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Open Programming Language | Variable types | Variable types
The table below uses an example variable named var.
Data type Syntax Floating point var Integer var% Long integer var& String var$(length) |
Open Programming Language | Minutiae | Minutiae
OPL interfaced with advanced Psion Series 3 features by means of operating system CALLs, but in the later Psion Series 5mx this was changed to a so-called OPX library, stored in the system read-only memory (ROM), termed the Z drive. 'OPX' libraries were also made available for the Nokia 9210, Nokia 9300 and Nokia 9500 Communicators, adding OPXs routines for handling Short Message Service (SMS) and managing Bluetooth communication.
Other OPL features include those starting with a letter: g for graphical functions, m for menus, and d for dialogs. |
Open Programming Language | See also | See also
Psion Organiser
Symbian |
Open Programming Language | References | References |
Open Programming Language | External links | External links
The opl-dev project
OPL wiki on Internet Archive containing documents detailing OPL keywords, OPX interfaces and much other information
OPL Blog by Symbian, now dead, but old versions are available from the Internet Archive
Russian site about OPL
OPL programming tutorial
Category:Embedded systems
Category:Free mobile software
Category:Symbian OS
Category:Procedural programming languages
Category:BASIC programming language family
Category:Software using the GNU Lesser General Public License
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1984 |
Open Programming Language | Table of Content | Short description, Use, History, Examples, Testing dialog responses, Variable types, Minutiae, See also, References, External links |
Dhiravida Thelugar Munnetra Kazhagam | Use dmy dates | thumb|150px|right|G. Kamatchi Naidu, Founder President of DTMK
Dhiravida Telungar Munnetra Kazhagam (DTMK) (Dravidian Telugu Progressive Federation) is a political party in Tamil Nadu, India. The party general secretary is Dr. C.M.K. Reddy and the party president and founder is G. Kamatchi Naidu.
DTMK works for the interests of the Telugu-speaking minority in the state. The party demanded reservations for Telugu speakers in the state administration and possibilities for Telugu medium schooling.
DTMK has been in alliance with several parties including DMK, ADMK, BJP and INC. In the early 2010s, the party was merged with the DMK while the party president Kamatchi Naidu went on to start the Tamil Nadu Naidu Peravai. |
Dhiravida Thelugar Munnetra Kazhagam | References | References
Category:Political parties in Tamil Nadu
Category:Political parties with year of establishment missing |
Dhiravida Thelugar Munnetra Kazhagam | Table of Content | Use dmy dates, References |
Brodick Castle | Short description | thumb|alt=Brodick Castle Gardens|upright|The walled garden at Brodick Castle
Brodick Castle is a castle situated outside the port of Brodick on the Isle of Arran, an island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland. It was previously a seat of the Dukes of Hamilton, but is now owned by the National Trust for Scotland. The castle is a Category A listed building and the grounds are included in the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland. |
Brodick Castle | History | History |
Brodick Castle | Early and High Medieval | Early and High Medieval
A fortress has been on the site since at least the fifth century, when Gaelic invaders from Antrim expanded their kingdom of Dál Riata.
By the tenth century Norse influence had grown, and Arran formed part of Sudreys or Súðreyjar, administered either from Dublin or Orkney (Nordreys or Norðreyjar) and nominally under the control of the King of Norway. This can be deduced by the number of Scandinavian place-names on the island including Brodick, or Breiðvík (Broad Bay, also spelt variously Brethwic, Brathwik, Brethwik, Brathwic, Bradewik, and Braizay). The site is thought to have been a centre of relative importance, on account of its strategic position on the Firth of Clyde.
By the mid-thirteenth century Arran was part of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles ruled by two Gall Gaidheal kings, Magnus of Mann and Dougal of the Isles, sub-rulers of Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway. Alexander III of Scotland had inherited his father's desire to control the islands in order to stabilise his kingdom, and made numerous unsuccessful advances to that effect. In 1262 the Earl of Ross sacked and pillaged Skye with the king's blessing. King Hákon determined to avenge this slight and set out in July 1263, with a large fighting fleet (leiðangr) for Scotland.
After linking up with the fleets of Magnus and Dougal, and showing his might throughout the Hebrides, Hákon's force anchored in Lamlash Bay on Arran, where they were approached by envoys from the Scots King. The Scots envoys were unsuccessful, and battle was engaged at Largs, a short distance across the firth.
Although no rout, the Scots were victorious, and Hákon's forces retreated to Arran, and thence to Orkney to over-winter, where Hákon died. The ensuing Treaty of Perth in 1266 ceded the Sudreys to the Kingdom of Scotland. |
Brodick Castle | Interregnum and Wars of Independence | Interregnum and Wars of Independence
When both Alexander III and his heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway died, the Kingdom of Scotland was thrown into turmoil. In 1291, Edward I of England, was called on to choose the most suitable successor. John de Balliol was chosen and was forced to admit Edward as his suzerain. John defied Edward in 1295, and did not answer his request for assistance in his war in France. Edward invaded Scotland the following year and forced John to abdicate. At some point around this time an English garrison was stationed at Brodick. During Robert the Bruces's time in hiding, following his escape from the English after his coronation and defeat at the Battle of Methven, he is said to have had his legendary encounter with a spider on Arran.
On the behest of Robert the Bruce, James Douglas, Lord of Douglas, early in the winter of 1306/07 previous to their attack on Carrick, attacked forces supplying Brodick castle giving a first minor victory and gaining their forces much needed supplies.
Acting with Sir Robert Boyd of Kilmarnock, Douglas was able in January 1307 to dislodge the English from Brodick, one of the first castles to fall to Bruce's forces in his struggle to regain his country.McNamee, Colm (2022), The Wars of the Bruces: Scotland, England and Ireland 1306 - 1328, Birlinn Ltd., Edinburgh, p. 46, |
Brodick Castle | Late Middle Ages | Late Middle Ages
thumb|The arms of the Chief of Hamilton, showing the Lymphad of the Isles|left
In 1406 – the same year that James I was captured by English pirates and Robert III died – the castle was badly damaged by an English force that had sailed into Brodick bay. Further destruction was inflicted by John of Islay, Lord of the Isles, in 1455. At some point after 1470 the castle was granted by James III to his brother-in-law, James Hamilton, 1st Lord Hamilton. His son, James Hamilton, 2nd Lord Hamilton was created Earl of Arran in 1503. At this point Hamilton added the Lymphad of the Isles to his Armorial bearings |
Brodick Castle | The Hamiltons | The Hamiltons |
Brodick Castle | Earls of Arran | Earls of Arran
The castle had been rebuilt by the Earl by 1510 in the form of a tower house, but suffered at the hands of the Campbells and the MacLeans. During the "Rough Wooing" of Mary, Queen of Scots, Brodick castle was attacked by an English force led by the Earl of Lennox on behalf of Henry VIII, in revenge for the actions of the 2nd Earl. Lord Arran was the Regent of Scotland whilst Mary was in her infancy, and was second in line to the Scots throne. In 1543, he had been heavily involved in arranging the marriage of Mary to the Dauphin of France, prior to this she had been promised to Edward, Prince of Wales. Arran was rewarded for his efforts, however, and was created Duke of Châtellerault in the Peerage of France. During Regent Arran's tenure at Brodick he continued to enlarge and expand the castle.
In the summer of 1550 Andrew Hamilton and Dean John Slater worked on the building.James Balfour Paul, Accounts of the Treasurer, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911), pp. 436-7. In March 1552 live partridges and hares were sent to Brodick for the Regent's table and a special boring tool called a "wombill" was bought to make holes at the rabbit warren. In June a carpenter Peter Moffett made new doors. Some timber spars for the new building were supplied by the Laird of Luss on Loch Lomond.James Balfour Paul, Accounts of the Treasurer, vol. 10 (Edinburgh, 1913), pp. 67-8, 89, 185.
In May 1579 the Earl of Argyll took Brodick for James VI and Ninian Stewart was installed as keeper for the crown.HMC 6th Report: Earl of Argyll (London, 1877), p. 611. In 1602 Paul Hamilton, captain of Brodick for Marquess of Hamilton, with his companions all armed with pistols attacked a farmer Marrarat MacMillan at North Sannox and took his horse and cattle, and wool and plaids and imprisoned Duncan MacElloway at Brodick.Register of the Privy Council, vol. 6 (Edinburgh, 1884), p. 480. |
Brodick Castle | Dukes of Hamilton | Dukes of Hamilton
Brodick Castle did not escape the religious paroxysms that affected seventeenth century life (see the Wars of the Three Kingdoms). In 1639, Scotland was divided between the Presbyterianism of the Lords of the Congregation, and the Episcopalianism favoured by King Charles I. James Hamilton, 3rd marquess of Hamilton, the King's advisor on all things Scottish, was sent north to enforce the King's will, he had previously dissolved the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland when they had abolished the Episcopacy. Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, was the de facto ruler of Scotland and leader of the presbyterian faction. Argyll seized Hamilton's castle of Brodick. Hamilton was made a Duke in 1643 and recovered his castle the following year at the outbreak of the Scottish Civil War. It was lost again to the Campbells in 1646, as the Royalists fortunes foundered. The Duke was captured after the disastrous Battle of Preston, and faced the block in March 1649. He was succeeded by his brother William, Earl of Lanark, but the second Duke died of wounds received at the Battle of Worcester in 1651. The Duchy of Hamilton and Earldom of Arran passed to the first Duke's only surviving child, Anne. She had been unwittingly sent to Brodick for safety. In 1650, Oliver Cromwell's Roundheads had taken control of the castle and had extended it by building an Artillery battery to defend the Firth at this strategic position.
Duchess Anne returned to her estates in Lanarkshire and West Lothian and in 1656 married William Douglas, 1st Earl of Selkirk. Anne did not return to Brodick, however her husband the newly created Duke of Hamilton for life, used the castle as a base for hunting excursions.
In the following years Brodick was used mainly as an occasional sporting estate. In the nineteenth century, it became residence for the eldest son of the 10th Duke, styled the Marquess of Douglas and Clydesdale.
William, 11th Duke of Hamilton, married in 1843, Princess Marie of Baden, youngest daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden and Stéphanie de Beauharnais, adopted daughter of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1844, massive building work was undertaken at the castle, almost tripling the size of the building, under the architect James Gillespie Graham. The Twelfth Duke, William, had no male heirs, so although his titles passed to his distant cousin Alfred Douglas-Hamilton upon his death, he entailed the castle upon his only daughter the Lady Mary Louise Douglas-Hamilton. She married the 6th Duke of Montrose in 1906. Unlike in 1651, when the property also passed through the female line and the then spouse assumed the Hamilton name, at this time, after more than five hundred years, Brodick Castle was no longer possessed by someone bearing the Hamilton name. |
Brodick Castle | Today | Today
The Castle and gardens were acquired by the National Trust for Scotland from the Lady Jean Fforde in 1958, in lieu of death duties upon the death of her mother, the Dowager Duchess of Montrose. The 2017 obituary in The Times of London of Lady Jean (who, among other things, had worked at Bletchley Park, the principal centre of Allied code-breaking during the Second World War) quotes her as saying that the loss "of the castle and all its contents . . . was like losing my whole life.""Obituary: Lady Jean Fforde: Controversial countess who found code-cracking at Bletchley Park boring and sold the Earldom of Arran to pay for central heating." The Times. 16 October 2017.
The castle is open to the public during the summer, with Brodick Country Park open all year round. The site welcomed 68,423 visitors during 2019.
A black-and-white copy of William Woollett's engraving of the painting The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West can be seen at the castle.
Since 1972, an illustration of the castle has featured on the reverse side of twenty pound notes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland. The 1998 film The Governess, starring Minnie Driver, was filmed at Brodick Castle. |
Brodick Castle | Gardens | Gardens
Bee boles can be seen in the Walled Garden, which was built in 1710. |
Brodick Castle | See also | See also
Banknotes of Scotland (featured on design)
Home Farm, Brodick |
Brodick Castle | References | References |
Brodick Castle | Bibliography | Bibliography
Fordun, John of. Chronicle of the Scottish nation ed. Skene 1872.
ed. Groome, F.H. Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland, Thomas C. Jack, Edinburgh 1884
Marshall, Dr Rosalind. The Days of Duchess Anne, Tuckwell Press, East Lothian 2000 |
Brodick Castle | External links | External links
Brodick Castle and Country Park - official site
Category:Castles in North Ayrshire
Category:National Trust for Scotland properties
Category:Category A listed buildings in North Ayrshire
Category:Listed castles in Scotland
Category:Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes
Category:James Gillespie Graham buildings
Category:Gardens in North Ayrshire
Category:Historic house museums in North Ayrshire
Category:Isle of Arran
Category:Clan Stewart |
Brodick Castle | Table of Content | Short description, History, Early and High Medieval, Interregnum and Wars of Independence, Late Middle Ages, The Hamiltons, Earls of Arran, Dukes of Hamilton, Today, Gardens, See also, References, Bibliography, External links |
Bohnanza | Short description | thumb|A Bohnanza game-playing tournament in the Czech Republic
Bohnanza is a German-style card game based on the game mechanics of trading and politics, designed by Uwe Rosenberg and released in 1997 (in German) by Amigo Spiele and (in English) by Rio Grande Games. It is played with a deck of cards with comical illustrations of eleven different types of beans of varying scarcity, which the players are trying to plant and sell in order to earn money. The principal restriction is that players may only farm two or three types of beans at once (limited by the number of fields they own), but they obtain beans of all different types randomly from the deck and so must engage in trade with the other players to be successful.
The original game is for 3–5 players and takes about 1 hour to play, but the Rio Grande edition adds alternative rules to the official rulebook to allow for games for 2–7 players. The name Bohnanza is a pun on the words Bohne (German for "bean") and bonanza (an English word for "an exceptionally large and rich mineral deposit" as well as a reference to the long-running Western show Bonanza). |
Bohnanza | Rules | Rules |
Bohnanza | Cards | Cards
Name Total in Deck Number Needed to Harvest English German 1 2 3 4Coffee Bean Kaffeebohne 24 4 7 10 12Wax Bean Weinbrandbohne 22 4 7 9 11Blue Bean Blaue Bohne 20 4 6 8 10Chili Bean Feuerbohne 18 3 6 8 9Stink Bean Saubohne 16 3 5 7 8Green Bean Brechbohne 14 3 5 6 7Soy Bean Sojabohne 12 2 4 6 7Black-eyed Bean Augenbohne 10 2 4 5 6Red Bean Rote Bohne 8 2 3 4 5Garden Bean Gartenbohne 6 - 2 3 -Cocoa Bean Kakaobohne 4 - 2 3 4Field Bean Ackerbohnen 3 - 2 3 -
The Coffee, Wax and Cocoa Beans were added in an expansion in the German edition. In the English edition of the game, they are included in the standard set. They are also included in the 25th anniversary edition.
The English edition of the game changed the Weinbrandbohne (Brandy Bean) into the Wax Bean.
In German, blaue Bohnen is slang for bullets, explaining the illustration of the blue bean dressed as a cowboy.
In German, green beans are called Brechbohnen, from the verb brechen, meaning "to break" (as in "breaking" the beans from the bush in order to harvest them); but brechen in German can also mean "to vomit", explaining the illustration of the vomiting green bean.
Only included in the 25th anniversary Edition; Field Bean originally included in an expansion.
Only playable in a 4-5 player game. When Harvested, it grants the player an extra field by turning over the playmat to show three fields. |
Bohnanza | Setup | Setup
Each player is dealt a hand of cards to start (typically five cards, though hand size varies with expansion sets and number of players). A rule unique to Bohnanza is that cards in hand must be kept in the order in which they are dealt at all times; they may not be rearranged.
Each player has two fields (or three in a three-player game) in which to plant beans. In older editions of the game, a third field could be bought by any player at any point during the game for three coins, though in more recent editions this ability has been removed. Each field may contain any number of bean cards, but all beans in a field must be of the same bean type. If a bean of a type different from those already growing in a field is planted into that field, the beans previously in it must be "harvested" for coins. A field containing just one bean may not be harvested by a player unless all of their fields have 1 or fewer beans in them. Each player also has a trading area to hold cards gained through trades and a treasury to hold the player's earned coins.
Cards in the hand are kept hidden. Cards in trading areas and fields are visible to all players. The number of cards in each player's treasury is kept secret from the other players. The discard pile is face up, but only the top card is visible; players may not examine the pile. When the deck runs out, the discard pile is reshuffled and re-used as the deck. |
Bohnanza | Turn sequence | Turn sequence
During their turn, each player does the following:
They must play the first card in their hand (the one at the front; i.e., the one dealt to them earliest) into a field. This may result in them having to harvest beans!
They may play the next card in their hand into a field.
They must take the top two cards from the deck and place them face up into their trading area.
Trading opens. Players may make offers and trade cards from (and only from) their hands (but they may offer/trade any card(s) in their hands in any order) and the cards in the active player's trading area. Traded cards go into the recipient's trading area. Trade may only occur with the player whose turn it is. No cards may ever be traded from fields. No cards can ever get placed into a player's hand by trading. No cards that have been traded once may be traded again - once a bean has been traded it must be planted in a field of the person it has been traded with.
Trading ends whenever the player whose turn it is decides it should. At the end of trading, each player must plant all cards in their trading area into their fields. This may involve harvesting beans, possibly several times; take note of the order in which beans are planted into fields if there are more types of beans being planted than fields they are being planted into.
The player ends their turn by drawing cards from the deck, one by one, and placing them at the back of their hand (so they get played last). Again, the exact number of cards drawn here varies. If players started with a hand of five, three cards are drawn in this stage.
This turn sequence can be summarized with these four phrases: "Must plant, may plant," "Turn up two," "Trade and plant trades," and "Draw three cards." |
Bohnanza | Harvesting | Harvesting
Each bean card carries a list of how many beans of that type are needed in order to obtain one, two, three and four coins when harvesting a field. To harvest a field, a player counts the beans in it and consults the list to determine the largest amount of coins he or she can obtain from them. (If not enough beans were harvested, this may end up being none at all.) The player places that many of the cards face down in his or her treasury (each card has a coin on the back). The rest of the cards go on top of the discard pile, face up. Because some of the cards are set aside as coins, the number of cards in the deck becomes fewer with each reshuffle (in practice, the first reshuffle marks approximately halfway through the game).
As mentioned, a field containing just one bean may not be harvested by a player who also owns a field containing more than one bean. |
Bohnanza | Winning | Winning
When the deck runs out, the discard pile is reshuffled and re-used as the deck; this happens twice. The game ends instantly the third time the deck runs out. At that point, all players harvest all beans in their fields. The player with the most coins in their treasury wins. In case of a tie, the player with the most cards remaining in their hand wins the game.
Rules adapted from description at ToothyWiki:Bohnanza, as permitted by ToothyWiki:CopyrightMatters |
Bohnanza | Expansions | Expansions
Uwe Rosenberg and Hanno Girke have designed a number of expansions to the game, some of which were released as limited editions by Lookout Games.
Erweiterungs-Set (1997)Adds three more bean types, allowing up to seven people to play. These beans were included in the English edition of the game. This expansion was revised by Amigo in 2001 to include an additional bean type and Order cards.
La Isla Bohnitâ (1999)Adds two new bean types, trading ships, which help bean trading, and pirate ships, which steal beans. While the name parodies Madonna's song, the game is Rosenberg's answer to Seafarers of Catan.
High Bohn (2000)A wild west-themed expansion (cf. High Noon) which adds buildings which can be purchased when a player cashes in a field. There is one building type for each bean type, and they each give the player a different advantage to planting, harvesting or trading. Buildings also add to a player's score at the end of the game. This expansion was revised by Amigo in 2001 to include Prohibohn, an expansion for Al Cabohne. It was released in English by Rio Grande as High Bohn Plus in 2004. The English version contains the additional material from the Amigo revision as well as the cards from the Erweiterungset revision.
Mutabohn (2001)A GM-themed expansion. In Mutabohn, players may "mutate" their beans into less-valuable beans, allowing them to plant different crops in the same field. Bonus cards award points for specific sequences of mutations.
Ladybohn (2002)Adds female versions of the bean types available. Players can earn more thalers by cashing in a field with a female bean at the top. Allows a two player game. This has later (2007) been reworked as Ladybohn: Manche Mögen's Heiss!
Bohnaparte (2003)A Napoleonic expansion where players play Bohnanza to finance a military campaign to conquer the Bohnreich. Girke describes this game as "Bohnanza meets Risk".
Dschingis Bohn (2003)Another military expansion where Mongols attack the Bohnreich (cf. Genghis Khan). Dschingis Bohn can be combined with Bohnaparte to allow seven player games. A combined version of Bohnaparte and Dschingis Bohn was released in both German and English in 2004.
Telebohn (2004)An expansion in which hostile takeovers replace trading.
The Bohnentaler (2004)Adds a plastic playing piece which allows a player to draw four cards instead of three. A player can only take the piece if they have enough unharvested beans in his fields.
Bohnröschen (2007)An expansion where the players are princes hacking through the briars to reach Sleeping Beauty in her castle. Each step through the briars is represented by a card that needs to be fulfilled in game terms e.g., harvest exactly one bean from a field, and so on) before the player can move on to the next step. This is the first expansion that explicitly states that it needs either Bohnanza or Ladybohn: Manche Mögen's Heiss! to play, but many of the older expansions will work with either base game.
Auf der schwäb'schen Eisenbohn (2008)An expansion that adds a train that travels between five cities, each of which buy beans from the players at slightly different prices. The name is derived from the German folk song "Auf de Schwäb’sche Eisenbahne".
Bohnedikt (2009)An expansion that introduces two new types of bean fields, churches and cemeteries. Pope Benedict himself appears in the game as a wild card that can make decrees that affect trading. |
Bohnanza | Spinoffs | Spinoffs
Bohnanza has inspired six spinoffs; additionally, one Amigo card game, Nicht die Bohne, is named in parody of the game.
Space Beans (1999) A simpler game than Bohnanza. Players have one "public" and one "secret" field and can harvest when the number of beans in a field matches the number on a bean, for that number of points. The first player to harvest 30 beans wins.
Al Cabohne (2000) A mafia-themed spinoff (cf. Al Capone) allowing solitaire and two-player games.
Bean Trader (2002) A board game based on Bohnanza, released by Amigo and Rio Grande. The German version is called Bohnhansa which elaborates the pun as Hansestadt refers to a city in the Hanseatic League (i.e. a free port).
Rabohnzel (2005) A spinoff which adds magic to the game of Bohnanza
Bohnkick (2006) A card game released in time for the FIFA World Cup 2006 in Germany. It's a soccer themed game with beans playing soccer. Most of the beans are caricatures of real soccer players (i.e. Ronaldinho, David Beckham, Zinedine Zidane etc. with Pierluigi Collina as referee)
Kannibohne (2006) A two-player cannibal themed spinoff where the players have magic abilities which can be used to attack each other. These abilities depends on the beans planted.
Ladybohn: Manche Mögen's Heiss! (2007) ("Ladybean: Some like it hot"): This is a standalone version of Ladybohn. The title refers to the 1959 Marilyn Monroe movie Some Like It Hot and the cover depicts a female bean in Monroe's famous air vent pose from The Seven-Year Itch. |
Bohnanza | Reviews | Reviews
Pyramid |
Bohnanza | References | References |
Bohnanza | External links | External links
Amigo's official Bohnanza homepage
Rio Grande's official Bohnanza homepage
Video overview
Category:Card games introduced in 1997
Category:Negotiation tabletop games
Category:Dedicated deck card games
Category:Uwe Rosenberg games
Category:Amigo Spiele games
Category:Rio Grande Games games |
Bohnanza | Table of Content | Short description, Rules, Cards, Setup, Turn sequence, Harvesting, Winning, Expansions, Spinoffs, Reviews, References, External links |
James Mackay | '''James Mackay''' | James Mackay may refer to:
James Mackay (British Army officer) (1718–1785), captain in the British Army during the French and Indian War
James Mackay (New Zealand politician, born 1804) (1804–1875), New Zealand MP
James Mackay (New Zealand politician, born 1831) (1831–1912), New Zealand farmer, explorer and member of the Auckland Provincial Council
James Alexander Kenneth Mackay (1859–1935), Australian politician, writer and military leader
James Mackay, 1st Earl of Inchcape (1852–1932), British colonial administrator
James Mackay (cricketer) (1880–1953), Australian cricketer
James Mackay (rugby union) (1905–1985), New Zealand rugby union player
James MacKay (Georgia politician) (1919–2004), US representative from Georgia
James MacKay (New Hampshire politician), member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
James Mackay, Baron Mackay of Clashfern (born 1927), Scottish lawyer and former Lord Chancellor
James A. Mackay (1936–2007), Scottish historian and philatelist
James Mackay (police officer), deputy chief constable of Tayside police
James Mackay (film producer) (born 1954), friend and collaborator of Derek Jarman
James Mackay (actor) (born 1984), Australian actor
James Townsend Mackay (1775–1862), Scottish botanist who lived in Ireland
Jim "Bones" Mackay, golf caddy for Phil Mickelson
Jimmy Mackay (1943–1998), Australian footballer |
James Mackay | See also | See also
James McKay (disambiguation)
James Mackey (disambiguation)
James Mackie (disambiguation) |
James Mackay | Table of Content | '''James Mackay''', See also |
The Wanderer (Massachusetts newspaper) | Infobox newspaper
| The Wanderer is a weekly newspaper that serves the "Tri-town area" of Marion, Massachusetts, Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, and Rochester, Massachusetts in southeastern Massachusetts. The Wanderer is published by Wanderer Com Inc., at 55 County Road in Mattapoisett. |
The Wanderer (Massachusetts newspaper) | History | History
The Wanderer was first published in 1992 It was named after Wanderer (1879), the last whaling ship built in Mattapoisett.Jim Bernhard. Porcupine, Picayune, and Post: How Newspapers Get Their Names. 2007. |
The Wanderer (Massachusetts newspaper) | References | References |
The Wanderer (Massachusetts newspaper) | External links | External links
Official site
Category:Weekly newspapers published in Massachusetts
Category:Newspapers established in 1992
Category:1992 establishments in Massachusetts |
The Wanderer (Massachusetts newspaper) | Table of Content | Infobox newspaper
, History, References, External links |
FSC Żuk | More references | thumb|Żuk A15 serving as a fire engine
thumb|FSC Żuk A-07
thumb|Żuk A-11 B pickup-truck
The Żuk (pl. beetle) is a van and light truck produced in Lublin, Poland, between 1958 and 1998 by FSC. It was based on FSO Warszawa, which in turn was licensed from the Soviet passenger car GAZ-M20 Pobeda. The chassis, suspension and engine from FSO Warszawa formed the basis of the Żuk and the Nysa light vans designed in the late 1950s. About were manufactured.
The Żuk was mainly sold to state organizations, but also to individuals. After 1989, with the liberalization of the Polish economy, the Żuk was able to maintain sales to the traditional markets and expand the number sold to individual consumers. The final few years of production was in parallel to its successor, the Lublin van, as a cheaper alternative.
The Żuk came in a range of body styles. The most common were van and light 1.1-ton pickup truck. Rarer variants were minibus and a long-cab truck. Rare for a van, it had independent front suspension. It was very angular, with a number of wide channels running along the side of the body and a completely flat windscreen/windshield. After about ten years in production the front of the cab was restyled, from then on the distinctive side channels no longer continued around onto the front to meet the grille. No further changes were made, except a minor change to the number of vents located above the headlights.
The Żuk was a favourite of farmers, and a common place to find groups of them was at any local market when they were used to transport crops from the fields to the farmers’ own stalls. The Polish postal service (Poczta Polska) used large numbers of Żuks painted in a dull orange colour, and local fire services used them as personnel carriers or even as mini fire engines in country districts.
The Żuk was shipped to the Soviet Union in the panel van form. From the 1970s to about 1990, it was also manufactured in Egypt under licence as ELTRAMCO RAMZES. |
FSC Żuk | Variants | Variants
There were two main types of Żuk trucks, the ones with the original slightly "rounded" front and the more angular improved version. The change was made at the end of 1960s. Other modifications were indicated with suffixes M, B and C (for example A11M, A15B or A151C).
A03: older version pickup with optional tarpaulin cover
A05: older version van, rear compartment has only rear window, no side windows
A06: newer version van, similar to A05 except the nose
A07: van for cargo or passengers ("tow-os"), similar to A06, the rear compartment has side windows
A09: older version flatbed truck with optional tarpaulin covered box
A11: newer version of the A09 flatbed truck
A13: newer version pickup, similar to A03
A15: firefighter truck, first based on the A05 then later on the A06 van, with reinforced roof structure, added ladder and firefighting equipment storage on the roof, with a portable fire pump and additional equipment (hoses, pickaxe, etc.) in the rear compartment. Also added rotating emergency lights above the cab and a siren (electronic or electromechanical).
A151: firefighter truck similar to A15, with a front-mounted fire pump. The pump was powered by the crankshaft of the truck's engine via an electromagnetically actuated clutch
A16: "crew cab" version of the A11, with shorter bed |
FSC Żuk | References | References
Category:Vehicles of Poland
Category:FSC vehicles
Category:Science and technology in Poland
Category:Vans |
FSC Żuk | Table of Content | More references, Variants, References |
James Hanson | '''James Hanson''' | James Hanson may refer to:
* James Hanson, Baron Hanson (1922–2004), English industrialist
Jimmy Hanson (footballer, born 1904) (1904–?), English footballer for Manchester United
James Hanson (footballer, born 1987), English footballer for Grimsby Town
Jamie Hanson (born 1995), English footballer for Derby County
James Hanson (rugby union) (born 1988), Australian rugby union player (hooker) for Queensland Reds
James C. Hanson (1862–1946), American politician |
James Hanson | See also | See also
James Hansen (disambiguation) |
James Hanson | Table of Content | '''James Hanson''', See also |
Space hopper | Short description | thumb|A space hopper
A space hopper (also known as a moon hopper, skippyball, kangaroo ball, bouncer, hippity hop, hoppity hop, sit and bounce, or hop ball) is a rubber ball (similar to an exercise ball) with handles that allow one to sit on it without falling off. The user can attempt to hop around on the toy, using its elastic properties to move forward.
The term "space hopper" is more common in the United Kingdom. The toy is less familiar in the United States and may be known as a "hoppity hop", "hippity hop", or a "sit and bounce". A similar toy, popular in the United States in the 1980s, was the pogo ball, which has a hard plastic ring encircling the ball instead of a handle. |
Space hopper | Use | Use
The space hopper is a heavy rubber ball about in diameter, with two rubber handles protruding from the top. A valve at the top allows the ball to be inflated by a bicycle pump or car tire pump.
A child can sit on top, holding the two handles, and bounce up and down until the ball leaves the ground. By leaning, the driver can make the ball bounce in a particular direction. In practical terms, this is a very inefficient form of locomotion, but its simplicity, ease of use, low cost, and cheerful appearance appeal to children. |
Space hopper | History | History
thumb|right|Sun's Hoppity Horse, from the Children's Museum of Indianapolis collection
The space hopper was invented by Aquilino Cosani of Ledragomma, an Italian company that manufactured toy rubber balls. He patented the idea in Italy in 1968, and in the United States in 1971. Cosani called the toy "Pon-Pon".
Space hoppers were introduced to the United Kingdom in 1969. The Cambridge Evening News contained an advertisement for the hopper in November of that year and described it as a trend. The space hopper became a major craze for several years and remained widely popular through the 1980s. The toy is sometimes considered a symbol of the 1970s.
The original space hopper in the United Kingdom was manufactured by Mettoy (Mettoy-Corgi). Wembley made a similar model, which had smooth handles rather than the ribbed original. The orange kangaroo design is now available in adult-sized versions in the UK.
In the United States, the first mass-marketed hopping ball was a version of an earlier European toy—the Hoppity Hop, released by the Sun company after it introduced the ball in 1968 at the American International Toy Fair in New York.
Within the first three months, more than 300,000 units were sold across the country. Because of market and media saturation of this toy, any such ball, regardless of origin, is now generally known in the US by that name.
The earliest Hoppity Hops were made of rubber (usually red or blue) with a round ring handle on top and an automotive tire valve for inflation. In the 1970s, Sun introduced various character versions of the Hoppity Hop, such as the Hoppity Horse or Disney's Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck (with hard plastic versions of the character's head attached to the ball).
The Hoppity Hop sold steadily for decades, but by the 1990s, sales began to slip due to increased competition from foreign hoppers.
According to advertising materials, the Hoppity Hop's original targets were both adults and children. Since the balls only inflated to around , however, it is doubtful that any but the shortest adults could have gotten much use out of one.
The European "Hop!" balls appeared in the beginning of the 1990s and are still available. Made by Italy's Ledragomma/Ledraplastic, these are essentially an exercise ball with a handle attached. The sizes of these balls range from the "Hop! 45" to the "Hop! 66" (66 cm, about 26 in).
The Hop! 66 is still primarily child-sized. Demand for truly adult-proportioned hopping balls was met with two notable items: The first was Kitt 2000 Velp, of the Netherlands Mega Skippyballs, a large hopping ball that, by virtue of its size, was intended only for adult use. It came in three sizes: , , and .
The Mega Skippyballs are made of extra-strong vinyl, and in the Netherlands, there are various Skippyball races and championships. |
Space hopper | References | References |
Space hopper | External links | External links
The Space Hopper Forums
History
"If you hadn't one, you were hopping mad" – article on the toy
Category:Physical activity and dexterity toys
Category:Rubber toys
Category:Products introduced in 1968 |
Space hopper | Table of Content | Short description, Use, History, References, External links |
Frank Malzone | Short description | Frank James Malzone (February 28, 1930 – December 29, 2015) was an American Major League Baseball third baseman who played for the Boston Red Sox (1955–65) and California Angels (1966). |
Frank Malzone | Early years | Early years
Malzone was born on February 28, 1930, in the Bronx, New York. He was the son of an Italian immigrant, Francis Malzone, and Pauline (Dazago) Malzone. He was signed as a free agent out of Samuel Gompers High School by the Boston Red Sox in 1947, and was the first Gompers graduate to reach the major leagues. |
Frank Malzone | Career | Career
Malzone spent 11 seasons with Boston and is among the all-time Red Sox leaders in several categories. He batted .276 with 131 home runs and 716 runs batted in in 1359 games. He finished up with the Angels, playing 82 games in 1966. |
Frank Malzone | Minor league and military career | Minor league and military career
In 1948, shortly after turning 18, the Red Sox assigned Malzone to the Milford Red Sox. The team was located in Milford, Delaware, part of the Eastern Shore League. He had a .304 batting average that year. In 1949, he was assigned to the Oneonta Red Sox of the Canadian-American League, where he hit .329, with 107 runs scored and 92 runs batted in, with 26 doubles and 26 triples. He suffered an ankle injury in 1950, and played in only two games. In 1951, he played for the Scranton Red Sox in the Eastern League, but served in the U.S. Army in 1952 and 1953. He played for the Louisville Colonels of the American Association in 1954 and 1955, hitting .270 and .310 respectively. |
Frank Malzone | Major league career | Major league career
thumb|left|160px|Malzone in 1965
Malzone made his Boston debut in September 1955, playing in six games for the Red Sox that year. On September 20, 1955, he went 6-for-10 in a doubleheader against Baltimore. In 1956, he started out with the Red Sox and played in 27 games, but was hitting poorly. He was sent to the San Franscisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League, playing in 87 games. Some in the organization thought the death of his 15-month old daughter Suzanne weighed heavily on Malzone.
In 1957, in his first full season with the Red Sox, he became the starting third baseman, and hit .292 and had a career-high 103 RBI. He tied an American League record for a third baseman with 10 assists in a game. He became the first player to lead the league at his position in games played, putouts, errors, assists, double plays and fielding percentage. He received the inaugural Gold Glove Award at third base, which was given to only one player in both leagues for each position in 1957. Casey Stengel also chose him as a reserve for the 1957 American League All-Star Team.
In 1958, Malzone led the league with 627 at-bats, games played (playing in every Red Sox game), and hit a career-high .295. Malzone had been third in the league in games played in 1957 (153), would be second in 1959 (154), and fifth in 1960 (152). The American League regular season went from 154 games to 162 games in 1961 (followed by the National League in 1962). Malzone played in over 150 games seven years in a row (1957-1963), and had a streak of playing in 475 consecutive games.
Through 1961, he tied an American League record by leading all third basemen in double plays for five seasons (with Ken Keltner), and was the first to do so in five consecutive seasons, both of which still stand as of 2024. As of 2024, Malzone was 34th all time in double plays made by third basemen, even though only playing 12 years. Malzone enjoyed his best season in 1962, batting .283 with 21 home runs and 95 RBI. When Red Sox legend Carl Yastrzemski joined the team in 1961, Malzone took Yastrzemski under his wing.
He was an All-Star at third base eight times (1957, 1958, twice in 1959, twice in 1960, 1963, and 1964). From 1959 to 1962, there were two All-Star Games annually, the second game to raise money for the players' pension fund. In 1959's second All-Star Game, Malzone hit a home run against future hall of fame pitcher Don Drysdale. Malzone won three straight Gold Glove Awards; in 1957 for both leagues, and in 1958-1959 for the American League. He was the last American League third baseman to win a Gold Glove prior to Brooks Robinson's 16-year run at third base.Murphy, Brian. "These rookies took home a Gold Glove," MLB.com, Sunday, November 5, 2023. Retrieved November 29, 2023.
The Red Sox released Malzone after the 1965 season, but informed him he would have a place with the team once he retired. In 1966, Malzone's final season as a player, he played 82 games with the California Angels, batting only .206.
In his playing career, Malzone compiled a total record of a .274 lifetime batting average, 133 home runs, 728 RBI, 647 runs, 239 doubles, 21 triples, and 14 stolen bases in 1,441 games. |
Frank Malzone | Scouting and consulting | Scouting and consulting
After leaving the Angels, Malzone became a scout for the Red Sox in New England. He was an advance scout, following other teams the Red Sox played in the 1967 pennant race and World Series and providing reports on these opponents. In total, he was an advance scout for 28 years. He also did instructional work with Red Sox players, such as Rico Petrocelli and Jim Rice. He remained on the Red Sox payroll as a "player development consultant" for many years after his retirement from scouting.
Malzone was inducted into the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame in its inaugural Class of 1995. |
Frank Malzone | Death | Death
He died on December 29, 2015.Frank Malzone, slugging Red Sox third baseman; at 85 |
Frank Malzone | See also | See also
List of Gold Glove Award winners at third base |
Frank Malzone | References | References |
Frank Malzone | External links | External links
Category:1930 births
Category:2015 deaths
Category:American League All-Stars
Category:American people of Italian descent
Category:Boston Red Sox players
Category:Boston Red Sox scouts
Category:California Angels players
Category:Gold Glove Award winners
Category:Major League Baseball third basemen
Category:Sportspeople from Needham, Massachusetts
Category:Baseball players from Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Category:Baseball players from the Bronx
Category:20th-century American sportsmen |
Frank Malzone | Table of Content | Short description, Early years, Career, Minor league and military career, Major league career, Scouting and consulting, Death, See also, References, External links |
Gerry Fitt, Baron Fitt | # | redirect Gerry Fitt |
Gerry Fitt, Baron Fitt | Table of Content | # |
Finn Brothers | Short description | The Finn Brothers are a New Zealand musical duo consisting of brothers Neil and Tim Finn. In June 1993 both members were awarded the OBE for their contribution to music.
The two brothers began making music together at a young age; later, when Neil was 18, he was invited to join older brother Tim in Split Enz. Neil would go on to write one of the band's biggest hits, "I Got You". Tim released his first solo album Escapade before leaving Split Enz, and the band folded soon after. Neil started his own group, Crowded House and subsequently recorded two solo albums after Crowded House split in 1996. He reformed Crowded House in 2007, releasing three albums since then. Neil and Tim have also released a series of separate solo albums.
After working on a few songs with Neil, Tim joined Crowded House for the Woodface album and accompanying tour in 1991. |
Finn Brothers | History | History |
Finn Brothers | ''Woodface'' and ''Finn'' | Woodface and Finn
Tim and Neil intended to start the Finn brothers project after a three-week song writing spree in 1989. However, most of the songs written during this time were deemed suitable for inclusion on a Crowded House album and they appeared on Woodface, which was released in 1991 and led to Tim joining Crowded House. Many of the original demo recordings from these sessions were subsequently released as B-sides on Finn Brothers singles and recently collected on a vinyl re-release of Finn. Tim left Crowded House while they were touring Europe in support of the Woodface album.
Tim and Neil reconvened in 1995, and the eclectic, lo-fi album which resulted was simply called Finn. In the UK the duo changed both their name and that of the album to Finn Brothers, to avoid confusion with a band going under the moniker Fin. This title was kept for all future collaborations. However re-releases of the original album in Australia and New Zealand still go by the original title Finn. |
Finn Brothers | ''Everyone Is Here'' | Everyone Is Here
Their second album, Everyone Is Here was released in 2004. It was recorded twice, once in upstate New York with producer Tony Visconti, bassist Bones Hillman and Ross Burge on drums, then again six months later in Los Angeles with Crowded House producer Mitchell Froom and different session musicians. Some of the songs from the first recording session were kept as B sides and later appeared on a special edition of the album. The album featured the Split Enz song "Edible Flowers", the inspiration for the music video. The music video features two people in a donkey suit, however its wearers cannot be seen. In the 2005 tour, Neil and Tim Finn wore a donkey suit onto stage for many performances also.
Following the Boxing Day tsunami, The Finn Brothers appeared at the Wave Aid fundraising concert in Sydney to help raise funds for aid organisations working in disaster affected areas. As well as their own material, they performed a cover of Hunters and Collectors' "Throw Your Arms Around Me." |
Finn Brothers | Television and film | Television and film
Their song, "Anything Can Happen" was used in the first episode of Scrubs' fifth season, My Intern's Eyes.
The song was used when we first meet Keith Dudemeister (albeit through his eyes) as he walks into his first day at Sacred Heart.
This song was also used on the final session of the last day of the 2005 England vs. Australia Ashes cricket series on Channel 4 Television, at the end of the last day of cricket being shown on British terrestrial television.
The song "Anything Can Happen" was also featured in movie Aurora Borealis.
Their song "Luckiest Man Alive" was played during the closing credits of the television broadcast of the 2005 Indianapolis 500. |
Finn Brothers | Discography | Discography
This discography relates to releases by The Finn Brothers. See Neil Finn's discography, Tim Finn's discography, Crowded House discography and Split Enz discography for other works by the Finn Brothers. |
Finn Brothers | Studio albums | Studio albums
YearTitlePeak chart positionsCertifications(sales thresholds)NZAUSAustralian (ARIA) chart peaks:
Top 50 peaks:
Top 100 peaks to December 2010:
"Suffer Never": N.B. The HP column displays the highest peak reached.BEL(Fla)NEDUKUK chart peaks:
Finn, "Suffer Never" and "Angel's Heap":
Everyone Is Here, "Won't Give in", "Nothing Wrong with You", and "Edible Flowers": 1995Finn 814——152004Everyone Is Here 1227628AUS: Gold
UK: Silver "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |
Finn Brothers | Singles | Singles
YearTitlePeak chart positionsAlbumNZAUSUKUS AAA1995"Suffer Never"127029— Finn"Angel's Heap"24—41—2004"Won't Give In"1675268 Everyone Is Here"Nothing Wrong with You"35—31—2005"Anything Can Happen"——32—2005"Part of Me, Part of You"18—32— "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |
Finn Brothers | References | References |
Finn Brothers | External links | External links
Finn Brothers Official Fan Club Notice Board
Frenz Official Fan Forum
Enzology – Radio NZ's Split Enz documentary site
Seven Worlds Fanpage
Something So Finn
[ Allmusic Biography]
Finnatics – German language fan page
Category:New Zealand pop rock groups
Category:Sibling musical duos
Category:Male musical duos
Category:Finn family |
Finn Brothers | Table of Content | Short description, History, ''Woodface'' and ''Finn'', ''Everyone Is Here'', Television and film, Discography, Studio albums, Singles, References, External links |
Bill Deedes, Baron Deedes | # | redirect Bill Deedes |
Bill Deedes, Baron Deedes | Table of Content | # |
Icelanders | short description | Icelanders () are an ethnic group and nation who are native to the island country of Iceland. They speak Icelandic, a North Germanic language.
Icelanders established the country of Iceland in mid 930 CE when the (parliament) met for the first time. Iceland came under the reign of Norwegian, Swedish and Danish kings but regained full sovereignty from the Danish monarchy on 1 December 1918, when the Kingdom of Iceland was established. On 17 June 1944, Iceland became a republic. Lutheranism is the predominant religion. Historical and DNA records indicate that around 60 to 80 percent of the male settlers were of Norse origin (primarily from Western Norway) and a similar percentage of the women were of Gaelic stock from Ireland and peripheral Scotland. |
Icelanders | History | History
Iceland is a geologically young land mass, having formed an estimated 20 million years ago due to volcanic eruptions on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. One of the last larger islands to remain uninhabited, the first human settlement date is generally accepted to be 874, although there is some evidence to suggest human activity prior to the Norse arrival.Jónsson et al., 1991, pp. 17–23 |
Icelanders | Initial migration and settlement | Initial migration and settlement
220px|right|thumb|Map showing Iceland in northern Europe
The first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson, who went off course due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands. His reports led to the first efforts to settle the island. Flóki Vilgerðarson (b. 9th century) was the first Norseman to sail to Iceland intentionally. His story is documented in the manuscript, and he is said to have named the island Ísland (Iceland). The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfur Arnarson. He settled with his family in around 874, at a place he named "Bay of Smokes", or Reykjavík in Icelandic.Þórðarson, c. 1200
Following Ingólfur, and also in 874, another group of Norwegians set sail across the North Atlantic Ocean with their families, livestock, slaves, and possessions, escaping the domination of the first King of Norway, Harald Fairhair. They traveled in their Viking longships to the island of Iceland. These people were primarily of Norwegian, Irish or Gaelic Scottish origin. The Irish and the Scottish Gaels were either slaves or servants of the Norse chiefs, according to the Icelandic sagas, or descendants of a "group of Norsemen who had settled in Scotland and Ireland and intermarried with Gaelic-speaking people".Fiske et al., 1972, p. 4 Genetic evidence suggests that approximately 62% of the Icelandic maternal gene pool is derived from Ireland and Scotland, which is much higher than other Scandinavian countries, although comparable to the Faroese, while 37% is of Nordic origin. About 20–25% of the Icelandic paternal gene pool is of Gaelic origin, with the rest being Nordic.
The Icelandic Age of Settlement () is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930, at which point most of the island had been claimed and the (Althing), the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was founded at Þingvellir.Þorgilsson, c. 1100 |
Icelanders | Hardship and conflict | Hardship and conflict
220px|right|thumb|Rock of law in Þingvellir was used to make speeches.
In 930, on the Þingvellir () plain near Reykjavík, the chieftains and their families met and established the Alþingi, Iceland's first national assembly. However, the Alþingi lacked the power to enforce the laws it made. In 1262, struggles between rival chieftains left Iceland so divided that King Haakon IV of Norway was asked to step in as a final arbitrator for all disputes, as part of the Old Covenant. This is known as the Age of the Sturlungs.Byock, 1990
Iceland was under Norwegian leadership until 1380, when the Royal House of Norway died out. At this point, both Iceland and Norway came under the control of the Danish Crown. With the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. This meant a loss of independence for Iceland, which led to nearly 300 years of decline: perhaps largely because Denmark and its Crown did not consider Iceland to be a colony to be supported and assisted. In particular, the lack of help in defense led to constant raids by marauding pirates along the Icelandic coasts.Fiske et al., 1972, p. 5
Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Iceland's fish and homespun wool. This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland's trade, and no new ships were built as a result. In 1602, Iceland was forbidden to trade with other countries by order of the Danish Government, and in the 18th century climatic conditions had reached an all-time low since Settlement.
220px|right|thumb|Laki erupted in 1783–84 with catastrophic consequences for Iceland.
In 1783–84, Laki, a volcanic fissure in the south of the island, erupted. The eruption produced about of basalt lava, and the total volume of tephra emitted was 0.91 km3.Global Volcanism Program, 2007 The aerosols that built up caused a cooling effect in the Northern Hemisphere. The consequences for Iceland were catastrophic, with approximately 25–33% of the population dying in the famine of 1783 and 1784. Around 80% of sheep, 50% of cattle, and 50% of horses died of fluorosis from the 8 million tons of fluorine that were released.Stone, 2004 This disaster is known as the Mist Hardship (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin).
In 1798–99, the Alþingi was discontinued for several decades, eventually being restored in 1844. It was moved to Reykjavík, the capital, after being held at Þingvellir for over nine centuries. |
Icelanders | Independence and prosperity | Independence and prosperity
thumb|220px|left|Statue of Jón Sigurðsson in Reykjavík
The 19th century brought significant improvement in the Icelanders' situation. A protest movement was led by Jón Sigurðsson, a statesman, historian, and authority on Icelandic literature. Inspired by the romantic and nationalist currents from mainland Europe, Jón protested strongly, through political journals and self-publications, for 'a return to national consciousness' and for political and social changes to be made to help speed up Iceland's development.Fiske et al., 1972, p. 6
In 1854, the Danish government relaxed the trade ban that had been imposed in 1602, and Iceland gradually began to rejoin Western Europe economically and socially. With this return of contact with other peoples came a reawakening of Iceland's arts, especially its literature. Twenty years later in 1874, Iceland was granted a constitution. Icelanders today recognize Jón's efforts as largely responsible for their economic and social resurgence.
Iceland gained full sovereignty and independence from Denmark in 1918 after World War I. It became the Kingdom of Iceland. The King of Denmark also served as the King of Iceland but Iceland retained only formal ties with the Danish Crown. On 17 June 1944 the monarchy was abolished and a republic was established on Jón Sigurðsson's 133rd birthday. This ended nearly six centuries of ties with Denmark. |
Icelanders | Demographics and society | Demographics and society |
Icelanders | Genetics | Genetics
220px|thumb|right|The last written records of the Norse Greenlanders are from a 1408 marriage in Hvalsey Church – today the most well-preserved of the Norse ruins.
Due to their small founding population and history of relative isolation, Icelanders have often been considered highly genetically homogeneous as compared to other European populations. For this reason, along with the extensive genealogical records for much of the population that reach back to the settlement of Iceland, Icelanders have been the focus of considerable genomics research by both biotechnology companies and academic and medical researchers.Gísli Pálsson, 'The Web of Kin: An Online Genealogical Machine', in Kinship and Beyond: The Genealogical Model Reconsidered, ed. by Sandra C. Bamford, James Leach, Fertility, Reproduction and Sexuality, 15 (Berghahn Books, 2009), pp. 84–110 (pp. 100–103). It was, for example, possible for researchers to reconstruct much of the maternal genome of Iceland's first known black inhabitant, Hans Jonatan, from the DNA of his present-day descendants partly because the distinctively African parts of his genome were unique in Iceland until very recent times.
Genetic evidence shows that most DNA lineages found among Icelanders today can be traced to the settlement of Iceland, indicating that there has been relatively little immigration since. This evidence shows that the founder population of Iceland came from Scandinavia, Ireland and Scotland: studies of Y-chromosomes and mitochondrial DNA indicate that 75% of Icelanders' patrilineal ancestry derives from Scandinavia (with most of the rest being from the Irish and British Isles), while 62% of their matrilineal ancestry derives from Scotland and Ireland (with most of the rest being from Scandinavia)..
Other studies have identified other ancestries, however. One study of mitochondrial DNA, blood groups, and isozymes revealed a more variable population than expected, comparable to the diversity of some other Europeans.Árnason et al., 2000 Another study showed that a tiny proportion of samples of contemporary Icelanders carry a more distant lineage, which belongs to the haplogroup C1e, which can possibly be traced to the settlement of the Americas around 14,000 years ago. This hints a small proportion of Icelanders have some Native American ancestry arising from Norse colonization of Greenland and North America.
Icelanders also have an anomalously high Denisovan genetic heritage.
Despite Iceland's historical isolation, the genetic makeup of Icelanders today is still quite different from the founding population, due to founder effects and genetic drift.Helgason et al., 2000 One study found that the mean Norse ancestry among Iceland's settlers was 56%, whereas in the current population the figure was 70%. This indicates that Icelanders with increased levels of Norse ancestry had higher reproductive success.. "[R]eproductive success among the earliest Icelanders was stratified by ancestry... [M]any settlers of Gaelic ancestry came to Iceland as slaves, whose survival and freedom to reproduce is likely to have been constrained... [Scandinavians] likely contributed more to the contemporary Icelandic gene pool than the other pre-Christians." |
Icelanders | Emigration | Emigration |
Icelanders | Greenland | Greenland
thumb|right|220px|Gimli, Manitoba, pop. 5,720 (statistics Canada, 2011), is home to the largest concentration of Icelanders outside of Iceland.
The first Europeans to emigrate to and settle in Greenland were Icelanders who did so under the leadership of Erik the Red in the late 10th century and numbered around 500 people. Isolated fjords in this harsh land offered sufficient grazing to support cattle and sheep, though the climate was too cold for cereal crops. Royal trade ships from Norway occasionally went to Greenland to trade for walrus tusks and falcons. The population eventually reached a high point of perhaps 3,000 in two communities and developed independent institutions before fading away during the 15th century.Tomasson, pp. 405–406. A papal legation was sent there as late as 1492, the year Columbus attempted to find a shorter spice route to Asia but instead encountered the Americas. |
Icelanders | North America | North America
According to the Saga of Eric the Red, Icelandic immigration to North America dates back to Vinland . The colony was believed to be short-lived and abandoned by the 1020s.Jackson, May 1925, pp. 680–681. European settlement of the region was not archeologically and historically confirmed as more than legend until the 1960s. The former Norse site, now known as L'Anse aux Meadows, pre-dated the arrival of Columbus in the Americas by almost 500 years.
A more recent instance of Icelandic emigration to North America occurred in 1855, when a small group settled in Spanish Fork, Utah.Jackson, May 1925, p. 681. Another Icelandic colony formed in Washington Island, Wisconsin. Immigration to the United States and Canada began in earnest in the 1870s, with most migrants initially settling in the Great Lakes area. These settlers were fleeing famine and overcrowding on Iceland.Library of Congress, 2004 Today, there are sizable communities of Icelandic descent in both the United States and Canada. Gimli, in Manitoba, Canada, is home to the largest population of Icelanders outside of the main island of Iceland.Vanderhill, 1963 |
Icelanders | Immigration | Immigration
thumb|Unnsteinn Manuel Stefánsson, here playing with Retro Stefson, is a prominent Icelander with a foreign background.
From the mid-1990s, Iceland experienced rising immigration. By 2017 the population of first-generation immigrants (defined as people born abroad with both parents foreign-born and all grandparents foreign-born) stood at 35,997 (10.6% of residents), and the population of second-generation immigrants at 4,473. Correspondingly, the numbers of foreign-born people acquiring Icelandic citizenship are markedly higher than in the 1990s, standing at 703 in 2016.'Immigrants and persons with foreign background 2017' (16 June 2017). Correspondingly, Icelandic identity is gradually shifting towards a more multicultural form. |
Icelanders | Culture | Culture |
Icelanders | Language and literature | Language and literature
thumb|left|180px|A poem from the Poetic Edda
right|thumb|Kjartan Ólafsson and Bolli Þorleiksson, characters in Laxdæla saga, written in the 13th century
Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is the official language of Iceland (de facto; the laws are silent about the issue). Icelandic has inflectional grammar comparable to Latin, Ancient Greek, more closely to Old English and practically identical to Old Norse.
Old Icelandic literature can be divided into several categories. Three are best known to foreigners: Eddic poetry, skaldic poetry, and saga literature, if saga literature is understood broadly. Eddic poetry is made up of heroic and mythological poems. Poetry that praises someone is considered skaldic poetry or court poetry. Finally, saga literature is prose, ranging from pure fiction to fairly factual history.Lahelma et al., 1994–96
Written Icelandic has changed little since the 13th century. Because of this modern readers can understand the Icelanders' sagas. The sagas tell of events in Iceland in the 10th and early 11th centuries. They are considered to be the best-known pieces of Icelandic literature.Lovgren, 2004, p. 2
The elder or Poetic Edda, the younger or Prose Edda, and the sagas are the major pieces of Icelandic literature. The Poetic Edda is a collection of poems and stories from the late 10th century, whereas the younger or Prose Edda is a manual of poetry that contains many stories of Norse mythology. |
Icelanders | Religion | Religion
thumb|right|220px|Húsavíkurkirkja church in Húsavík, Iceland
Iceland embraced Christianity in c. 1000, in what is called the kristnitaka, and the country, while mostly secular in observance, is still predominantly Christian culturally. The Lutheran church claims some 84% of the total population.Jochens, 1999, p. 621 While early Icelandic Christianity was more lax in its observances than traditional Catholicism, Pietism, a religious movement imported from Denmark in the 18th century, had a marked effect on the island. By discouraging all but religious leisure activities, it fostered a certain dourness, which was for a long time considered an Icelandic stereotype. At the same time, it also led to a boom in printing, and Iceland today is one of the most literate societies in the world.Del Giudice, 2008
While Catholicism was supplanted by Protestantism during the Reformation, most other world religions are now represented on the island: there are small Protestant Free Churches and Catholic communities, and even a nascent Muslim community, composed of both immigrants and local converts. Perhaps unique to Iceland is the fast-growing Ásatrúarfélag, a legally recognized revival of the pre-Christian Nordic religion of the original settlers. According to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Reykjavík, there were only approximately 30 Jews in Iceland as of 2001.Roman Catholic Diocese of Reykjavík, 2005. The former First Lady of Iceland Dorrit Moussaieff was an Israeli-born Bukharian Jew. |
Icelanders | Cuisine | Cuisine
Icelandic cuisine consists mainly of fish, lamb, and dairy. Fish was once the main part of an Icelander's diet but has recently given way to meats such as beef, pork, and poultry.
Iceland has many traditional foods called Þorramatur. These foods include smoked and salted lamb, singed sheep heads, dried fish, smoked and pickled salmon, and cured shark. Andrew Zimmern, a chef who has traveled the world on his show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern, responded to the question "What's the most disgusting thing you've ever eaten?" with the response "That would have to be the fermented shark fin I had in Iceland". Fermented shark fin is a form of Þorramatur.Beale et al., 2004 |
Icelanders | Performance art | Performance art
thumb|right|150px|Sigur Rós has gained international fame performing mostly in Icelandic.The earliest indigenous Icelandic music was the rímur, epic tales from the Viking era that were often performed a cappella. Christianity played a major role in the development of Icelandic music, with many hymns being written in the local idiom. Hallgrímur Pétursson, a poet and priest, is noted for writing many of these hymns in the 17th century. The island's relative isolation ensured that the music maintained its regional flavor. It was only in the 19th century that the first pipe organs, prevalent in European religious music, first appeared on the island.Fiske et al., 1972, p. 9
Many singers, groups, and forms of music have come from Iceland. Most Icelandic music contains vibrant folk and pop traditions. Some more recent groups and singers are Voces Thules, The Sugarcubes, Björk, Sigur Rós, and Of Monsters and Men.
The national anthem is "Ó Guð vors lands" (), written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson. The song was written in 1874, when Iceland celebrated its one thousandth anniversary of settlement on the island. It was originally published with the title A Hymn in Commemoration of Iceland's Thousand Years. |
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