lived for three years studying printmaking at Stanley William Hayter's legendary Atelier 17. During that time, he befriended artists Eugenio Téllez, Roberto Matta, Julio Le Parc, and Takis.
In 1965, Downey traveled to Washington, D.C., at the invitation of the Organization of American States to present a solo show of his work. It was there that Downey would meet his future wife, Marilys Belt. Downey stayed in Washington for a couple of years before moving with his family to New York in 1969.
Downey was an associate professor of art at the Pratt Institute in New York from 1970 until 1993. He died in New York on June 9, 1993, as a result of cancer. |
Juan Downey | Career | Career
In New York, Downey would become involved with the groups Radical Software and Raindance collective, both of them early proponents of using video for artistic and political means.Juan Downey - Exhibition at Tate Modern | Tate
Downey is recognized as a pioneer and early adopter of video art, but during his artistic career, he created an extensive body of work that also includes electronic and video sculptures, photography, painting, drawing, printmaking, performance, installation, and writing. Downey's drawings are especially remarkable and remained a constant practice of his. All of his major works were accompanied by drawings. They reflect not only his “sureness of hand,” as curators David Ross and James Harithas noted,(Juan Downey: With Energy Beyond These Walls, p. 329) but also his compelling ideas and visions, and they reveal a sustained practice of drawing over a lifetime.
The early period of Juan Downey's artistic practice consisted of painting, drawing, writing, and printmaking. After moving to the United States in 1965, he began to experiment with numerous forms of art that included creating interactive electronic sculptures, performances, happenings, and, in the late 1960s, video art. He wrote: “The universe is not an assemblage of independent parts, but an overlapping, interrelated system of energy. All my work relates to this vision.” These media permitted Downey to investigate ideas about invisible energy as well as to invite active participation by viewers of his work.
Two seminal series in Downey's career were Video Trans Americas, begun in 1971,Social Media: Juan Downey’S Video Trans Americas | and The Thinking Eye, begun in the mid-1970s. Video Trans Americas (VTA.) is often divided into two groups: the first group was developed from 1973 to 1976, and the second from 1976 to 1977. The two series stress Downey's preoccupation with political discourse, the self, the history of art, Western civilization, and Latin American identity. |
Juan Downey | Exhibitions | Exhibitions |
Juan Downey | Solo exhibitions | Solo exhibitions
Solo exhibitions featuring Juan Downey's work include:
Juan Downey: Audio-Kinetic Electronic Sculptures, The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington DC, (1968);Project MUSE - Electronically Operated Audio-Kinetic Sculptures, 1968
With Energy Beyond These Walls, Howard Wise Gallery, New York, NY, (1970);
Video Trans Americas, Contemporary Art Museum, Houston, TX, (1976);
Juan Downey: Video Trans Americas, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY, (1976);
Video Trans Americas, Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, NY (1977);
Juan Downey: New American Filmmaker Series, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY (1978);
Juan Downey, Matrix/Berkeley 16, University Art Museum, Berkeley, CA (1978);
Une Forêt 'Videoformes': Retrospective Juan Downey, Festival de la Création Vidéo, Clermont-Ferrand, France (1993);
Juan Downey: Instalaciones, Dibujos y Videos, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago (1995), Chile;
Juan Downey: Con energía más allá de estos muros, Institut Valencià d'Art Modern, Centre del Carme, Valencia, Spain (1997–98);
Retrospectiva de Video Arte de Juan Downey, Museo de Arte Moderno de Chiloé, Castro, Chiloé, Chile (2000);
Plateau of Humankind, Honorable Mention: “Excellence in Art Science and Technology,” 49th Venice Biennale Chilean Pavilion, Venice, Italy (2001);
Juan Downey: El ojo pensante, Sala de Arte Fundación Telefónica, Santiago, Chile (2010);
Juan Downey: The Invisible Architect, MIT List Visual Arts Center, Cambridge, MA, Arizona State University Art Museum, Tempe, AZ, The Bronx Museum of the Arts, NY (2011-2012)
Juan Downey una utopía de la comunicación, Museo Rufino Tamayo, Mexico City (2013) |
Juan Downey | Group exhibitions | Group exhibitions
Downey's work was included in numerous group exhibitions as follows.
Some More Beginnings: An Exhibition of Submitted Works Involving Technical Materials and Processes, organized by Experiments in Art and Technology, in collaboration with the Brooklyn Museum, Brookly, NY and The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY (1968);
New Learning Spaces & Places, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN (1974);
Whitney Biennial Exhibition, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY (1975, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991);Video Artist Juan Downey, 53 - tribunedigital-chicagotribune
Documenta 6, Kassel, Germany, (1977);
Venice Biennale, US Pavilion, Venice, Italy, (1980);
Sydney Biennale, Sydney, Australia, (1982);
II Bienal de La Habana, Havana, Cuba, (1986);
The Thinking Eye, International Center for Photography, New York, NY, (1987);
Passages de l’image, Musée national d'Art moderne- Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France, (1990);
Video Art: The First 25 Years, The Museum of Modern Art, and The American Federation of Arts, New York, NY, (1995);
Info Art ’95, Kwangju Biennale, Kwangju, Korea, (1995);
Electronic Highways, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, (1997);
Rational/Irrational, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin, Germany, (2008-2009)
The Looking Glass: Artist Immigrants of Washington, American University Art Museum, Washington, DC (2016)
VIVA ART VIVA, Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy, (2017); |
Juan Downey | Selected works | Selected works |
Juan Downey | Interactive art | Interactive art
Against Shadows, 1968, is an interactive artwork that uses a grid of photo sensors to translate shadow thrown by the human body to a matching grid of wall-mounted lightbulbs.Juan Downey | Frieze
In Invisible Energy Dictates a Dance Concert, 1969-1970, readings taken by geiger counters are sent by walkie-talkies to dancers in different rooms of the gallery.
Three-Way Communication by Light, 1972, used video, super 8 film and laser beams to join the actions of three performers painted in whiteface.
Plato Now, 1973 |
Juan Downey | Performance art | Performance art
Imperialistic Octopus, 1972
Energy Fields, 1972
Video Trans Americas Debriefing Pyramid, 1974 |
Juan Downey | Video art | Video art |
Juan Downey | Early works | Early works
Fresh Air, 3/4" NTSC format, b/w 16 min., 1971
Plato Now, b/w, 30 min., 9 channels, 1972
Monument to the Charles River, b/w, 27 min., 2 channels, 1973
Rewe, video installation, 1991Mapuche people, and art, survive – The Denver PostAFTEREFFECTS: Mapping the experimental ethnography of Juan Downey in The Invisible Architect | The Brooklyn Rail |
Juan Downey | Video Trans Americas | Video Trans Americas
The Video Trans Americas (VTA) Series was a video-installation composed of videos recorded with a Sony portapak during Downey’s travels from North to Central and South America between 1973 and 1976.MoMA | Juan Downey. Map of America. 1975 The first complete screening of the VTA video-installation was in the exhibition Landscape Studies in Video curated by David Ross at the Long Beach Museum of Art in 1975. The VTA video-installation in subsequent exhibitions at other museum institutions such as the Whitney Museum of American Art (1976) was exhibited differently. This was largely due to the spatial component entailed in the presentation of the work, a key concern for Downey, as well as his own artistic liberty to make changes or integrate other components in the installation. Therefore, there are a number of different versions in the way the VTA video installation was exhibited. The following videos were included in the installation:
Rumbo al Golfo, b/w, 27 min., 1973
Zapoteca, b/w, 27 min., 1973
Yucatán, 1973
Chile, color, 13 min., 1974
Guatemala, b/w, 27 min., 1973
New York/Texas I & II, b/w, 27 min., 2 channels, 1974
Nazca I & II, b/w 11 min., 2 channels, 1974
Lima/Machu Picchu, b/w, 27 min., 1975
Cuzco I & II, 1976
Inca I & II, 1976
Uros I & II, 1975
La Frontera I & II, 1976
Additional videos that are part of the VTA series:
Moving, b/w, 27 min., 1974
Publicness, b/w, 30 min., 1974
Central Zone, b/w, 27 min., 1975
Videodances, b/w, 30 min., 1975
Inca Split, 1976
Bi-Deo, 1976
In the Beginning, 1976
Guahibos, color, 26 min. 1976
Yanomami Healing I, b/w, 1977
Yanomami Healing II, b/w, 1977
The Circle of Fires, 1978 (video installation comes in 2 versions)The 2017 Venice Biennale's Neo-Shamanism | artnet News
More Than Two, 1978 (installation)
The Abandoned Shabono, 1979
The Laughing Alligator, 1979
Chiloe, color, 18 min., 1981
Chicago Boys, color, 16 min., stereo, 1982–83
About Cages, 1986 (installation)
The Motherland, 1986
The Return of the Motherland, 1989 |
Juan Downey | ''The Thinking Eye'' Series | The Thinking Eye Series
Las Meninas (Maids of Honor), color, 20 min., 1975Juan Downey. Las Meninas (Maids of Honor). 1975 | MoMA
Venus and Her Mirror, 1980 (video-installation)
The Looking Glass, 1981Electronic Arts Intermix: The Looking Glass, Juan Downey
Information Withheld, 1983
Shifters, 1984
Sinage, 1984 (video-installation)
Obelisk, 1985 (video-installation)
J.S. Bach, 1986
Bachdisc, 1988 (interactive video-disc)
Hard Times and Culture: Part One, Vienna fin-de-siecle, 1990Electronic Arts Intermix: Hard Times and Culture: Part One, Vienna 'fin de siècle', Juan Downey |
Juan Downey | Collections | Collections
Downey’s work can be found in private collections and in the collections of major museums. Selected museum collections include:
The Tate Modern, London, UK;Juan Downey 1940-1993 | Tate
The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY;Juan Downey | MoMA
Centre Pompidou/Musée National d’Art Moderne, Paris, France;La personne Juan Downey - Centre Pompidou
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, Spain;Juan Downey - Video Trans Americas
The Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC,Artworks Search Results / American Art and
Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Santiago, Chile, among others. |
Juan Downey | Awards | Awards
Downey was a Guggenheim fellow in the area of fine arts in 1971.John Simon Guggenheim Foundation | Juan Downey |
Juan Downey | Selected bibliography | Selected bibliography
Valerie Smith, ed. Juan Downey: The Invisible Architect. Leipzig: MIT List Visual Art Center & The Bronx Museum, 2011.
González, Julieta, Nicolás Guagnini, Carla Macchiavello, and Valerie Smith. Juan Downey: el ojo pensante. Santiago: Fundación Telefónica, 2010.
Arévalo, Antonio, Marilys Belt de Downey, Juan Downey, José Goñi Carrasco, and Luisa Ulibarri Lorenzini. Juan Downey: La Biennale di Venezia, 49 Esposizione Internazionale d’Arte. Milan: Rodrigo Figueroa Schirmer, 2001.
Bonet, Eugeni, Douglas Davis, Juan Downey, Nuria Enguita, Coco Fusco, Juan Guardiola, John G. Hanhardt, James Harithas, and David Ross. Juan Downey: With Energy Beyond These Walls (Con energía más allá de estos muros). Valencia: Institut Valencià d’Art Modern and Centre del Carme, 1997-98.
Hanhardt, John G., and Ann D. Hoy. Juan Downey of Dream Into Study. Santiago: Editorial Lord Cochrane, 1987. |
Juan Downey | References | References |
Juan Downey | External links | External links
Juan Downey in the Video Data Bank
Juan Downey auf culturebase.net
Centro de Arte Digital en Memoria de Juan Downey
Category:1940 births
Category:1993 deaths
Category:Chilean film directors
Category:Video artists
Category:Artists from Santiago, Chile
Category:Videographers |
Juan Downey | Table of Content | Short description, Early life and education, Career, Exhibitions, Solo exhibitions, Group exhibitions, Selected works, Interactive art, Performance art, Video art, Early works, Video Trans Americas, ''The Thinking Eye'' Series, Collections, Awards, Selected bibliography, References, External links |
Bubble gum | Short description | Bubble gum (or bubblegum) is a type of chewing gum, designed to be inflated out of the mouth as a bubble. |
Bubble gum | Composition | Composition
In modern chewing gum, if natural rubber such as chicle is used, it must pass several purity and cleanliness tests. However, most modern types of chewing gum use synthetic gum-based materials. These materials allow for longer lasting flavor, a softer texture, and a reduction in tackiness. |
Bubble gum | Mechanical properties | Mechanical properties
As a sort of chewing gum consisting of long-chain polysaccharides, bubblegum can typically exhibit linear and nonlinear viscoelastic behaviors. Therefore, the distinct deformations under chewing can be affected by shear rate, shear strain, and shear stress applied through teeth. Based on these, it is helpful to characterize the intrinsic rheological properties of chewing gums for future improvement and optimization of commercial products’ texture and chewiness.
The linear viscoelastic (LVE) property can be probed on pre-shaped gum cuds through a small isothermal strain deformation (i.e., below yield strain) under small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS). Here the critical yield strain is defined as the modulus deviating about 10% from its initial value. Under it, gum cuds show elastic deformation that follows power-law behavior as a critical gel in the linear regime; otherwise, exhibiting nonlinear responses with increasing shear stress (plasticity). Normally, this yield strain is less than 1%.
Regarding plastic deformation, the nonlinear viscoelasticity can be explored through shear creep experiments (relaxation time) and the start-up of steady shear stress-controlled uniaxial/biaxial extension. The former demonstrates that fractional recovery, defined as the ratio between measured strain after deformation and recovered strain without adding shear stress, for chewing gums under moderate shear stress (~ 1000 Pa) is between 25% and 40%. This relatively high fractional recovery (the ability to recover its previous shape) is consistent with providing a satisfying sensory feel. On the contrary, bubble gums only show fractional recovery lower than 15%. Therefore, bubble gums can withstand more substantial stresses before break-up than normal chewing gums. This distinction is mainly due to its on-purpose design, which allows it to form and maintain large, stable bubbles when blown up through sizeable shear stress on the tongue.
The stretching experiment shows gum cuds owning strain hardening during uniaxial extension. In particular, the LVE regime is absent with applying a constant Hencky strain rate, like the plastic flow in polycrystals or polymers. Moreover, different values of Hencky strain rates can lead to either extensional viscosity plateaus before sagging (macroscopic failure) or necking (strain hardening) following a low/high strain rate. Typically, the strain softening at a low strain rate manifests the disintegration of brittle networks within gums. In contrast, the nonuniform deformation of polymers and crystallization induced by strain explain the strain hardening behavior at a high strain rate. |
Bubble gum | History | History
thumb|Various colors of bubble gum balls
In 1928, Walter Diemer, an accountant for the Fleer Chewing Gum Company in Philadelphia, was experimenting with new gum recipes. One recipe, based on a formula for a chewing gum called "Blibber-Blubber", was found to be less sticky than regular chewing gum and stretched more easily. This gum became highly successful and was eventually named by the president of Fleer as Dubble Bubble because of its stretchy texture.
This remained the dominant brand of bubble gum until after WWII, when Bazooka bubble gum entered the market.
Until the 1970s, bubble gum still tended to stick to one's face as a bubble popped. At that time, synthetic bubble gum was introduced, which would almost never stick. The first brands in the US to use these new synthetic gum bases were Hubba Bubba and Bubble Yum.
Bubble gum got its distinctive pink color because the original recipe Diemer worked on produced a dingy gray colored gum, so he added red dye (diluted to pink), as that was the only dye he had on hand at the time. |
Bubble gum | Flavors | Flavors
In taste tests, children tend to prefer strawberry and blue raspberry flavors, rejecting more complex flavors, as they say these make them want to swallow the gum rather than continue chewing. |
Bubble gum | Bubble gum flavor | Bubble gum flavor
While there is a bubble gum "flavor" – which various artificial flavorings including esters are mixed to obtain – it varies from one company to another. Esters used in synthetic bubble gum flavoring may include methyl salicylate, ethyl butyrate, benzyl acetate, amyl acetate or cinnamic aldehyde.
A natural bubble gum flavoring can be produced by combining banana, pineapple, cinnamon, cloves, and wintergreen. Vanilla, cherry, lemon, and orange oil have also been suggested as ingredients. |
Bubble gum | Records | Records
In 1996, Susan Montgomery Williams of Fresno, California, set the Guinness World Record for largest bubble gum bubble ever blown, which was in diameter. However, Chad Fell holds the record for "Largest Hands-free Bubblegum Bubble" at , achieved on 24 April 2004. |
Bubble gum | Tourism | Tourism
Bubblegum Alley is a tourist attraction in downtown San Luis Obispo, California, known for its accumulation of used bubble gum on the walls of an alley.
The Market Theater Gum Wall is a brick wall covered in used chewing gum, located in an alleyway in Post Alley under Pike Place Market in Downtown Seattle. |
Bubble gum | See also | See also
Functional gum
Gumball machine
Gum base
Gum industry
Inca Kola
List of chewing gum brands |
Bubble gum | References | References
Category:Chewing gum
Category:Bubbles (physics)
Category:Products introduced in 1928
Category:American inventions |
Bubble gum | Table of Content | Short description, Composition, Mechanical properties, History, Flavors, Bubble gum flavor, Records, Tourism, See also, References |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Wiktionary | A hunt is the act of pursuing and capturing or killing wild animals.
Hunt or hunts may also refer to: |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Arts and entertainment | Arts and entertainment
Hunt (painting), a 2002 painting by Neo Rauch
Hunt (2022 film), a South Korean film
Hunt (2023 film), an Indian Telugu-language action thriller film
"Hunt", a song by Goldfrapp from the album Head First |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Businesses | Businesses
Hunt Petroleum, an oil and gas company formed in 1950, now part of XTO Energy
Hunt Oil Company, an independent oil and gas company headquartered in Dallas, Texas
Hunt Refining Company, a refiner of asphalt
Hunt's, a brand of tomato products
J. B. Hunt, an American transportation and logistics company |
Hunt (disambiguation) | People and fictional characters | People and fictional characters
Hunt (surname), a list of people and fictional characters
Hunt (given name), a list of people and fictional characters |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Places and geographical features | Places and geographical features
Hunt, Ohio, an unincorporated community in Ohio, USA
Hunt, Texas, an unincorporated town in Texas, USA
McFarland, California, a city in California, USA, formerly called Hunt
Hunts Bay, a bay on the Gower Peninsula, Wales
Hunts Creek, a creek in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Hunts Mesa, a mesa in Monument Valley, Arizona, USA
Hunts Peak, a mountain in Colorado, USA
Hunts Pond, a pond in Chenango County, New York State, USA
Hunts Run, a creek in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, USA
Huntingdonshire, abbreviated Hunts, a non-metropolitan district of Cambridgeshire and a historic county of England |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Ships | Ships
Hunt-class (disambiguation), three British Royal Navy ship classes
USS Hunt (DD-194), a Clemson-class destroyer commissioned in 1919
USS Hunt (DD-674), a Fletcher-class destroyer commissioned in 1943 |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Other uses | Other uses
Hunt, a fox hunting club
23041 Hunt, an asteroid |
Hunt (disambiguation) | See also | See also
The Hunt (disambiguation)
Hunt model, a mathematical description of human color vision
Hunts Corners (disambiguation)
Hunts Green (disambiguation)
Hunts Point (disambiguation)
Hunt Valley (disambiguation)
Hunted (disambiguation)
Hunter (disambiguation)
Huntress (disambiguation)
Hunting (disambiguation)
Huntly (disambiguation) |
Hunt (disambiguation) | Table of Content | Wiktionary, Arts and entertainment, Businesses, People and fictional characters, Places and geographical features, Ships, Other uses, See also |
D.I.Y. | # | redirect do it yourself |
D.I.Y. | Table of Content | # |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | [[Washington, D.C.]] | Washington, D.C., has been home to over a dozen baseball organizations beginning in 1872, and since 2005 has been represented in Major League Baseball (MLB) by the Washington Nationals. |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | Early years: 1867–1899 | Early years: 1867–1899
The first professional baseball teams and leagues were formed in the late 19th century and several were based in Washington, D.C. Many early teams used the names "Nationals" and "Senators" but were otherwise unrelated.
The National Base Ball Club of Washington, D.C. (1867)
The National Association Washington Olympics (1871–1872)
The National Association Washington Nationals (1872)
The National Association Washington Blue Legs (1873)
The National Association Washington Nationals (1875)
The Union Association Washington Nationals (1884)
The American Association Washington Nationals (1884)
The National League Washington Nationals (1886–1889)
The American Association Washington Statesmen (1891)
The National League Washington Senators (1892–1899) |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | "First in war, first in peace, and last in the American League": 1901–1971 | "First in war, first in peace, and last in the American League": 1901–1971
100px|thumbnail|right|1902 Logo
Washington was continuously home to a major league baseball team from 1901 until 1971. Two separate franchises alternated between the nicknames "Senators" and "Nationals" and sometimes used the names interchangeably.
The American League Washington Nationals/Senators (1901–1960): The team was officially the "Senators" from 1901 to 1904, the "Nationals" from 1905 to 1955 and the Senators again from 1956 to 1960 but nonetheless was commonly referred to as the Senators throughout its history (and unofficially as the "Grifs" during Clark Griffith's tenure as manager from 1912 to 1920). In 1961, this team moved to Minneapolis-St. Paul and became the Minnesota Twins.
The American League Washington Senators (1961–1971): This expansion team began play in Washington immediately following the departure of the former franchise. In 1972, this team moved to Dallas–Fort Worth and became the Texas Rangers.
Since the expansion franchise began play the year immediately after the original franchise's final year in Washington, and because they both used the same nickname, the teams are commonly confused or combined and photographs are often dated based on player uniforms. The original club used dark blue as its primary color, with a thick, sans-serif, red or white block "W" on its caps. The expansion club mainly used caps with a stylized cursive "W," first in blue with a red letter (1963–1967), then in red with a white letter (1968–1971), similar to the current Washington Nationals. In 1961–1962, the expansion Senators wore dark blue caps with a sans-serif block "W" outlined in white, nearly identical to the caps of the original Senators save for a red button at the top of the cap. Varying shades of the Senators' red, white and blue colors are still used by their successor teams in Minnesota and Texas.
Two other teams also competed in Washington during this time period.
The United States Baseball League Washington Senators (1912): This club was unrelated to the American League team and the new league folded after one month of operation.
The Negro National League Homestead Grays (1930–1948): Though officially based in Homestead, Pennsylvania, this club played many of its games in Washington and were informally known as the "Washington Homestead Grays." When baseball returned to Washington in 2005, "Grays" was one of the three finalists for the team's nickname. |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | Return: since 2005 | Return: since 2005
Major League Baseball returned to Washington in 2005 after a 33-year absence.200px|thumb|right|President George W. Bush throws the ceremonial first pitch upon baseball's return to Washington, D.C. in 2005.
The National League Washington Nationals (2005–present): The Montreal Expos, under the ownership of Major League Baseball, were relocated to Washington and sold to a new ownership group.
The Nationals adopted similar colors to the 1968–1971 Senators adding gold accents to a tilted version of the expansion Senators cursive "W" logo.
In 2012, the Nationals won the NL East division championship and brought postseason baseball to Washington, D.C., for the first time in 79 years.
In 2014, the Nationals won their second NL East division championship in three years after defeating the Atlanta Braves, 3–0, on September 16, 2014. In the NLDS of the same year, the Nationals lost to the San Francisco Giants, who went on to win the World Series.
In 2019, the Washington Nationals won the Wild Card game, defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLDS, defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in the NL Championship Series, and then on October 30 won their first franchise World Series, defeating the American League champion Houston Astros in an historic matchup where neither team won a home game. |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | See also | See also
Sports in Washington, D.C. |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | References | References
*Wash
*
+
Category:Washington Senators (1891–1899)
Category:Washington Senators (1901–1960)
Category:Washington Senators (1961–1971)
Category:History of Washington, D.C. |
History of professional baseball in Washington, D.C. | Table of Content | [[Washington, D.C.]], Early years: 1867–1899, "First in war, first in peace, and last in the American League": 1901–1971, Return: since 2005, See also, References |
Billboard Music Charts | # | redirect Billboard charts |
Billboard Music Charts | Table of Content | # |
Old school | Wiktionary | Old school, Old School, or Old Skool may refer to: |
Old school | Computers and gaming | Computers and gaming
Old school gaming or retrogaming, playing and collecting obsolete computer, video, and arcade games
Old School Renaissance, a trend in tabletop gaming
Old School RuneScape, a playable 2007 version of the MMORPG RuneScape
Oldskool, in demoscene, a production made before the mid-1990s |
Old school | Film and television | Film and television
Old School (2003 film), an American comedy film
Old School (2002 film), a Nigerian comedy film
Old School (TV series), a 2014 Australian drama series
"Old School" (Brooklyn Nine-Nine), a 2013 television episode
"Old School" (Runaways), a 2018 television episode
"Old School" (Yin Yang Yo!), a 2006 television episode |
Old school | Literature | Literature
Old School (novel), a 2003 novel by Tobias Wolff
Old School: Life in the Sane Lane, a 2017 book by Bill O'Reilly and Bruce Feirstein
Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Old School, a 2015 book by Jeff Kinney |
Old school | Music | Music |
Old school | Genres | Genres
Old-school hip hop
Oldskool hardcore or breakbeat hardcore
Urban oldies, or Old School, a radio format |
Old school | Performers | Performers
Old School (quartet), an American barbershop quartet
Ol' Skool, an American new jack swing group |
Old school | Albums | Albums
Old School (Helix album), 2019
Old School (Nils Lofgren album), 2011
Oldschool (Nena album), 2015
Ol' School, by Ohio Players, 1996
Old School (EP), by Tebey, 2016
Old Skool (EP), by Armin van Buuren, 2016
Old School, a box set by Alice Cooper, 2011 |
Old school | Songs | Songs
"Old School" (Hedley song), 2008
"Old School" (John Conlee song), 1985
"Old School", by Aaliyah from Age Ain't Nothing but a Number, 1994
"Old School", by Boss Hog, 1999
"Old School", by Danger Doom from The Mouse and the Mask, 2005
"Old School", by Overkill from ReliXIV, 2005
"Oldschool", a 2015 song by Baby Alice
"Old School", by Toby Keith from Peso in My Pocket, 2021
"Old School", by Tupac Shakur, a B-side of "Dear Mama", 1995 |
Old school | Other uses | Other uses
Old school (tattoo), a traditional tattoo style
Old School–New School Controversy, a schism of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
Old School, or arm twist ropewalk chop, a professional wrestling aerial technique used by The Undertaker
Koryū, translated as "old school", a category of Japanese martial arts |
Old school | See also | See also
Retro style
Vintage (design)
Jeune École |
Old school | Table of Content | Wiktionary, Computers and gaming, Film and television, Literature, Music, Genres, Performers, Albums, Songs, Other uses, See also |
B-roll | Short description | thumb|right|200px|B-roll of Wikimedia Foundation servers at CyrusOne in Carrollton, Texas
In film and television production, B-roll, B roll, B-reel or B reel is supplemental or alternative footage intercut with the main shot. The term A-roll, referring to main footage, has fallen out of use to some degree. |
B-roll | Film and video production | Film and video production
Films and videos may cut away from the main story to show related scenery or action. Establishing shots may be used to show the audience the context of the story. These secondary images are often presented without sound, or with very low level sound, as the sound from the primary footage is expected to continue while the other images are shown. The various shots presented without sound are called B-roll.
B-roll may be shot by smaller second unit crews, since there is no need for sound. In film, smaller MOS cameras, lacking sound circuitry, may be used for greater portability and ease of setup. In electronic news-gathering (ENG) and documentary film projects, B-roll footage is often shot after the main interview is shot, to provide supporting scenes for what was said by the interview subject. In a docudrama project, B-roll may refer to dramatic re-enactment scenes staged by the producer and performed by actors, to be used as cutaway shots.
There are many different types of B-roll, including: insert shots, FX shots, establishing shots, stock footage, and pickup shots.Jose Delio Ares Garcia
B-roll footage may be added to or drawn from a stock footage library. |
B-roll | History | History
thumb|Layout with 4 shots.
The term B-roll originates from a particular solution to the problem of visible splices in the narrow film stock used in 16 mm film. 35 mm film was wide enough to hide splices, but 16 mm film revealed the splices as flaws in the picture. To avoid this problem, the intended shots were spliced to opaque black leader, with the black leader hiding the splice. Two sequences of shots were assembled, the odd-numbered shots on the A-roll, and the even-numbered shots on the B-roll, such that all of the shots on one roll were matched by black leader on the other roll, in a checkerboard pattern (an alternate name for the process was "checkerboard printing".) Unexposed 16 mm raw print stock was exposed twice, once to the A-roll, then it was exposed again to the B-roll.Spottiswoode, Raymond (1966), Film and its techniques. U. Cal Press. Chapter 1, p 44.
Until the mid-1970s, news teams shot both main A-roll and secondary B-roll footage on 16 mm film. Sound was integrated onto the film by way of a magnetic stripe at the edge of the film. The A-roll and B-roll scenes, shot at 24 frames per second, were converted to the television frame rate of 30 fps using a telecine system consisting of two film projectors, one showing the main A-roll footage and the other showing the B-roll. The sound from the A-roll footage was used, or sound from narration or voiceover, while MOS images from the B-roll were intercut as desired.
In the 1980s, the term B-roll was adopted for linear video editing using at least two video tape machines. Traditionally, the tape decks in an edit suite were labeled by letter, with the 'A' deck being the one containing the main tape upon which the main action material was shot. The 'B' deck was used to run tapes that held additional footage such as establishing shots, cutaway shots, and any other supporting footage. The sound was usually taken from the A deck alone, so that the B deck provided video without sound. As linear editing systems were unable to dissolve between clips on the same tape, an edit decision list (EDL) was used to mark clips as "A-roll" and "B-roll" to indicate source machines. |
B-roll | See also | See also
Camera coverage
Pick-up (filmmaking)
A-side and B-side |
B-roll | References | References
Category:Film production
Category:Film editing
Category:Home video supplements
Category:Film and video terminology
Category:Television terminology |
B-roll | Table of Content | Short description, Film and video production, History, See also, References |
Rykodisc | short description | Rykodisc is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group, operating as a unit of WMG's Independent Label Group and distributed through Alternative Distribution Alliance. |
Rykodisc | History | History
Claiming to be the first CD-only independent record label in the United States, Rykodisc was founded in January 1984 in Cannes, France, by Arthur Mann, Rob Simonds, Doug Lexa and Don Rose. The name "Ryko," which the label claimed was a Japanese word meaning "sound from a flash of light," was chosen to reflect the company's CD-only policy. In the late 1980s, however, the label also began to issue high-quality cassette / vinyl and MiniDisc versions of many releases under the name Ryko Analogue.Bruce Britt. "CD-Only Rykodisc Label Decides to Give Vinyl a Spin." Chicago Tribune, July 14, 1988, p. 11C.
Initially founded as an audiophile-oriented label, Rykodisc shifted its focus towards mainstream audiences following the worldwide success of Dire Straits 1985 album Brothers in Arms, which demonstrated that the compact disc's growth would be significantly faster than initially anticipated. The label subsequently saw notable successes in the CD reissue industry, as artists such as Elvis Costello, David Bowie, Yoko Ono, Frank Zappa, the estate of Nick Drake, Nine Inch Nails, Sugar, Robert Wyatt, and Mission of Burma allowed Rykodisc to issue their catalogs on CD. Rykodisc also re-released the SST Records-era recordings by the Meat Puppets. It also was responsible for the first release of the "I Am the Cosmos" LP by the late Chris Bell of Big Star, another band on the label.
left|thumb|Artwork designed by Conrad Warre for the inside of Rykodisc CD reissues (1993–1994); bottle green transparent jewel cases designed and developed by Warre with Philips Dupont Optical
Over the years, the label acquired Hannibal Records, Tradition Records, Gramavision (founded by Jonathan F. P. Rose), Emperor Norton Records, Restless Records and Cordless Recordings. Rykodisc also founded a distribution company, Ryko Distribution, and a music publishing company, Rykomusic. The label's catalog exceeds 1,200 titles.
In 1998, Chris Blackwell left Island Records and bought Rykodisc for a reported $35 million as a means of acquiring music marketing and distribution expertise for his new venture, a media company called Palm Pictures. In 1999, one year after the Blackwell buy-out, the office in Salem, Massachusetts, was closed, and many industry veterans were laid off. In 2001, Blackwell parted ways with Rykodisc. The label was then located in New York City with offices in Los Angeles and in Beverly, Massachusetts.
On March 23, 2006, it was announced that Warner Music Group acquired the Ryko Corporation for $67.5 million."Ryko bought by Warner." Ottawa (Ontario) Citizen, March 25, 2006, p. D3. The Zappa Family Trust and Ryko parted ways in 2012 with the Zappa Family Trust reacquiring Frank Zappa's recorded music catalogue and Universal Music Enterprises taking over distribution of the Zappa catalogue. Also in 2006, the independent publishing company Evergreen Copyrights purchased the Rykomusic publishing catalogue, among others. In September 2010, Evergreen was acquired by BMG Rights Management.
In 2009, Ryko Distribution was folded into Alternative Distribution Alliance. |
Rykodisc | Rykodisc artists | Rykodisc artists |
Rykodisc | See also | See also
List of record labels |
Rykodisc | References | References
Category:Record labels established in 1983
Category:Labels distributed by Warner Music Group
Category:Warner Music labels
Category:American jazz record labels
Category:Pop record labels
Category:Reissue record labels
Category:Rock record labels |
Rykodisc | Table of Content | short description, History, Rykodisc artists, See also, References |
Social history | Short description | Social history, often called "history from below", is a field of history that looks at the lived experience of the past. Historians who write social history are called social historians.
Social history came to prominence in the 1960s, spreading from schools of thought in the United Kingdom and France which posited that the Great Man view of history was inaccurate because it did not adequately explain how societies changed. Instead, social historians wanted to show that change arose from within society, complicating the popular belief that powerful leaders were the source of dynamism. While social history came from the Marxist view of history (historical materialism), the cultural turn and linguistic turn saw the number of sub-fields expand as well as the emergence of other approaches to social history, including a social liberal approach and a more ambiguous critical theory approach.
In its "golden age" it was a major field in the 1960s and 1970s among young historians, and still is well represented in history departments in Britain, Canada, France, Germany and the United States. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in US history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34-43 at p. 4 2; online at JSTOR In the history departments of British and Irish universities in 2014, of the 3410 faculty members reporting, 878 (26%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 841 (25%).See "History Online:Teachers of History" accessed 1/21/2014 |
Social history | "Old" social history | "Old" social history
There is an important distinction between old social history and new social history that exists in what are now sub-fields of social history that predate the 1960s. E. P. Thompson identified labour history as the central concern of new social historians because of its " Whiggish narratives", such as the term "labour movement" which, he says, erroneously suggests the constant progression toward the perfect future. The older social history included numerous topics that were not part of mainstream historiography, which was then political, military, diplomatic, constitutional history, the history of great men and intellectual history. It was a hodgepodge without a central theme, and it often included political movements, such as populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. |
Social history | The emergence of "new" social history | The emergence of "new" social history
The popular view is that new social history emerged in the 1960s with the publication of Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class (1963). Writing in 1966 in The Times Literary Supplement, Thompson described his approach as "history from below" and explained that it had come from earlier developments within the French Annales School.E. P. Thompson, “History From Below,” The Times Literary Supplement, April 7, 1966.
According to C. J. Coventry, new social history arose in the 1930s at the University of Cambridge with the Communist Party Historians Group. Citing the reflections of Eric Hobsbawm, a contemporary of Thompson's and a fellow member of the Historians' Group, Coventry shows that the "new" social history popularly associated with Thompson's "history from below" was in fact a conscious revival of historical materialism by young British Marxist intellectuals under the tutelage of the Cambridge economist Maurice Dobb. If so, the foundational text of social history is Karl Marx's The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), which is marked by its society-wide approach and consideration of everyday people. It was not until the 1960s, however, that social history gained popularity and scholarship flourished. This was when, according to Thompson, "social history truly came into being, with historians reflecting on their aristocratic and middle-class preoccupations, their veneration of elites (especially Great Men), their Protestant moralising and misanthropic tendencies". |
Social history | The definition of social history | The definition of social history
There are many definitions of social history, most of them isolated to national historiographies. The most consequential definition of social history is the one Thompson provided. Thompson saw his "history from below" approach as an attempt to reveal the "social nexus" through which broadscale change occurs.Thompson, “History From Below.” This is reflective of his historical materialism. However, Thompson's 1963 book was disproportionately concerned with the lived experience of forgotten or everyday people. The disparity between a society-wide approach (historical materialism) and the narrower preoccupation with giving voice to the voicesless (justice-seeking) is the basis of present-day confusion about the definition of social history. The confusion arose from Thompson's own inner political turmoil. Staughton Lynd sees Thompson's career as a gradual departure from Marxism until, in his last interview, he declined to describe himself as a Marxist. Where Thompson had said he did not believe in "theory with a capital T" and Marxism, Lynd shows that Thompson's departure was actually much more gradual, beginning with the 1956 Hungarian Uprising.Staughton Lynd, Doing History From the Bottom Up: On E. P. Thompson, Howard Zinn, and rebuilding the labor movement from below (Haymarket, eBook, 2014). The highly influential, but confused, definition used by Thompson was not resolved in part because of the cultural turn and the decline of Marxism on the left in the 1970s and 1980s. |
Social history | British and Irish social history | British and Irish social history
Social history is associated in the United Kingdom with the work of E. P. Thompson in particular, and his studies The Making of the English Working Class and Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act. Emerging after the second world war, it was consciously opposed to traditional history's focus on 'great men', which it counter-posed with 'History from below'.N. B. Harte, "Trends in publications on the economic and social history of Great Britain and Ireland, 1925-74." Economic History Review 30.1 (1977): 20-41. online
Thus in the UK social history has often had a strong political impetus, and can be contrasted sharply with traditional history's (partial) documentation of the exploits of the powerful, within limited diplomatic and political spheres, and its reliance on archival sources and methods (see historical method and archive) that exclude the voices of less powerful groups within society. Social history has used a much wider range of sources and methods than traditional history and source criticism, in order to gain a broader view of the past. Methods have often including quantitative data analysis and, importantly, oral history which creates an opportunity to glean perspectives and experiences of those people within society that are unlikely to be documented within archives. Eric Hobsbawm was an important UK social historian, who has both produced extensive social history of the UK, and has written also on the theory and politics of UK social history. Hobsbawn and E. P. Thompson were both involved in the pioneering History Workshop Journal and Past & Present.
Ireland has its own historiography.L. A. Clarkson, "The writing of Irish economic and social history since 1968." Economic History Review 33.1 (1980): 100-111. DOI: 10.2307/2595549 online |
Social history | American social history | American social history
In United States historiography, history from below is referred to as "history from the bottom-up" and is closely related to "peoples history", associated in popular consciousness with Howard Zinn and his 1980 book, A People's History of the United States. Charles Tilly argues the tasks of the social historian are 1) "documenting large structural changes; 2) reconstructing the experiences of ordinary people in the course of those changes; and (3) connecting the two".1985:P22 Americanist Paul E. Johnson recalls the heady early promise of the movement in the late 1960s:
The New Social History reached UCLA at about that time, and I was trained as a quantitative social science historian. I learned that "literary" evidence and the kinds of history that could be written from it were inherently elitist and untrustworthy. Our cousins, the Annalistes, talked of ignoring heroes and events and reconstructing the more constitutive and enduring "background" of history. Such history could be made only with quantifiable sources. The result would be a "History from the Bottom Up" that ultimately engulfed traditional history and, somehow, helped to make a Better World. Much of this was acted out with mad-scientist bravado. One well-known quantifier said that anyone who did not know statistics at least through multiple regression should not hold a job in a history department. My own advisor told us that he wanted history to become "a predictive social science." I never went that far. I was drawn to the new social history by its democratic inclusiveness as much as by its system and precision. I wanted to write the history of ordinary people—to historicize them, put them into the social structures and long-term trends that shaped their lives, and at the same time resurrect what they said and did. In the late 1960s, quantitative social history looked like the best way to do that.Paul E. Johnson, "Reflections: Looking Back at Social History," Reviews in American History Volume 39, Number 2, June 2011 online at Project MUSE
The Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 to bring together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history. It is still active and publishes Social Science History quarterly.See the SSHA website The field is also the specialty of the Journal of Social History, edited since 1967 by Peter Stearns. See Journal of Social History It covers such topics as gender relations; race in American history; the history of personal relationships; consumerism; sexuality; the social history of politics; crime and punishment, and history of the senses. Most of the major historical journals have coverage as well. However, after 1990 social history was increasingly challenged by cultural history, which emphasizes language and the importance of beliefs and assumptions and their causal role in group behavior.Lynn Hunt and Victoria Bonnell, eds., Beyond the Cultural Turn (1999). |
Social history | France | France
Social history has dominated French historiography since the 1920s, thanks to the central role of the Annales School. Its journal Annales focuses attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis.Peter Burke, The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–89 (1990) |
Social history | Germany | Germany
Social history developed within the West German discipline of history during the 1950s-60s as the successor to national history, which was discredited in the aftermath of National Socialism. The German brand of the "history of society" – Gesellschaftsgeschichte – has been known from its beginning in the 1960s for its application of sociological and political modernization theories to German history. Modernization theory was presented by Hans-Ulrich Wehler (1931–2014) and his Bielefeld School as the way to transform "traditional" German history, that is, national political history, centered on a few "great men," into an integrated and comparative history of German society encompassing societal structures outside politics. Wehler drew upon the modernization theory of Max Weber and concepts from Karl Marx, Otto Hintze, Gustav Schmoller, Werner Sombart and Thorstein Veblen.Roger Fletcher, "Recent Developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its Critics." German Studies Review 1984 7(3): 451-480. in Jstor
In the 1970s and early 1980s, German historians of society, led by Wehler and Jürgen Kocka of the "Bielefeld School", gained dominance in Germany by applying both modernization theories and social science methods. From the 1980s, however, they were increasingly criticized by proponents of the "cultural turn" for not incorporating culture in the history of society, for reducing politics to society, and for reducing individuals to structures. Historians of society inverted the traditional positions they criticized (analogously with Marx's inversion of Hegel). As a result, the problems involved in the positions criticized were not resolved, but only turned on their heads. The traditional focus on individuals was inverted in a modern focus on structures, the traditional focus on culture was inverted in a modern focus on structures, and traditional emphatic understanding was inverted in modern causal explanation.Chris Lorenz, "'Won't You Tell Me, Where Have All the Good Times Gone?' On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Modernization Theory for History." Rethinking History 2006 10(2): 171-200. Fulltext: Ebsco
Jürgen Kocka finds two meanings to "social history." At the simplest level, it was the subdivision of history that focused on social structures and processes. In that regard, it stood in contrast to political or economic history. The second meaning was broader, and the Germans called it Gesellschaftsgeschichte. It is the history of an entire society from a social-historical viewpoint.Jürgen Kocka, Industrial Culture and Bourgeois Society: Business, Labor, and Bureaucracy in Modern Germany, 1800-1918 (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), pp 275-97, at p. 276 The English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "[w]ithout social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible." While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in."
In Germany the Gesellschaftsgeschichte movement introduced a vast range of topics, as Kocka, a leader of the Bielefeld School recalls:
In the 1960s and 1970s, "social history" caught the imagination of a young generation of historians. It became a central concept – and a rallying point – of historical revisionism. It meant many things at the same time. It gave priority to the study of particular kinds of phenomena, such as classes and movements, urbanization and industrialization, family and education, work and leisure, mobility, inequality, conflicts and revolutions. It stressed structures and processes over actors and events. It emphasized analytical approaches close to the social sciences rather than by the traditional methods of historical hermeneutics. Social historians frequently sympathized with the causes (as they saw them) of the "little people", the underdog, popular movements, or the working class. Social history was both demanded and rejected as a vigorous revisionist alternative to the more established modes of history studies, in which the reconstruction of politics and ideas, the history of events and hermeneutic methods traditionally dominated.Kocka, Industrial Culture and Bourgeois Society p. 276 |
Social history | Hungarian social history | Hungarian social history
Before World War II, political history was in decline and an effort was made to introduce social history in the style of the French Annales School. After the war only Marxist interpretations were allowed., "In the lure of Geistesgeschichte : the theme of decline in Hungarian historiography and historical thinking in the first half of the twentieth century". European Review of History (2015) 22#3 pp 411-432. With the end of Communism in Hungary in 1989. Marxist historiography collapsed and social history came into its own, especially the study of the demographic patterns of the early modern period. Research priorities have shifted toward urban history and the conditions of everyday life., "Trends in contemporary Hungarian historical scholarship," Social History, (2009) 34#2 pp 250-260 |
Social history | Soviet Union and social history | Soviet Union and social history
When the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, large parts of the Soviet archives were opened. The historians' data base leapt from a limited range of sources to a vast array of records created by modern bureaucracies. Social history flourished.Sheila Fitzpatrick, "Impact of the Opening of Soviet Archives on Western Scholarship on Soviet Social History." Russian Review 74#3 (2015): 377-400. |
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