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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iltalehti | Iltalehti | ["1 History and profile","2 Circulation","3 References","4 External links"] | Tabloid newspaper published in Helsinki, Finland
IltalehtiTypeNewspaperFormatTabloidOwner(s)Alma MediaFounded1980; 44 years ago (1980)Political alignmentNeutralHeadquartersHelsinkiCirculation78,617 (2013)Sister newspapersAamulehti KauppalehtiWebsiteiltalehti.fi
Iltalehti (literally "Evening newspaper") is a tabloid newspaper published in Helsinki, Finland.
History and profile
Iltalehti was established in 1980 as afternoon edition of newspaper Uusi Suomi. Alma Media is the owner of Iltalehti which is based in Helsinki. Its sister newspapers are Aamulehti and Kauppalehti. Iltalehti is published in tabloid format six times per week.
Petri Hakala served as the editor-in-chief of Iltalehti. On 1 September 2010 Panu Pokkinen was appointed to the post. His term ended in December 2013 when Petri Hakala was reappointed to the post.
Circulation
The circulation of Iltalehti was 105,059 copies in 1993. The 2001 circulation of the paper was 134,777 copies, making it the fourth most read newspaper in Finland. In 2002 Iltalehti had a circulation of 132,836 copies on weekdays. The circulation of the paper was 126,000 copies in 2003, making it the fourth best selling newspaper in the country. The 2004 circulation of the paper was 130,000 copies.
The paper had a circulation of 130,290 copies in 2005 and of 133,007 copies in 2006. Its circulation was 131,150 copies in 2007. In 2008 Iltalehti was the third largest newspaper in Finland. Of tabloid newspapers, the paper had a market share of 40% and its biggest (and only) rival Ilta-Sanomat had a market share of 60% in 2008. Its circulation was 122,548 copies in 2008 and it dropped to 112,778 copies in 2009. It was 107,052 copies in 2010 and 102,124 copies in 2011. It fell to 91,219 copies in 2012 and to 78,617 copies in 2013.
In 2010 the online version of Iltalehti was the most visited website in Finland in 2010 and was visited by 1,937,156 people per week.
In May 2015 it was the 6th the most popular website in the country according to Alexa.
References
^ "Iltalehden linja | Iltalehti". iltalehti.fi.
^ "iltalehti suomi-englanti :: Kaannos.com". kaannos.com.
^ a b Georgios Terzis (2007). European Media Governance: National and Regional Dimensions. Intellect Books. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-84150-192-5. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
^ a b c The Europa World Year Book 2003. Taylor & Francis. 10 July 2003. p. 1613. ISBN 978-1-85743-227-5. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
^ a b "World Press Trends" (PDF). World Association of Newspapers. Paris. 2004. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
^ a b c Kaarina Nikunen (2013). "Losing my profession: Age, experience and expertise in the changing newsrooms" (PDF). Journalism. 15 (7). Sage Publications: 868–888. doi:10.1177/1464884913508610. S2CID 144286660. Retrieved 10 February 2015.
^ a b Mary Kelly; Gianpietro Mazzoleni; Denis McQuail, eds. (31 January 2004). The Media in Europe: The Euromedia Handbook. SAGE Publications. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7619-4132-3. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
^ a b "Circulation Statistics 2011" (PDF). Media Audit Finland. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
^ "Panu Pokkinen appointed editor-in-chief". Alma Media. 29 July 2010. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
^ "Olli-Pekka Behm appointed Executive Editor-in-Chief of Satakunnan Kansa". Globe Newswire. 11 October 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
^ Bernard A. Cook (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-8153-4057-7. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
^ Mervi Pantti (2005). "Masculine tears, feminine tears – and crocodile tears" (PDF). Journalism. 6 (3): 357–377. doi:10.1177/1464884905054065. hdl:10138/230083. S2CID 145487550.
^ "Media pluralism in the Member States of the European Union" (PDF). Commission of the European Communities. Brussels. 16 January 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
^ a b Sampsa Saikkonen; Paula Häkämies (5 January 2014). "Mapping Digital Media:Finland" (Report). Open Society Foundations. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
^ "Top ten daily newspapers by circulation 2006". Nordicom. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
^ a b "Circulations 2008" (PDF). Finnish Audit Bureau of Circulations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
^ a b "National newspapers total circulation". International Federation of Audit Bureaux of Circulations. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
^ "Circulation Statistics 2013" (PDF). Levikintarkastus Oy - Finnish Audit Bureau of Circulations. 23 June 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
^ Kari Karppinen; Hannu Nieminen; Anna-Laura Markkanen (2014). "High Professional Ethos in a Small, Concentrated Media Market" (PDF). Blogipalvelut. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
^ "Alexa siteinfo". Alexa. Archived from the original on 13 February 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
External links
Media related to Iltalehti at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (in Finnish)
About Iltalehti | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"tabloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabloid_(newspaper_format)"},{"link_name":"newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"}],"text":"Iltalehti (literally \"Evening newspaper\")[2] is a tabloid newspaper published in Helsinki, Finland.","title":"Iltalehti"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Terzis2007-3"},{"link_name":"Uusi Suomi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uusi_Suomi"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alma 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format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabloid_format"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaa3-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kel-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maf-8"},{"link_name":"editor-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-chief"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Group2003-4"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Iltalehti was established in 1980[3] as afternoon edition of newspaper Uusi Suomi.[citation needed] Alma Media is the owner of Iltalehti[3] which is based in Helsinki.[4] Its sister newspapers are Aamulehti and Kauppalehti.[5] Iltalehti is published in tabloid format[6] six times per week.[7][8]Petri Hakala served as the editor-in-chief of Iltalehti.[4] On 1 September 2010 Panu Pokkinen was appointed to the post.[9] His term ended in December 2013 when Petri Hakala was reappointed to the post.[10]","title":"History and profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kel-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Group2003-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wan-5"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaa3-6"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-osf-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaa3-6"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circulations-2008-16"},{"link_name":"Ilta-Sanomat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilta-Sanomat"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circulations-2008-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ifabc-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ifabc-17"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maf-8"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-osf-14"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Alexa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexa_Internet"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The circulation of Iltalehti was 105,059 copies in 1993.[11] The 2001 circulation of the paper was 134,777 copies, making it the fourth most read newspaper in Finland.[7] In 2002 Iltalehti had a circulation of 132,836 copies on weekdays.[4] The circulation of the paper was 126,000 copies in 2003, making it the fourth best selling newspaper in the country.[5][12] The 2004 circulation of the paper was 130,000 copies.[13]The paper had a circulation of 130,290 copies in 2005[6][14] and of 133,007 copies in 2006.[15] Its circulation was 131,150 copies in 2007.[6] In 2008 Iltalehti was the third largest newspaper in Finland.[16] Of tabloid newspapers, the paper had a market share of 40% and its biggest (and only) rival Ilta-Sanomat had a market share of 60% in 2008.[16] Its circulation was 122,548 copies in 2008 and it dropped to 112,778 copies in 2009.[17] It was 107,052 copies in 2010[17] and 102,124 copies in 2011.[8] It fell to 91,219 copies in 2012[14] and to 78,617 copies in 2013.[18]In 2010 the online version of Iltalehti was the most visited website in Finland in 2010 and was visited by 1,937,156 people per week.[19]In May 2015 it was the 6th the most popular website in the country according to Alexa.[20]","title":"Circulation"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Iltalehden linja | Iltalehti\". iltalehti.fi.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iltalehti.fi/info/iltalehdesta","url_text":"\"Iltalehden linja | Iltalehti\""}]},{"reference":"\"iltalehti suomi-englanti :: Kaannos.com\". kaannos.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://kaannos.com/sanastot/haku/suomi-englanti/iltalehti","url_text":"\"iltalehti suomi-englanti :: Kaannos.com\""}]},{"reference":"Georgios Terzis (2007). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_Green_Party | Pakistan Green Party | ["1 Platform","2 References","3 External links"] | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Pakistan Green Party" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Political party in Pakistan
Pakistan Green Party پاکستان گرین پارٹیChairmanLiaquat Ali ShaikhSecretary-GeneralMuhammad GulfamKarachi Division LeaderFaheem Ahmed KhanLarkana Division LeaderMuhammad KhurusheedYouth LeaderSaima GulFoundedApril 28, 2002 (2002-04-28)Youth wingPakistan Young GreensIdeologyGreen politicsGrassroots democracyMulticulturalismRegional affiliationAsia Pacific Greens FederationInternational affiliationGlobal GreensColorsGreen and YellowSlogan"Politics for the next generation"Senate0 / 100
National AssemblyAssembly dissolvedElection symbolSunflowerParty flagWebsitewww.pakistangreenparty.orgPolitics of PakistanPolitical partiesElections
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The Pakistan Green Party (Urdu: پاکستان گرین پارٹی), also known as the Pakistan Greens, is a green political party in Pakistan. It was founded on April 28, 2002, and is currently led by Liaquat Ali Shaikh.
Platform
The ten basic values, or policy positions of the Pakistan Greens are similar to the ten principles of other green parties:
Grassroots democracy
Social justice and equal opportunity
Ecological wisdom (ecosophy)
Non-violence
Decentralization of authority from Power to the People
Community-based economics and economic justice
Gender equity
Respect for diversity
Personal and global responsibility
Sustainability
References
^ "Pakistan Green Party - PGNP - Profile". UrduPoint. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
^ Miranda Schreurs; Elim Papadakis (21 September 2009). The A to Z of the Green Movement (91st ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. xxxi. ISBN 978-0810868786. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
External links
Official website
Pakistan Green Party on Facebook
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This article about a Pakistani political party or organization is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Urdu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu_language"},{"link_name":"green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_politics"},{"link_name":"political party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miranda_Schreurs-2"}],"text":"Political party in PakistanThe Pakistan Green Party (Urdu: پاکستان گرین پارٹی), also known as the Pakistan Greens, is a green political party in Pakistan. It was founded on April 28, 2002,[2] and is currently led by Liaquat Ali Shaikh.","title":"Pakistan Green Party"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grassroots democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassroots_democracy"},{"link_name":"Social justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_justice"},{"link_name":"equal opportunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_opportunity"},{"link_name":"Ecological wisdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosophy"},{"link_name":"Non-violence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-violence"},{"link_name":"Decentralization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralization"},{"link_name":"authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority"},{"link_name":"Power to the People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_to_the_people_(slogan)"},{"link_name":"economic justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_justice"},{"link_name":"Gender equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equity"},{"link_name":"Sustainability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability"}],"text":"The ten basic values, or policy positions of the Pakistan Greens are similar to the ten principles of other green parties:Grassroots democracy\nSocial justice and equal opportunity\nEcological wisdom (ecosophy)\nNon-violence\nDecentralization of authority from Power to the People\nCommunity-based economics and economic justice\nGender equity\nRespect for diversity\nPersonal and global responsibility\nSustainability","title":"Platform"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Presidential_election_1993_Chua_Kim_Yeow_symbol.svg/100px-Presidential_election_1993_Chua_Kim_Yeow_symbol.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Pakistan Green Party - PGNP - Profile\". UrduPoint. Retrieved 7 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.urdupoint.com/politics/party/pakistan-green-party-135.html","url_text":"\"Pakistan Green Party - PGNP - Profile\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UrduPoint","url_text":"UrduPoint"}]},{"reference":"Miranda Schreurs; Elim Papadakis (21 September 2009). The A to Z of the Green Movement (91st ed.). Scarecrow Press. p. xxxi. ISBN 978-0810868786. Retrieved 25 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nnfmOi0fAwAC&pg=PR31","url_text":"The A to Z of the Green Movement"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810868786","url_text":"978-0810868786"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22","external_links_name":"\"Pakistan Green Party\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Pakistan+Green+Party%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.pakistangreenparty.org/","external_links_name":"www.pakistangreenparty.org"},{"Link":"https://www.urdupoint.com/politics/party/pakistan-green-party-135.html","external_links_name":"\"Pakistan Green Party - PGNP - Profile\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nnfmOi0fAwAC&pg=PR31","external_links_name":"The A to Z of the Green Movement"},{"Link":"http://www.pakistangreenparty.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.facebook.com/Pakistangreenparty","external_links_name":"Pakistan Green Party"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pakistan_Green_Party&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_strand_break | DNA repair | ["1 DNA damage","1.1 Sources","1.2 Types","1.3 Nuclear versus mitochondrial","1.4 Senescence and apoptosis","1.5 Mutation","2 Mechanisms","2.1 Direct reversal","2.2 Single-strand damage","2.3 Double-strand breaks","2.4 Translesion synthesis","3 Global response to DNA damage","3.1 Initial steps","3.2 DNA damage checkpoints","3.3 The prokaryotic SOS response","3.4 Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage","4 Aging","4.1 Pathological effects of poor DNA repair","4.2 Longevity and caloric restriction","5 Medicine and DNA repair modulation","5.1 Hereditary DNA repair disorders","6 Cancer","6.1 DNA repair defects in cancer","6.2 Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer","6.3 Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes","6.4 Genome-wide distribution of DNA repair in human somatic cells","7 Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair","7.1 Repair of oxidative DNA damage can alter epigenetic markers","7.2 Homologous recombinational repair alters epigenetic markers","7.3 Non-homologous end joining can cause some epigenetic marker alterations","8 Evolution","8.1 Rate of evolutionary change","9 Technology","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"] | Cellular mechanism
For the journal, see DNA Repair (journal).
DNA damage resulting in multiple broken chromosomes
DNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as radiation can cause DNA damage, resulting in tens of thousands of individual molecular lesions per cell per day. Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule and can alter or eliminate the cell's ability to transcribe the gene that the affected DNA encodes. Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell's genome, which affect the survival of its daughter cells after it undergoes mitosis. As a consequence, the DNA repair process is constantly active as it responds to damage in the DNA structure. When normal repair processes fail, and when cellular apoptosis does not occur, irreparable DNA damage may occur. This can eventually lead to malignant tumors, or cancer as per the two-hit hypothesis.
The rate of DNA repair is dependent on many factors, including the cell type, the age of the cell, and the extracellular environment. A cell that has accumulated a large amount of DNA damage, or one that no longer effectively repairs damage incurred to its DNA, can enter one of three possible states:
an irreversible state of dormancy, known as senescence
cell suicide, also known as apoptosis or programmed cell death
unregulated cell division, which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerous
The DNA repair ability of a cell is vital to the integrity of its genome and thus to the normal functionality of that organism. Many genes that were initially shown to influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection.
Paul Modrich talks about himself and his work in DNA repair.
The 2015 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich, and Aziz Sancar for their work on the molecular mechanisms of DNA repair processes.
DNA damage
Further information: DNA damage (naturally occurring) and Free radical damage to DNA
DNA damage, due to environmental factors and normal metabolic processes inside the cell, occurs at a rate of 10,000 to 1,000,000 molecular lesions per cell per day. While this constitutes at most only 0.0003125% of the human genome's approximately 3.2 billion bases, unrepaired lesions in critical genes (such as tumor suppressor genes) can impede a cell's ability to carry out its function and appreciably increase the likelihood of tumor formation and contribute to tumor heterogeneity.
The vast majority of DNA damage affects the primary structure of the double helix; that is, the bases themselves are chemically modified. These modifications can in turn disrupt the molecules' regular helical structure by introducing non-native chemical bonds or bulky adducts that do not fit in the standard double helix. Unlike proteins and RNA, DNA usually lacks tertiary structure and therefore damage or disturbance does not occur at that level. DNA is, however, supercoiled and wound around "packaging" proteins called histones (in eukaryotes), and both superstructures are vulnerable to the effects of DNA damage.
Sources
DNA damage can be subdivided into two main types:
endogenous damage such as attack by reactive oxygen species produced from normal metabolic byproducts (spontaneous mutation), especially the process of oxidative deamination
also includes replication errors
exogenous damage caused by external agents such as
ultraviolet (UV) radiation (200–400 nm) from the sun or other artificial light sources
other radiation frequencies, including x-rays and gamma rays
hydrolysis or thermal disruption
certain plant toxins
human-made mutagenic chemicals, especially aromatic compounds that act as DNA intercalating agents
viruses
The replication of damaged DNA before cell division can lead to the incorporation of wrong bases opposite damaged ones. Daughter cells that inherit these wrong bases carry mutations from which the original DNA sequence is unrecoverable (except in the rare case of a back mutation, for example, through gene conversion).
Types
There are several types of damage to DNA due to endogenous cellular processes:
oxidation of bases and generation of DNA strand interruptions from reactive oxygen species,
alkylation of bases (usually methylation), such as formation of 7-methylguanosine, 1-methyladenine, 6-O-Methylguanine
hydrolysis of bases, such as deamination, depurination, and depyrimidination.
"bulky adduct formation" (e.g., benzopyrene diol epoxide-dG adduct, aristolactam I-dA adduct)
mismatch of bases, due to errors in DNA replication, in which the wrong DNA base is stitched into place in a newly forming DNA strand, or a DNA base is skipped over or mistakenly inserted.
Monoadduct damage cause by change in single nitrogenous base of DNA
Di adduct damage
Damage caused by exogenous agents comes in many forms. Some examples are:
UV-B light causes crosslinking between adjacent cytosine and thymine bases creating pyrimidine dimers. This is called direct DNA damage.
UV-A light creates mostly free radicals. The damage caused by free radicals is called indirect DNA damage.
Ionizing radiation such as that created by radioactive decay or in cosmic rays causes breaks in DNA strands. Intermediate-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer.
Thermal disruption at elevated temperature increases the rate of depurination (loss of purine bases from the DNA backbone) and single-strand breaks. For example, hydrolytic depurination is seen in the thermophilic bacteria, which grow in hot springs at 40–80 °C. The rate of depurination (300 purine residues per genome per generation) is too high in these species to be repaired by normal repair machinery, hence a possibility of an adaptive response cannot be ruled out.
Industrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide, and environmental chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in smoke, soot and tar create a huge diversity of DNA adducts- ethanoates, oxidized bases, alkylated phosphodiesters and crosslinking of DNA, just to name a few.
UV damage, alkylation/methylation, X-ray damage and oxidative damage are examples of induced damage. Spontaneous damage can include the loss of a base, deamination, sugar ring puckering and tautomeric shift. Constitutive (spontaneous) DNA damage caused by endogenous oxidants can be detected as a low level of histone H2AX phosphorylation in untreated cells.
Nuclear versus mitochondrial
In human cells, and eukaryotic cells in general, DNA is found in two cellular locations – inside the nucleus and inside the mitochondria. Nuclear DNA (n-DNA) exists as chromatin during non-replicative stages of the cell cycle and is condensed into aggregate structures known as chromosomes during cell division. In either state the DNA is highly compacted and wound up around bead-like proteins called histones. Whenever a cell needs to express the genetic information encoded in its n-DNA the required chromosomal region is unraveled, genes located therein are expressed, and then the region is condensed back to its resting conformation. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is located inside mitochondria organelles, exists in multiple copies, and is also tightly associated with a number of proteins to form a complex known as the nucleoid. Inside mitochondria, reactive oxygen species (ROS), or free radicals, byproducts of the constant production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via oxidative phosphorylation, create a highly oxidative environment that is known to damage mtDNA. A critical enzyme in counteracting the toxicity of these species is superoxide dismutase, which is present in both the mitochondria and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
Senescence and apoptosis
Senescence, an irreversible process in which the cell no longer divides, is a protective response to the shortening of the chromosome ends, called telomeres. The telomeres are long regions of repetitive noncoding DNA that cap chromosomes and undergo partial degradation each time a cell undergoes division (see Hayflick limit). In contrast, quiescence is a reversible state of cellular dormancy that is unrelated to genome damage (see cell cycle). Senescence in cells may serve as a functional alternative to apoptosis in cases where the physical presence of a cell for spatial reasons is required by the organism, which serves as a "last resort" mechanism to prevent a cell with damaged DNA from replicating inappropriately in the absence of pro-growth cellular signaling. Unregulated cell division can lead to the formation of a tumor (see cancer), which is potentially lethal to an organism. Therefore, the induction of senescence and apoptosis is considered to be part of a strategy of protection against cancer.
Mutation
It is important to distinguish between DNA damage and mutation, the two major types of error in DNA. DNA damage and mutation are fundamentally different. Damage results in physical abnormalities in the DNA, such as single- and double-strand breaks, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine residues, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts. DNA damage can be recognized by enzymes, and thus can be correctly repaired if redundant information, such as the undamaged sequence in the complementary DNA strand or in a homologous chromosome, is available for copying. If a cell retains DNA damage, transcription of a gene can be prevented, and thus translation into a protein will also be blocked. Replication may also be blocked or the cell may die.
In contrast to DNA damage, a mutation is a change in the base sequence of the DNA. A mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands, and thus a mutation cannot be repaired. At the cellular level, mutations can cause alterations in protein function and regulation. Mutations are replicated when the cell replicates. In a population of cells, mutant cells will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutation on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce.
Although distinctly different from each other, DNA damage and mutation are related because DNA damage often causes errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair; these errors are a major source of mutation.
Given these properties of DNA damage and mutation, it can be seen that DNA damage is a special problem in non-dividing or slowly-dividing cells, where unrepaired damage will tend to accumulate over time. On the other hand, in rapidly dividing cells, unrepaired DNA damage that does not kill the cell by blocking replication will tend to cause replication errors and thus mutation. The great majority of mutations that are not neutral in their effect are deleterious to a cell's survival. Thus, in a population of cells composing a tissue with replicating cells, mutant cells will tend to be lost. However, infrequent mutations that provide a survival advantage will tend to clonally expand at the expense of neighboring cells in the tissue. This advantage to the cell is disadvantageous to the whole organism because such mutant cells can give rise to cancer. Thus, DNA damage in frequently dividing cells, because it gives rise to mutations, is a prominent cause of cancer. In contrast, DNA damage in infrequently-dividing cells is likely a prominent cause of aging.
Mechanisms
Main article: DNA damage (naturally occurring) § Repair of damaged DNA
Cells cannot function if DNA damage corrupts the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome (but cells remain superficially functional when non-essential genes are missing or damaged). Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA's double helical structure, a variety of repair strategies have evolved to restore lost information. If possible, cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromatid as a template to recover the original information. Without access to a template, cells use an error-prone recovery mechanism known as translesion synthesis as a last resort.
Damage to DNA alters the spatial configuration of the helix, and such alterations can be detected by the cell. Once damage is localized, specific DNA repair molecules bind at or near the site of damage, inducing other molecules to bind and form a complex that enables the actual repair to take place.
Direct reversal
Cells are known to eliminate three types of damage to their DNA by chemically reversing it. These mechanisms do not require a template, since the types of damage they counteract can occur in only one of the four bases. Such direct reversal mechanisms are specific to the type of damage incurred and do not involve breakage of the phosphodiester backbone. The formation of pyrimidine dimers upon irradiation with UV light results in an abnormal covalent bond between adjacent pyrimidine bases. The photoreactivation process directly reverses this damage by the action of the enzyme photolyase, whose activation is obligately dependent on energy absorbed from blue/UV light (300–500 nm wavelength) to promote catalysis. Photolyase, an old enzyme present in bacteria, fungi, and most animals no longer functions in humans, who instead use nucleotide excision repair to repair damage from UV irradiation. Another type of damage, methylation of guanine bases, is directly reversed by the enzyme methyl guanine methyl transferase (MGMT), the bacterial equivalent of which is called ogt. This is an expensive process because each MGMT molecule can be used only once; that is, the reaction is stoichiometric rather than catalytic. A generalized response to methylating agents in bacteria is known as the adaptive response and confers a level of resistance to alkylating agents upon sustained exposure by upregulation of alkylation repair enzymes. The third type of DNA damage reversed by cells is certain methylation of the bases cytosine and adenine.
Single-strand damage
Structure of the base-excision repair enzyme uracil-DNA glycosylase excising a hydrolytically-produced uracil residue from DNA. The uracil residue is shown in yellow.
When only one of the two strands of a double helix has a defect, the other strand can be used as a template to guide the correction of the damaged strand. In order to repair damage to one of the two paired molecules of DNA, there exist a number of excision repair mechanisms that remove the damaged nucleotide and replace it with an undamaged nucleotide complementary to that found in the undamaged DNA strand.
Base excision repair (BER): damaged single bases or nucleotides are most commonly repaired by removing the base or the nucleotide involved and then inserting the correct base or nucleotide. In base excision repair, a glycosylase enzyme removes the damaged base from the DNA by cleaving the bond between the base and the deoxyribose. These enzymes remove a single base to create an apurinic or apyrimidinic site (AP site). Enzymes called AP endonucleases nick the damaged DNA backbone at the AP site. DNA polymerase then removes the damaged region using its 5' to 3' exonuclease activity and correctly synthesizes the new strand using the complementary strand as a template. The gap is then sealed by enzyme DNA ligase.
Nucleotide excision repair (NER): bulky, helix-distorting damage, such as pyrimidine dimerization caused by UV light is usually repaired by a three-step process. First the damage is recognized, then 12-24 nucleotide-long strands of DNA are removed both upstream and downstream of the damage site by endonucleases, and the removed DNA region is then resynthesized. NER is a highly evolutionarily conserved repair mechanism and is used in nearly all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. In prokaryotes, NER is mediated by Uvr proteins. In eukaryotes, many more proteins are involved, although the general strategy is the same.
Mismatch repair systems are present in essentially all cells to correct errors that are not corrected by proofreading. These systems consist of at least two proteins. One detects the mismatch, and the other recruits an endonuclease that cleaves the newly synthesized DNA strand close to the region of damage. In E. coli , the proteins involved are the Mut class proteins: MutS, MutL, and MutH. In most Eukaryotes, the analog for MutS is MSH and the analog for MutL is MLH. MutH is only present in bacteria. This is followed by removal of damaged region by an exonuclease, resynthesis by DNA polymerase, and nick sealing by DNA ligase.
Double-strand breaks
The main double-strand break repair pathways
Double-strand breaks, in which both strands in the double helix are severed, are particularly hazardous to the cell because they can lead to genome rearrangements. In fact, when a double-strand break is accompanied by a cross-linkage joining the two strands at the same point, neither strand can be used as a template for the repair mechanisms, so that the cell will not be able to complete mitosis when it next divides, and will either die or, in rare cases, undergo a mutation. Three mechanisms exist to repair double-strand breaks (DSBs): non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ), and homologous recombination (HR):
DNA ligase, shown above repairing chromosomal damage, is an enzyme that joins broken nucleotides together by catalyzing the formation of an internucleotide ester bond between the phosphate backbone and the deoxyribose nucleotides.
In NHEJ, DNA Ligase IV, a specialized DNA ligase that forms a complex with the cofactor XRCC4, directly joins the two ends. To guide accurate repair, NHEJ relies on short homologous sequences called microhomologies present on the single-stranded tails of the DNA ends to be joined. If these overhangs are compatible, repair is usually accurate. NHEJ can also introduce mutations during repair. Loss of damaged nucleotides at the break site can lead to deletions, and joining of nonmatching termini forms insertions or translocations. NHEJ is especially important before the cell has replicated its DNA, since there is no template available for repair by homologous recombination. There are "backup" NHEJ pathways in higher eukaryotes. Besides its role as a genome caretaker, NHEJ is required for joining hairpin-capped double-strand breaks induced during V(D)J recombination, the process that generates diversity in B-cell and T-cell receptors in the vertebrate immune system.
MMEJ starts with short-range end resection by MRE11 nuclease on either side of a double-strand break to reveal microhomology regions. In further steps, Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is required and may be an early step in MMEJ. There is pairing of microhomology regions followed by recruitment of flap structure-specific endonuclease 1 (FEN1) to remove overhanging flaps. This is followed by recruitment of XRCC1–LIG3 to the site for ligating the DNA ends, leading to an intact DNA. MMEJ is always accompanied by a deletion, so that MMEJ is a mutagenic pathway for DNA repair.
HR requires the presence of an identical or nearly identical sequence to be used as a template for repair of the break. The enzymatic machinery responsible for this repair process is nearly identical to the machinery responsible for chromosomal crossover during meiosis. This pathway allows a damaged chromosome to be repaired using a sister chromatid (available in G2 after DNA replication) or a homologous chromosome as a template. DSBs caused by the replication machinery attempting to synthesize across a single-strand break or unrepaired lesion cause collapse of the replication fork and are typically repaired by recombination.
In an in vitro system, MMEJ occurred in mammalian cells at the levels of 10–20% of HR when both HR and NHEJ mechanisms were also available.
The extremophile Deinococcus radiodurans has a remarkable ability to survive DNA damage from ionizing radiation and other sources. At least two copies of the genome, with random DNA breaks, can form DNA fragments through annealing. Partially overlapping fragments are then used for synthesis of homologous regions through a moving D-loop that can continue extension until complementary partner strands are found. In the final step, there is crossover by means of RecA-dependent homologous recombination.
Topoisomerases introduce both single- and double-strand breaks in the course of changing the DNA's state of supercoiling, which is especially common in regions near an open replication fork. Such breaks are not considered DNA damage because they are a natural intermediate in the topoisomerase biochemical mechanism and are immediately repaired by the enzymes that created them.
Another type of DNA double-strand breaks originates from the DNA heat-sensitive or heat-labile sites. These DNA sites are not initial DSBs. However, they convert to DSB after treating with elevated temperature. Ionizing irradiation can induces a highly complex form of DNA damage as clustered damage. It consists of different types of DNA lesions in various locations of the DNA helix. Some of these closely located lesions can probably convert to DSB by exposure to high temperatures. But the exact nature of these lesions and their interactions is not yet known
Translesion synthesis
Translesion synthesis (TLS) is a DNA damage tolerance process that allows the DNA replication machinery to replicate past DNA lesions such as thymine dimers or AP sites. It involves switching out regular DNA polymerases for specialized translesion polymerases (i.e. DNA polymerase IV or V, from the Y Polymerase family), often with larger active sites that can facilitate the insertion of bases opposite damaged nucleotides. The polymerase switching is thought to be mediated by, among other factors, the post-translational modification of the replication processivity factor PCNA. Translesion synthesis polymerases often have low fidelity (high propensity to insert wrong bases) on undamaged templates relative to regular polymerases. However, many are extremely efficient at inserting correct bases opposite specific types of damage. For example, Pol η mediates error-free bypass of lesions induced by UV irradiation, whereas Pol ι introduces mutations at these sites. Pol η is known to add the first adenine across the T^T photodimer using Watson-Crick base pairing and the second adenine will be added in its syn conformation using Hoogsteen base pairing. From a cellular perspective, risking the introduction of point mutations during translesion synthesis may be preferable to resorting to more drastic mechanisms of DNA repair, which may cause gross chromosomal aberrations or cell death. In short, the process involves specialized polymerases either bypassing or repairing lesions at locations of stalled DNA replication. For example, Human DNA polymerase eta can bypass complex DNA lesions like guanine-thymine intra-strand crosslink, GT, although it can cause targeted and semi-targeted mutations. Paromita Raychaudhury and Ashis Basu studied the toxicity and mutagenesis of the same lesion in Escherichia coli by replicating a GT-modified plasmid in E. coli with specific DNA polymerase knockouts. Viability was very low in a strain lacking pol II, pol IV, and pol V, the three SOS-inducible DNA polymerases, indicating that translesion synthesis is conducted primarily by these specialized DNA polymerases.
A bypass platform is provided to these polymerases by Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Under normal circumstances, PCNA bound to polymerases replicates the DNA. At a site of lesion, PCNA is ubiquitinated, or modified, by the RAD6/RAD18 proteins to provide a platform for the specialized polymerases to bypass the lesion and resume DNA replication. After translesion synthesis, extension is required. This extension can be carried out by a replicative polymerase if the TLS is error-free, as in the case of Pol η, yet if TLS results in a mismatch, a specialized polymerase is needed to extend it; Pol ζ. Pol ζ is unique in that it can extend terminal mismatches, whereas more processive polymerases cannot. So when a lesion is encountered, the replication fork will stall, PCNA will switch from a processive polymerase to a TLS polymerase such as Pol ι to fix the lesion, then PCNA may switch to Pol ζ to extend the mismatch, and last PCNA will switch to the processive polymerase to continue replication.
Global response to DNA damage
Cells exposed to ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light or chemicals are prone to acquire multiple sites of bulky DNA lesions and double-strand breaks. Moreover, DNA damaging agents can damage other biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and RNA. The accumulation of damage, to be specific, double-strand breaks or adducts stalling the replication forks, are among known stimulation signals for a global response to DNA damage. The global response to damage is an act directed toward the cells' own preservation and triggers multiple pathways of macromolecular repair, lesion bypass, tolerance, or apoptosis. The common features of global response are induction of multiple genes, cell cycle arrest, and inhibition of cell division.
Initial steps
The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin presents a barrier to all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of enzymes to their sites of action. To allow DNA repair, the chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone-modifying enzymes are two predominant factors employed to accomplish this remodeling process.
Chromatin relaxation occurs rapidly at the site of a DNA damage. In one of the earliest steps, the stress-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphorylates SIRT6 on serine 10 in response to double-strand breaks or other DNA damage. This post-translational modification facilitates the mobilization of SIRT6 to DNA damage sites, and is required for efficient recruitment of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) to DNA break sites and for efficient repair of DSBs. PARP1 protein starts to appear at DNA damage sites in less than a second, with half maximum accumulation within 1.6 seconds after the damage occurs. PARP1 synthesizes polymeric adenosine diphosphate ribose (poly (ADP-ribose) or PAR) chains on itself. Next the chromatin remodeler ALC1 quickly attaches to the product of PARP1 action, a poly-ADP ribose chain, and ALC1 completes arrival at the DNA damage within 10 seconds of the occurrence of the damage. About half of the maximum chromatin relaxation, presumably due to action of ALC1, occurs by 10 seconds. This then allows recruitment of the DNA repair enzyme MRE11, to initiate DNA repair, within 13 seconds.
γH2AX, the phosphorylated form of H2AX is also involved in the early steps leading to chromatin decondensation after DNA double-strand breaks. The histone variant H2AX constitutes about 10% of the H2A histones in human chromatin. γH2AX (H2AX phosphorylated on serine 139) can be detected as soon as 20 seconds after irradiation of cells (with DNA double-strand break formation), and half maximum accumulation of γH2AX occurs in one minute. The extent of chromatin with phosphorylated γH2AX is about two million base pairs at the site of a DNA double-strand break. γH2AX does not, itself, cause chromatin decondensation, but within 30 seconds of irradiation, RNF8 protein can be detected in association with γH2AX. RNF8 mediates extensive chromatin decondensation, through its subsequent interaction with CHD4, a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex NuRD.
DDB2 occurs in a heterodimeric complex with DDB1. This complex further complexes with the ubiquitin ligase protein CUL4A and with PARP1. This larger complex rapidly associates with UV-induced damage within chromatin, with half-maximum association completed in 40 seconds. The PARP1 protein, attached to both DDB1 and DDB2, then PARylates (creates a poly-ADP ribose chain) on DDB2 that attracts the DNA remodeling protein ALC1. Action of ALC1 relaxes the chromatin at the site of UV damage to DNA. This relaxation allows other proteins in the nucleotide excision repair pathway to enter the chromatin and repair UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer damages.
After rapid chromatin remodeling, cell cycle checkpoints are activated to allow DNA repair to occur before the cell cycle progresses. First, two kinases, ATM and ATR are activated within 5 or 6 minutes after DNA is damaged. This is followed by phosphorylation of the cell cycle checkpoint protein Chk1, initiating its function, about 10 minutes after DNA is damaged.
DNA damage checkpoints
After DNA damage, cell cycle checkpoints are activated. Checkpoint activation pauses the cell cycle and gives the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide. DNA damage checkpoints occur at the G1/S and G2/M boundaries. An intra-S checkpoint also exists. Checkpoint activation is controlled by two master kinases, ATM and ATR. ATM responds to DNA double-strand breaks and disruptions in chromatin structure, whereas ATR primarily responds to stalled replication forks. These kinases phosphorylate downstream targets in a signal transduction cascade, eventually leading to cell cycle arrest. A class of checkpoint mediator proteins including BRCA1, MDC1, and 53BP1 has also been identified. These proteins seem to be required for transmitting the checkpoint activation signal to downstream proteins.
DNA damage checkpoint is a signal transduction pathway that blocks cell cycle progression in G1, G2 and metaphase and slows down the rate of S phase progression when DNA is damaged. It leads to a pause in cell cycle allowing the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide.
Checkpoint Proteins can be separated into four groups: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-like protein kinase, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-like group, two serine/threonine(S/T) kinases and their adaptors. Central to all DNA damage induced checkpoints responses is a pair of large protein kinases belonging to the first group of PI3K-like protein kinases-the ATM (Ataxia telangiectasia mutated) and ATR (Ataxia- and Rad-related) kinases, whose sequence and functions have been well conserved in evolution. All DNA damage response requires either ATM or ATR because they have the ability to bind to the chromosomes at the site of DNA damage, together with accessory proteins that are platforms on which DNA damage response components and DNA repair complexes can be assembled.
An important downstream target of ATM and ATR is p53, as it is required for inducing apoptosis following DNA damage. The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is induced by both p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms and can arrest the cell cycle at the G1/S and G2/M checkpoints by deactivating cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase complexes.
The prokaryotic SOS response
The SOS response is the changes in gene expression in Escherichia coli and other bacteria in response to extensive DNA damage. The prokaryotic SOS system is regulated by two key proteins: LexA and RecA. The LexA homodimer is a transcriptional repressor that binds to operator sequences commonly referred to as SOS boxes. In Escherichia coli it is known that LexA regulates transcription of approximately 48 genes including the lexA and recA genes. The SOS response is known to be widespread in the Bacteria domain, but it is mostly absent in some bacterial phyla, like the Spirochetes.
The most common cellular signals activating the SOS response are regions of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), arising from stalled replication forks or double-strand breaks, which are processed by DNA helicase to separate the two DNA strands. In the initiation step, RecA protein binds to ssDNA in an ATP hydrolysis driven reaction creating RecA–ssDNA filaments. RecA–ssDNA filaments activate LexA autoprotease activity, which ultimately leads to cleavage of LexA dimer and subsequent LexA degradation. The loss of LexA repressor induces transcription of the SOS genes and allows for further signal induction, inhibition of cell division and an increase in levels of proteins responsible for damage processing.
In Escherichia coli, SOS boxes are 20-nucleotide long sequences near promoters with palindromic structure and a high degree of sequence conservation. In other classes and phyla, the sequence of SOS boxes varies considerably, with different length and composition, but it is always highly conserved and one of the strongest short signals in the genome. The high information content of SOS boxes permits differential binding of LexA to different promoters and allows for timing of the SOS response. The lesion repair genes are induced at the beginning of SOS response. The error-prone translesion polymerases, for example, UmuCD'2 (also called DNA polymerase V), are induced later on as a last resort. Once the DNA damage is repaired or bypassed using polymerases or through recombination, the amount of single-stranded DNA in cells is decreased, lowering the amounts of RecA filaments decreases cleavage activity of LexA homodimer, which then binds to the SOS boxes near promoters and restores normal gene expression.
Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage
Eukaryotic cells exposed to DNA damaging agents also activate important defensive pathways by inducing multiple proteins involved in DNA repair, cell cycle checkpoint control, protein trafficking and degradation. Such genome wide transcriptional response is very complex and tightly regulated, thus allowing coordinated global response to damage. Exposure of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to DNA damaging agents results in overlapping but distinct transcriptional profiles. Similarities to environmental shock response indicates that a general global stress response pathway exist at the level of transcriptional activation. In contrast, different human cell types respond to damage differently indicating an absence of a common global response. The probable explanation for this difference between yeast and human cells may be in the heterogeneity of mammalian cells. In an animal different types of cells are distributed among different organs that have evolved different sensitivities to DNA damage.
In general global response to DNA damage involves expression of multiple genes responsible for postreplication repair, homologous recombination, nucleotide excision repair, DNA damage checkpoint, global transcriptional activation, genes controlling mRNA decay, and many others. A large amount of damage to a cell leaves it with an important decision: undergo apoptosis and die, or survive at the cost of living with a modified genome. An increase in tolerance to damage can lead to an increased rate of survival that will allow a greater accumulation of mutations. Yeast Rev1 and human polymerase η are members of Y family translesion DNA polymerases present during global response to DNA damage and are responsible for enhanced mutagenesis during a global response to DNA damage in eukaryotes.
Aging
Main article: DNA damage theory of aging
Pathological effects of poor DNA repair
DNA repair rate is an important determinant of cell pathology.
Experimental animals with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair often show decreased life span and increased cancer incidence. For example, mice deficient in the dominant NHEJ pathway and in telomere maintenance mechanisms get lymphoma and infections more often, and, as a consequence, have shorter lifespans than wild-type mice. In similar manner, mice deficient in a key repair and transcription protein that unwinds DNA helices have premature onset of aging-related diseases and consequent shortening of lifespan. However, not every DNA repair deficiency creates exactly the predicted effects; mice deficient in the NER pathway exhibited shortened life span without correspondingly higher rates of mutation.
The maximum life spans of mice, naked mole-rats and humans are respectively ~3, ~30 and ~129 years. Of these, the shortest lived species, mouse, expresses DNA repair genes, including core genes in several DNA repair pathways, at a lower level than do humans and naked mole rats. Furthermore several DNA repair pathways in humans and naked mole-rats are up-regulated compared to mouse. These observations suggest that elevated DNA repair facilitates greater longevity.
If the rate of DNA damage exceeds the capacity of the cell to repair it, the accumulation of errors can overwhelm the cell and result in early senescence, apoptosis, or cancer. Inherited diseases associated with faulty DNA repair functioning result in premature aging, increased sensitivity to carcinogens and correspondingly increased cancer risk (see below). On the other hand, organisms with enhanced DNA repair systems, such as Deinococcus radiodurans, the most radiation-resistant known organism, exhibit remarkable resistance to the double-strand break-inducing effects of radioactivity, likely due to enhanced efficiency of DNA repair and especially NHEJ.
Longevity and caloric restriction
Most life span influencing genes affect the rate of DNA damage.
A number of individual genes have been identified as influencing variations in life span within a population of organisms. The effects of these genes is strongly dependent on the environment, in particular, on the organism's diet. Caloric restriction reproducibly results in extended lifespan in a variety of organisms, likely via nutrient sensing pathways and decreased metabolic rate. The molecular mechanisms by which such restriction results in lengthened lifespan are as yet unclear (see for some discussion); however, the behavior of many genes known to be involved in DNA repair is altered under conditions of caloric restriction. Several agents reported to have anti-aging properties have been shown to attenuate constitutive level of mTOR signaling, an evidence of reduction of metabolic activity, and concurrently to reduce constitutive level of DNA damage induced by endogenously generated reactive oxygen species.
For example, increasing the gene dosage of the gene SIR-2, which regulates DNA packaging in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans, can significantly extend lifespan. The mammalian homolog of SIR-2 is known to induce downstream DNA repair factors involved in NHEJ, an activity that is especially promoted under conditions of caloric restriction. Caloric restriction has been closely linked to the rate of base excision repair in the nuclear DNA of rodents, although similar effects have not been observed in mitochondrial DNA.
The C. elegans gene AGE-1, an upstream effector of DNA repair pathways, confers dramatically extended life span under free-feeding conditions but leads to a decrease in reproductive fitness under conditions of caloric restriction. This observation supports the pleiotropy theory of the biological origins of aging, which suggests that genes conferring a large survival advantage early in life will be selected for even if they carry a corresponding disadvantage late in life.
Medicine and DNA repair modulation
Main article: DNA repair-deficiency disorder
Hereditary DNA repair disorders
Defects in the NER mechanism are responsible for several genetic disorders, including:
Xeroderma pigmentosum: hypersensitivity to sunlight/UV, resulting in increased skin cancer incidence and premature aging
Cockayne syndrome: hypersensitivity to UV and chemical agents
Trichothiodystrophy: sensitive skin, brittle hair and nails
Mental retardation often accompanies the latter two disorders, suggesting increased vulnerability of developmental neurons.
Other DNA repair disorders include:
Werner's syndrome: premature aging and retarded growth
Bloom's syndrome: sunlight hypersensitivity, high incidence of malignancies (especially leukemias).
Ataxia telangiectasia: sensitivity to ionizing radiation and some chemical agents
All of the above diseases are often called "segmental progerias" ("accelerated aging diseases") because those affected appear elderly and experience aging-related diseases at an abnormally young age, while not manifesting all the symptoms of old age.
Other diseases associated with reduced DNA repair function include Fanconi anemia, hereditary breast cancer and hereditary colon cancer.
Cancer
Because of inherent limitations in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. There are at least 34 Inherited human DNA repair gene mutations that increase cancer risk. Many of these mutations cause DNA repair to be less effective than normal. In particular, Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is strongly associated with specific mutations in the DNA mismatch repair pathway. BRCA1 and BRCA2, two important genes whose mutations confer a hugely increased risk of breast cancer on carriers, are both associated with a large number of DNA repair pathways, especially NHEJ and homologous recombination.
Cancer therapy procedures such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy work by overwhelming the capacity of the cell to repair DNA damage, resulting in cell death. Cells that are most rapidly dividing – most typically cancer cells – are preferentially affected. The side-effect is that other non-cancerous but rapidly dividing cells such as progenitor cells in the gut, skin, and hematopoietic system are also affected. Modern cancer treatments attempt to localize the DNA damage to cells and tissues only associated with cancer, either by physical means (concentrating the therapeutic agent in the region of the tumor) or by biochemical means (exploiting a feature unique to cancer cells in the body). In the context of therapies targeting DNA damage response genes, the latter approach has been termed 'synthetic lethality'.
Perhaps the most well-known of these 'synthetic lethality' drugs is the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) inhibitor olaparib, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2015 for the treatment in women of BRCA-defective ovarian cancer. Tumor cells with partial loss of DNA damage response (specifically, homologous recombination repair) are dependent on another mechanism – single-strand break repair – which is a mechanism consisting, in part, of the PARP1 gene product. Olaparib is combined with chemotherapeutics to inhibit single-strand break repair induced by DNA damage caused by the co-administered chemotherapy. Tumor cells relying on this residual DNA repair mechanism are unable to repair the damage and hence are not able to survive and proliferate, whereas normal cells can repair the damage with the functioning homologous recombination mechanism.
Many other drugs for use against other residual DNA repair mechanisms commonly found in cancer are currently under investigation. However, synthetic lethality therapeutic approaches have been questioned due to emerging evidence of acquired resistance, achieved through rewiring of DNA damage response pathways and reversion of previously inhibited defects.
DNA repair defects in cancer
It has become apparent over the past several years that the DNA damage response acts as a barrier to the malignant transformation of preneoplastic cells. Previous studies have shown an elevated DNA damage response in cell-culture models with oncogene activation and preneoplastic colon adenomas. DNA damage response mechanisms trigger cell-cycle arrest, and attempt to repair DNA lesions or promote cell death/senescence if repair is not possible. Replication stress is observed in preneoplastic cells due to increased proliferation signals from oncogenic mutations. Replication stress is characterized by: increased replication initiation/origin firing; increased transcription and collisions of transcription-replication complexes; nucleotide deficiency; increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS).
Replication stress, along with the selection for inactivating mutations in DNA damage response genes in the evolution of the tumor, leads to downregulation and/or loss of some DNA damage response mechanisms, and hence loss of DNA repair and/or senescence/programmed cell death. In experimental mouse models, loss of DNA damage response-mediated cell senescence was observed after using a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) to inhibit the double-strand break response kinase ataxia telangiectasia (ATM), leading to increased tumor size and invasiveness. Humans born with inherited defects in DNA repair mechanisms (for example, Li-Fraumeni syndrome) have a higher cancer risk.
The prevalence of DNA damage response mutations differs across cancer types; for example, 30% of breast invasive carcinomas have mutations in genes involved in homologous recombination. In cancer, downregulation is observed across all DNA damage response mechanisms (base excision repair (BER), nucleotide excision repair (NER), DNA mismatch repair (MMR), homologous recombination repair (HR), non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and translesion DNA synthesis (TLS). As well as mutations to DNA damage repair genes, mutations also arise in the genes responsible for arresting the cell cycle to allow sufficient time for DNA repair to occur, and some genes are involved in both DNA damage repair and cell cycle checkpoint control, for example ATM and checkpoint kinase 2 (CHEK2) – a tumor suppressor that is often absent or downregulated in non-small cell lung cancer.
HR
NHEJ
SSA
FA
BER
NER
MMR
ATM
ATR
PAXIP
RPA
BRCA1
BRCA2
RAD51
RFC
XRCC1
PCNA
PARP1
ERCC1
MSH3
Genes involved in DNA damage response pathways and frequently mutated in cancer (HR = homologous recombination; NHEJ = non-homologous end joining; SSA = single-strand annealing; FA = fanconi anemia pathway; BER = base excision repair; NER = nucleotide excision repair; MMR = mismatch repair)
Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer
Classically, cancer has been viewed as a set of diseases that are driven by progressive genetic abnormalities that include mutations in tumour-suppressor genes and oncogenes, and chromosomal aberrations. However, it has become apparent that cancer is also driven by epigenetic alterations.
Epigenetic alterations refer to functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence. Examples of such modifications are changes in DNA methylation (hypermethylation and hypomethylation) and histone modification, changes in chromosomal architecture (caused by inappropriate expression of proteins such as HMGA2 or HMGA1) and changes caused by microRNAs. Each of these epigenetic alterations serves to regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence. These changes usually remain through cell divisions, last for multiple cell generations, and can be considered to be epimutations (equivalent to mutations).
While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers, the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes, causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins, appear to be particularly important. Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers.
Reduced expression of DNA repair genes causes deficient DNA repair. When DNA repair is deficient DNA damages remain in cells at a higher than usual level and these excess damages cause increased frequencies of mutation or epimutation. Mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair or in homologous recombinational repair (HRR). Chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy also increase in HRR defective cells.
Higher levels of DNA damage not only cause increased mutation, but also cause increased epimutation. During repair of DNA double strand breaks, or repair of other DNA damages, incompletely cleared sites of repair can cause epigenetic gene silencing.
Deficient expression of DNA repair proteins due to an inherited mutation can cause increased risk of cancer. Individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes (see article DNA repair-deficiency disorder) have an increased risk of cancer, with some defects causing up to a 100% lifetime chance of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations). However, such germline mutations (which cause highly penetrant cancer syndromes) are the cause of only about 1 percent of cancers.
Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes
A chart of common DNA damaging agents, examples of lesions they cause in DNA, and pathways used to repair these lesions. Also shown are many of the genes in these pathways, an indication of which genes are epigenetically regulated to have reduced (or increased) expression in various cancers. It also shows genes in the error-prone microhomology-mediated end joining pathway with increased expression in various cancers.
Deficiencies in DNA repair enzymes are occasionally caused by a newly arising somatic mutation in a DNA repair gene, but are much more frequently caused by epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes. For example, when 113 colorectal cancers were examined in sequence, only four had a missense mutation in the DNA repair gene MGMT, while the majority had reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region (an epigenetic alteration). Five different studies found that between 40% and 90% of colorectal cancers have reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region.
Similarly, out of 119 cases of mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancers that lacked DNA repair gene PMS2 expression, PMS2 was deficient in 6 due to mutations in the PMS2 gene, while in 103 cases PMS2 expression was deficient because its pairing partner MLH1 was repressed due to promoter methylation (PMS2 protein is unstable in the absence of MLH1). In the other 10 cases, loss of PMS2 expression was likely due to epigenetic overexpression of the microRNA, miR-155, which down-regulates MLH1.
In a further example, epigenetic defects were found in various cancers (e.g. breast, ovarian, colorectal and head and neck). Two or three deficiencies in the expression of ERCC1, XPF or PMS2 occur simultaneously in the majority of 49 colon cancers evaluated by Facista et al.
The chart in this section shows some frequent DNA damaging agents, examples of DNA lesions they cause, and the pathways that deal with these DNA damages. At least 169 enzymes are either directly employed in DNA repair or influence DNA repair processes. Of these, 83 are directly employed in repairing the 5 types of DNA damages illustrated in the chart.
Some of the more well studied genes central to these repair processes are shown in the chart. The gene designations shown in red, gray or cyan indicate genes frequently epigenetically altered in various types of cancers. Wikipedia articles on each of the genes highlighted by red, gray or cyan describe the epigenetic alteration(s) and the cancer(s) in which these epimutations are found. Review articles, and broad experimental survey articles also document most of these epigenetic DNA repair deficiencies in cancers.
Red-highlighted genes are frequently reduced or silenced by epigenetic mechanisms in various cancers. When these genes have low or absent expression, DNA damages can accumulate. Replication errors past these damages (see translesion synthesis) can lead to increased mutations and, ultimately, cancer. Epigenetic repression of DNA repair genes in accurate DNA repair pathways appear to be central to carcinogenesis.
The two gray-highlighted genes RAD51 and BRCA2, are required for homologous recombinational repair. They are sometimes epigenetically over-expressed and sometimes under-expressed in certain cancers. As indicated in the Wikipedia articles on RAD51 and BRCA2, such cancers ordinarily have epigenetic deficiencies in other DNA repair genes. These repair deficiencies would likely cause increased unrepaired DNA damages. The over-expression of RAD51 and BRCA2 seen in these cancers may reflect selective pressures for compensatory RAD51 or BRCA2 over-expression and increased homologous recombinational repair to at least partially deal with such excess DNA damages. In those cases where RAD51 or BRCA2 are under-expressed, this would itself lead to increased unrepaired DNA damages. Replication errors past these damages (see translesion synthesis) could cause increased mutations and cancer, so that under-expression of RAD51 or BRCA2 would be carcinogenic in itself.
Cyan-highlighted genes are in the microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) pathway and are up-regulated in cancer. MMEJ is an additional error-prone inaccurate repair pathway for double-strand breaks. In MMEJ repair of a double-strand break, an homology of 5–25 complementary base pairs between both paired strands is sufficient to align the strands, but mismatched ends (flaps) are usually present. MMEJ removes the extra nucleotides (flaps) where strands are joined, and then ligates the strands to create an intact DNA double helix. MMEJ almost always involves at least a small deletion, so that it is a mutagenic pathway. FEN1, the flap endonuclease in MMEJ, is epigenetically increased by promoter hypomethylation and is over-expressed in the majority of cancers of the breast, prostate, stomach, neuroblastomas, pancreas, and lung. PARP1 is also over-expressed when its promoter region ETS site is epigenetically hypomethylated, and this contributes to progression to endometrial cancer and BRCA-mutated serous ovarian cancer. Other genes in the MMEJ pathway are also over-expressed in a number of cancers (see MMEJ for summary), and are also shown in cyan.
Genome-wide distribution of DNA repair in human somatic cells
Differential activity of DNA repair pathways across various regions of the human genome causes mutations to be very unevenly distributed within tumor genomes. In particular, the gene-rich, early-replicating regions of the human genome exhibit lower mutation frequencies than the gene-poor, late-replicating heterochromatin. One mechanism underlying this involves the histone modification H3K36me3, which can recruit mismatch repair proteins, thereby lowering mutation rates in H3K36me3-marked regions. Another important mechanism concerns nucleotide excision repair, which can be recruited by the transcription machinery, lowering somatic mutation rates in active genes and other open chromatin regions.
Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair
Damage to DNA is very common and is constantly being repaired. Epigenetic alterations can accompany DNA repair of oxidative damage or double-strand breaks. In human cells, oxidative DNA damage occurs about 10,000 times a day and DNA double-strand breaks occur about 10 to 50 times a cell cycle in somatic replicating cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). The selective advantage of DNA repair is to allow the cell to survive in the face of DNA damage. The selective advantage of epigenetic alterations that occur with DNA repair is not clear.
Repair of oxidative DNA damage can alter epigenetic markers
In the steady state (with endogenous damages occurring and being repaired), there are about 2,400 oxidatively damaged guanines that form 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in the average mammalian cell DNA. 8-OHdG constitutes about 5% of the oxidative damages commonly present in DNA. The oxidized guanines do not occur randomly among all guanines in DNA. There is a sequence preference for the guanine at a methylated CpG site (a cytosine followed by guanine along its 5' → 3' direction and where the cytosine is methylated (5-mCpG)). A 5-mCpG site has the lowest ionization potential for guanine oxidation.
Initiation of DNA demethylation at a CpG site. In adult somatic cells DNA methylation typically occurs in the context of CpG dinucleotides (CpG sites), forming 5-methylcytosine-pG, or 5mCpG. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may attack guanine at the dinucleotide site, forming 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and resulting in a 5mCp-8-OHdG dinucleotide site. The base excision repair enzyme OGG1 targets 8-OHdG and binds to the lesion without immediate excision. OGG1, present at a 5mCp-8-OHdG site recruits TET1 and TET1 oxidizes the 5mC adjacent to the 8-OHdG. This initiates demethylation of 5mC.
Oxidized guanine has mispairing potential and is mutagenic. Oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1) is the primary enzyme responsible for the excision of the oxidized guanine during DNA repair. OGG1 finds and binds to an 8-OHdG within a few seconds. However, OGG1 does not immediately excise 8-OHdG. In HeLa cells half maximum removal of 8-OHdG occurs in 30 minutes, and in irradiated mice, the 8-OHdGs induced in the mouse liver are removed with a half-life of 11 minutes.
When OGG1 is present at an oxidized guanine within a methylated CpG site it recruits TET1 to the 8-OHdG lesion (see Figure). This allows TET1 to demethylate an adjacent methylated cytosine. Demethylation of cytosine is an epigenetic alteration.
As an example, when human mammary epithelial cells were treated with H2O2 for six hours, 8-OHdG increased about 3.5-fold in DNA and this caused about 80% demethylation of the 5-methylcytosines in the genome. Demethylation of CpGs in a gene promoter by TET enzyme activity increases transcription of the gene into messenger RNA. In cells treated with H2O2, one particular gene was examined, BACE1. The methylation level of the BACE1 CpG island was reduced (an epigenetic alteration) and this allowed about 6.5 fold increase of expression of BACE1 messenger RNA.
While six-hour incubation with H2O2 causes considerable demethylation of 5-mCpG sites, shorter times of H2O2 incubation appear to promote other epigenetic alterations. Treatment of cells with H2O2 for 30 minutes causes the mismatch repair protein heterodimer MSH2-MSH6 to recruit DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to sites of some kinds of oxidative DNA damage. This could cause increased methylation of cytosines (epigenetic alterations) at these locations.
Jiang et al. treated HEK 293 cells with agents causing oxidative DNA damage, (potassium bromate (KBrO3) or potassium chromate (K2CrO4)). Base excision repair (BER) of oxidative damage occurred with the DNA repair enzyme polymerase beta localizing to oxidized guanines. Polymerase beta is the main human polymerase in short-patch BER of oxidative DNA damage. Jiang et al. also found that polymerase beta recruited the DNA methyltransferase protein DNMT3b to BER repair sites. They then evaluated the methylation pattern at the single nucleotide level in a small region of DNA including the promoter region and the early transcription region of the BRCA1 gene. Oxidative DNA damage from bromate modulated the DNA methylation pattern (caused epigenetic alterations) at CpG sites within the region of DNA studied. In untreated cells, CpGs located at −189, −134, −29, −19, +16, and +19 of the BRCA1 gene had methylated cytosines (where numbering is from the messenger RNA transcription start site, and negative numbers indicate nucleotides in the upstream promoter region). Bromate treatment-induced oxidation resulted in the loss of cytosine methylation at −189, −134, +16 and +19 while also leading to the formation of new methylation at the CpGs located at −80, −55, −21 and +8 after DNA repair was allowed.
Homologous recombinational repair alters epigenetic markers
At least four articles report the recruitment of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to sites of DNA double-strand breaks. During homologous recombinational repair (HR) of the double-strand break, the involvement of DNMT1 causes the two repaired strands of DNA to have different levels of methylated cytosines. One strand becomes frequently methylated at about 21 CpG sites downstream of the repaired double-strand break. The other DNA strand loses methylation at about six CpG sites that were previously methylated downstream of the double-strand break, as well as losing methylation at about five CpG sites that were previously methylated upstream of the double-strand break. When the chromosome is replicated, this gives rise to one daughter chromosome that is heavily methylated downstream of the previous break site and one that is unmethylated in the region both upstream and downstream of the previous break site. With respect to the gene that was broken by the double-strand break, half of the progeny cells express that gene at a high level and in the other half of the progeny cells expression of that gene is repressed. When clones of these cells were maintained for three years, the new methylation patterns were maintained over that time period.
In mice with a CRISPR-mediated homology-directed recombination insertion in their genome there were a large number of increased methylations of CpG sites within the double-strand break-associated insertion.
Non-homologous end joining can cause some epigenetic marker alterations
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) repair of a double-strand break can cause a small number of demethylations of pre-existing cytosine DNA methylations downstream of the repaired double-strand break. Further work by Allen et al. showed that NHEJ of a DNA double-strand break in a cell could give rise to some progeny cells having repressed expression of the gene harboring the initial double-strand break and some progeny having high expression of that gene due to epigenetic alterations associated with NHEJ repair. The frequency of epigenetic alterations causing repression of a gene after an NHEJ repair of a DNA double-strand break in that gene may be about 0.9%.
Evolution
The basic processes of DNA repair are highly conserved among both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and even among bacteriophages (viruses which infect bacteria); however, more complex organisms with more complex genomes have correspondingly more complex repair mechanisms. The ability of a large number of protein structural motifs to catalyze relevant chemical reactions has played a significant role in the elaboration of repair mechanisms during evolution. For an extremely detailed review of hypotheses relating to the evolution of DNA repair, see.
The fossil record indicates that single-cell life began to proliferate on the planet at some point during the Precambrian period, although exactly when recognizably modern life first emerged is unclear. Nucleic acids became the sole and universal means of encoding genetic information, requiring DNA repair mechanisms that in their basic form have been inherited by all extant life forms from their common ancestor. The emergence of Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere (known as the "oxygen catastrophe") due to photosynthetic organisms, as well as the presence of potentially damaging free radicals in the cell due to oxidative phosphorylation, necessitated the evolution of DNA repair mechanisms that act specifically to counter the types of damage induced by oxidative stress. The mechanism by which this came about, however, is unclear.
Rate of evolutionary change
On some occasions, DNA damage is not repaired or is repaired by an error-prone mechanism that results in a change from the original sequence. When this occurs, mutations may propagate into the genomes of the cell's progeny. Should such an event occur in a germ line cell that will eventually produce a gamete, the mutation has the potential to be passed on to the organism's offspring. The rate of evolution in a particular species (or, in a particular gene) is a function of the rate of mutation. As a consequence, the rate and accuracy of DNA repair mechanisms have an influence over the process of evolutionary change. DNA damage protection and repair does not influence the rate of adaptation by gene regulation and by recombination and selection of alleles. On the other hand, DNA damage repair and protection does influence the rate of accumulation of irreparable, advantageous, code expanding, inheritable mutations, and slows down the evolutionary mechanism for expansion of the genome of organisms with new functionalities. The tension between evolvability and mutation repair and protection needs further investigation.
Technology
A technology named clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (shortened to CRISPR-Cas9) was discovered in 2012. The new technology allows anyone with molecular biology training to alter the genes of any species with precision, by inducing DNA damage at a specific point and then altering DNA repair mechanisms to insert new genes. It is cheaper, more efficient, and more precise than other technologies. With the help of CRISPR–Cas9, parts of a genome can be edited by scientists by removing, adding, or altering parts in a DNA sequence.
See also
Biology portal
Accelerated aging disease
Aging DNA
Cell cycle
DNA damage (naturally occurring)
DNA damage theory of aging
DNA replication
Direct DNA damage
Error detection and correction
Gene therapy
Human mitochondrial genetics
Indirect DNA damage
Life extension
Progeria
REPAIRtoire
Senescence
SiDNA
The scientific journal DNA Repair under Mutation Research
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vteDNA repairExcision repair
Base excision repair/AP site
DNA glycosylase
Uracil-DNA glycosylase
Poly ADP ribose polymerase
Nucleotide excision repair/ERCC
XPA
XPB
XPC
XPD/ERCC2
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XPF/DDB1
XPG/ERCC5
ERCC1
RPA
RAD23A
RAD23B
Excinuclease
DNA mismatch repair
MLH1
MSH2
Other forms of repair
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ERCC6
ERCC8
Homology directed repair
Non-homologous end joining
Ku
Microhomology-mediated end joining
Postreplication repair
Photolyase
CRY1
CRY2
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PcrA
Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen
Homologous recombination
RecA/RAD51
Sgs1
Slx4
Regulation
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8-Oxoguanine
Adaptive response
Meiotic recombination checkpoint
RecF pathway
DNA helicase: BLM
WRN
FANC proteins: core protein complex
FANCA
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FANCC
FANCE
FANCF
FANCG
FANCL
FANCM
FANCD1
FANCD2
FANCI
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FANCN
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Portal: Biology | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA Repair (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_Repair_(journal)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brokechromo.jpg"},{"link_name":"cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jackson-Bartek-2009-1"},{"link_name":"metabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"molecular lesions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_lesion"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lodish-2"},{"link_name":"transcribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(biology)"},{"link_name":"gene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene"},{"link_name":"mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation"},{"link_name":"mitosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis"},{"link_name":"apoptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"two-hit hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-hit_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"senescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_senescence"},{"link_name":"apoptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis"},{"link_name":"programmed cell death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death"},{"link_name":"tumor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor"},{"link_name":"cancerous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"life span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-browner-3"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"Tomas Lindahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomas_Lindahl"},{"link_name":"Paul Modrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Modrich"},{"link_name":"Aziz Sancar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz_Sancar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20151007-wjb-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NP-20151007-5"}],"text":"Cellular mechanismFor the journal, see DNA Repair (journal).DNA damage resulting in multiple broken chromosomesDNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome.[1] In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as radiation can cause DNA damage, resulting in tens of thousands of individual molecular lesions per cell per day.[2] Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule and can alter or eliminate the cell's ability to transcribe the gene that the affected DNA encodes. Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell's genome, which affect the survival of its daughter cells after it undergoes mitosis. As a consequence, the DNA repair process is constantly active as it responds to damage in the DNA structure. When normal repair processes fail, and when cellular apoptosis does not occur, irreparable DNA damage may occur. This can eventually lead to malignant tumors, or cancer as per the two-hit hypothesis.The rate of DNA repair is dependent on many factors, including the cell type, the age of the cell, and the extracellular environment. A cell that has accumulated a large amount of DNA damage, or one that no longer effectively repairs damage incurred to its DNA, can enter one of three possible states:an irreversible state of dormancy, known as senescence\ncell suicide, also known as apoptosis or programmed cell death\nunregulated cell division, which can lead to the formation of a tumor that is cancerousThe DNA repair ability of a cell is vital to the integrity of its genome and thus to the normal functionality of that organism. Many genes that were initially shown to influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection.[3]Paul Modrich talks about himself and his work in DNA repair.The 2015 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich, and Aziz Sancar for their work on the molecular mechanisms of DNA repair processes.[4][5]","title":"DNA repair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA damage (naturally occurring)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)"},{"link_name":"Free radical damage to DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical_damage_to_DNA"},{"link_name":"metabolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lodish-2"},{"link_name":"tumor suppressor genes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene"},{"link_name":"tumor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor"},{"link_name":"tumor heterogeneity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumour_heterogeneity"},{"link_name":"primary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_structure"},{"link_name":"adducts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adduct"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"tertiary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_structure"},{"link_name":"supercoiled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercoil"},{"link_name":"histones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone"}],"text":"Further information: DNA damage (naturally occurring) and Free radical damage to DNADNA damage, due to environmental factors and normal metabolic processes inside the cell, occurs at a rate of 10,000 to 1,000,000 molecular lesions per cell per day.[2] While this constitutes at most only 0.0003125% of the human genome's approximately 3.2 billion bases, unrepaired lesions in critical genes (such as tumor suppressor genes) can impede a cell's ability to carry out its function and appreciably increase the likelihood of tumor formation and contribute to tumor heterogeneity.The vast majority of DNA damage affects the primary structure of the double helix; that is, the bases themselves are chemically modified. These modifications can in turn disrupt the molecules' regular helical structure by introducing non-native chemical bonds or bulky adducts that do not fit in the standard double helix. Unlike proteins and RNA, DNA usually lacks tertiary structure and therefore damage or disturbance does not occur at that level. DNA is, however, supercoiled and wound around \"packaging\" proteins called histones (in eukaryotes), and both superstructures are vulnerable to the effects of DNA damage.","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"endogenous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous"},{"link_name":"reactive oxygen species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"},{"link_name":"oxidative deamination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_deamination"},{"link_name":"replication errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_error"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre"},{"link_name":"x-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"gamma rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant"},{"link_name":"toxins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin"},{"link_name":"mutagenic chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagen"},{"link_name":"aromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromatic"},{"link_name":"intercalating agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercalation_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10547702-6"},{"link_name":"back mutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation#By_effect_on_function"},{"link_name":"gene conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_conversion"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"DNA damage can be subdivided into two main types:endogenous damage such as attack by reactive oxygen species produced from normal metabolic byproducts (spontaneous mutation), especially the process of oxidative deamination\nalso includes replication errors\nexogenous damage caused by external agents such as\nultraviolet (UV) radiation (200–400 nm) from the sun or other artificial light sources\nother radiation frequencies, including x-rays and gamma rays\nhydrolysis or thermal disruption\ncertain plant toxins\nhuman-made mutagenic chemicals, especially aromatic compounds that act as DNA intercalating agents\nviruses[6]The replication of damaged DNA before cell division can lead to the incorporation of wrong bases opposite damaged ones. Daughter cells that inherit these wrong bases carry mutations from which the original DNA sequence is unrecoverable (except in the rare case of a back mutation, for example, through gene conversion).","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_oxidation"},{"link_name":"alkylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation"},{"link_name":"methylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylation"},{"link_name":"7-methylguanosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-methylguanosine"},{"link_name":"6-O-Methylguanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6-O-Methylguanine"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"deamination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deamination"},{"link_name":"depurination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depurination"},{"link_name":"\"bulky adduct formation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_adduct"},{"link_name":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"link_name":"UV-B light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_light"},{"link_name":"cytosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosine"},{"link_name":"thymine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymine"},{"link_name":"pyrimidine dimers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer"},{"link_name":"direct DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_DNA_damage"},{"link_name":"UV-A light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_light"},{"link_name":"free radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical"},{"link_name":"indirect DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_DNA_damage"},{"link_name":"Ionizing radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation"},{"link_name":"cosmic rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_rays"},{"link_name":"depurination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depurination"},{"link_name":"purine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine"},{"link_name":"thermophilic bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermophilic_bacteria"},{"link_name":"hot springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_springs"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toshihiro-8"},{"link_name":"purine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine"},{"link_name":"adaptive response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_response"},{"link_name":"vinyl chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"hydrogen peroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide"},{"link_name":"polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon"},{"link_name":"crosslinking of DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosslinking_of_DNA"},{"link_name":"ring puckering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_pucker"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Types","text":"There are several types of damage to DNA due to endogenous cellular processes:oxidation of bases [e.g. 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG)] and generation of DNA strand interruptions from reactive oxygen species,\nalkylation of bases (usually methylation), such as formation of 7-methylguanosine, 1-methyladenine, 6-O-Methylguanine\nhydrolysis of bases, such as deamination, depurination, and depyrimidination.\n\"bulky adduct formation\" (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide-dG adduct, aristolactam I-dA adduct)\nmismatch of bases, due to errors in DNA replication, in which the wrong DNA base is stitched into place in a newly forming DNA strand, or a DNA base is skipped over or mistakenly inserted.\nMonoadduct damage cause by change in single nitrogenous base of DNA\nDi adduct damageDamage caused by exogenous agents comes in many forms. Some examples are:UV-B light causes crosslinking between adjacent cytosine and thymine bases creating pyrimidine dimers. This is called direct DNA damage.\nUV-A light creates mostly free radicals. The damage caused by free radicals is called indirect DNA damage.\nIonizing radiation such as that created by radioactive decay or in cosmic rays causes breaks in DNA strands. Intermediate-level ionizing radiation may induce irreparable DNA damage (leading to replicational and transcriptional errors needed for neoplasia or may trigger viral interactions) leading to pre-mature aging and cancer.\nThermal disruption at elevated temperature increases the rate of depurination (loss of purine bases from the DNA backbone) and single-strand breaks. For example, hydrolytic depurination is seen in the thermophilic bacteria, which grow in hot springs at 40–80 °C.[7][8] The rate of depurination (300 purine residues per genome per generation) is too high in these species to be repaired by normal repair machinery, hence a possibility of an adaptive response cannot be ruled out.\nIndustrial chemicals such as vinyl chloride and hydrogen peroxide, and environmental chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in smoke, soot and tar create a huge diversity of DNA adducts- ethanoates, oxidized bases, alkylated phosphodiesters and crosslinking of DNA, just to name a few.UV damage, alkylation/methylation, X-ray damage and oxidative damage are examples of induced damage. Spontaneous damage can include the loss of a base, deamination, sugar ring puckering and tautomeric shift. Constitutive (spontaneous) DNA damage caused by endogenous oxidants can be detected as a low level of histone H2AX phosphorylation in untreated cells.[9]","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"eukaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria"},{"link_name":"chromatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomes"},{"link_name":"cell division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division"},{"link_name":"histones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histones"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelles"},{"link_name":"reactive oxygen species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"},{"link_name":"free radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"adenosine triphosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"toxicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicity"},{"link_name":"superoxide dismutase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superoxide_dismutase"},{"link_name":"cytoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm"}],"sub_title":"Nuclear versus mitochondrial","text":"In human cells, and eukaryotic cells in general, DNA is found in two cellular locations – inside the nucleus and inside the mitochondria. Nuclear DNA (n-DNA) exists as chromatin during non-replicative stages of the cell cycle and is condensed into aggregate structures known as chromosomes during cell division. In either state the DNA is highly compacted and wound up around bead-like proteins called histones. Whenever a cell needs to express the genetic information encoded in its n-DNA the required chromosomal region is unraveled, genes located therein are expressed, and then the region is condensed back to its resting conformation. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is located inside mitochondria organelles, exists in multiple copies, and is also tightly associated with a number of proteins to form a complex known as the nucleoid. Inside mitochondria, reactive oxygen species (ROS), or free radicals, byproducts of the constant production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via oxidative phosphorylation, create a highly oxidative environment that is known to damage mtDNA. A critical enzyme in counteracting the toxicity of these species is superoxide dismutase, which is present in both the mitochondria and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"divides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis"},{"link_name":"telomeres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomeres"},{"link_name":"noncoding DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncoding_DNA"},{"link_name":"Hayflick limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayflick_limit"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-braig-10"},{"link_name":"quiescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G0_phase"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lynch-11"},{"link_name":"cellular signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_signaling"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17667954-12"}],"sub_title":"Senescence and apoptosis","text":"Senescence, an irreversible process in which the cell no longer divides, is a protective response to the shortening of the chromosome ends, called telomeres. The telomeres are long regions of repetitive noncoding DNA that cap chromosomes and undergo partial degradation each time a cell undergoes division (see Hayflick limit).[10] In contrast, quiescence is a reversible state of cellular dormancy that is unrelated to genome damage (see cell cycle). Senescence in cells may serve as a functional alternative to apoptosis in cases where the physical presence of a cell for spatial reasons is required by the organism,[11] which serves as a \"last resort\" mechanism to prevent a cell with damaged DNA from replicating inappropriately in the absence of pro-growth cellular signaling. Unregulated cell division can lead to the formation of a tumor (see cancer), which is potentially lethal to an organism. Therefore, the induction of senescence and apoptosis is considered to be part of a strategy of protection against cancer.[12]","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nDNA-13"}],"sub_title":"Mutation","text":"It is important to distinguish between DNA damage and mutation, the two major types of error in DNA. DNA damage and mutation are fundamentally different. Damage results in physical abnormalities in the DNA, such as single- and double-strand breaks, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine residues, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts. DNA damage can be recognized by enzymes, and thus can be correctly repaired if redundant information, such as the undamaged sequence in the complementary DNA strand or in a homologous chromosome, is available for copying. If a cell retains DNA damage, transcription of a gene can be prevented, and thus translation into a protein will also be blocked. Replication may also be blocked or the cell may die.In contrast to DNA damage, a mutation is a change in the base sequence of the DNA. A mutation cannot be recognized by enzymes once the base change is present in both DNA strands, and thus a mutation cannot be repaired. At the cellular level, mutations can cause alterations in protein function and regulation. Mutations are replicated when the cell replicates. In a population of cells, mutant cells will increase or decrease in frequency according to the effects of the mutation on the ability of the cell to survive and reproduce.Although distinctly different from each other, DNA damage and mutation are related because DNA damage often causes errors of DNA synthesis during replication or repair; these errors are a major source of mutation.Given these properties of DNA damage and mutation, it can be seen that DNA damage is a special problem in non-dividing or slowly-dividing cells, where unrepaired damage will tend to accumulate over time. On the other hand, in rapidly dividing cells, unrepaired DNA damage that does not kill the cell by blocking replication will tend to cause replication errors and thus mutation. The great majority of mutations that are not neutral in their effect are deleterious to a cell's survival. Thus, in a population of cells composing a tissue with replicating cells, mutant cells will tend to be lost. However, infrequent mutations that provide a survival advantage will tend to clonally expand at the expense of neighboring cells in the tissue. This advantage to the cell is disadvantageous to the whole organism because such mutant cells can give rise to cancer. Thus, DNA damage in frequently dividing cells, because it gives rise to mutations, is a prominent cause of cancer. In contrast, DNA damage in infrequently-dividing cells is likely a prominent cause of aging.[13]","title":"DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"chromatid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatid"},{"link_name":"translesion synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Translesion_synthesis"}],"text":"Cells cannot function if DNA damage corrupts the integrity and accessibility of essential information in the genome (but cells remain superficially functional when non-essential genes are missing or damaged). Depending on the type of damage inflicted on the DNA's double helical structure, a variety of repair strategies have evolved to restore lost information. If possible, cells use the unmodified complementary strand of the DNA or the sister chromatid as a template to recover the original information. Without access to a template, cells use an error-prone recovery mechanism known as translesion synthesis as a last resort.Damage to DNA alters the spatial configuration of the helix, and such alterations can be detected by the cell. Once damage is localized, specific DNA repair molecules bind at or near the site of damage, inducing other molecules to bind and form a complex that enables the actual repair to take place.","title":"Mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pyrimidine dimers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer"},{"link_name":"photoreactivation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreactivation"},{"link_name":"photolyase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolyase"},{"link_name":"blue/UV light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sancar-14"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animals"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"nucleotide excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"ogt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGT_II"},{"link_name":"stoichiometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometric"},{"link_name":"catalytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-watson-16"},{"link_name":"adaptive response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_response"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Volkert-17"}],"sub_title":"Direct reversal","text":"Cells are known to eliminate three types of damage to their DNA by chemically reversing it. These mechanisms do not require a template, since the types of damage they counteract can occur in only one of the four bases. Such direct reversal mechanisms are specific to the type of damage incurred and do not involve breakage of the phosphodiester backbone. The formation of pyrimidine dimers upon irradiation with UV light results in an abnormal covalent bond between adjacent pyrimidine bases. The photoreactivation process directly reverses this damage by the action of the enzyme photolyase, whose activation is obligately dependent on energy absorbed from blue/UV light (300–500 nm wavelength) to promote catalysis.[14] Photolyase, an old enzyme present in bacteria, fungi, and most animals no longer functions in humans,[15] who instead use nucleotide excision repair to repair damage from UV irradiation. Another type of damage, methylation of guanine bases, is directly reversed by the enzyme methyl guanine methyl transferase (MGMT), the bacterial equivalent of which is called ogt. This is an expensive process because each MGMT molecule can be used only once; that is, the reaction is stoichiometric rather than catalytic.[16] A generalized response to methylating agents in bacteria is known as the adaptive response and confers a level of resistance to alkylating agents upon sustained exposure by upregulation of alkylation repair enzymes.[17] The third type of DNA damage reversed by cells is certain methylation of the bases cytosine and adenine.","title":"Mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Uracil_base_glycosidase.jpg"},{"link_name":"uracil-DNA glycosylase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uracil-DNA_glycosylase"},{"link_name":"excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excision_repair"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-watson-16"},{"link_name":"Base excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"glycosylase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_glycosylase"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Willey-18"},{"link_name":"AP site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_site"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Willey-18"},{"link_name":"AP endonucleases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_endonuclease"},{"link_name":"nick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_(DNA)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Willey-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Nucleotide excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"pyrimidine dimerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer"},{"link_name":"endonucleases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endonuclease"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reardon-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reardon-20"},{"link_name":"Uvr proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UvrABC_endonuclease"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reardon-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reardon-20"},{"link_name":"Mismatch repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_repair"},{"link_name":"proofreading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofreading_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berg-21"}],"sub_title":"Single-strand damage","text":"Structure of the base-excision repair enzyme uracil-DNA glycosylase excising a hydrolytically-produced uracil residue from DNA. The uracil residue is shown in yellow.When only one of the two strands of a double helix has a defect, the other strand can be used as a template to guide the correction of the damaged strand. In order to repair damage to one of the two paired molecules of DNA, there exist a number of excision repair mechanisms that remove the damaged nucleotide and replace it with an undamaged nucleotide complementary to that found in the undamaged DNA strand.[16]Base excision repair (BER): damaged single bases or nucleotides are most commonly repaired by removing the base or the nucleotide involved and then inserting the correct base or nucleotide. In base excision repair, a glycosylase[18] enzyme removes the damaged base from the DNA by cleaving the bond between the base and the deoxyribose. These enzymes remove a single base to create an apurinic or apyrimidinic site (AP site).[18] Enzymes called AP endonucleases nick the damaged DNA backbone at the AP site. DNA polymerase then removes the damaged region using its 5' to 3' exonuclease activity and correctly synthesizes the new strand using the complementary strand as a template.[18] The gap is then sealed by enzyme DNA ligase.[19]\nNucleotide excision repair (NER): bulky, helix-distorting damage, such as pyrimidine dimerization caused by UV light is usually repaired by a three-step process. First the damage is recognized, then 12-24 nucleotide-long strands of DNA are removed both upstream and downstream of the damage site by endonucleases, and the removed DNA region is then resynthesized.[20] NER is a highly evolutionarily conserved repair mechanism and is used in nearly all eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.[20] In prokaryotes, NER is mediated by Uvr proteins.[20] In eukaryotes, many more proteins are involved, although the general strategy is the same.[20]\nMismatch repair systems are present in essentially all cells to correct errors that are not corrected by proofreading. These systems consist of at least two proteins. One detects the mismatch, and the other recruits an endonuclease that cleaves the newly synthesized DNA strand close to the region of damage. In E. coli , the proteins involved are the Mut class proteins: MutS, MutL, and MutH. In most Eukaryotes, the analog for MutS is MSH and the analog for MutL is MLH. MutH is only present in bacteria. This is followed by removal of damaged region by an exonuclease, resynthesis by DNA polymerase, and nick sealing by DNA ligase.[21]","title":"Mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DsDNA_break_repair_pathways.svg"},{"link_name":"genome rearrangements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_rearrangement"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acharya-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bjorksten-23"},{"link_name":"non-homologous end joining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-homologous_end_joining"},{"link_name":"microhomology-mediated end joining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhomology-mediated_end_joining"},{"link_name":"homologous recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-watson-16"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid16012167-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_Repair.jpg"},{"link_name":"ester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester"},{"link_name":"DNA Ligase IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIG4"},{"link_name":"DNA ligase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_ligase"},{"link_name":"XRCC4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XRCC4"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore_and_Haber-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilson_and_Lieber-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wang-30"},{"link_name":"V(D)J recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V(D)J_recombination"},{"link_name":"B-cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-cell_receptor"},{"link_name":"T-cell receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-cell_receptor"},{"link_name":"vertebrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"immune system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"end resection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_end_resection"},{"link_name":"MRE11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRE11"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Truong-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid25789972-33"},{"link_name":"Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARP1"},{"link_name":"flap structure-specific endonuclease 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flap_structure-specific_endonuclease_1"},{"link_name":"XRCC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XRCC1"},{"link_name":"LIG3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIG3"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23565119-34"},{"link_name":"chromosomal crossover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover"},{"link_name":"chromatid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatid"},{"link_name":"homologous chromosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_chromosome"},{"link_name":"replication fork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_fork"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Truong-32"},{"link_name":"extremophile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremophile"},{"link_name":"Deinococcus radiodurans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinococcus_radiodurans"},{"link_name":"ionizing radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation"},{"link_name":"annealing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(biology)"},{"link_name":"homologous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)#Homology_of_sequences_in_genetics"},{"link_name":"D-loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-loop"},{"link_name":"crossover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover"},{"link_name":"RecA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RecA"},{"link_name":"homologous recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination#RecBCD_pathway"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MRadman-35"},{"link_name":"Topoisomerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topoisomerase"},{"link_name":"supercoiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercoil"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Double-strand breaks","text":"The main double-strand break repair pathwaysDouble-strand breaks, in which both strands in the double helix are severed, are particularly hazardous to the cell because they can lead to genome rearrangements. In fact, when a double-strand break is accompanied by a cross-linkage joining the two strands at the same point, neither strand can be used as a template for the repair mechanisms, so that the cell will not be able to complete mitosis when it next divides, and will either die or, in rare cases, undergo a mutation.[22][23] Three mechanisms exist to repair double-strand breaks (DSBs): non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ), and homologous recombination (HR):[16][24]DNA ligase, shown above repairing chromosomal damage, is an enzyme that joins broken nucleotides together by catalyzing the formation of an internucleotide ester bond between the phosphate backbone and the deoxyribose nucleotides.In NHEJ, DNA Ligase IV, a specialized DNA ligase that forms a complex with the cofactor XRCC4, directly joins the two ends.[25] To guide accurate repair, NHEJ relies on short homologous sequences called microhomologies present on the single-stranded tails of the DNA ends to be joined. If these overhangs are compatible, repair is usually accurate.[26][27][28][29] NHEJ can also introduce mutations during repair. Loss of damaged nucleotides at the break site can lead to deletions, and joining of nonmatching termini forms insertions or translocations. NHEJ is especially important before the cell has replicated its DNA, since there is no template available for repair by homologous recombination. There are \"backup\" NHEJ pathways in higher eukaryotes.[30] Besides its role as a genome caretaker, NHEJ is required for joining hairpin-capped double-strand breaks induced during V(D)J recombination, the process that generates diversity in B-cell and T-cell receptors in the vertebrate immune system.[31]\nMMEJ starts with short-range end resection by MRE11 nuclease on either side of a double-strand break to reveal microhomology regions.[32] In further steps,[33] Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is required and may be an early step in MMEJ. There is pairing of microhomology regions followed by recruitment of flap structure-specific endonuclease 1 (FEN1) to remove overhanging flaps. This is followed by recruitment of XRCC1–LIG3 to the site for ligating the DNA ends, leading to an intact DNA. MMEJ is always accompanied by a deletion, so that MMEJ is a mutagenic pathway for DNA repair.[34]\nHR requires the presence of an identical or nearly identical sequence to be used as a template for repair of the break. The enzymatic machinery responsible for this repair process is nearly identical to the machinery responsible for chromosomal crossover during meiosis. This pathway allows a damaged chromosome to be repaired using a sister chromatid (available in G2 after DNA replication) or a homologous chromosome as a template. DSBs caused by the replication machinery attempting to synthesize across a single-strand break or unrepaired lesion cause collapse of the replication fork and are typically repaired by recombination.In an in vitro system, MMEJ occurred in mammalian cells at the levels of 10–20% of HR when both HR and NHEJ mechanisms were also available.[32]The extremophile Deinococcus radiodurans has a remarkable ability to survive DNA damage from ionizing radiation and other sources. At least two copies of the genome, with random DNA breaks, can form DNA fragments through annealing. Partially overlapping fragments are then used for synthesis of homologous regions through a moving D-loop that can continue extension until complementary partner strands are found. In the final step, there is crossover by means of RecA-dependent homologous recombination.[35]Topoisomerases introduce both single- and double-strand breaks in the course of changing the DNA's state of supercoiling, which is especially common in regions near an open replication fork. Such breaks are not considered DNA damage because they are a natural intermediate in the topoisomerase biochemical mechanism and are immediately repaired by the enzymes that created them.Another type of DNA double-strand breaks originates from the DNA heat-sensitive or heat-labile sites. These DNA sites are not initial DSBs. However, they convert to DSB after treating with elevated temperature. Ionizing irradiation can induces a highly complex form of DNA damage as clustered damage. It consists of different types of DNA lesions in various locations of the DNA helix. Some of these closely located lesions can probably convert to DSB by exposure to high temperatures. But the exact nature of these lesions and their interactions is not yet known[36]","title":"Mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"link_name":"thymine dimers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymine_dimer"},{"link_name":"AP sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_site"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19258535-37"},{"link_name":"DNA polymerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase"},{"link_name":"processivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processivity"},{"link_name":"PCNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCNA"},{"link_name":"Pol η","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase_eta"},{"link_name":"UV irradiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"Pol ι","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POLI"},{"link_name":"T^T photodimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimers#Mutagenesis"},{"link_name":"Watson-Crick base pairing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair"},{"link_name":"Hoogsteen base pairing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoogsteen_base_pair"},{"link_name":"point mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_mutation"},{"link_name":"polymerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerases"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid18616294-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid21302943-39"},{"link_name":"Proliferating cell nuclear antigen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proliferating_cell_nuclear_antigen"},{"link_name":"lesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion"},{"link_name":"RAD18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD18"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Pol ζ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase#Polymerases_Rev1_and_%CE%B6_(zeta)"}],"sub_title":"Translesion synthesis","text":"Translesion synthesis (TLS) is a DNA damage tolerance process that allows the DNA replication machinery to replicate past DNA lesions such as thymine dimers or AP sites.[37] It involves switching out regular DNA polymerases for specialized translesion polymerases (i.e. DNA polymerase IV or V, from the Y Polymerase family), often with larger active sites that can facilitate the insertion of bases opposite damaged nucleotides. The polymerase switching is thought to be mediated by, among other factors, the post-translational modification of the replication processivity factor PCNA. Translesion synthesis polymerases often have low fidelity (high propensity to insert wrong bases) on undamaged templates relative to regular polymerases. However, many are extremely efficient at inserting correct bases opposite specific types of damage. For example, Pol η mediates error-free bypass of lesions induced by UV irradiation, whereas Pol ι introduces mutations at these sites. Pol η is known to add the first adenine across the T^T photodimer using Watson-Crick base pairing and the second adenine will be added in its syn conformation using Hoogsteen base pairing. From a cellular perspective, risking the introduction of point mutations during translesion synthesis may be preferable to resorting to more drastic mechanisms of DNA repair, which may cause gross chromosomal aberrations or cell death. In short, the process involves specialized polymerases either bypassing or repairing lesions at locations of stalled DNA replication. For example, Human DNA polymerase eta can bypass complex DNA lesions like guanine-thymine intra-strand crosslink, G[8,5-Me]T, although it can cause targeted and semi-targeted mutations.[38] Paromita Raychaudhury and Ashis Basu[39] studied the toxicity and mutagenesis of the same lesion in Escherichia coli by replicating a G[8,5-Me]T-modified plasmid in E. coli with specific DNA polymerase knockouts. Viability was very low in a strain lacking pol II, pol IV, and pol V, the three SOS-inducible DNA polymerases, indicating that translesion synthesis is conducted primarily by these specialized DNA polymerases.\nA bypass platform is provided to these polymerases by Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). Under normal circumstances, PCNA bound to polymerases replicates the DNA. At a site of lesion, PCNA is ubiquitinated, or modified, by the RAD6/RAD18 proteins to provide a platform for the specialized polymerases to bypass the lesion and resume DNA replication.[40][41] After translesion synthesis, extension is required. This extension can be carried out by a replicative polymerase if the TLS is error-free, as in the case of Pol η, yet if TLS results in a mismatch, a specialized polymerase is needed to extend it; Pol ζ. Pol ζ is unique in that it can extend terminal mismatches, whereas more processive polymerases cannot. So when a lesion is encountered, the replication fork will stall, PCNA will switch from a processive polymerase to a TLS polymerase such as Pol ι to fix the lesion, then PCNA may switch to Pol ζ to extend the mismatch, and last PCNA will switch to the processive polymerase to continue replication.","title":"Mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ionizing radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_light"},{"link_name":"biomolecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"carbohydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"replication forks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_fork"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbook-42"},{"link_name":"apoptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis"},{"link_name":"genes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"cell division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division"}],"text":"Cells exposed to ionizing radiation, ultraviolet light or chemicals are prone to acquire multiple sites of bulky DNA lesions and double-strand breaks. Moreover, DNA damaging agents can damage other biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and RNA. The accumulation of damage, to be specific, double-strand breaks or adducts stalling the replication forks, are among known stimulation signals for a global response to DNA damage.[42] The global response to damage is an act directed toward the cells' own preservation and triggers multiple pathways of macromolecular repair, lesion bypass, tolerance, or apoptosis. The common features of global response are induction of multiple genes, cell cycle arrest, and inhibition of cell division.","title":"Global response to DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chromatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin"},{"link_name":"remodeled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling"},{"link_name":"ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"chromatin remodeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling"},{"link_name":"histone-modifying enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone-modifying_enzymes"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liu-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sellou-45"},{"link_name":"c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-Jun_N-terminal_kinases"},{"link_name":"SIRT6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIRT6"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bohr-46"},{"link_name":"post-translational modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-translational_modification"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bohr-46"},{"link_name":"PARP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARP1"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haince-47"},{"link_name":"polymeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymeric"},{"link_name":"adenosine diphosphate ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate_ribose"},{"link_name":"ALC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHD1L"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sellou-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sellou-45"},{"link_name":"MRE11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRE11A"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haince-47"},{"link_name":"H2AX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H2AFX"},{"link_name":"histone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rogakou_1998-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rogakou_1998-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rogakou_1998-48"},{"link_name":"RNF8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNF8"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid18001824-49"},{"link_name":"CHD4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHD4"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid22531782-50"},{"link_name":"NuRD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi-2/NuRD_complex"},{"link_name":"DDB2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDB2"},{"link_name":"DDB1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDB1"},{"link_name":"ubiquitin ligase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitin_ligase"},{"link_name":"CUL4A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CUL4A"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luijsterburg2007-51"},{"link_name":"PARP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARP1"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pines-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luijsterburg2007-51"},{"link_name":"PARylates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADP-ribosylation#Poly_ADP-ribosylation"},{"link_name":"ALC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHD1L"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pines-52"},{"link_name":"nucleotide excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrimidine_dimer"},{"link_name":"chromatin remodeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatin_remodeling"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"checkpoints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle_checkpoint"},{"link_name":"kinases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinase"},{"link_name":"ATM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_telangiectasia_mutated"},{"link_name":"ATR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_Telangiectasia_and_Rad3_related"},{"link_name":"Chk1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHEK1"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid16327781-53"}],"sub_title":"Initial steps","text":"The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin presents a barrier to all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of enzymes to their sites of action. To allow DNA repair, the chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone-modifying enzymes are two predominant factors employed to accomplish this remodeling process.[43]Chromatin relaxation occurs rapidly at the site of a DNA damage.[44][45] In one of the earliest steps, the stress-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphorylates SIRT6 on serine 10 in response to double-strand breaks or other DNA damage.[46] This post-translational modification facilitates the mobilization of SIRT6 to DNA damage sites, and is required for efficient recruitment of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) to DNA break sites and for efficient repair of DSBs.[46] PARP1 protein starts to appear at DNA damage sites in less than a second, with half maximum accumulation within 1.6 seconds after the damage occurs.[47] PARP1 synthesizes polymeric adenosine diphosphate ribose (poly (ADP-ribose) or PAR) chains on itself. Next the chromatin remodeler ALC1 quickly attaches to the product of PARP1 action, a poly-ADP ribose chain, and ALC1 completes arrival at the DNA damage within 10 seconds of the occurrence of the damage.[45] About half of the maximum chromatin relaxation, presumably due to action of ALC1, occurs by 10 seconds.[45] This then allows recruitment of the DNA repair enzyme MRE11, to initiate DNA repair, within 13 seconds.[47]γH2AX, the phosphorylated form of H2AX is also involved in the early steps leading to chromatin decondensation after DNA double-strand breaks. The histone variant H2AX constitutes about 10% of the H2A histones in human chromatin.[48] γH2AX (H2AX phosphorylated on serine 139) can be detected as soon as 20 seconds after irradiation of cells (with DNA double-strand break formation), and half maximum accumulation of γH2AX occurs in one minute.[48] The extent of chromatin with phosphorylated γH2AX is about two million base pairs at the site of a DNA double-strand break.[48] γH2AX does not, itself, cause chromatin decondensation, but within 30 seconds of irradiation, RNF8 protein can be detected in association with γH2AX.[49] RNF8 mediates extensive chromatin decondensation, through its subsequent interaction with CHD4,[50] a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex NuRD.DDB2 occurs in a heterodimeric complex with DDB1. This complex further complexes with the ubiquitin ligase protein CUL4A[51] and with PARP1.[52] This larger complex rapidly associates with UV-induced damage within chromatin, with half-maximum association completed in 40 seconds.[51] The PARP1 protein, attached to both DDB1 and DDB2, then PARylates (creates a poly-ADP ribose chain) on DDB2 that attracts the DNA remodeling protein ALC1.[52] Action of ALC1 relaxes the chromatin at the site of UV damage to DNA. This relaxation allows other proteins in the nucleotide excision repair pathway to enter the chromatin and repair UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer damages.After rapid chromatin remodeling, cell cycle checkpoints are activated to allow DNA repair to occur before the cell cycle progresses. First, two kinases, ATM and ATR are activated within 5 or 6 minutes after DNA is damaged. This is followed by phosphorylation of the cell cycle checkpoint protein Chk1, initiating its function, about 10 minutes after DNA is damaged.[53]","title":"Global response to DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"checkpoints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle_checkpoint"},{"link_name":"G1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G1_phase"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S_phase"},{"link_name":"G2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G2_phase"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S_phase"},{"link_name":"kinases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinase"},{"link_name":"ATM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_telangiectasia_mutated"},{"link_name":"ATR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_Telangiectasia_and_Rad3_related"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"replication forks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_fork"},{"link_name":"phosphorylate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"signal transduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transduction"},{"link_name":"BRCA1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA1"},{"link_name":"MDC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDC1"},{"link_name":"53BP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53BP1"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"signal transduction pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transduction_pathway"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"metaphase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphase"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_3-kinase"},{"link_name":"protein kinase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_kinase"},{"link_name":"proliferating cell nuclear antigen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proliferating_cell_nuclear_antigen"},{"link_name":"Ataxia telangiectasia mutated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_telangiectasia_mutated"},{"link_name":"chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome"},{"link_name":"p53","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P53"},{"link_name":"apoptosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"p21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P21"},{"link_name":"cyclin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclin"},{"link_name":"cyclin-dependent kinase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclin-dependent_kinase"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"DNA damage checkpoints","text":"After DNA damage, cell cycle checkpoints are activated. Checkpoint activation pauses the cell cycle and gives the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide. DNA damage checkpoints occur at the G1/S and G2/M boundaries. An intra-S checkpoint also exists. Checkpoint activation is controlled by two master kinases, ATM and ATR. ATM responds to DNA double-strand breaks and disruptions in chromatin structure,[54] whereas ATR primarily responds to stalled replication forks. These kinases phosphorylate downstream targets in a signal transduction cascade, eventually leading to cell cycle arrest. A class of checkpoint mediator proteins including BRCA1, MDC1, and 53BP1 has also been identified.[55] These proteins seem to be required for transmitting the checkpoint activation signal to downstream proteins.DNA damage checkpoint is a signal transduction pathway that blocks cell cycle progression in G1, G2 and metaphase and slows down the rate of S phase progression when DNA is damaged. It leads to a pause in cell cycle allowing the cell time to repair the damage before continuing to divide.Checkpoint Proteins can be separated into four groups: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-like protein kinase, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-like group, two serine/threonine(S/T) kinases and their adaptors. Central to all DNA damage induced checkpoints responses is a pair of large protein kinases belonging to the first group of PI3K-like protein kinases-the ATM (Ataxia telangiectasia mutated) and ATR (Ataxia- and Rad-related) kinases, whose sequence and functions have been well conserved in evolution. All DNA damage response requires either ATM or ATR because they have the ability to bind to the chromosomes at the site of DNA damage, together with accessory proteins that are platforms on which DNA damage response components and DNA repair complexes can be assembled.An important downstream target of ATM and ATR is p53, as it is required for inducing apoptosis following DNA damage.[56] The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is induced by both p53-dependent and p53-independent mechanisms and can arrest the cell cycle at the G1/S and G2/M checkpoints by deactivating cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase complexes.[57]","title":"Global response to DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SOS response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOS_response"},{"link_name":"gene expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression"},{"link_name":"Escherichia coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotic"},{"link_name":"LexA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LexA"},{"link_name":"RecA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RecA"},{"link_name":"homodimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homodimer"},{"link_name":"transcriptional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"repressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repressor"},{"link_name":"operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Escherichia coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Janion-58"},{"link_name":"Spirochetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirochetes"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Erill-59"},{"link_name":"replication forks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_fork"},{"link_name":"DNA helicase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_helicase"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbook-42"},{"link_name":"ATP hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease"},{"link_name":"palindromic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palindromic"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Erill-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goodman-60"}],"sub_title":"The prokaryotic SOS response","text":"The SOS response is the changes in gene expression in Escherichia coli and other bacteria in response to extensive DNA damage. The prokaryotic SOS system is regulated by two key proteins: LexA and RecA. The LexA homodimer is a transcriptional repressor that binds to operator sequences commonly referred to as SOS boxes. In Escherichia coli it is known that LexA regulates transcription of approximately 48 genes including the lexA and recA genes.[58] The SOS response is known to be widespread in the Bacteria domain, but it is mostly absent in some bacterial phyla, like the Spirochetes.[59]\nThe most common cellular signals activating the SOS response are regions of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), arising from stalled replication forks or double-strand breaks, which are processed by DNA helicase to separate the two DNA strands.[42] In the initiation step, RecA protein binds to ssDNA in an ATP hydrolysis driven reaction creating RecA–ssDNA filaments. RecA–ssDNA filaments activate LexA autoprotease activity, which ultimately leads to cleavage of LexA dimer and subsequent LexA degradation. The loss of LexA repressor induces transcription of the SOS genes and allows for further signal induction, inhibition of cell division and an increase in levels of proteins responsible for damage processing.In Escherichia coli, SOS boxes are 20-nucleotide long sequences near promoters with palindromic structure and a high degree of sequence conservation. In other classes and phyla, the sequence of SOS boxes varies considerably, with different length and composition, but it is always highly conserved and one of the strongest short signals in the genome.[59] The high information content of SOS boxes permits differential binding of LexA to different promoters and allows for timing of the SOS response. The lesion repair genes are induced at the beginning of SOS response. The error-prone translesion polymerases, for example, UmuCD'2 (also called DNA polymerase V), are induced later on as a last resort.[60] Once the DNA damage is repaired or bypassed using polymerases or through recombination, the amount of single-stranded DNA in cells is decreased, lowering the amounts of RecA filaments decreases cleavage activity of LexA homodimer, which then binds to the SOS boxes near promoters and restores normal gene expression.","title":"Global response to DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eukaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic"},{"link_name":"cell cycle checkpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle_checkpoint"},{"link_name":"yeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"},{"link_name":"Saccharomyces cerevisiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae"},{"link_name":"shock response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_response"},{"link_name":"heterogeneity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneity"},{"link_name":"mammalian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammalian"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fry,_Begle,_Samson_2004-61"},{"link_name":"postreplication repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postreplication_repair"},{"link_name":"DNA damage checkpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage_checkpoint"},{"link_name":"polymerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbook-42"}],"sub_title":"Eukaryotic transcriptional responses to DNA damage","text":"Eukaryotic cells exposed to DNA damaging agents also activate important defensive pathways by inducing multiple proteins involved in DNA repair, cell cycle checkpoint control, protein trafficking and degradation. Such genome wide transcriptional response is very complex and tightly regulated, thus allowing coordinated global response to damage. Exposure of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to DNA damaging agents results in overlapping but distinct transcriptional profiles. Similarities to environmental shock response indicates that a general global stress response pathway exist at the level of transcriptional activation. In contrast, different human cell types respond to damage differently indicating an absence of a common global response. The probable explanation for this difference between yeast and human cells may be in the heterogeneity of mammalian cells. In an animal different types of cells are distributed among different organs that have evolved different sensitivities to DNA damage.[61]In general global response to DNA damage involves expression of multiple genes responsible for postreplication repair, homologous recombination, nucleotide excision repair, DNA damage checkpoint, global transcriptional activation, genes controlling mRNA decay, and many others. A large amount of damage to a cell leaves it with an important decision: undergo apoptosis and die, or survive at the cost of living with a modified genome. An increase in tolerance to damage can lead to an increased rate of survival that will allow a greater accumulation of mutations. Yeast Rev1 and human polymerase η are members of Y family translesion DNA polymerases present during global response to DNA damage and are responsible for enhanced mutagenesis during a global response to DNA damage in eukaryotes.[42]","title":"Global response to DNA damage"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Aging"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA-Repair_1.png"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nDNA-13"},{"link_name":"lymphoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphoma"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espejel-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deboer-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dolle-64"},{"link_name":"maximum life spans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_life_span"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse"},{"link_name":"naked mole-rats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_mole-rat"},{"link_name":"humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacRae2015-65"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacRae2015-65"},{"link_name":"longevity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longevity"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacRae2015-65"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nDNA-13"},{"link_name":"below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Medicine_and_DNA_repair_modulation"},{"link_name":"Deinococcus radiodurans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinococcus_radiodurans"},{"link_name":"radioactivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kobayashi-66"}],"sub_title":"Pathological effects of poor DNA repair","text":"DNA repair rate is an important determinant of cell pathology.Experimental animals with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair often show decreased life span and increased cancer incidence.[13] For example, mice deficient in the dominant NHEJ pathway and in telomere maintenance mechanisms get lymphoma and infections more often, and, as a consequence, have shorter lifespans than wild-type mice.[62] In similar manner, mice deficient in a key repair and transcription protein that unwinds DNA helices have premature onset of aging-related diseases and consequent shortening of lifespan.[63] However, not every DNA repair deficiency creates exactly the predicted effects; mice deficient in the NER pathway exhibited shortened life span without correspondingly higher rates of mutation.[64]The maximum life spans of mice, naked mole-rats and humans are respectively ~3, ~30 and ~129 years.[65] Of these, the shortest lived species, mouse, expresses DNA repair genes, including core genes in several DNA repair pathways, at a lower level than do humans and naked mole rats.[65] Furthermore several DNA repair pathways in humans and naked mole-rats are up-regulated compared to mouse. These observations suggest that elevated DNA repair facilitates greater longevity.[65]If the rate of DNA damage exceeds the capacity of the cell to repair it, the accumulation of errors can overwhelm the cell and result in early senescence, apoptosis, or cancer. Inherited diseases associated with faulty DNA repair functioning result in premature aging,[13] increased sensitivity to carcinogens and correspondingly increased cancer risk (see below). On the other hand, organisms with enhanced DNA repair systems, such as Deinococcus radiodurans, the most radiation-resistant known organism, exhibit remarkable resistance to the double-strand break-inducing effects of radioactivity, likely due to enhanced efficiency of DNA repair and especially NHEJ.[66]","title":"Aging"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dnadamage.png"},{"link_name":"Caloric restriction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloric_restriction"},{"link_name":"nutrient sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient_sensing"},{"link_name":"metabolic rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_rate"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spindler-67"},{"link_name":"mTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTOR"},{"link_name":"metabolic activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_activity"},{"link_name":"DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"gene dosage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_dosage"},{"link_name":"Caenorhabditis elegans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tissenbaum-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohen-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cabelof-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stuart-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-walker-73"},{"link_name":"pleiotropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiotropy"},{"link_name":"biological origins of aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senescence#Theories_of_aging"}],"sub_title":"Longevity and caloric restriction","text":"Most life span influencing genes affect the rate of DNA damage.A number of individual genes have been identified as influencing variations in life span within a population of organisms. The effects of these genes is strongly dependent on the environment, in particular, on the organism's diet. Caloric restriction reproducibly results in extended lifespan in a variety of organisms, likely via nutrient sensing pathways and decreased metabolic rate. The molecular mechanisms by which such restriction results in lengthened lifespan are as yet unclear (see[67] for some discussion); however, the behavior of many genes known to be involved in DNA repair is altered under conditions of caloric restriction. Several agents reported to have anti-aging properties have been shown to attenuate constitutive level of mTOR signaling, an evidence of reduction of metabolic activity, and concurrently to reduce constitutive level of DNA damage induced by endogenously generated reactive oxygen species.[68]For example, increasing the gene dosage of the gene SIR-2, which regulates DNA packaging in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans, can significantly extend lifespan.[69] The mammalian homolog of SIR-2 is known to induce downstream DNA repair factors involved in NHEJ, an activity that is especially promoted under conditions of caloric restriction.[70] Caloric restriction has been closely linked to the rate of base excision repair in the nuclear DNA of rodents,[71] although similar effects have not been observed in mitochondrial DNA.[72]The C. elegans gene AGE-1, an upstream effector of DNA repair pathways, confers dramatically extended life span under free-feeding conditions but leads to a decrease in reproductive fitness under conditions of caloric restriction.[73] This observation supports the pleiotropy theory of the biological origins of aging, which suggests that genes conferring a large survival advantage early in life will be selected for even if they carry a corresponding disadvantage late in life.","title":"Aging"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Medicine and DNA repair modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xeroderma pigmentosum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeroderma_pigmentosum"},{"link_name":"Cockayne syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockayne_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Trichothiodystrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichothiodystrophy"},{"link_name":"Werner's syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner%27s_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Bloom's syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom_syndrome"},{"link_name":"malignancies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant"},{"link_name":"leukemias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia"},{"link_name":"Ataxia telangiectasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia_telangiectasia"},{"link_name":"progerias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progeria"},{"link_name":"accelerated aging diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_aging_disease"},{"link_name":"Fanconi anemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanconi_anemia"},{"link_name":"breast cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer"},{"link_name":"colon cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_cancer"}],"sub_title":"Hereditary DNA repair disorders","text":"Defects in the NER mechanism are responsible for several genetic disorders, including:Xeroderma pigmentosum: hypersensitivity to sunlight/UV, resulting in increased skin cancer incidence and premature aging\nCockayne syndrome: hypersensitivity to UV and chemical agents\nTrichothiodystrophy: sensitive skin, brittle hair and nailsMental retardation often accompanies the latter two disorders, suggesting increased vulnerability of developmental neurons.Other DNA repair disorders include:Werner's syndrome: premature aging and retarded growth\nBloom's syndrome: sunlight hypersensitivity, high incidence of malignancies (especially leukemias).\nAtaxia telangiectasia: sensitivity to ionizing radiation and some chemical agentsAll of the above diseases are often called \"segmental progerias\" (\"accelerated aging diseases\") because those affected appear elderly and experience aging-related diseases at an abnormally young age, while not manifesting all the symptoms of old age.Other diseases associated with reduced DNA repair function include Fanconi anemia, hereditary breast cancer and hereditary colon cancer.","title":"Medicine and DNA repair modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weinberg-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Inherited human DNA repair gene mutations that increase cancer risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inherited_human_DNA_repair_gene_mutations_that_increase_cancer_risk"},{"link_name":"Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditary_nonpolyposis_colorectal_cancer"},{"link_name":"BRCA1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA1"},{"link_name":"BRCA2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA2"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid17683622-76"},{"link_name":"chemotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy"},{"link_name":"radiotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotherapy"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"PARP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARP1"},{"link_name":"olaparib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaparib"},{"link_name":"homologous recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Olaparib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaparib"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"text":"Because of inherent limitations in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer.[74][75] There are at least 34 Inherited human DNA repair gene mutations that increase cancer risk. Many of these mutations cause DNA repair to be less effective than normal. In particular, Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is strongly associated with specific mutations in the DNA mismatch repair pathway. BRCA1 and BRCA2, two important genes whose mutations confer a hugely increased risk of breast cancer on carriers,[76] are both associated with a large number of DNA repair pathways, especially NHEJ and homologous recombination.Cancer therapy procedures such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy work by overwhelming the capacity of the cell to repair DNA damage, resulting in cell death. Cells that are most rapidly dividing – most typically cancer cells – are preferentially affected. The side-effect is that other non-cancerous but rapidly dividing cells such as progenitor cells in the gut, skin, and hematopoietic system are also affected. Modern cancer treatments attempt to localize the DNA damage to cells and tissues only associated with cancer, either by physical means (concentrating the therapeutic agent in the region of the tumor) or by biochemical means (exploiting a feature unique to cancer cells in the body). In the context of therapies targeting DNA damage response genes, the latter approach has been termed 'synthetic lethality'.[77]Perhaps the most well-known of these 'synthetic lethality' drugs is the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) inhibitor olaparib, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2015 for the treatment in women of BRCA-defective ovarian cancer. Tumor cells with partial loss of DNA damage response (specifically, homologous recombination repair) are dependent on another mechanism – single-strand break repair – which is a mechanism consisting, in part, of the PARP1 gene product.[78] Olaparib is combined with chemotherapeutics to inhibit single-strand break repair induced by DNA damage caused by the co-administered chemotherapy. Tumor cells relying on this residual DNA repair mechanism are unable to repair the damage and hence are not able to survive and proliferate, whereas normal cells can repair the damage with the functioning homologous recombination mechanism.Many other drugs for use against other residual DNA repair mechanisms commonly found in cancer are currently under investigation. However, synthetic lethality therapeutic approaches have been questioned due to emerging evidence of acquired resistance, achieved through rewiring of DNA damage response pathways and reversion of previously inhibited defects.[79]","title":"Cancer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceB-82"},{"link_name":"Replication stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_stress"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"short hairpin RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_hairpin_RNA"},{"link_name":"ATM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_serine/threonine_kinase"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceB-82"},{"link_name":"Li-Fraumeni syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li-Fraumeni_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-80"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"sub_title":"DNA repair defects in cancer","text":"It has become apparent over the past several years that the DNA damage response acts as a barrier to the malignant transformation of preneoplastic cells.[80] Previous studies have shown an elevated DNA damage response in cell-culture models with oncogene activation[81] and preneoplastic colon adenomas.[82] DNA damage response mechanisms trigger cell-cycle arrest, and attempt to repair DNA lesions or promote cell death/senescence if repair is not possible. Replication stress is observed in preneoplastic cells due to increased proliferation signals from oncogenic mutations. Replication stress is characterized by: increased replication initiation/origin firing; increased transcription and collisions of transcription-replication complexes; nucleotide deficiency; increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS).[83]Replication stress, along with the selection for inactivating mutations in DNA damage response genes in the evolution of the tumor,[84] leads to downregulation and/or loss of some DNA damage response mechanisms, and hence loss of DNA repair and/or senescence/programmed cell death. In experimental mouse models, loss of DNA damage response-mediated cell senescence was observed after using a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) to inhibit the double-strand break response kinase ataxia telangiectasia (ATM), leading to increased tumor size and invasiveness.[82] Humans born with inherited defects in DNA repair mechanisms (for example, Li-Fraumeni syndrome) have a higher cancer risk.[85]The prevalence of DNA damage response mutations differs across cancer types; for example, 30% of breast invasive carcinomas have mutations in genes involved in homologous recombination.[80] In cancer, downregulation is observed across all DNA damage response mechanisms (base excision repair (BER), nucleotide excision repair (NER), DNA mismatch repair (MMR), homologous recombination repair (HR), non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and translesion DNA synthesis (TLS).[86] As well as mutations to DNA damage repair genes, mutations also arise in the genes responsible for arresting the cell cycle to allow sufficient time for DNA repair to occur, and some genes are involved in both DNA damage repair and cell cycle checkpoint control, for example ATM and checkpoint kinase 2 (CHEK2) – a tumor suppressor that is often absent or downregulated in non-small cell lung cancer.[87]","title":"Cancer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epigenetic alterations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"DNA methylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylation"},{"link_name":"histone modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_modification"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"HMGA2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMGA2"},{"link_name":"HMGA1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMGA1"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"microRNAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroRNA"},{"link_name":"DNA sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequence"},{"link_name":"cell divisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division"},{"link_name":"genetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_instability"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"DNA mismatch repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_mismatch_repair"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"homologous recombinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Hagan-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"DNA repair-deficiency disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair-deficiency_disorder"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"germline mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germline_mutation"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"sub_title":"Epigenetic DNA repair defects in cancer","text":"Classically, cancer has been viewed as a set of diseases that are driven by progressive genetic abnormalities that include mutations in tumour-suppressor genes and oncogenes, and chromosomal aberrations. However, it has become apparent that cancer is also driven by epigenetic alterations.[88]Epigenetic alterations refer to functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not involve a change in the nucleotide sequence. Examples of such modifications are changes in DNA methylation (hypermethylation and hypomethylation) and histone modification,[89] changes in chromosomal architecture (caused by inappropriate expression of proteins such as HMGA2 or HMGA1)[90] and changes caused by microRNAs. Each of these epigenetic alterations serves to regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence. These changes usually remain through cell divisions, last for multiple cell generations, and can be considered to be epimutations (equivalent to mutations).While large numbers of epigenetic alterations are found in cancers, the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes, causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins, appear to be particularly important. Such alterations are thought to occur early in progression to cancer and to be a likely cause of the genetic instability characteristic of cancers.[91][92][93]Reduced expression of DNA repair genes causes deficient DNA repair. When DNA repair is deficient DNA damages remain in cells at a higher than usual level and these excess damages cause increased frequencies of mutation or epimutation. Mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair[94][95] or in homologous recombinational repair (HRR).[96] Chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy also increase in HRR defective cells.[97]Higher levels of DNA damage not only cause increased mutation, but also cause increased epimutation. During repair of DNA double strand breaks, or repair of other DNA damages, incompletely cleared sites of repair can cause epigenetic gene silencing.[98][99]Deficient expression of DNA repair proteins due to an inherited mutation can cause increased risk of cancer. Individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes (see article DNA repair-deficiency disorder) have an increased risk of cancer, with some defects causing up to a 100% lifetime chance of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations).[100] However, such germline mutations (which cause highly penetrant cancer syndromes) are the cause of only about 1 percent of cancers.[101]","title":"Cancer"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_damage,_repair,_alteration_of_repair_in_cancer.png"},{"link_name":"missense mutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missense_mutation"},{"link_name":"MGMT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-6-methylguanine-DNA_methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"PMS2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMS2"},{"link_name":"MLH1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLH1"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"microRNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroRNA"},{"link_name":"miR-155","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiR-155"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"ERCC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERCC1"},{"link_name":"XPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERCC4"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Facista-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid22956494-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"translesion synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#translesion_synthesis"},{"link_name":"carcinogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogenesis"},{"link_name":"RAD51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD51"},{"link_name":"BRCA2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA2"},{"link_name":"homologous recombinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"RAD51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD51"},{"link_name":"BRCA2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA2"},{"link_name":"translesion synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#translesion_synthesis"},{"link_name":"microhomology-mediated end joining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhomology-mediated_end_joining"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid16012167-24"},{"link_name":"FEN1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flap_structure-specific_endonuclease_1"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singh-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid16879693-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15701830-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid24590400-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15922863-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12651607-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14562054-121"},{"link_name":"ETS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETS1"},{"link_name":"epigenetically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23762867-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid23442605-123"},{"link_name":"MMEJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhomology-mediated_end_joining"},{"link_name":"MMEJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microhomology-mediated_end_joining"}],"sub_title":"Frequencies of epimutations in DNA repair genes","text":"A chart of common DNA damaging agents, examples of lesions they cause in DNA, and pathways used to repair these lesions. Also shown are many of the genes in these pathways, an indication of which genes are epigenetically regulated to have reduced (or increased) expression in various cancers. It also shows genes in the error-prone microhomology-mediated end joining pathway with increased expression in various cancers.Deficiencies in DNA repair enzymes are occasionally caused by a newly arising somatic mutation in a DNA repair gene, but are much more frequently caused by epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes. For example, when 113 colorectal cancers were examined in sequence, only four had a missense mutation in the DNA repair gene MGMT, while the majority had reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region (an epigenetic alteration).[102] Five different studies found that between 40% and 90% of colorectal cancers have reduced MGMT expression due to methylation of the MGMT promoter region.[103][104][105][106][107]Similarly, out of 119 cases of mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancers that lacked DNA repair gene PMS2 expression, PMS2 was deficient in 6 due to mutations in the PMS2 gene, while in 103 cases PMS2 expression was deficient because its pairing partner MLH1 was repressed due to promoter methylation (PMS2 protein is unstable in the absence of MLH1).[108] In the other 10 cases, loss of PMS2 expression was likely due to epigenetic overexpression of the microRNA, miR-155, which down-regulates MLH1.[109]In a further example, epigenetic defects were found in various cancers (e.g. breast, ovarian, colorectal and head and neck). Two or three deficiencies in the expression of ERCC1, XPF or PMS2 occur simultaneously in the majority of 49 colon cancers evaluated by Facista et al.[110]The chart in this section shows some frequent DNA damaging agents, examples of DNA lesions they cause, and the pathways that deal with these DNA damages. At least 169 enzymes are either directly employed in DNA repair or influence DNA repair processes.[111] Of these, 83 are directly employed in repairing the 5 types of DNA damages illustrated in the chart.[citation needed]Some of the more well studied genes central to these repair processes are shown in the chart. The gene designations shown in red, gray or cyan indicate genes frequently epigenetically altered in various types of cancers. Wikipedia articles on each of the genes highlighted by red, gray or cyan describe the epigenetic alteration(s) and the cancer(s) in which these epimutations are found. Review articles,[112] and broad experimental survey articles[113][114] also document most of these epigenetic DNA repair deficiencies in cancers.Red-highlighted genes are frequently reduced or silenced by epigenetic mechanisms in various cancers. When these genes have low or absent expression, DNA damages can accumulate. Replication errors past these damages (see translesion synthesis) can lead to increased mutations and, ultimately, cancer. Epigenetic repression of DNA repair genes in accurate DNA repair pathways appear to be central to carcinogenesis.The two gray-highlighted genes RAD51 and BRCA2, are required for homologous recombinational repair. They are sometimes epigenetically over-expressed and sometimes under-expressed in certain cancers. As indicated in the Wikipedia articles on RAD51 and BRCA2, such cancers ordinarily have epigenetic deficiencies in other DNA repair genes. These repair deficiencies would likely cause increased unrepaired DNA damages. The over-expression of RAD51 and BRCA2 seen in these cancers may reflect selective pressures for compensatory RAD51 or BRCA2 over-expression and increased homologous recombinational repair to at least partially deal with such excess DNA damages. In those cases where RAD51 or BRCA2 are under-expressed, this would itself lead to increased unrepaired DNA damages. Replication errors past these damages (see translesion synthesis) could cause increased mutations and cancer, so that under-expression of RAD51 or BRCA2 would be carcinogenic in itself.Cyan-highlighted genes are in the microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) pathway and are up-regulated in cancer. MMEJ is an additional error-prone inaccurate repair pathway for double-strand breaks. In MMEJ repair of a double-strand break, an homology of 5–25 complementary base pairs between both paired strands is sufficient to align the strands, but mismatched ends (flaps) are usually present. MMEJ removes the extra nucleotides (flaps) where strands are joined, and then ligates the strands to create an intact DNA double helix. MMEJ almost always involves at least a small deletion, so that it is a mutagenic pathway.[24] FEN1, the flap endonuclease in MMEJ, is epigenetically increased by promoter hypomethylation and is over-expressed in the majority of cancers of the breast,[115] prostate,[116] stomach,[117][118] neuroblastomas,[119] pancreas,[120] and lung.[121] PARP1 is also over-expressed when its promoter region ETS site is epigenetically hypomethylated, and this contributes to progression to endometrial cancer[122] and BRCA-mutated serous ovarian cancer.[123] Other genes in the MMEJ pathway are also over-expressed in a number of cancers (see MMEJ for summary), and are also shown in cyan.","title":"Cancer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zheng-2014-125"},{"link_name":"heterochromatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterochromatin"},{"link_name":"histone modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histone_modification"},{"link_name":"H3K36me3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H3K36me3"},{"link_name":"mismatch repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_mismatch_repair"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"H3K36me3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H3K36me3"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"nucleotide excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zheng-2014-125"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"sub_title":"Genome-wide distribution of DNA repair in human somatic cells","text":"Differential activity of DNA repair pathways across various regions of the human genome causes mutations to be very unevenly distributed within tumor genomes.[124][125] In particular, the gene-rich, early-replicating regions of the human genome exhibit lower mutation frequencies than the gene-poor, late-replicating heterochromatin. One mechanism underlying this involves the histone modification H3K36me3, which can recruit mismatch repair proteins,[126] thereby lowering mutation rates in H3K36me3-marked regions.[127] Another important mechanism concerns nucleotide excision repair, which can be recruited by the transcription machinery, lowering somatic mutation rates in active genes[125] and other open chromatin regions.[128]","title":"Cancer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA damage (naturally occurring)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Damage to DNA is very common and is constantly being repaired. Epigenetic alterations can accompany DNA repair of oxidative damage or double-strand breaks. In human cells, oxidative DNA damage occurs about 10,000 times a day and DNA double-strand breaks occur about 10 to 50 times a cell cycle in somatic replicating cells (see DNA damage (naturally occurring)). The selective advantage of DNA repair is to allow the cell to survive in the face of DNA damage. The selective advantage of epigenetic alterations that occur with DNA repair is not clear.[citation needed]","title":"Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-oxo-2%27-deoxyguanosine"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid21163908-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton-130"},{"link_name":"methylated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylation"},{"link_name":"CpG site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_site"},{"link_name":"5' → 3' direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directionality_(molecular_biology)"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid24571128-131"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Initiation_of_DNA_demethylation_at_a_CpG_site.svg"},{"link_name":"DNA demethylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_demethylation"},{"link_name":"CpG site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_site"},{"link_name":"CpG sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_sites"},{"link_name":"5-methylcytosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-methylcytosine"},{"link_name":"8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-oxo-2%27-deoxyguanosine"},{"link_name":"base excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"OGG1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxoguanine_glycosylase"},{"link_name":"TET1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet_methylcytosine_dioxygenase_1"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid31993111-133"},{"link_name":"Oxoguanine glycosylase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxoguanine_glycosylase"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid33171795-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15365186-135"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton-130"},{"link_name":"CpG site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_site"},{"link_name":"TET1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TET_enzymes"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou-132"},{"link_name":"TET enzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TET_enzymes"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid24108092-136"},{"link_name":"BACE1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-secretase_1"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou-132"},{"link_name":"CpG island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_site#CpG_islands"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid26186941-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jiang-138"},{"link_name":"HEK 293 cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEK_293_cells"},{"link_name":"potassium bromate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_bromate"},{"link_name":"potassium chromate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_chromate"},{"link_name":"Base excision repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_excision_repair"},{"link_name":"polymerase beta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jiang-138"},{"link_name":"DNA methyltransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"promoter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"BRCA1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA1"},{"link_name":"messenger RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA"},{"link_name":"promoter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Repair of oxidative DNA damage can alter epigenetic markers","text":"In the steady state (with endogenous damages occurring and being repaired), there are about 2,400 oxidatively damaged guanines that form 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) in the average mammalian cell DNA.[129] 8-OHdG constitutes about 5% of the oxidative damages commonly present in DNA.[130] The oxidized guanines do not occur randomly among all guanines in DNA. There is a sequence preference for the guanine at a methylated CpG site (a cytosine followed by guanine along its 5' → 3' direction and where the cytosine is methylated (5-mCpG)).[131] A 5-mCpG site has the lowest ionization potential for guanine oxidation.Initiation of DNA demethylation at a CpG site. In adult somatic cells DNA methylation typically occurs in the context of CpG dinucleotides (CpG sites), forming 5-methylcytosine-pG, or 5mCpG. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may attack guanine at the dinucleotide site, forming 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and resulting in a 5mCp-8-OHdG dinucleotide site. The base excision repair enzyme OGG1 targets 8-OHdG and binds to the lesion without immediate excision. OGG1, present at a 5mCp-8-OHdG site recruits TET1 and TET1 oxidizes the 5mC adjacent to the 8-OHdG. This initiates demethylation of 5mC.[132]Oxidized guanine has mispairing potential and is mutagenic.[133] Oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1) is the primary enzyme responsible for the excision of the oxidized guanine during DNA repair. OGG1 finds and binds to an 8-OHdG within a few seconds.[134] However, OGG1 does not immediately excise 8-OHdG. In HeLa cells half maximum removal of 8-OHdG occurs in 30 minutes,[135] and in irradiated mice, the 8-OHdGs induced in the mouse liver are removed with a half-life of 11 minutes.[130]When OGG1 is present at an oxidized guanine within a methylated CpG site it recruits TET1 to the 8-OHdG lesion (see Figure). This allows TET1 to demethylate an adjacent methylated cytosine. Demethylation of cytosine is an epigenetic alteration.[citation needed]As an example, when human mammary epithelial cells were treated with H2O2 for six hours, 8-OHdG increased about 3.5-fold in DNA and this caused about 80% demethylation of the 5-methylcytosines in the genome.[132] Demethylation of CpGs in a gene promoter by TET enzyme activity increases transcription of the gene into messenger RNA.[136] In cells treated with H2O2, one particular gene was examined, BACE1.[132] The methylation level of the BACE1 CpG island was reduced (an epigenetic alteration) and this allowed about 6.5 fold increase of expression of BACE1 messenger RNA.[citation needed]While six-hour incubation with H2O2 causes considerable demethylation of 5-mCpG sites, shorter times of H2O2 incubation appear to promote other epigenetic alterations. Treatment of cells with H2O2 for 30 minutes causes the mismatch repair protein heterodimer MSH2-MSH6 to recruit DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to sites of some kinds of oxidative DNA damage.[137] This could cause increased methylation of cytosines (epigenetic alterations) at these locations.Jiang et al.[138] treated HEK 293 cells with agents causing oxidative DNA damage, (potassium bromate (KBrO3) or potassium chromate (K2CrO4)). Base excision repair (BER) of oxidative damage occurred with the DNA repair enzyme polymerase beta localizing to oxidized guanines. Polymerase beta is the main human polymerase in short-patch BER of oxidative DNA damage. Jiang et al.[138] also found that polymerase beta recruited the DNA methyltransferase protein DNMT3b to BER repair sites. They then evaluated the methylation pattern at the single nucleotide level in a small region of DNA including the promoter region and the early transcription region of the BRCA1 gene. Oxidative DNA damage from bromate modulated the DNA methylation pattern (caused epigenetic alterations) at CpG sites within the region of DNA studied. In untreated cells, CpGs located at −189, −134, −29, −19, +16, and +19 of the BRCA1 gene had methylated cytosines (where numbering is from the messenger RNA transcription start site, and negative numbers indicate nucleotides in the upstream promoter region). Bromate treatment-induced oxidation resulted in the loss of cytosine methylation at −189, −134, +16 and +19 while also leading to the formation of new methylation at the CpGs located at −80, −55, −21 and +8 after DNA repair was allowed.[citation needed]","title":"Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15956212-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cuozzo-140"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Hagan-98"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20940144-141"},{"link_name":"homologous recombinational repair (HR)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"CpG sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CpG_site"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid27629060-142"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid33267773-143"}],"sub_title":"Homologous recombinational repair alters epigenetic markers","text":"At least four articles report the recruitment of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) to sites of DNA double-strand breaks.[139][140][98][141] During homologous recombinational repair (HR) of the double-strand break, the involvement of DNMT1 causes the two repaired strands of DNA to have different levels of methylated cytosines. One strand becomes frequently methylated at about 21 CpG sites downstream of the repaired double-strand break. The other DNA strand loses methylation at about six CpG sites that were previously methylated downstream of the double-strand break, as well as losing methylation at about five CpG sites that were previously methylated upstream of the double-strand break. When the chromosome is replicated, this gives rise to one daughter chromosome that is heavily methylated downstream of the previous break site and one that is unmethylated in the region both upstream and downstream of the previous break site. With respect to the gene that was broken by the double-strand break, half of the progeny cells express that gene at a high level and in the other half of the progeny cells expression of that gene is repressed. When clones of these cells were maintained for three years, the new methylation patterns were maintained over that time period.[142]In mice with a CRISPR-mediated homology-directed recombination insertion in their genome there were a large number of increased methylations of CpG sites within the double-strand break-associated insertion.[143]","title":"Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-homologous end joining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-homologous_end_joining"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cuozzo-140"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid28423717-144"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Hagan-98"}],"sub_title":"Non-homologous end joining can cause some epigenetic marker alterations","text":"Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) repair of a double-strand break can cause a small number of demethylations of pre-existing cytosine DNA methylations downstream of the repaired double-strand break.[140] Further work by Allen et al.[144] showed that NHEJ of a DNA double-strand break in a cell could give rise to some progeny cells having repressed expression of the gene harboring the initial double-strand break and some progeny having high expression of that gene due to epigenetic alterations associated with NHEJ repair. The frequency of epigenetic alterations causing repression of a gene after an NHEJ repair of a DNA double-strand break in that gene may be about 0.9%.[98]","title":"Epigenetic alterations due to DNA repair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conserved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"prokaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryotes"},{"link_name":"eukaryotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotes"},{"link_name":"bacteriophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage"},{"link_name":"viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cromie-145"},{"link_name":"structural motifs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_motif"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obrien-146"},{"link_name":"fossil record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_record"},{"link_name":"Precambrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precambrian"},{"link_name":"Nucleic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"oxygen catastrophe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe"},{"link_name":"photosynthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis"},{"link_name":"free radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical"},{"link_name":"oxidative phosphorylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation"},{"link_name":"oxidative stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_stress"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The basic processes of DNA repair are highly conserved among both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and even among bacteriophages (viruses which infect bacteria); however, more complex organisms with more complex genomes have correspondingly more complex repair mechanisms.[145] The ability of a large number of protein structural motifs to catalyze relevant chemical reactions has played a significant role in the elaboration of repair mechanisms during evolution. For an extremely detailed review of hypotheses relating to the evolution of DNA repair, see.[146]The fossil record indicates that single-cell life began to proliferate on the planet at some point during the Precambrian period, although exactly when recognizably modern life first emerged is unclear. Nucleic acids became the sole and universal means of encoding genetic information, requiring DNA repair mechanisms that in their basic form have been inherited by all extant life forms from their common ancestor. The emergence of Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere (known as the \"oxygen catastrophe\") due to photosynthetic organisms, as well as the presence of potentially damaging free radicals in the cell due to oxidative phosphorylation, necessitated the evolution of DNA repair mechanisms that act specifically to counter the types of damage induced by oxidative stress. The mechanism by which this came about, however, is unclear.[citation needed]","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation"},{"link_name":"germ line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_line"},{"link_name":"gamete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamete"},{"link_name":"evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maresca-147"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Rate of evolutionary change","text":"On some occasions, DNA damage is not repaired or is repaired by an error-prone mechanism that results in a change from the original sequence. When this occurs, mutations may propagate into the genomes of the cell's progeny. Should such an event occur in a germ line cell that will eventually produce a gamete, the mutation has the potential to be passed on to the organism's offspring. The rate of evolution in a particular species (or, in a particular gene) is a function of the rate of mutation. As a consequence, the rate and accuracy of DNA repair mechanisms have an influence over the process of evolutionary change.[147] DNA damage protection and repair does not influence the rate of adaptation by gene regulation and by recombination and selection of alleles. On the other hand, DNA damage repair and protection does influence the rate of accumulation of irreparable, advantageous, code expanding, inheritable mutations, and slows down the evolutionary mechanism for expansion of the genome of organisms with new functionalities. The tension between evolvability and mutation repair and protection needs further investigation.[citation needed]","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CRISPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"A technology named clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (shortened to CRISPR-Cas9) was discovered in 2012. The new technology allows anyone with molecular biology training to alter the genes of any species with precision, by inducing DNA damage at a specific point and then altering DNA repair mechanisms to insert new genes.[148] It is cheaper, more efficient, and more precise than other technologies. With the help of CRISPR–Cas9, parts of a genome can be edited by scientists by removing, adding, or altering parts in a DNA sequence.[citation needed]","title":"Technology"}] | [{"image_text":"DNA damage resulting in multiple broken chromosomes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Brokechromo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paul Modrich talks about himself and his work in DNA repair."},{"image_text":"Structure of the base-excision repair enzyme uracil-DNA glycosylase excising a hydrolytically-produced uracil residue from DNA. The uracil residue is shown in yellow.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Uracil_base_glycosidase.jpg/250px-Uracil_base_glycosidase.jpg"},{"image_text":"The main double-strand break repair pathways","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/DsDNA_break_repair_pathways.svg/230px-DsDNA_break_repair_pathways.svg.png"},{"image_text":"DNA ligase, shown above repairing chromosomal damage, is an enzyme that joins broken nucleotides together by catalyzing the formation of an internucleotide ester bond between the phosphate backbone and the deoxyribose nucleotides.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/DNA_Repair.jpg/230px-DNA_Repair.jpg"},{"image_text":"DNA repair rate is an important determinant of cell pathology.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/DNA-Repair_1.png/360px-DNA-Repair_1.png"},{"image_text":"Most life span influencing genes affect the rate of DNA damage.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Dnadamage.png"},{"image_text":"A chart of common DNA damaging agents, examples of lesions they cause in DNA, and pathways used to repair these lesions. Also shown are many of the genes in these pathways, an indication of which genes are epigenetically regulated to have reduced (or increased) expression in various cancers. It also shows genes in the error-prone microhomology-mediated end joining pathway with increased expression in various cancers.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/DNA_damage%2C_repair%2C_alteration_of_repair_in_cancer.png/400px-DNA_damage%2C_repair%2C_alteration_of_repair_in_cancer.png"},{"image_text":"Initiation of DNA demethylation at a CpG site. In adult somatic cells DNA methylation typically occurs in the context of CpG dinucleotides (CpG sites), forming 5-methylcytosine-pG, or 5mCpG. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may attack guanine at the dinucleotide site, forming 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and resulting in a 5mCp-8-OHdG dinucleotide site. The base excision repair enzyme OGG1 targets 8-OHdG and binds to the lesion without immediate excision. OGG1, present at a 5mCp-8-OHdG site recruits TET1 and TET1 oxidizes the 5mC adjacent to the 8-OHdG. This initiates demethylation of 5mC.[132]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Initiation_of_DNA_demethylation_at_a_CpG_site.svg/200px-Initiation_of_DNA_demethylation_at_a_CpG_site.svg.png"},{}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg"},{"title":"Biology portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biology"},{"title":"Accelerated aging disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_aging_disease"},{"title":"Aging DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging_DNA"},{"title":"Cell cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_cycle"},{"title":"DNA damage (naturally occurring)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)"},{"title":"DNA damage theory of aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_damage_theory_of_aging"},{"title":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"title":"Direct DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_DNA_damage"},{"title":"Error detection and correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction"},{"title":"Gene therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy"},{"title":"Human mitochondrial genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics"},{"title":"Indirect DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_DNA_damage"},{"title":"Life extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_extension"},{"title":"Progeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progeria"},{"title":"REPAIRtoire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REPAIRtoire"},{"title":"Senescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senescence"},{"title":"SiDNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SiDNA"},{"title":"Mutation Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_Research_(journal)"}] | [{"reference":"\"Nature Reviews Series: DNA damage\". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 5 July 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nature.com/collections/hwnqqcstyj","url_text":"\"Nature Reviews Series: DNA damage\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Molecular_Cell_Biology","url_text":"Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology"}]},{"reference":"Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, et al. (2004). Molecular Cell Biology (5th ed.). New York: WH Freeman. p. 963.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Browner WS, Kahn AJ, Ziv E, Reiner AP, Oshima J, Cawthon RM, et al. (December 2004). \"The genetics of human longevity\". The American Journal of Medicine. 117 (11): 851–60. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.556.6874. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.06.033. 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Retrieved 7 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/08/science/tomas-lindahl-paul-modrich-aziz-sancarn-nobel-chemistry.html","url_text":"\"Nobel Prize in Chemistry Awarded to Tomas Lindahl, Paul Modrich and Aziz Sancar for DNA Studies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Staff (7 October 2015). \"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 – DNA repair – providing chemical stability for life\" (PDF). Nobel Prize. Retrieved 7 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2015/popular-chemistryprize2015.pdf","url_text":"\"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 – DNA repair – providing chemical stability for life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize","url_text":"Nobel Prize"}]},{"reference":"Roulston A, Marcellus RC, Branton PE (1999). \"Viruses and apoptosis\". Annual Review of Microbiology. 53: 577–628. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.53.1.577. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Analyst_(chemistry_journal) | Analyst (journal) | ["1 Abstracting and indexing","2 Analytical Communications","3 References","4 External links"] | For the mathematics journal published from 1874–1883, see The Analyst (mathematics journal).
Academic journalAnalystDisciplineAnalytical chemistryLanguageEnglishEdited byNorman DovichiPublication detailsFormer name(s)The AnalystHistory1877–presentPublisherRoyal Society of Chemistry (United Kingdom)FrequencyBiweeklyImpact factor4.2 (2022)Standard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4AnalystIndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusCODENANALAOISSN0003-2654 (print)1364-5528 (web)OCLC no.01481074Links
Journal homepage
Analyst is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of analytical chemistry, bioanalysis, and detection science. It is published by the Royal Society of Chemistry and the editor-in-chief is Norman Dovichi (University of Notre Dame). The journal was established in 1877 by the Society for Analytical Chemistry.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in MEDLINE and Analytical Abstracts. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 4.2.
Analytical Communications
In 1999, the Royal Society of Chemistry closed the journal Analytical Communications because it felt that the material submitted to that journal would be best included in a new communications section of Analyst. Predecessor journals of Analytical Communications were Proceedings of the Society for Analytical Chemistry, 1964–1974; Proceedings of the Analytical Division of the Chemical Society, 1975–1979; Analytical Proceedings, 1980–1993; Analytical Proceedings including Analytical Communications, 1994–1995.
References
^ Editorial Board Retrieved on 2023-05-29.
^ "Analyst". 2022 Journal Citation Reports. Web of Science (Science OR Social Sciences ed.). Clarivate Analytics. 2023.
External links
Official website
vteAnalytical chemistryInstrumentation
Atomic absorption spectrometer
Flame emission spectrometer
Gas chromatograph
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Infrared spectrometer
Mass spectrometer
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Microscope
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Spectrophotometer
Techniques
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Electroanalytical methods
Gravimetric analysis
Ion mobility spectrometry
Mass spectrometry
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Filtration
Masking
Pulverization
Sample preparation
Separation process
Sub-sampling
Calibration
Chemometrics
Calibration curve
Matrix effect
Internal standard
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Prominent publications
Analyst
Analytica Chimica Acta
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
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Journals(peer reviewed)
Analyst
Analytical Abstracts
Analytical Methods
Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry
A
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C
Biomaterials Science
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Chemical Communications
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CrystEngComm
Dalton Transactions
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Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts
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A
B
C
Journal of the Chemical Society
A
B
C
D
Abstracts
Chemical Communications
Faraday Transactions
1
2
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1
2
Transactions
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Ewart Jones
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Blue plaques
Burlington House
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_del_Monte | Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte | ["1 Early years, ca. 1462–1503","2 Bishop, 1503–11","3 Cardinal, 1511–33","4 References"] | Italian bishop and cardinal
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His EminenceAntonio Maria Ciocchi del MonteCardinal-Bishop of Porto–Santa RufinaPortrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, c. 1512-15ChurchCatholic ChurchDioceseDiocese of Porto–Santa RufinaInstalledJune 1524Term ended20 September 1533PredecessorAlessandro FarneseSuccessorGiovanni PiccolominiOther post(s)Administrator of Alatri(1529-1533)OrdersConsecration4 January 1506by Tito Veltri di ViterboCreated cardinal10 March 1511 by Pope Julius IIRankCardinal-BishopPersonal detailsBornAntonio Maria Ciocchi del MonteSeptember 1466Monte San Savino, TuscanyDied20 September 1533(1533-09-20) (aged 66–67)Rome, Papal StatesBuriedSan Pietro in MontorioPrevious post(s)
Bishop of Città di Castello(1503–1506)
Archbishop of Manfredonia(1506–1511)
Cardinal-Priest of San Vitale(1511–1514)
Administrator of Pavia(1511–1521)
Cardinal-Priest of Santa Prassede(1514–1521)
Administrator of Novara(1516–1525)
Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals(1516-1517)
Cardinal-Bishop of Albano(1521–1523)
Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati(1523)
Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina(1523–1524)
Administrator of Rimini(1529)
Administrator of Caiazzo(1529)
Coat of arms
Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte (September 1461 - 20 September 1533) was an Italian Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal.
Early years, ca. 1462–1503
Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte was born in Monte San Savino sometime between late September 1461 and early September 1462. He was the son of Fabiano Ciocchi and Jacopa, daughter of Gaspare, whose family name is not known. His father dropped the surname "Ciocchi" taking "del Monte San Savino" as his surname (soon shortened to "del Monte"). Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte was the uncle of Pope Julius III.
As a young man, Ciocchi del Monte became a doctor of both laws. He then joined his older brother in Rome. He was soon appointed a consistorial advocate by the Roman Curia. His legal talents brought him to the attention of Pope Innocent VIII, who considered him a valuable advisor. Innocent VIII made him archpriest of Sant'Angelo in Vado, and, in 1492, archpriest of Arezzo.
Ciocchi del Monte also found favor with Pope Alexander VI. On 27 March 1493 Alexander VI made him an auditor of the Roman Rota. In 1495, he was made rector of Sant'Agnese in Arezzo, and in 1496, provost of San Luciano near Monte San Savino. After spending time attending to his pastoral duties, he was recalled to Rome in 1498 and placed in charge of the daily operations of the Roman Rota. In July 1502, the pope put him in charge of all operations of the Roman Rota in the areas under the control of the pope's son, Cesare Borgia. He set up a judicial seat in Cesena. He was also made a protonotary apostolic at this time. In early 1503, Cesare Borgia elevated Ciocchi del Monte to the post of governor of Romagna.
Bishop, 1503–11
On 4 August 1503 he was elected Bishop of Città di Castello. He was unable to take possession of this see, however, because it was claimed by Giulio Vitelli, backed by the force of arms of the powerful Vitelli family, even though Giulio Vitelli had been deprived of the office by Pope Alexander VI. Pope Julius II made Ciocchi del Monte governor of Cesena, and, on 26 July 1504, named him an auditor of the Apostolic Camera. The pope also confirmed that the diocese of Città di Castello belonged to Ciocchi del Monte and in June 1505, threatened to place Città di Castello under interdict. The city finally relented and Ciocchi del Monte took possession of the diocese in July 1505. He was consecrated as a bishop in San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome on 4 January 1506 by Tito Veltri di Viterbo, Bishop of Castro. On 6 February 1506 he was promoted to the metropolitan see of Manfredonia, occupying that office until 30 May 1511.
Cardinal, 1511–33
Styles ofAntonio Maria Ciocchi del MonteReference styleHis EminenceSpoken styleYour EminenceInformal styleCardinalSeeDiocese of Porto–Santa Rufina (suburbicarain)
Pope Julius II made him a cardinal priest in the consistory of 10 March 1511. He received the red hat on 13 March 1511, and the titular church of San Vitale on 17 March 1511.
A short time later, he became the cardinal protector of the Servite Order. From 30 May 1511 to 13 March 1521 he was the administrator of the see of Pavia.
In 1511, the pope placed Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of dealing with the four cardinals who had joined in the proposal of Louis XII of France to hold a schismatic council at Pisa. In this capacity, he was crucial in convincing Pope Julius II to call the Fifth Council of the Lateran and played a large role in organizing that council. He was made a member of the council's commission for the reform of the Roman Curia and its officials on 3 June 1513.
He participated in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X. The new pope sent him to Umbria to restore order following the chaos brought about by Louis XII's invasion of that province. The cardinal opted for the titular church of Santa Prassede on 14 July 1514. He served as Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals from 1516 to 1517. He was also administrator of the see of Novara from 19 April 1516 until 20 December 1525.
In spring 1517, several cardinals participated in a conspiracy to assassinate Pope Leo X. The pope placed Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of pursuing the case against the ringleaders of the conspiracy, Cardinals Alfonso Petrucci and Bandinello Sauli. He successfully secured their convictions and those two cardinals were executed.
Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte opted for the order of cardinal bishops on 24 July 1521, receiving the Suburbicarian Diocese of Albano.
He participated in the papal conclave of 1521–22 that elected Pope Adrian VI. In February 1523, the new pope placed him in charge of a commission in charge of reducing expenditures by reducing curial offices created by Leo X. In the consistory of 23 July 1523 Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte opposed the creation of a defensive league with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, fearing it would strain relations with Francis I of France.
He participated in the papal conclave of 1523 that elected Pope Clement VII. The new pope named him cardinal protector of the Oratory of Divine Love, the predecessor of the Theatines; he filled this role until 1529. On 9 December 1523 he opted for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Frascati, on 18 December 1523 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Palestrina, on 20 May 1524 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Sabina and on 14 June 1524 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Porto-Santa Rufina. He also became Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals at this time.
An older Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte
In 1526, Pope Clement VII concluded the treaty forming the League of Cognac, allying the Papal States with the Kingdom of France, the Republic of Venice, and the House of Sforza against Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. On 22 May 1526 Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte was one of the leading commissioners responsible for preparing the Papal States for the War of the League of Cognac. His efforts, however, were totally inadequate to prevent the Sack of Rome (1527). He was one of the small number of cardinals who remained loyal to the pope, seeking refuge with him in the Castel Sant'Angelo. On 5 June 1527 he was one of the seven cardinals who signed the capitulation to the imperial forces and his nephew, Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte (the future Pope Julius III) was taken hostage by imperial forces.
From 1528, he was one of the leading cardinals responsible for dealing with Henry VIII of England's attempts to secure a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. The cardinal supported King Henry's attempts to secure a divorce, and was friendly with the English embassy; he was, however, unable to convince the pope to grant the request for a divorce.
From February to July 1530 he was administrator of the see of Alatri. When Charles V wrote to the pope and the College of Cardinals in 1530 requesting a general council to resolve the question of the rise of Lutheranism in Germany, Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte rushed back to Rome and voiced his support for the proposal. No council was forthcoming, however.
When the pope traveled to Marseille in September 1533 to attend the marriage of Henry II, Duke of Orléans and Catherine de' Medici, he left Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of Rome as papal legate. The pope agreed to the cardinal's request to allow his nephew Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte to assist in the discharge of these duties.
He died in Rome on 20 September 1533. He was buried in San Pietro in Montorio. When his nephew became pope, he commissioned Giorgio Vasari and Bartolomeo Ammannati to work on the cardinal's tomb.
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antonio Maria Ciocchi del Monte.
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Catholic Church titles
Preceded byGiulio Vitelli
Bishop of Città di Castello 1503–1506
Succeeded byAchille Grassi
Preceded byAgapito Gerardini
Archbishop of Manfredonia 1506–1511
Succeeded byGiovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte
Preceded byRené de Prie
Cardinal-Priest of San Vitale 1511–1514
Succeeded byFrancesco Conti
Preceded byFrancesco Alidosi
Administrator of Pavia 1511–1521
Succeeded byGiovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte
Preceded byChristopher Bainbridge
Cardinal-Priest of Santa Prassede 1514–1521
Succeeded byIppolito de' Medici
Preceded byMatthäus Schiner
Administrator of Novara 1516–1525
Succeeded byErmete Stampa
Preceded byNiccolò Fieschi
Cardinal-Bishop of Albano 1521–1523
Succeeded byPietro de Accolti de Aretio
Preceded byAlessandro Farnese
Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati 1523
Succeeded byFrançois Guillaume de Castelnau de Clermont-Ludève
Preceded byAlessandro Farnese
Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina 1523–1524
Succeeded byPietro de Accolti de Aretio
Preceded byAlessandro Farnese
Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina 1524
Succeeded byPietro de Accolti de Aretio
Preceded byAlessandro Farnese
Cardinal-Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina 1524–1533
Succeeded byGiovanni Piccolomini
Preceded byFranciotto Orsini
Administrator of Rimini 1529
Succeeded byAscanio Parisani
Preceded byAscanio Parisani
Administrator of Caiazzo 1529
Succeeded byAlexander Mirto Frangipani
Preceded byFilippo Ercolani
Administrator of Alatri 1529–1533
Succeeded byFilippo Ercolani
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
People
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of Rome (1527)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary-1"},{"link_name":"Castel Sant'Angelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary-1"},{"link_name":"Pope Julius III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Julius_III"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary-1"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England"},{"link_name":"Catherine of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary-1"},{"link_name":"see of 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Order.[1] From 30 May 1511 to 13 March 1521 he was the administrator of the see of Pavia.[1]In 1511, the pope placed Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of dealing with the four cardinals who had joined in the proposal of Louis XII of France to hold a schismatic council at Pisa.[1] In this capacity, he was crucial in convincing Pope Julius II to call the Fifth Council of the Lateran and played a large role in organizing that council.[1] He was made a member of the council's commission for the reform of the Roman Curia and its officials on 3 June 1513.[1]He participated in the papal conclave of 1513 that elected Pope Leo X.[1] The new pope sent him to Umbria to restore order following the chaos brought about by Louis XII's invasion of that province.[1] The cardinal opted for the titular church of Santa Prassede on 14 July 1514.[1] He served as Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals from 1516 to 1517.[1] He was also administrator of the see of Novara from 19 April 1516 until 20 December 1525.[1]In spring 1517, several cardinals participated in a conspiracy to assassinate Pope Leo X.[1] The pope placed Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of pursuing the case against the ringleaders of the conspiracy, Cardinals Alfonso Petrucci and Bandinello Sauli.[1] He successfully secured their convictions and those two cardinals were executed.[1]Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte opted for the order of cardinal bishops on 24 July 1521, receiving the Suburbicarian Diocese of Albano.[1]He participated in the papal conclave of 1521–22 that elected Pope Adrian VI.[1] In February 1523, the new pope placed him in charge of a commission in charge of reducing expenditures by reducing curial offices created by Leo X.[1] In the consistory of 23 July 1523 Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte opposed the creation of a defensive league with Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, fearing it would strain relations with Francis I of France.[1]He participated in the papal conclave of 1523 that elected Pope Clement VII.[1] The new pope named him cardinal protector of the Oratory of Divine Love, the predecessor of the Theatines; he filled this role until 1529.[1] On 9 December 1523 he opted for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Frascati, on 18 December 1523 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Palestrina, on 20 May 1524 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Sabina and on 14 June 1524 for the Suburbicarian Diocese of Porto-Santa Rufina.[1] He also became Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals at this time.[1]An older Cardinal Ciocchi del MonteIn 1526, Pope Clement VII concluded the treaty forming the League of Cognac, allying the Papal States with the Kingdom of France, the Republic of Venice, and the House of Sforza against Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.[1] On 22 May 1526 Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte was one of the leading commissioners responsible for preparing the Papal States for the War of the League of Cognac.[1] His efforts, however, were totally inadequate to prevent the Sack of Rome (1527).[1] He was one of the small number of cardinals who remained loyal to the pope, seeking refuge with him in the Castel Sant'Angelo.[1] On 5 June 1527 he was one of the seven cardinals who signed the capitulation to the imperial forces and his nephew, Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte (the future Pope Julius III) was taken hostage by imperial forces.[1]From 1528, he was one of the leading cardinals responsible for dealing with Henry VIII of England's attempts to secure a divorce from Catherine of Aragon.[1] The cardinal supported King Henry's attempts to secure a divorce, and was friendly with the English embassy; he was, however, unable to convince the pope to grant the request for a divorce.[1]From February to July 1530 he was administrator of the see of Alatri.[1] When Charles V wrote to the pope and the College of Cardinals in 1530 requesting a general council to resolve the question of the rise of Lutheranism in Germany, Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte rushed back to Rome and voiced his support for the proposal.[1] No council was forthcoming, however.[1]When the pope traveled to Marseille in September 1533 to attend the marriage of Henry II, Duke of Orléans and Catherine de' Medici, he left Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte in charge of Rome as papal legate.[1] The pope agreed to the cardinal's request to allow his nephew Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte to assist in the discharge of these duties.[1]He died in Rome on 20 September 1533.[1] He was buried in San Pietro in Montorio.[1] When his nephew became pope, he commissioned Giorgio Vasari and Bartolomeo Ammannati to work on the cardinal's tomb.[1]","title":"Cardinal, 1511–33"}] | [{"image_text":"An older Cardinal Ciocchi del Monte","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/1511_ANTONIUS_MARIA_DE_MONTE_S._SAVINI_-_CIOCCHI_DEL_MONTE_ANTONIO_MARIA.JPG/200px-1511_ANTONIUS_MARIA_DE_MONTE_S._SAVINI_-_CIOCCHI_DEL_MONTE_ANTONIO_MARIA.JPG"}] | null | [{"reference":"Miranda, Salvador. \"CIOCCHI DEL MONTE, Antonio Maria 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The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. Florida International University. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dfuku-ji_(Nagasaki) | Kofukuji (Nagasaki) | ["1 Gallery","2 References","3 External links"] | Coordinates: 32°44′52.3″N 129°53′2.0″E / 32.747861°N 129.883889°E / 32.747861; 129.883889For the temple in Nara, see Kōfuku-ji.
Kōfuku-ji興福寺Main HallReligionAffiliationŌbaku ZenDeityShaka Nyorai (Śākyamuni)LocationLocation4-32 Teramachi, Nagasaki, Nagasaki PrefectureCountryJapanGeographic coordinates32°44′52.3″N 129°53′2.0″E / 32.747861°N 129.883889°E / 32.747861; 129.883889ArchitectureFounderShin'en (Zhenyuan)Completed1624Websitehttp://kofukuji.com/
Kōfuku-ji or Tōmeizan Kōfuku-ji (Japanese: 東明山興福寺, Tōmeizan Kōfuku-ji) is a Buddhist temple of the Ōbaku school of Zen established in 1624 in Nagasaki, Japan. It is an important cultural asset designated by the government.
Its Mazu Hall (Masu-do) or Bodhisattva Hall (Bosa-do) is one of the few temples located in Japan of the Chinese sea goddess known as Mazu, the deified form of the medieval Fujianese shamaness Lin Moniang (Chinese: 林默孃).
Gallery
Main hall
Bell and drum tower
References
^ "History", Official site, Nagasaki: Tohmeizan Kofukuji, retrieved 23 December 2016.
^ "Cultural Properties", Official site, Nagasaki: Tohmeizan Kofukuji, retrieved 23 December 2016.
External links
Official site. (in Japanese) & (in English)
"Kōfuku-ji" at Nagasaki University (in Japanese)
"Toumeizan Koufukuji" (in Japanese)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kofukuji (Nagasaki).
vteBuddhist temples in JapanJapanese Buddhist architectureArchitectonic elements
hidden roof
hisashi
irimoya
kaerumata: see nakazonae
kairō
karahafu
karesansui
kentozuka: see nakazonae
komainu
katōmado
mokoshi
moya
nakazonae
Niō or Kongōrikishi
sandō
shichidō garan
shōrō
sōrin
tokyō
tōrō
onigawara
Mon (gates)
karamon
nijūmon
niōmon
rōmon
sanmon
sōmon
torii
Buildings
Chinjusha
chōzuya/temizuya
-dō
main hall (kon-dō, hon-dō, butsuden)
kuri
kyōzō or kyō-dō
shoin
Japanese pagodas
gorintō
hōkyōintō
hōtō
kasatōba
sotōba
muhōtō
tahōtō
Styles
Daibutsuyō
Wayō
Setchūyō
Shoin-zukuri
Shin-Wayō
Zenshūyō
Ōbaku Zen architecture
Others
A-un
ken
Schools and objects of worshipMajor schools
Jōdo
Nichiren
Shingon
Tendai
Zen schools
Sōtō
Ōbaku
Rinzai
Nanto rokushū
Jōjitsu
Hossō
Kusha
Kegon
Ritsu
Sanron
Objects of worship
Amida Nyōrai
Benzaiten
Dainichi Nyorai
Jizō
Kannon
Marishi-ten
Shaka Nyorai
Shitennō (Four Kings)
Twelve Heavenly Generals (Jūni Shinshō)
Yakushi Nyorai
Other elementsImplements
kei (ritual gong)
mokugyō
Others
bussokuseki
butsudan
Glossary of Japanese Buddhism
Japanese Buddhist pantheon
jingū-ji
miyadera
saisenbako
This article about a Japanese religious building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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This Nagasaki Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kōfuku-ji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dfuku-ji"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-1"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"東","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1"},{"link_name":"明","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%8E"},{"link_name":"山","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1"},{"link_name":"興","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%88%88"},{"link_name":"福","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%A6%8F"},{"link_name":"寺","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AF%BA"},{"link_name":"Buddhist temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_temple"},{"link_name":"Ōbaku school of Zen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cbaku"},{"link_name":"Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"important cultural asset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Treasure_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"Bodhisattva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-properties-2"},{"link_name":"temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mazu_temples"},{"link_name":"Chinese sea goddess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion"},{"link_name":"Mazu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu"},{"link_name":"deified form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotheosis"},{"link_name":"Fujianese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian"},{"link_name":"shamaness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"}],"text":"For the temple in Nara, see Kōfuku-ji.Kōfuku-ji or Tōmeizan Kōfuku-ji[1] (Japanese: 東明山興福寺, Tōmeizan Kōfuku-ji) is a Buddhist temple of the Ōbaku school of Zen established in 1624 in Nagasaki, Japan. It is an important cultural asset designated by the government.Its Mazu Hall (Masu-do) or Bodhisattva Hall (Bosa-do)[2] is one of the few temples located in Japan of the Chinese sea goddess known as Mazu, the deified form of the medieval Fujianese shamaness Lin Moniang (Chinese: 林默孃).","title":"Kofukuji (Nagasaki)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nagasaki_Kofukuji_M5667.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nagasaki_Kofukuji_M5682.jpg"}],"text":"Main hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBell and drum tower","title":"Gallery"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"History\", Official site, Nagasaki: Tohmeizan Kofukuji, retrieved 23 December 2016","urls":[{"url":"http://kofukuji.com/english/index.php","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"http://kofukuji.com/","url_text":"Official site"}]},{"reference":"\"Cultural Properties\", Official site, Nagasaki: Tohmeizan Kofukuji, retrieved 23 December 2016","urls":[{"url":"http://kofukuji.com/english/properties.php","url_text":"\"Cultural Properties\""},{"url":"http://kofukuji.com/","url_text":"Official site"}]},{"reference":"Official site","urls":[{"url":"http://kofukuji.com/","url_text":"Official site"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kofukuji_(Nagasaki)¶ms=32_44_52.3_N_129_53_2.0_E_source:kolossus-jawiki_type:landmark","external_links_name":"32°44′52.3″N 129°53′2.0″E / 32.747861°N 129.883889°E / 32.747861; 129.883889"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kofukuji_(Nagasaki)¶ms=32_44_52.3_N_129_53_2.0_E_source:kolossus-jawiki_type:landmark","external_links_name":"32°44′52.3″N 129°53′2.0″E / 32.747861°N 129.883889°E / 32.747861; 129.883889"},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/","external_links_name":"http://kofukuji.com/"},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/english/index.php","external_links_name":"\"History\""},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/","external_links_name":"Official site"},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/english/properties.php","external_links_name":"\"Cultural Properties\""},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/","external_links_name":"Official site"},{"Link":"http://kofukuji.com/","external_links_name":"Official site"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061007072608/http://www.edu.nagasaki-u.ac.jp/~fukuda/soturon97/kikari/kouhuku/kouhuku.htm","external_links_name":"Kōfuku-ji"},{"Link":"http://park10.wakwak.com/~cdc/nagasaki/koufukuj/index.html","external_links_name":"Toumeizan Koufukuji"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kofukuji_(Nagasaki)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kofukuji_(Nagasaki)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kofukuji_(Nagasaki)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo_Volpi | Alfredo Volpi | ["1 Early period","2 Later career","3 Selected works","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Brazilian painter (1896–1988)
Alfredo VolpiBorn(1896-04-14)April 14, 1896Lucca, ItalyDiedApril 28, 1988(1988-04-28) (aged 92)São Paulo, BrazilNationalityBrazilianMovementModernismAwardsSão Paulo Art Biennial 1953 Best National Painter
Jesus Christ, painted by Alfredo Volpi.
Alfredo Volpi (April 14, 1896 – May 28, 1988), was a prominent painter of the artistic and cultural Brazilian modernist movement. He was born in Lucca, Italy but, less than two years later, he was brought by his parents to São Paulo, Brazil, became a Brazilian citizen, and lived there for the majority of his life. He was one of the most important artists of the so-called Grupo Santa Helena, formed in the 1930s with Francisco Rebolo, Clóvis Graciano, Mario Zanini, Fulvio Pennacchi, and others.
Early period
Volpi was a self-taught painter, producing his first naturalist painting in 1914 at the age of twelve. Although his first paintings could resemble, in some way, those of expressionist artists, (an early influence was the Brazilian landscape painter Ernesto de Fiori). Mogi das Cruzes, a landscape painted for a patron in 1939, is a representative work of this period. He soon focused into a most peculiar style, using geometric abstract forms and switching from oil paint to tempera. Volpi's first one-man exhibition was held at the Itá Gallery in São Paulo in 1944.
Later career
Volpi started painting façades of houses in a highly stylized and colorful manner (these paintings were later named the "historical façades" by art critics) and this recurrent theme became pervasive all through the 1950s, after a brief "concretist" period (even though the artist himself never acknowledged being part of the concretist movement as such). The 1960s witnessed the development of his trademark "bandeirinhas" (small flags) for which Volpi became famous and which originated from Brazilian folklore (small flags are a regular fixture of the popular festa junina, held every year during the month of June): the artist would use the small-flag pattern to show an increasing sense of color combination and balanced composition which would eventually place him among the major Brazilian artists of his time.
The painter gained national renown with his participation at the second São Paulo Art Biennial, winning the Grand Prix for Brazilian painting, an award he shared with Di Cavalcanti. Di Cavalcanti publicly dismissed Volpi's art as being that of a "flag painter". Soon he became known as one of the most important 20th century painters in Brazil.
Recent exhibitions (MAM São Paulo 2006, Curitiba 2007) have shown how Volpi, far from being the isolated self-made artist he was once thought to be, actually absorbed various influences during his career, especially that of Josef Albers. His use of the ancient tempera technique also shows a knowledge of the Italian Renaissance painters.
Selected works
Mogi das Cruzes (1939)
Seaside (1940)
Frescoes for the Chapel of Our Lady of Fátima (1958)
Frescoes for Palácio dos Arcos, Brasília (1966)
Bandeirinhas (1950)
Panel of church of Cristo Operário (1951)
Night Façade (1955)
Untitled (from the Hourglass series) at the Museum of Modern Art, 1964
Kinetic Composition (1970)
The Discovery of America
See also
Francisco Rebolo
Fulvio Pennacchi
List of Brazilian painters
References
^ a b Zappi, Lucrecia (2006). "Alfredo Volpi: Museu de ARTE Moderna de Sao Paulo". Artforum International. 45 (2): 273.
^ "Alfredo Volpi; Obituary". Times (London, England). 1 June 1988.
^ a b c d e f "VOLPI, Alfredo". Benezit Dictionary of Artists. Oxford University Press. 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-26.
^ "Alfredo Volpi" (in Portuguese). São Paulo, Brazil: Museu de Arte Contemporânea da Universidade de São Paulo. 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-25.
^ a b c d Roberto Pontual (2015). "Volpi, Alfredo". Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press.
^ a b "Mogi das Cruzes, 1939" (in Portuguese). São Paulo, Brazil: Museu de Arte Contemporânea da Universidade de São Paulo. 2015. Retrieved 2015-09-25.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alfredo Volpi.
External links
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capela_do_Cristo_Oper%C3%A1rio_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brazilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"modernist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-o-2"},{"link_name":"Lucca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucca"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b-3"},{"link_name":"Grupo Santa Helena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grupo_Santa_Helena"},{"link_name":"Francisco Rebolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Rebolo"},{"link_name":"Clóvis Graciano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%B3vis_Graciano"},{"link_name":"Mario Zanini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Zanini"},{"link_name":"Fulvio Pennacchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulvio_Pennacchi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mac-4"}],"text":"Jesus Christ, painted by Alfredo Volpi.Alfredo Volpi (April 14, 1896 – May 28, 1988), was a prominent painter of the artistic and cultural Brazilian modernist movement.[1][2] He was born in Lucca, Italy but, less than two years later, he was brought by his parents to São Paulo, Brazil, became a Brazilian citizen, and lived there for the majority of his life.[3] He was one of the most important artists of the so-called Grupo Santa Helena, formed in the 1930s with Francisco Rebolo, Clóvis Graciano, Mario Zanini, Fulvio Pennacchi, and others.[4]","title":"Alfredo Volpi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"naturalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(art)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-5"},{"link_name":"expressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionism"},{"link_name":"Ernesto de Fiori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_de_Fiori"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-6"},{"link_name":"tempera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempera"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-5"}],"text":"Volpi was a self-taught painter, producing his first naturalist painting in 1914 at the age of twelve.[3][5] Although his first paintings could resemble, in some way, those of expressionist artists, (an early influence was the Brazilian landscape painter Ernesto de Fiori). Mogi das Cruzes, a landscape painted for a patron in 1939, is a representative work of this period.[6] He soon focused into a most peculiar style, using geometric abstract forms and switching from oil paint to tempera. Volpi's first one-man exhibition was held at the Itá Gallery in São Paulo in 1944.[5]","title":"Early period"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-5"},{"link_name":"festa junina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festa_junina"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a-1"},{"link_name":"São Paulo Art Biennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_Art_Biennial"},{"link_name":"Di Cavalcanti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emiliano_Di_Cavalcanti"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b-3"},{"link_name":"Josef Albers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Albers"}],"text":"Volpi started painting façades of houses in a highly stylized and colorful manner (these paintings were later named the \"historical façades\" by art critics) and this recurrent theme became pervasive all through the 1950s, after a brief \"concretist\" period (even though the artist himself never acknowledged being part of the concretist movement as such).[5] The 1960s witnessed the development of his trademark \"bandeirinhas\" (small flags) for which Volpi became famous and which originated from Brazilian folklore (small flags are a regular fixture of the popular festa junina, held every year during the month of June): the artist would use the small-flag pattern to show an increasing sense of color combination and balanced composition which would eventually place him among the major Brazilian artists of his time.[1]The painter gained national renown with his participation at the second São Paulo Art Biennial, winning the Grand Prix for Brazilian painting, an award he shared with Di Cavalcanti.[3] Di Cavalcanti publicly dismissed Volpi's art as being that of a \"flag painter\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Maercker | Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 51°04′49″N 13°46′38″E / 51.08028°N 13.77722°E / 51.08028; 13.77722German general
Georg Ludwig Rudolf MaerckerBorn(1865-09-21)21 September 1865Baldenburg, Kingdom of PrussiaDied31 December 1924(1924-12-31) (aged 59)Dresden, GermanyBuriedNordfriedhof, Dresden 51°04′49″N 13°46′38″E / 51.08028°N 13.77722°E / 51.08028; 13.77722Allegiance German Empire Weimar RepublicService/branchImperial German ArmySchutztruppeReichswehrYears of service1885–1920RankGeneralmajorCommands held214th DivisionLandjägerkorpsBattles/warsWorld War IAwardsPour le MériteSpouse(s)Luise Lindner
Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker (21 September 1865 – 31 December 1924) was a German general who served during World War I.
Following the Armistice of 1918 that saw the end of fighting and of the Bolshevik revolution that led to the creation of the Soviet Union, there were many examples of disturbances throughout Germany. Maercker suggested the formation of Freikorps (Free Corps) to suppress these and a number of formations formed themselves, usually around individual army officers.
After leaving the Freikorps, Maercker became active in Der Stahlhelm group and was the president of the Saxony chapter. In 1924, Maercker together with Theodor Duesterberg was a leader of the anti-Semitic fraction within the Stahhelm who wanted an "Aryan clause" that would ban Jews from joining the Stahlhelm and expel the current Jewish members. In March 1924, Maercker and Duesterberg got their way and forced Franz Seldte to adopt the "Aryan clause" and expel all Jews from the Stahlhelm.
References
^ Wette, Wolfram The Wehrmacht, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 page 63.
^ Wette, Wolfram The Wehrmacht, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 page 63.
^ Wette, Wolfram The Wehrmacht, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 pages 63-64.
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This biographical article related to the military of Germany is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Armistice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_(Compi%C3%A8gne)"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_revolution"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Freikorps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freikorps"},{"link_name":"Der Stahlhelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Stahlhelm,_Bund_der_Frontsoldaten"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Theodor Duesterberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Duesterberg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Franz Seldte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Seldte"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"German generalGeorg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker (21 September 1865 – 31 December 1924) was a German general who served during World War I.Following the Armistice of 1918 that saw the end of fighting and of the Bolshevik revolution that led to the creation of the Soviet Union, there were many examples of disturbances throughout Germany. Maercker suggested the formation of Freikorps (Free Corps) to suppress these and a number of formations formed themselves, usually around individual army officers.\nAfter leaving the Freikorps, Maercker became active in Der Stahlhelm group and was the president of the Saxony chapter.[1] In 1924, Maercker together with Theodor Duesterberg was a leader of the anti-Semitic fraction within the Stahhelm who wanted an \"Aryan clause\" that would ban Jews from joining the Stahlhelm and expel the current Jewish members.[2] In March 1924, Maercker and Duesterberg got their way and forced Franz Seldte to adopt the \"Aryan clause\" and expel all Jews from the Stahlhelm.[3]","title":"Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Georg_Ludwig_Rudolf_Maercker¶ms=51_04_49_N_13_46_38_E_","external_links_name":"51°04′49″N 13°46′38″E / 51.08028°N 13.77722°E / 51.08028; 13.77722"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Georg_Ludwig_Rudolf_Maercker¶ms=51_04_49_N_13_46_38_E_","external_links_name":"51°04′49″N 13°46′38″E / 51.08028°N 13.77722°E / 51.08028; 13.77722"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22","external_links_name":"\"Georg Ludwig Rudolf Maercker\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Georg+Ludwig+Rudolf+Maercker%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000021156398","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/40157960","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfRCTB8xTbRx4PQkqJVYP","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/117518506","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81020803","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd117518506.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/236922335","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_Ludwig_Rudolf_Maercker&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seika | Seika | ["1 History","2 Characteristics","3 Images","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Form of ikebana
For other uses, see Seika, Kyoto and Shōka (era).
Classical shōka arrangement from the Sōka Hyakki
Illustration of the principal lines used in seika, which are "heaven", "human", and "earth"
Seika (生花) is a form of ikebana. Written with the same kanji characters, it is also pronounced and known as Shōka.
History
The painter Sōami and the art patron and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa were supporters of the style as early as the 15th century. It reached its peak of popularity and artistic development in the 18th century and was formalised in the late Edo period.
Works that were published include the Sōka Hyakki (挿花百規), a collection of 100 drawings of shōka works by the 40th headmaster Ikenobō Senjō (池坊専定). Senjō himself selected these works published in 1820. The original drawings were made by Matsumura Keibun and Yokoyama Seiki, painters of the Shijō school. The Senshō Risshōkashū (専正立生華集) is a collection of 100 drawings of rikka and shōka works by the 42nd headmaster Ikenobō Senshō (池坊専正). In the West, Japanese flower arrangement (Ike-bana) applied to Western needs is a book written by Mary Averill. It was published in 1913 and gives a description in English of seika, mostly from the Enshū-ryū school. In Japan there are currently over 1,200 officially registered different ikebana schools which all practice their own particular kind of Shoka or Seika based on the lead professional running the school.
In Ikenobō shōka, there are two styles: shōka shōfūtai with traditional form, and shōka shimputai with no set form. Shōka shimputai was introduced by the headmaster Sen'ei Ikenobō in 1997 as a new style of shōka.
In Mishō-ryū the style is called kakubana (格花).
Characteristics
Seika incorporates many of the structural rules and classical feeling of the ancient rikka of the Ikenobō school. The concept of shusshō (出生 inner beauty) of a plant is key in the arrangement and is expressed as the living forms of plants rooted in the soil and growing upward towards the sun. It uses one to three kinds of floral materials, arranged in a single vase.
The set-up is basically triangular, with three main lines: shin the central axis symbolising "truth"; soe the supporting branch, and tai, which are branches placed near the base to balance everything. Shin symbolises heaven (天), soe symbolises human (人), and tai the earth (地). Together these three elements (天地人 Tenchijin) represent the human universe. The number of branches should always be an uneven number. The length of each branch is also prescribed.
In some Ikebana schools in Japan when performing Seika the natural characteristics of the plant have to be respected and the arrangement either done in the upright, slanted or hanging form. Also depending on where the plants would grow determines the position of it in the arrangement. So for example plants from mountain regions have to be placed above those from the lower lands. Plants used should also be seasonal to reflect the respective season in which the arrangement is being made.
In other Ikebana schools Seika is a composite that more reflects and emphasizes the design elements using plant materials. This type of Shoka was widespread in Japan in the 19th century and is less popular today.
In ancient times Aspidistra elatior leaves were often the usual tool for beginners to learn the basics of seika as they are easily handled and the side for the sun can be seen clearly. It was not uncommon in the 19th and early 20th century for Ikebana students practicing Seika or Shoka to construct Aspidistra arrangements for a year or more before graduating and being granted a license to arrange other floral materials.
Images
Coloured diagram of a hanging shōka, by the 40th headmaster Ikenobō Senjō, from the Sōka Hyakki (1820)
Coloured diagram of a festive shōka with the Three Friends of Winter, by the 42nd headmaster Ikenobō Senshō, from the Senshō Risshokashu (1878)
Arrangement of the Saga Go-ryū in front of a hanging scroll in a tokonoma. The branch to the right shows the silhouette of Mount Fuji
Formal shōka from the Ikenobō using a bronze vessel
Shōka from the Ikenobō using a bamboo vessel
Kakubana arrangement from Hanamichi Iemoto Mishō-ryū (花道家元未生流) using three bamboo vessels
Classical arrangement from the Saika-ryū (彩華流) with Salix koriyanagi willow
Modern Shōka from the Ikenobō
See also
Moribana
References
^ a b Averill, Mary. "Japanese flower arrangement" – via Wikisource.
^ a b c d e "Shōka - floral arrangement".
^ "いけばな美術名作集(6)挿花百規商品詳細(商品番号102386) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ". www.kadosha.co.jp.
^ "いけばな美術名作集(8)専正立生華集商品詳細(商品番号102388) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ". www.kadosha.co.jp.
^ Averill, Mary. "Japanese flower arrangement" – via Wikisource.
^ a b "Ikenobo's Arranging Style - IKENOBO ORIGIN OF IKEBANA". www.ikenobo.jp.
^ "未生流のいけばな – 未生流".
External links
Media related to Seika at Wikimedia Commons | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Seika, Kyoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seika,_Kyoto"},{"link_name":"Shōka (era)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dka_(era)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_Souka_Hyakki_(7).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_flower_arrangement_p051.png"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-1"},{"link_name":"ikebana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikebana"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see Seika, Kyoto and Shōka (era).Classical shōka arrangement from the Sōka HyakkiIllustration of the principal lines used in seika, which are \"heaven\", \"human\", and \"earth\"[1]Seika (生花) is a form of ikebana.[2] Written with the same kanji characters, it is also pronounced and known as Shōka.","title":"Seika"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sōami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dami"},{"link_name":"shōgun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun"},{"link_name":"Ashikaga Yoshimasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga_Yoshimasa"},{"link_name":"Edo period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_period"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-2"},{"link_name":"Matsumura Keibun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsumura_Keibun"},{"link_name":"Yokoyama Seiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yokoyama_Seiki&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shijō school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shij%C5%8D_school"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Enshū-ryū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensh%C5%AB-ry%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Ikenobō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikenob%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ikenobo.jp-6"},{"link_name":"Mishō-ryū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mish%C5%8D-ry%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The painter Sōami and the art patron and shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa were supporters of the style as early as the 15th century. It reached its peak of popularity and artistic development in the 18th century and was formalised in the late Edo period.[2]Works that were published include the Sōka Hyakki (挿花百規), a collection of 100 drawings of shōka works by the 40th headmaster Ikenobō Senjō (池坊専定). Senjō himself selected these works published in 1820. The original drawings were made by Matsumura Keibun and Yokoyama Seiki, painters of the Shijō school.[3] The Senshō Risshōkashū (専正立生華集) is a collection of 100 drawings of rikka and shōka works by the 42nd headmaster Ikenobō Senshō (池坊専正).[4] In the West, Japanese flower arrangement (Ike-bana) applied to Western needs is a book written by Mary Averill. It was published in 1913 and gives a description in English of seika, mostly from the Enshū-ryū school.[5] In Japan there are currently over 1,200 officially registered different ikebana schools which all practice their own particular kind of Shoka or Seika based on the lead professional running the school.In Ikenobō shōka, there are two styles: shōka shōfūtai with traditional form, and shōka shimputai with no set form. Shōka shimputai was introduced by the headmaster Sen'ei Ikenobō in 1997 as a new style of shōka.[6]In Mishō-ryū the style is called kakubana (格花).[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rikka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikka"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ikenobo.jp-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-2"},{"link_name":"Aspidistra elatior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspidistra_elatior"}],"text":"Seika incorporates many of the structural rules and classical feeling of the ancient rikka of the Ikenobō school. The concept of shusshō (出生 inner beauty) of a plant is key in the arrangement and is expressed as the living forms of plants rooted in the soil and growing upward towards the sun. It uses one to three kinds of floral materials, arranged in a single vase.[2][6]The set-up is basically triangular, with three main lines: shin the central axis symbolising \"truth\"; soe the supporting branch, and tai, which are branches placed near the base to balance everything. Shin symbolises heaven (天), soe symbolises human (人), and tai the earth (地). Together these three elements (天地人 Tenchijin) represent the human universe. The number of branches should always be an uneven number. The length of each branch is also prescribed.[1][2]In some Ikebana schools in Japan when performing Seika the natural characteristics of the plant have to be respected and the arrangement either done in the upright, slanted or hanging form. Also depending on where the plants would grow determines the position of it in the arrangement. So for example plants from mountain regions have to be placed above those from the lower lands. Plants used should also be seasonal to reflect the respective season in which the arrangement is being made.[2]In other Ikebana schools Seika is a composite that more reflects and emphasizes the design elements using plant materials. This type of Shoka was widespread in Japan in the 19th century and is less popular today.In ancient times Aspidistra elatior leaves were often the usual tool for beginners to learn the basics of seika as they are easily handled and the side for the sun can be seen clearly. It was not uncommon in the 19th and early 20th century for Ikebana students practicing Seika or Shoka to construct Aspidistra arrangements for a year or more before graduating and being granted a license to arrange other floral materials.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%8C%BF%E8%8A%B1%E7%99%BE%E8%A6%8F-23.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%B0%82%E6%AD%A3%E7%AB%8B%E7%94%9F%E8%8F%AF%E9%9B%86_03.jpg"},{"link_name":"Three Friends of Winter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Friends_of_Winter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ikebana_exhibition_at_Meguro_Gajoen_2018_15b.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saga Go-ryū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga_Go-ry%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"tokonoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokonoma"},{"link_name":"Mount Fuji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Fuji"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_16.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_13.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nagoya_Ikebana_Art_Exhibition_Sakae_Nov_2018_52.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nagoya_Ikebana_Art_Exhibition_Sakae_Nov_2018_47.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_05.jpg"}],"text":"Coloured diagram of a hanging shōka, by the 40th headmaster Ikenobō Senjō, from the Sōka Hyakki (1820)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tColoured diagram of a festive shōka with the Three Friends of Winter, by the 42nd headmaster Ikenobō Senshō, from the Senshō Risshokashu (1878)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArrangement of the Saga Go-ryū in front of a hanging scroll in a tokonoma. The branch to the right shows the silhouette of Mount Fuji\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFormal shōka from the Ikenobō using a bronze vessel\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShōka from the Ikenobō using a bamboo vessel\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKakubana arrangement from Hanamichi Iemoto Mishō-ryū (花道家元未生流) using three bamboo vessels\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tClassical arrangement from the Saika-ryū (彩華流) with Salix koriyanagi willow\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tModern Shōka from the Ikenobō","title":"Images"}] | [{"image_text":"Classical shōka arrangement from the Sōka Hyakki","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_Souka_Hyakki_%287%29.jpg/220px-2017_Ikenobou_Autumn_Tanabata_Exhibition_Souka_Hyakki_%287%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Illustration of the principal lines used in seika, which are \"heaven\", \"human\", and \"earth\"[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Japanese_flower_arrangement_p051.png/220px-Japanese_flower_arrangement_p051.png"}] | [{"title":"Moribana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moribana"}] | [{"reference":"Averill, Mary. \"Japanese flower arrangement\" – via Wikisource.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_flower_arrangement/Chapter_4","url_text":"\"Japanese flower arrangement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shōka - floral arrangement\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/art/shoka","url_text":"\"Shōka - floral arrangement\""}]},{"reference":"\"いけばな美術名作集(6)挿花百規商品詳細(商品番号102386) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\". www.kadosha.co.jp.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kadosha.co.jp/item/item_50.html","url_text":"\"いけばな美術名作集(6)挿花百規商品詳細(商品番号102386) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\""}]},{"reference":"\"いけばな美術名作集(8)専正立生華集商品詳細(商品番号102388) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\". www.kadosha.co.jp.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kadosha.co.jp/item/item_52.html","url_text":"\"いけばな美術名作集(8)専正立生華集商品詳細(商品番号102388) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\""}]},{"reference":"Averill, Mary. \"Japanese flower arrangement\" – via Wikisource.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_flower_arrangement","url_text":"\"Japanese flower arrangement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ikenobo's Arranging Style - IKENOBO ORIGIN OF IKEBANA\". www.ikenobo.jp.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ikenobo.jp/english/about/style.html","url_text":"\"Ikenobo's Arranging Style - IKENOBO ORIGIN OF IKEBANA\""}]},{"reference":"\"未生流のいけばな – 未生流\".","urls":[{"url":"http://misho-ryu.com/about/course/","url_text":"\"未生流のいけばな – 未生流\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_flower_arrangement/Chapter_4","external_links_name":"\"Japanese flower arrangement\""},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/art/shoka","external_links_name":"\"Shōka - floral arrangement\""},{"Link":"https://www.kadosha.co.jp/item/item_50.html","external_links_name":"\"いけばな美術名作集(6)挿花百規商品詳細(商品番号102386) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\""},{"Link":"https://www.kadosha.co.jp/item/item_52.html","external_links_name":"\"いけばな美術名作集(8)専正立生華集商品詳細(商品番号102388) - 花楽池坊フラワーショップ\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_flower_arrangement","external_links_name":"\"Japanese flower arrangement\""},{"Link":"http://www.ikenobo.jp/english/about/style.html","external_links_name":"\"Ikenobo's Arranging Style - IKENOBO ORIGIN OF IKEBANA\""},{"Link":"http://misho-ryu.com/about/course/","external_links_name":"\"未生流のいけばな – 未生流\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_rates | List of cancer mortality rates in the United States | ["1 References"] | Map of age-adjusted mortality rates for leukaemia in black females in the U.S during 1970–94.
Cancer mortality rates are determined by the complex relationship of a population's health and lifestyle with their healthcare system. In the United States during 2013–2017, the age-adjusted mortality rate for all types of cancer was 189.5/100,000 for males, and 135.7/100,000 for females. Below is an incomplete list of age-adjusted mortality rates for different types of cancer in the United States from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program.
Type
Age Adjusted Mortality Rates (per 100,000 people) during 2013-2017
All Cancer
158.3
Oral cancer
0.0
Esophageal cancer
3.9
Stomach cancer
3.1
Colorectal cancer
13.9
Liver cancer and bile duct cancer
6.6
Gallbladder cancer
0.6
Pancreatic cancer
11.0
Laryngeal cancer
1.0
Lung cancer
40.2
Tracheal cancer (including other respiratory organs)
0.1
Bone cancer (including joint cancer)
0.5
Skin cancer (excluding basal and squamous)
3.4
Breast cancer (non-in situ)
11.3
Uterine cancer (cervix uteri)
1.2
Uterine cancer (corpus uteri)
1.2
Uterine cancer (not otherwise specified)
1.4
Ovarian cancer
3.8
Prostate cancer
7.8
Bladder cancer
4.4
Renal cancer (kidney and renal pelvis cancer)
3.7
Brain cancer
4.4
Thyroid cancer
0.5
Myeloma
3.3
Lymphoma
5.8
Leukemia
6.4
References
^ a b https://seer.cancer.gov/archive/csr/1975_2017/results_single/sect_01_table.04_2pgs.pdf | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_of_cancer_mortality_in_the_U.S._1950-94.jpg"},{"link_name":"mortality rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate"},{"link_name":"mortality rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance,_Epidemiology,_and_End_Results"}],"text":"Map of age-adjusted mortality rates for leukaemia in black females in the U.S during 1970–94.Cancer mortality rates are determined by the complex relationship of a population's health and lifestyle with their healthcare system. In the United States during 2013–2017, the age-adjusted mortality rate for all types of cancer was 189.5/100,000 for males, and 135.7/100,000 for females.[1] Below is an incomplete list of age-adjusted mortality rates for different types of cancer in the United States from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program.","title":"List of cancer mortality rates in the United States"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of age-adjusted mortality rates for leukaemia in black females in the U.S during 1970–94.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Atlas_of_cancer_mortality_in_the_U.S._1950-94.jpg/310px-Atlas_of_cancer_mortality_in_the_U.S._1950-94.jpg"}] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://seer.cancer.gov/archive/csr/1975_2017/results_single/sect_01_table.04_2pgs.pdf","external_links_name":"https://seer.cancer.gov/archive/csr/1975_2017/results_single/sect_01_table.04_2pgs.pdf"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_2_(motorsport) | Group 2 (motorsport) | ["1 Groups 1-9","2 References","3 External links"] | For the designation in thoroughbred racing, see Group races.
An Audi Coupe (B2) Group 2 Touring Car
The Group 2 racing class referred to regulations for cars in touring car racing and rallying, as regulated by the FIA. Group 2 was replaced by Group A in 1982.
A BMW 3.0 CSL Group 2 Touring Car
The FIA established Appendix J regulations for Touring and GT cars for 1954 and the term Group 2 was in use to define Touring Cars in the Appendix J of 1959. By 1961 Appendix J included specifications for both Group 1 Series Touring Cars and Group 2 Improved Touring Cars with a minimum production of 1,000 units in twelve consecutive months required to allow homologation of a model into either group. Technical modifications beyond those allowed for Group 1 cars were permitted in Group 2.
A Ford Capri 3100 RS Group 2 Touring Car
The British Saloon Car Championship was open to Group 2 cars each year from 1961 to 1965 and from 1970 to 1973.
Group 2 Touring Cars competing at a race at Zandvoort, in 1974
Group 2 was the specified category for the European Touring Car Challenge from 1963 to 1967 and the cars were also eligible alongside Group 5 special touring cars in 1968 and 1969. It was again the premier category when the series was renamed as the European Touring Car Championship for 1970 and continued to be so until it was replaced by Group A for 1982.
Group 2 Touring Car race, at Zandvoort, in 1974
The Sports Car Club of America’s Trans-American Sedan Championship was contested by Group 2 touring cars from its inception in 1966 through to the 1972 season.
Groups 1-9
Categories and Groups of Appendix J 1954 - 1965
Categories
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
I. Touring
A. Touring
II. Sports
II. Grand Touring
B. Grand Touring
-
C. Sports
Group
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
Group 1
Normal series production
Group 2
"Grand Touring" series prod
Modified series prod
Modified series prod
Group 3
Special series production
Grand Touring Cars
Group 4
Series production
Normal GT series prod
Sports Car
Group 5
International
Modified GT series prod
-
Group 6
-
GT specials
-
Source:
Categories and Groups of Appendix J 1966 - 1981 (Production requirement)
Categories
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
A. Production
B. Special
B. Experimental Competition
B. Racing Cars
C. Racing Cars
-
Group
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
Group 1
Series Touring (5000)
Group 2
Touring (1000)
Special Touring (1000)
Group 3
Grand Touring (500)
Series Grand Touring (1000)
Group 4
Sportscars (50/25)
Special Grand Touring (500)
Grand Touring (400)
Group 5
Special Touring Cars
Sports cars (50)
Sports cars
Special cars derived from Groups 1-4
Group 6
Prototype sportscars
-
Two-seater racecars
Group 7
Two-seater racecars
International formula
Group 8
Formula racing cars
International formula
Formula libre racing cars
Group 9
Formula libre racing cars
-
Source:Note: Special may be replaced with Competition in some official documents.
References
^ Appendix K - Technical regulations for historic cars, www.fia.com Retrieved 31 August 2016
^ a b Appendix 'J' to the International Sporting Code of the FIA - 1961, argent.fia.com Retrieved 31 August 2016
^ British Saloon Car Championship, touringcarracing.net Retrieved 1 September 2016
^ Part 1: 1963-1967 The early years, touringcarracing.net Retrieved 30 August 2016
^ Part 2: 1968-1969 Group 5 years, touringcarracing.net Retrieved 30 August 2016
^ The European Touring Car Championship, touringcarracing.net Retrieved 30 August 2016
^ Trans-Am, touringcarracing.net Retrieved on 30 August 2016
^ a b "Regulations - Period Appendix J | FIA Historic Database". historicdb.fia.com. Retrieved 2022-05-19.
^ a b "APPENDIX K TO THE INTERNATIONAL SPORTING CODE" (PDF).
External links
Historic Appendices J - of the Period, argent.fia.com
vteFIA categories and groupsCategory I
Group N
Group A
Group R (Groups Rally2-5)
Group E-I
Group T2
Category II
Group R-GT
Group Rally1
Group GT3
Group CN
Group E-II
Group T1
Group T3
Group T4
Category III
Group F
Group T5
Formercategoriesand groupsCategory I
Group B (1982–2011)
Group SP (2001–11)
Group ST (1996–2002)
Group CL1 (1996–2002)
Category II
Group C (1982–2007)
Group D (1982–2019)
Group GT1 (1997–2012)
Group GT2 (1997–2012)
Group GT (1993–2004)
Group N-GT (2001–2004)
Category A
Group 1 (1966–81)
Group 2 (1966–81)
Group 3 (1966–81)
Group 4 (1966–81)
Category B
Group 5 (1966–81)
Group 6 (1966–81)
Category C
Group 7 (1966–81)
Group 8 - F1, F2, F3 (1966–81)
Group 9 (1966–81)
FIA categories and groups defined in Appendix J to the International Sporting Code
vteClasses of auto racingFormula racingActive
F1
F2
F3
F4
F600
Formula 1000
Formula Atlantic
Formula Car Challenge
Formula Continental
Formula E
Formula Enterprises
Formula Ford
FF1600
Formula Regional
GB3
Formula Vee
IndyCar
Super Formula
S5000
Supermodified
BOSS GP
Monoposto Racing Club
V de V Challenge Monoplace
Defunct
F3000
F5000
Formula A (SCCA)
Formula B (SCCA)
Formula C (SCCA)
FCJ
Formula Dream
Formula Holden
Formula Junior
Formula Libre
Formula Mondial
Formula Pacific
Formula Super Vee
Australian National Formula
Grand Prix Masters
Grand Prix motor racing
Tasman Series
One-make formulaeActive
Formula Car Challenge
Formula Enterprise
Indy NXT
MRF Challenge
SRF
USF Pro
USF2000
USF Juniors
FIA Formula Championship
2
3
S5000
Defunct
A1GP
ADAC Formel Masters
Auto GP
Barber Pro
CFGP
FA1
Formula Asia
Formula
Abarth
Alfa
BMW
Chrysler
König
LGB
Swift
Hyundai
Lightning
Maruti
Masters
China
Russia
Mazda
Nissan
Opel/Vauxhall
Palmer Audi
RUS
Rolon
Formula Renault
2.0L
Grand Prix Masters
GP2
GP3
International Formula Master
Toyota Racing Series
Superleague Formula
One-make spec racingActive
Porsche Carrera Cup
Ferrari Challenge
Ginetta GT4 Supercup
Ginetta GT5 Challenge
Ginetta Junior Championship
Lamborghini Super Trofeo
Mazda MX-5 Cup
TVR Tuscan Challenge
Mini Challenge UK
Lotus Cup
Defunct
Trofeo Maserati
Audi R8 LMS Cup
Commodore Cup
Australian Mini Challenge
Aston Martin Asia Cup
SEAT Cupra Championship
SEAT Leon Supercopa
Karting
KF1
KF2
KF3
KZ1
KZ2
Superkart
Electric
Touring car racingActive
BTCC
NGTC (TCN-1)
TCR (TCN-2)
Stock Car Pro Series
Stock Series
Supercars
Turismo Nacional
Turismo Nacional BR
TC2000
Defunct
Appendix J
BTC-T
Group 1
Group 2
Group 5
Group A
Group C
Group E
Group F
Group G
Group H
Group N
Aus
Group S
Class 1
Class 2
Super 2000
Diesel 2000
DTM
ETCR
Superstars
V8Star
WTCC
WTCR
Stock car racingActive
ARCA
Allison Legacy Series
IMCA Sport Compact
Late model
Legends
Modifieds
NASCAR
Cup
Xfinity
Truck
Pinty's
Whelen Euro Series
Mexico
SRX
Super Stock
Street Stock
Turismo Carretera
Defunct
ASCAR
AUSCAR
IROC
Oval
BriSCA F1
BriSCA F2
V8 Hotstox
Hot Rods
Superstocks
Sprint car racing
Midget car racing
Quarter Midget racing
RallyingActive
Groups Rally
Group Rally1
Group Rally2
Group Rally3
Group Rally4
Group Rally5
Group R-GT
Defunct
Group 1
Group 2
Group 4
Group A
Group B
Group S
Group N
Group R
R5
Super 1600
Super 2000
World Rally Car
Sports prototypesActive
LMDh
LMH
LMP
LMP2
LMP3
Clubmans
Defunct
DP
DPi
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
Group 6
Group 7
Group A
Group C
Group CN
GC
GC-21
IMSA GTP (1981–1993 era)
LMP
LMP1
LMPC
S2000
Grand touringActive
GT3
GT2
GT4
GT500
GT300
Trans-Am
Defunct
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
Group B
Group D
GT1 (1993–1999)
GT1 (2000–2012)
GT2 (1993–1999)
GT2 (2005–2010)
GT3 (1998–1999)
LM GTE
IMSA
AAGT
GTO
GTS
GTU
GTX
Appendix K
Group D GT Cars
Drag racingActive
Top Fuel
Dragster (TF/D)
Funny Car (TF/FC)
Top Alcohol
Dragster (TA/D)
Funny Car (TA/FC)
Pro Stock (PS)
Pro Modified (Pro Mod)
Gas
Super Stock
Super Comp/Quick Rod
Top Doorslammer
Altered
Competition
Defunct
Top Gas
Modified
Pro FWD
Off-road
Baja Bug
Dune buggy
Rallycross
Autocross
Trophy truck
Group T1
Group T2
Group T3
Group T4
Group T5
Truggy
Side by Side (UTV) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Group races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_races"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audi_Coup%C3%A9_B2_Group_2_Touring_Car_at_Goodwood_2014_002.jpg"},{"link_name":"Audi Coupe (B2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_Coupe_(B2)"},{"link_name":"FIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_de_l%27Automobile"},{"link_name":"Group A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_BMW_130.jpg"},{"link_name":"BMW 3.0 CSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_3.0_CSL"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Appendix_J_1961-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Appendix_J_1961-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Capri_3100RS_Group_2_Dieter_Glemser_(1974)_Solitude_Revival_2022_1X7A0297.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ford Capri 3100 RS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Capri"},{"link_name":"British Saloon Car Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Saloon_Car_Championship"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4-uurs_race_toerwagens_groep_2_op_circuit_Zandvoort_op_voorgrond_de_Capri_van_T,_Bestanddeelnr_927-3795.jpg"},{"link_name":"Zandvoort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_Zandvoort"},{"link_name":"European Touring Car Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Touring_Car_Championship"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Group 5 special touring cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_5_(motorsport)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:4-uurs_race_toerwagens_groep_2_op_circuit_Zandvoort_Jochem_Mass_(kop),_Bestanddeelnr_927-3798.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sports Car Club of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Car_Club_of_America"},{"link_name":"Trans-American Sedan Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Am_Series"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"For the designation in thoroughbred racing, see Group races.An Audi Coupe (B2) Group 2 Touring CarThe Group 2 racing class referred to regulations for cars in touring car racing and rallying, as regulated by the FIA. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_Lacrosse_League | Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League | ["1 National championships","1.1 Presidents Cup","1.2 Minto Cup","1.3 Founders Cup","2 Champions","3 Teams","4 References","5 External links"] | Rocky Mountain Lacrosse LeagueSportBox lacrosseCountryCanadaOfficial websiterockymountainlax.com
The Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League (RMLL) is a box lacrosse league based in Alberta with three teams in Saskatchewan and, as of 2018, one in Manitoba. It is sanctioned by the Alberta Lacrosse Association. RMLL organizes all senior and junior play in the province. The league is broken into several divisions: Senior B, Senior C, Junior A, Junior B, Tier II and Tier III. Junior Ladies and Senior Ladies divisions were added in 2004 and 2011, respectively.
The RMLL is experiencing rapid growth as the popularity of box lacrosse increases, spurred on by the expansion of the National Lacrosse League to Calgary in 2001 and Edmonton in 2005. In 2002, 18 teams played in the RMLL at all levels. That number grew to 37 in 2005, then 59 in 2006. An all-time high 64 teams competed in 2016.
National championships
The RMLL is guaranteed at least one berth in each of the following national championship tournaments. Championship teams from Alberta are listed:
Presidents Cup
1975 - Edmonton Fullers
1983 - Calgary Mountaineers
2002 - Edmonton Outlaws
2007 - Sherwood Park Outlaws
2016 - St. Albert Miners
2017 - St. Albert Miners
2018 - St. Albert Miners
Minto Cup
none
Founders Cup
1980 - Enoch Tomahawks
1999 - Edmonton Miners
2009 - Calgary Mountaineers
2019 - Calgary Shamrocks
The RMLL currently is not eligible for the Mann Cup Senior A championship. However, the Calgary Chinooks won the Mann Cup in 1914.
Champions
Year
Senior B
Senior C
Junior A
Junior B Tier I
Junior B Tier II
Junior B Tier III
Senior Ladies
Junior Ladies
1995
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Miners
1996
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Miners
1997
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Miners
1998
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Miners
1999
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Miners
2000
none
Calgary Mountaineers
Edmonton Warriors
2001
Edmonton Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Warriors
2002
Edmonton Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Sherwood Park Titans
2003
Edmonton Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Warriors
Sherwood Park Titans
2004
Edmonton Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Calgary Mountaineers
Edmonton Warriors
2005
Sherwood Park Outlaws
Calgary Raiders
Edmonton Warriors
Red Deer Rampage
Sherwood Park Titans
2006
Sherwood Park Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Edmonton Warriors
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Calgary Mavericks
Sherwood Park Titans
2007
Sherwood Park Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Calgary Mountaineers
Fort Saskatchewan Rebels
Vermilion Roar
Sherwood Park Titans
2008
Sherwood Park Outlaws
Edmonton Miners
Calgary Mountaineers
Fort Saskatchewan Rebels
Okotoks Icemen
Sherwood Park Titans
2009
Okotoks Raiders
Edmonton Eclipse
Calgary Mountaineers
Fort Saskatchewan Rebels
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Sherwood Park Titans
2010
St. Albert Miners
Calgary Raiders
Calgary Mountaineers
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Strathmore Venom
Sherwood Park Titans
2011
St. Albert Miners
Red Deer IFR Workwear Silverbacks
Calgary Raiders
Calgary Mountaineers
Edmonton Wizards
High River Heat
Calgary Cougars
Sherwood Park Titans
2012
Rockyview Knights
Calgary Irish
Calgary Mountaineers
Calgary Mountaineers
Vermilion Roar
High River Heat
Calgary Cougars
Sherwood Park Titans
2013
Calgary Mountaineers
Blackfalds Silverbacks
Calgary Raiders
Calgary Mountaineers
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Calgary Cougars
Calgary Cardinals
2014
St. Albert Miners
Blackfalds Silverbacks
Calgary Mountaineers
Red Deer Rampage
Lethbridge Barracuds
Crowsness Pass Ravens
Edmonton Bandits
Sherwood Park Titans (A)
St. Albert Drillers (B)
2015
Rockyview Knights
Blackfalds Silverbacks
Okotoks Raiders
Saskatchewan SWAT
Fort Saskatchewan Rebels
Olds Mavericks
Edmonton Bandits
Sherwood Park Titans
2016
St. Albert Miners
Airdrie Mohawks
Calgary Mountaineers
Manitoba Blizzard
Olds Mavericks
High River Heat
Edmonton Bandits
Sherwood Park Titans
2017
St. Albert Miners
Airdrie Mohawks
Okotoks Raiders
Manitoba Blizzard
Lethbridge Barracudas
Olds Stingers
Calgary Cougars
Sherwood Park Titans
2018
St. Albert Miners
Airdrie Mohawks
Okotoks Raiders
Calgary Shamrocks
Lloydminster Xtreme
West Kootenay Timberwolves
Calgary Cougars
Capital Region Saints
2019
St. Albert Miners
Airdrie Mowhawks
Okotoks Raiders
Calgary Shamrocks
Sylvan Lake Yetti
Cranbrook Outlaws
Sherwood Park Titans
Calgary Cardinals
Teams
Senior B
Team
Centre
Home Arena
Beaumont Outlaws
Beaumont
Ken Nichol Reg. Rec. Arena 1
Calgary Mountaineers
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Calgary Raiders
Calgary
Brentwood
Edmonton Warriors
Edmonton
Jubiliee Rec Center - Ft Sask
Rockyview Knights
Airdrie
Plainsman
St. Albert Miners
St. Albert
Servus Go Auto Arena - St Albert
Senior C
Team
Centre
Home Arena
North Division
Blackfalds Silverbacks
Blackfalds
Blackfalds Multiplex
Border Rage Lacrosse Club
Lloydminster
Centennial Civic Center - Lloydminster
Edmonton Warriors
Edmonton
Southside - George Hughes
St. Albert Miners
St. Albert
Servus Go Auto Arena
South Division
Airdrie Mohawks
Airdrie
Plainsman
Calgary Irish
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Calgary Bears
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Olds Stingers
Olds
Olds Sports Complex Main
Junior A
Team
Centre
Home Arena
Calgary Mountaineers
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Calgary Raiders
Calgary
Max Bell 1
Saskatchewan SWAT
Saskatoon
Kinsmen Arena SK
St. Albert Miners
St. Albert
Servus Go Auto Arena - St Albert
Junior B Tier 1
Team
Centre
Home Arena
North Division
Edmonton Warriors
Edmonton
Bill Hunter
Fort Saskatchewan Rebels
Fort Saskatchewan
Jubiliee Rec Centre - Ft Sask
Sherwood Park Outlaws
Sherwood Park
Sherwood Park Arena
St. Albert Crude
St. Albert
Jarome Iginla Arena
Central Division
Calgary Chill
Calgary
Brentwood
Mountainview Mavericks
Innisfail
Innisfail Blue Arena
Red Deer Rampage
Red Deer
GH Dawe - Red Deer
Rockyview Silvertips
Cochrane
Spray Lakes - Totem 1
South Division
Calgary Mountaineers
Calgary
Acadia Rec Centre
Calgary Shamrocks
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Lethbridge Barracudas
Lethbridge
Nicholas Sheran Ice Centre
Okotoks Marauders
Okotoks
Okotoks Murray Arena
East Division
Manitoba Blizzard
Winnipeg
Notre Dame Arena
Regina Barracuda
Regina
Al Ritchie Arena
Saskatchewan SWAT
Saskatoon
Kinsmen Arena SK
Junior B Tier 2
Team
Centre
Home Arena
North Central Division
Edmonton Warriors
Edmonton
Kenilworth
Parkland Posse
Stony Plain
Glenn Hall Arena
Sherwood Park Titans
Sherwood Park
Sherwood Park Arena
St. Albert Crude
St. Albert
Jarome Iginla Arena
Westlock Rock
Westlock
Westlock Rotary Spirit Centre
Northeast Division
Lakeland Heat
Cold Lake
Cold Lake Energy Centre - Field House
Lloydminster Xtreme
Lloydminster
Russ Robertson Arena
Vermilion Roar
Vermilion
Vermilion Stadium
Wainwright Wolfpack
Wainwright
Peace Memorial Multiplex
South Central Division
Calgary Axemen
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Calgary Sabrecats
Calgary
South Fish Creek - Cardel Rec South
High River Heat
High River
Cargill Field House - High River
Medicine Hat Sun Devils
Medicine Hat
Kinplex - Medicine Hat 1
Strathmore Venom
Strathmore
Strathmore - Gold
Southwest Division
Calgary Wranglers
Calgary
Brentwood
MountainView Stingers
Didsbury
Didsbury Arena
Red Deer Renegades
Red Deer
Kinex - Red Deer
Rockyview Rage
Rockyview
Spray Lakes Totem 1
Sylvan Lake Yettis
Sylvan Lake
Sylvan Lake Arena
Junior B Tier 3
Team
Centre
Home Arena
Cranbrook Outlaws
Cranbrook
West Kootenay Timberwolves
Rossland
Senior Ladies
Team
Centre
Home Arena
Beaumont Bandits
Beaumont
Ken Nichol Reg. Rec. Arena 1
Calgary Cougars
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Red Deer Rage
Red Deer
Kinex - Red Deer
Rockyview Attack
Airdrie
Sherwood Park Lady Titans
Sherwood Park
Junior Ladies
Team
Centre
Home Arena
Calgary Axemen Snipers
Calgary
Stu Peppard
Calgary Cardinals
Calgary
Brentwood
Capital Region Saints
Edmonton
Southside - George Hughes
Okotoks Raiders
Okotoks
Rockyview Lady Silvertips
Airdrie
Sherwood Park Lady Titans
Sherwood Park
Sherwood Park Arena
St. Albert Drillers
St. Albert
Akinsdale
References
^ "Canada's National Summer Sport becoming more 'National'". Inside Lacrosse. 9 June 2008.
^ "Titans dynasty continues". Sherwood Park News. 19 July 2012.
External links
RMLL official website
Ridley Scouting RMLL history website
vteBox lacrosse leaguesProfessionalMajor
National Lacrosse League
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Box Lacrosse League
Canadian Lacrosse League (2012–2016)
Circuit Québécois
Interstate Box Lacrosse Association
Montreal Junior Lacrosse League
National Lacrosse Association
National Lacrosse League (1974–1975)
North American Lacrosse League
Professional Lacrosse League
Professional Box Lacrosse Association
Québec Jr. C | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"box lacrosse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_lacrosse"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Saskatchewan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba"},{"link_name":"National Lacrosse League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Lacrosse_League"},{"link_name":"Calgary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary_Roughnecks"},{"link_name":"Edmonton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton_Rush"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League (RMLL) is a box lacrosse league based in Alberta with three teams in Saskatchewan and, as of 2018, one in Manitoba. It is sanctioned by the Alberta Lacrosse Association. RMLL organizes all senior and junior play in the province. The league is broken into several divisions: Senior B, Senior C, Junior A, Junior B, Tier II and Tier III. Junior Ladies and Senior Ladies divisions were added in 2004 and 2011, respectively.The RMLL is experiencing rapid growth as the popularity of box lacrosse increases, spurred on by the expansion of the National Lacrosse League to Calgary in 2001 and Edmonton in 2005. In 2002, 18 teams played in the RMLL at all levels. That number grew to 37 in 2005, then 59 in 2006.[1] An all-time high 64 teams competed in 2016.","title":"Rocky Mountain Lacrosse League"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The RMLL is guaranteed at least one berth in each of the following national championship tournaments. Championship teams from Alberta are listed:","title":"National championships"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Presidents Cup","text":"1975 - Edmonton Fullers\n1983 - Calgary Mountaineers\n2002 - Edmonton Outlaws\n2007 - Sherwood Park Outlaws\n2016 - St. Albert Miners\n2017 - St. Albert Miners\n2018 - St. Albert Miners","title":"National championships"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Minto Cup","text":"none","title":"National championships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Calgary Mountaineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary_Mountaineers"},{"link_name":"Calgary Shamrocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary_Shamrocks"},{"link_name":"Mann Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann_Cup"}],"sub_title":"Founders Cup","text":"1980 - Enoch Tomahawks\n1999 - Edmonton Miners\n2009 - Calgary Mountaineers\n2019 - Calgary ShamrocksThe RMLL currently is not eligible for the Mann Cup Senior A championship. However, the Calgary Chinooks won the Mann Cup in 1914.","title":"National championships"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Champions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Teams"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Canada's National Summer Sport becoming more 'National'\". Inside Lacrosse. 9 June 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.insidelacrosse.com/wire.php?id=1153","url_text":"\"Canada's National Summer Sport becoming more 'National'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Titans dynasty continues\". Sherwood Park News. 19 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sherwoodparknews.com/2012/07/19/titans-dynasty-continues","url_text":"\"Titans dynasty continues\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://rockymountainlax.com/","external_links_name":"rockymountainlax.com"},{"Link":"http://www.insidelacrosse.com/wire.php?id=1153","external_links_name":"\"Canada's National Summer Sport becoming more 'National'\""},{"Link":"http://www.sherwoodparknews.com/2012/07/19/titans-dynasty-continues","external_links_name":"\"Titans dynasty continues\""},{"Link":"http://www.rockymountainlax.com/","external_links_name":"RMLL official website"},{"Link":"http://ridleyscouting.com/rmll.html","external_links_name":"Ridley Scouting RMLL history website"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Pezzi | Andrea Pezzi | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Italian Tv presenter and entrepreneur
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Andrea PezziBorn (1973-11-21) 21 November 1973 (age 50)Ravenna, ItalyNationalityItalianOccupation(s)DJ, VJ, TV presenter, writer, entrepreneurPartnerCristiana Capotondi (2005—present)WebsiteOfficial website
Andrea Pezzi (born November 21, 1973, Ravenna, Italy) is an Italian TV presenter and entrepreneur. He made his debut as a DJ for Radio Deejay and later became a video jockey for MTV Europe and MTV Italia from 1996 to 2003. Pezzi later moved to Rai and Mediaset to work as a television host.
From 2001 to 2006 Pezzi was a communication advisor for numerous international companies focused on the youth target (among them Nike, L'Oreal, Diesel, etc.). At the same time he was a columnist for the national financial newspaper Il Sole 24 ore.
In 2006 he founded OVO, a media company that produces short encyclopedic documentary videos for media platforms. In 2014 Pezzi founded Myntelligence, a platform for digital advertising automation.
References
External links
Official website
Andrea Pezzi at IMDb
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna"},{"link_name":"DJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ"},{"link_name":"video jockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_jockey"},{"link_name":"MTV Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Europe"},{"link_name":"MTV Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Italia"},{"link_name":"Rai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAI"},{"link_name":"Mediaset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediaset"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"OVO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OVO_(video_encyclopedia)"}],"text":"Andrea Pezzi (born November 21, 1973, Ravenna, Italy) is an Italian TV presenter and entrepreneur. He made his debut as a DJ for Radio Deejay and later became a video jockey for MTV Europe and MTV Italia from 1996 to 2003. Pezzi later moved to Rai and Mediaset to work as a television host.From 2001 to 2006 Pezzi was a communication advisor for numerous international companies focused on the youth target (among them Nike, L'Oreal, Diesel, etc.)[citation needed]. At the same time he was a columnist for the national financial newspaper Il Sole 24 ore.In 2006 he founded OVO, a media company that produces short encyclopedic documentary videos for media platforms. In 2014 Pezzi founded Myntelligence, a platform for digital advertising automation.","title":"Andrea Pezzi"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Pezzi&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22","external_links_name":"\"Andrea Pezzi\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Andrea+Pezzi%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.andreapezzi.it/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.andreapezzi.it/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0679097/","external_links_name":"Andrea Pezzi"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/106911222","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJbtmDBdMx9xYgbybFHKVC","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2010012565","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Dean_Rogers_Architects | Perry Dean Rogers Architects | ["1 Projects","2 References","3 Further reading","4 External links"] | Perry Dean RogersPractice informationKey architectsMartha A. PilgreenFounded1923DissolvedactiveLocationBoston
Perry Dean Rogers is an architectural firm based in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded in 1923 as Perry, Shaw & Hepburn, the firm became notable for its designs for educational institutions. The firm was responsible for the restoration of Colonial Williamsburg. The firm asserts their expertise in creating the context of university environment. Perry Dean Rogers recently completed designing an entire college campus, masterplan and the individual buildings for the Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in Needham, Massachusetts. William G. Perry was also hired to transform the Endicott Estate into a Governor's Mansion.
Projects
Colonial Wiliamsburg, including the Williamsburg Inn
Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site
Wellesley Science Center
US embassy in Amman, Jordan
US embassy in London
Furman University, Greenville, South Carolina
Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont
Beinecke Student Activities Village, Hamilton College, New York
William M. Bristol Jr. Pool, Hamilton College, New York
Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building at Vassar College
Waidner-Spahr Library at Dickinson College in Pennsylvania
Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in Needham, Massachusetts
Renovation of Alvar Aalto's Baker Dormitory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial a memorial for American World War II servicemen in Cambridgeshire, near Cambridge, England
Governor's Palace in North Carolina
Strawbery Banke, Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Jordan Marsh Flagship Store, Boston, Massachusetts
References
^ a b c d Goodman, Ellen (December 10, 1967). "Elegance in Dedham". Boston Globe. p. A 21.
^ Fenton, John H. (September 18, 1954). "Steel Industry Dedicates Replica As 'Shrine to Private Enterprise'". The New York Times.
^ "History 21: New Campus: The Move". Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2014-11-25.
^ Gaskie, Margaret (March 1986). "Organic chemistry". Architectural Record. 174 (3): 137. ISSN 0003-858X.
^ "Macy's Department Store (Jordan Marsh Department Store)".
Further reading
Generating Context: The Practice of Perry Dean Rogers & Partners by Michael J. Crosbie. Birkhäuser Basel; 1 edition (September 1, 2001) ISBN 3-7643-6438-6, ISBN 978-3-7643-6438-0
When Change Is Set in Stone : An Analysis of Seven Academic Libraries by Perry Dean Rogers and Partners. Crosbie, Michael J. (Author) Hickey, Damon Douglas (Author). Association of College & Research Libraries (February 2001). ISBN 0-8389-8136-4, ISBN 978-0-8389-8136-8
External links
Official website | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"architectural firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_firm"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Colonial Williamsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Williamsburg"},{"link_name":"context","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_(language_use)"},{"link_name":"Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_W._Olin_College_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Needham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"William G. 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Mudd Chemistry Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Chemistry_Building"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Dickinson College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickinson_College"},{"link_name":"Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_W._Olin_College_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Needham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Alvar Aalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvar_Aalto"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_American_Cemetery_and_Memorial"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elegance-1"},{"link_name":"Strawbery Banke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawbery_Banke"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Colonial Wiliamsburg, including the Williamsburg Inn[1]\nSaugus Iron Works National Historic Site[2]\nWellesley Science Center\nUS embassy in Amman, Jordan\nUS embassy in London[1]\nFurman University, Greenville, South Carolina[3]\nLibrary, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont\nBeinecke Student Activities Village, Hamilton College, New York\nWilliam M. Bristol Jr. Pool, Hamilton College, New York\nSeeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building at Vassar College[4]\nWaidner-Spahr Library at Dickinson College in Pennsylvania\nFranklin W. Olin College of Engineering in Needham, Massachusetts\nRenovation of Alvar Aalto's Baker Dormitory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nCambridge American Cemetery and Memorial a memorial for American World War II servicemen in Cambridgeshire, near Cambridge, England\nGovernor's Palace in North Carolina[1]\nStrawbery Banke, Portsmouth, New Hampshire\nJordan Marsh Flagship Store, Boston, Massachusetts [5]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7643-6438-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7643-6438-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-7643-6438-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-6438-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8389-8136-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8389-8136-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8389-8136-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8389-8136-8"}],"text":"Generating Context: The Practice of Perry Dean Rogers & Partners by Michael J. Crosbie. Birkhäuser Basel; 1 edition (September 1, 2001) ISBN 3-7643-6438-6, ISBN 978-3-7643-6438-0\nWhen Change Is Set in Stone : An Analysis of Seven Academic Libraries by Perry Dean Rogers and Partners. Crosbie, Michael J. (Author) Hickey, Damon Douglas (Author). Association of College & Research Libraries (February 2001). ISBN 0-8389-8136-4, ISBN 978-0-8389-8136-8","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Goodman, Ellen (December 10, 1967). \"Elegance in Dedham\". Boston Globe. p. A 21.","urls":[{"url":"https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston-sub/doc/518578253.html?FMT=AI&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Dec+10%2C+1967&author=Goodman%2C+Ellen&pub=Boston+Globe+%281960-1983%29&edition=&startpage=&desc=Elegance+in+Dedham","url_text":"\"Elegance in Dedham\""}]},{"reference":"Fenton, John H. (September 18, 1954). \"Steel Industry Dedicates Replica As 'Shrine to Private Enterprise'\". The New York Times.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"History 21: New Campus: The Move\". Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2014-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150919054152/http://library.furman.edu/specialcollections/HST21/new_campus/the_move.htm","url_text":"\"History 21: New Campus: The Move\""},{"url":"http://library.furman.edu/specialcollections/HST21/new_campus/the_move.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gaskie, Margaret (March 1986). \"Organic chemistry\". Architectural Record. 174 (3): 137. ISSN 0003-858X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_Record","url_text":"Architectural Record"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-858X","url_text":"0003-858X"}]},{"reference":"\"Macy's Department Store (Jordan Marsh Department Store)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/MA-01-BD19","url_text":"\"Macy's Department Store (Jordan Marsh Department Store)\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston-sub/doc/518578253.html?FMT=AI&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Dec+10%2C+1967&author=Goodman%2C+Ellen&pub=Boston+Globe+%281960-1983%29&edition=&startpage=&desc=Elegance+in+Dedham","external_links_name":"\"Elegance in Dedham\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150919054152/http://library.furman.edu/specialcollections/HST21/new_campus/the_move.htm","external_links_name":"\"History 21: New Campus: The Move\""},{"Link":"http://library.furman.edu/specialcollections/HST21/new_campus/the_move.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-858X","external_links_name":"0003-858X"},{"Link":"https://sah-archipedia.org/buildings/MA-01-BD19","external_links_name":"\"Macy's Department Store (Jordan Marsh Department Store)\""},{"Link":"http://www.perrydean.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_(1997_TV_series) | Rebecca (1997 TV series) | ["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","4 Reception","4.1 Awards","5 References","6 External links"] | British TV series or program
RebeccaCover of the UK DVD releaseBased onRebeccaby Daphne du MaurierWritten byArthur HopcraftDirected byJim O'BrienStarringCharles DanceEmilia FoxDiana RiggComposerChristopher GunningCountry of originUnited KingdomGermanyOriginal languageEnglishNo. of series1No. of episodes2ProductionExecutive producersTim BuxtonJonathan PowellRebecca EatonRikolt von GagernProducerHilary HeathCinematographyRex MaidmentEditorMichael ParkerRunning time178 minutesProduction companiesCarlton TelevisionPortman Productions in association with WGBH Tele MünchenOriginal releaseNetworkITV (UK)PBS (U.S.)Release5 January (1997-01-05) –6 January 1997 (1997-01-06)
Rebecca is a 1997 British-German television drama directed by Jim O'Brien. The teleplay by Arthur Hopcraft is based on the 1938 novel of the same name by Daphne du Maurier. The serial was filmed for Carlton Television by Portman Productions in association with WGBH and Tele München. It was broadcast in the United States as a presentation of Masterpiece Theatre on PBS.
Plot
While vacationing in Monte Carlo in 1927, Maxim de Winter meets the young and somewhat naive British companion of Mrs. Van Hopper, a typical Ugly American whose bout of influenza frees the girl to spend time with the wealthy widower. When Mrs. Van Hopper announces plans to return to New York City, Max proposes marriage to the girl and brings her to his Cornwall coast estate known as Manderley.
The large household staff is supervised by Mrs. Danvers, who was deeply devoted to Max's first wife, Rebecca. His young wife soon learns that Rebecca was the victim of a sailing accident some ten months before, and her battered body was discovered forty miles up the coast and identified by her distraught husband.
The new Mrs. de Winter feels overwhelmed by the vast manor, and Mrs. Danvers does nothing to put her at ease, although she finds a friend in Frank Crawley, who oversees the estate. The young bride's discomfort with her new lifestyle isn't helped because Rebecca's memory has a strong hold on Manderley and all of its inhabitants and visitors. Lacking self-confidence, she commits one faux pas after another until she is convinced Max is still deeply in love with his seemingly perfect first wife and now regrets his impetuous decision to marry her. She is also curious about a cottage on the beach and about Ben, a dimwitted scavenger who constantly assures her he has said nothing and begs her not to commit him to the asylum, references the girl doesn't understand.
Max's sister Beatrice and brother-in-law Giles convince him to revive his custom of hosting an annual costume ball at the estate. Mrs. Danvers suggests Mrs. de Winter replicate a dress worn by a family ancestor in a portrait hanging in the gallery. The girl complies, unaware that Rebecca wore the same costume to much acclaim shortly before her death. When Max sees her descend the staircase just before their guests' arrival, he furiously demands she change into a different dress.
In the early morning hours after the ball, Mrs. Danvers openly displays her contempt for the second Mrs. de Winter by taking her on a tour of Rebecca's bedroom, which she has maintained as a shrine. Showing the young girl Rebecca's wardrobe and luxurious possessions, she tells her she will never be worthy of replacing her former mistress. She encourages her to commit suicide by jumping out the window to the stone patio far below. Her manipulations are interrupted by a distress signal from a ship that has run onto the reef just off the coast.
Divers hired to investigate damage to the ship's hull discover the remains of Rebecca's boat with a body in the locked cabin. When it is raised, the body is identified as that of Rebecca by her jewelry and dress, and it is discovered that holes had been drilled deliberately in the bottom of the boat, causing it to sink.
Max confesses to his bride he strangled Rebecca in the beach cottage when she taunted him with the news that she was pregnant and that the child wasn't his. He locked her body in the cabin of her boat, sailed it offshore, drove holes into its planks, and then escaped in the dinghy, and when a body washed ashore up the coast by chance, he intentionally misidentified it. He confesses he never loved Rebecca, revealing she was an evil woman who made a mockery of their marriage by consorting with numerous men of low character in a flat she kept in London and the cottage she maintained on the beach specifically for her many trysts. She intended to raise the child as his own and make his life a misery.
A subsequent inquest concludes with a verdict of suicide, but Rebecca's cousin Jack Favell is unconvinced. He has a note from Rebecca urging him to join her at the beach cottage on the night she died because she had something important to tell him. Jack reveals he was Rebecca's lover and suspects she was pregnant with his child, causing Max to kill her in a jealous rage. He attempts to blackmail Max, who refuses his demands.
A notation in Rebecca's appointment book leads them to a doctor she visited on the day she died. He reveals that Rebecca had cancer and had only months to live, thus supporting the verdict of suicide. Max realizes she intentionally misled him into believing she was expecting another man's child to spur him to kill her in a murderous rage.
Upon returning to Manderley, Max and his wife discover the estate is in flames, the fire set by a vengeful and despairing Mrs. Danvers, who it's fairly clear now was in love with Rebecca. Max races upstairs to rescue the insane woman from Rebecca's bedroom. Though he manages to make it to the bedroom and retrieve her, he stumbles on the way back down; Mrs. Danvers' fate is unclear.
In an epilogue set ten years later, Max walks with a limp and is scarred slightly due to his heroic action. For unrevealed reasons, they can never have children. Having lost Manderley and choosing not to rebuild it, Mr. and Mrs. de Winter now live a quiet life in a small hotel, seemingly free of Rebecca's hold.
Cast
Charles Dance as Maxim de Winter
Emilia Fox as Mrs. de Winter
Lucy Cohu as Rebecca de Winter
Diana Rigg as Mrs. Danvers
Geraldine James as Beatrice
Denis Lill as Giles
Tom Chadbon as Frank Crawley
Jonathan Cake as Jack Favell
John Branwell as Ben
Faye Dunaway as Mrs. Van Hopper
Production
In the 1940 film adaptation of the Du Maurier novel directed by Alfred Hitchcock, the character of Rebecca is never seen. In the drama, she is shown from behind, and there are frequent flashes of her eyes and mouth (courtesy of Lucy Cohu), although her full face is only shown from a distance.
The second Mrs. de Winter is played by Emilia Fox, the daughter of actress Joanna David, who played the same role in the 1979 BBC production of the story.
The serial was filmed on location in Charlestown in Cornwall, the Luton Hoo Estate in Bedfordshire, Montacute House, South Somerset, and Rotherfield Park in Hampshire. Beach scenes were filmed at Mothecombe Beach in Devon. Interiors were shot at Shepperton Studios.
Reception
Awards
Diana Rigg won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie.
References
^ IMDb.com, retrieved 14 May 2019
^ Film at Flete, retrieved 5 May 2019
External links
Rebecca at IMDb
Rebecca at the TCM Movie Database
Rebecca at AllMovie
vteDaphne du Maurier's Rebecca (1938)Character
Mrs. Danvers
Fictional home
Manderley
Related novels
The Key to Rebecca (1980)
Mrs de Winter (1993)
The Other Rebecca (1996)
Rebecca's Tale (2001)
MediaFilm
Rebecca (1940)
Kohra (1964)
Anamika (2008)
Rebecca (2020)
Television
Rebecca (1979)
The Key to Rebecca (1985)
Rebecca (1997)
Noorpur Ki Rani (2009)
Theatre
1940 play
1983 opera
2006 musical
Music
"Rebecca" (Steve Walsh)
"Rebecca" (Steve Hackett)
Mrs Danvers (band) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jim O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_O%27Brien_(director)"},{"link_name":"teleplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenplay"},{"link_name":"Arthur Hopcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hopcraft"},{"link_name":"1938 novel of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Daphne du Maurier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne_du_Maurier"},{"link_name":"Carlton Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlton_Television"},{"link_name":"WGBH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGBH-TV"},{"link_name":"Tele München","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tele_M%C3%BCnchen_Gruppe"},{"link_name":"Masterpiece Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masterpiece_Theatre"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"}],"text":"British TV series or programRebecca is a 1997 British-German television drama directed by Jim O'Brien. The teleplay by Arthur Hopcraft is based on the 1938 novel of the same name by Daphne du Maurier. The serial was filmed for Carlton Television by Portman Productions in association with WGBH and Tele München. It was broadcast in the United States as a presentation of Masterpiece Theatre on PBS.","title":"Rebecca (1997 TV series)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Monte Carlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo"},{"link_name":"Ugly American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugly_American_(pejorative)"},{"link_name":"influenza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"dinghy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinghy"},{"link_name":"blackmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackmail"},{"link_name":"epilogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilogue"}],"text":"While vacationing in Monte Carlo in 1927, Maxim de Winter meets the young and somewhat naive British companion of Mrs. Van Hopper, a typical Ugly American whose bout of influenza frees the girl to spend time with the wealthy widower. When Mrs. Van Hopper announces plans to return to New York City, Max proposes marriage to the girl and brings her to his Cornwall coast estate known as Manderley.The large household staff is supervised by Mrs. Danvers, who was deeply devoted to Max's first wife, Rebecca. His young wife soon learns that Rebecca was the victim of a sailing accident some ten months before, and her battered body was discovered forty miles up the coast and identified by her distraught husband.The new Mrs. de Winter feels overwhelmed by the vast manor, and Mrs. Danvers does nothing to put her at ease, although she finds a friend in Frank Crawley, who oversees the estate. The young bride's discomfort with her new lifestyle isn't helped because Rebecca's memory has a strong hold on Manderley and all of its inhabitants and visitors. Lacking self-confidence, she commits one faux pas after another until she is convinced Max is still deeply in love with his seemingly perfect first wife and now regrets his impetuous decision to marry her. She is also curious about a cottage on the beach and about Ben, a dimwitted scavenger who constantly assures her he has said nothing and begs her not to commit him to the asylum, references the girl doesn't understand.Max's sister Beatrice and brother-in-law Giles convince him to revive his custom of hosting an annual costume ball at the estate. Mrs. Danvers suggests Mrs. de Winter replicate a dress worn by a family ancestor in a portrait hanging in the gallery. The girl complies, unaware that Rebecca wore the same costume to much acclaim shortly before her death. When Max sees her descend the staircase just before their guests' arrival, he furiously demands she change into a different dress.In the early morning hours after the ball, Mrs. Danvers openly displays her contempt for the second Mrs. de Winter by taking her on a tour of Rebecca's bedroom, which she has maintained as a shrine. Showing the young girl Rebecca's wardrobe and luxurious possessions, she tells her she will never be worthy of replacing her former mistress. She encourages her to commit suicide by jumping out the window to the stone patio far below. Her manipulations are interrupted by a distress signal from a ship that has run onto the reef just off the coast.Divers hired to investigate damage to the ship's hull discover the remains of Rebecca's boat with a body in the locked cabin. When it is raised, the body is identified as that of Rebecca by her jewelry and dress, and it is discovered that holes had been drilled deliberately in the bottom of the boat, causing it to sink.Max confesses to his bride he strangled Rebecca in the beach cottage when she taunted him with the news that she was pregnant and that the child wasn't his. He locked her body in the cabin of her boat, sailed it offshore, drove holes into its planks, and then escaped in the dinghy, and when a body washed ashore up the coast by chance, he intentionally misidentified it. He confesses he never loved Rebecca, revealing she was an evil woman who made a mockery of their marriage by consorting with numerous men of low character in a flat she kept in London and the cottage she maintained on the beach specifically for her many trysts. She intended to raise the child as his own and make his life a misery.A subsequent inquest concludes with a verdict of suicide, but Rebecca's cousin Jack Favell is unconvinced. He has a note from Rebecca urging him to join her at the beach cottage on the night she died because she had something important to tell him. Jack reveals he was Rebecca's lover and suspects she was pregnant with his child, causing Max to kill her in a jealous rage. He attempts to blackmail Max, who refuses his demands.A notation in Rebecca's appointment book leads them to a doctor she visited on the day she died. He reveals that Rebecca had cancer and had only months to live, thus supporting the verdict of suicide. Max realizes she intentionally misled him into believing she was expecting another man's child to spur him to kill her in a murderous rage.Upon returning to Manderley, Max and his wife discover the estate is in flames, the fire set by a vengeful and despairing Mrs. Danvers, who it's fairly clear now was in love with Rebecca. Max races upstairs to rescue the insane woman from Rebecca's bedroom. Though he manages to make it to the bedroom and retrieve her, he stumbles on the way back down; Mrs. Danvers' fate is unclear.In an epilogue set ten years later, Max walks with a limp and is scarred slightly due to his heroic action. For unrevealed reasons, they can never have children. Having lost Manderley and choosing not to rebuild it, Mr. and Mrs. de Winter now live a quiet life in a small hotel, seemingly free of Rebecca's hold.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dance"},{"link_name":"Emilia Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia_Fox"},{"link_name":"Lucy Cohu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Cohu"},{"link_name":"Diana Rigg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Rigg"},{"link_name":"Geraldine James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine_James"},{"link_name":"Denis Lill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Lill"},{"link_name":"Tom Chadbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Chadbon"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Cake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Cake"},{"link_name":"Faye Dunaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faye_Dunaway"}],"text":"Charles Dance as Maxim de Winter\nEmilia Fox as Mrs. de Winter\nLucy Cohu as Rebecca de Winter\nDiana Rigg as Mrs. Danvers\nGeraldine James as Beatrice\nDenis Lill as Giles\nTom Chadbon as Frank Crawley\nJonathan Cake as Jack Favell\nJohn Branwell as Ben\nFaye Dunaway as Mrs. Van Hopper","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1940 film adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_(1940_film)"},{"link_name":"Alfred Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"Lucy Cohu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Cohu"},{"link_name":"Emilia Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia_Fox"},{"link_name":"Joanna David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_David"},{"link_name":"Charlestown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlestown,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Luton Hoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luton_Hoo"},{"link_name":"Bedfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedfordshire"},{"link_name":"Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Shepperton Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepperton_Studios"}],"text":"In the 1940 film adaptation of the Du Maurier novel directed by Alfred Hitchcock, the character of Rebecca is never seen. In the drama, she is shown from behind, and there are frequent flashes of her eyes and mouth (courtesy of Lucy Cohu), although her full face is only shown from a distance.The second Mrs. de Winter is played by Emilia Fox, the daughter of actress Joanna David, who played the same role in the 1979 BBC production of the story.The serial was filmed on location in Charlestown in Cornwall, the Luton Hoo Estate in Bedfordshire, Montacute House, South Somerset, and Rotherfield Park in Hampshire.[1] Beach scenes were filmed at Mothecombe Beach in Devon.[2] Interiors were shot at Shepperton Studios.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Supporting_Actress_-_Miniseries_or_a_Movie"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"Diana Rigg won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie.","title":"Reception"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119991/locations","external_links_name":"IMDb.com"},{"Link":"http://www.flete.co.uk/film-at-flete/","external_links_name":"Film at Flete"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119991/","external_links_name":"Rebecca"},{"Link":"https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/476436/enwp","external_links_name":"Rebecca"},{"Link":"https://www.allmovie.com/movie/v67004","external_links_name":"Rebecca"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katosi | Katosi | ["1 Location","2 Overview","3 Recent developments","4 Population","5 Points of interest","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | Coordinates: 00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139Place in Central Region, UgandaKatosiKatosiLocation in UgandaCoordinates: 00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139Country UgandaRegionCentral RegionDistrictMukono DistrictElevation3,717 ft (1,133 m)Population (2015 Estimate) • Total16,442
Katosi is a town in the Mukono District of the Central Region of Uganda. The town is an urban center under Mukono District Administration.
Location
Katosi is located approximately 29 kilometres (18 mi), by road, south-east of Mukono, the location of the district headquarters. This location is along the northern shore of Lake Victoria, approximately 52 kilometres (32 mi), by road, southeast of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda.
The geographical coordinates of Katosi are 0°09'10.0"N, 32°48'05.0"E (Latitude:0.152778; Longitude:32.801389). The town's average elevation is approximately 1,133 metres (3,717 ft) above sea level.
Overview
Traditionally, Katosi was a fishing village and a landing site for water craft transporting people and merchandise between Koome Island in Mukono District and the Buvuma Islands in neighboring Buvuma District and the mainland. During the last decade of the 20th century and in the first decade of the 21st century, Katosi became a major fishing center, with the majority of the catch exported to Europe and the Middle East. As the fishing village has increased in economic importance, the human population has increased as well.
Katosi has a high population of AIDS orphans and widows.
Recent developments
In 2011, the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), the government parastatal responsible for water supply and sanitation, announced plans to build a water treatment plant in Katosi, capable of supplying 120,000 cubic meters (120,000,000 L) of purified water daily. The new water plant will cost approximately US$306 million and will supply mainly the rapidly growing towns of Mukono and Kira Town.
Population
As of January 2015, the estimated population of Katosi was 16,442.
Points of interest
The following points of interest lie within or near Katosi:
Offices of Katosi Intercomunity Development Alliance (KIDA), an NGO
Offices of Katosi Town Council
Offices of Katosi Women Development Trust (KWDT), an NGO
Offices of Katosi Women Fishing & Development Association (KWFDA), another NGO
The site where National Water and Sewerage Corporation built the Katosi Water Treatment Plant.
Katosi Landing Site
Katosi Fish Market
Katosi Central Market
See also
Uganda National Roads Authority
References
^ Daily Monitor (19 October 2017). "Government considers scrapping new towns in Mukono". Daily Monitor. Kampala. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
^ Google (8 June 2021). "Road Distance Between Mukono Town And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
^ Google (8 June 2021). "Road Distance Between Kampala City Centre And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
^ Google (8 June 2021). "Location of Katosi Town, Mukono District, Central Region, Uganda" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
^ a b "Estimated Human Population of Katosi In 2015". GetAMap.net. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
^ "Fishing in Uganda". classicuganda.com. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
^ "Children and fishing, in Katosi community – Jai Jagat 2020". Retrieved 2020-05-26.
^ Mugalu, Moses (7 June 2012). "Feature: Religions United Against HIV In Katosi". The Observer (Uganda). Retrieved 23 January 2015.
^ "Uganda To Build US$306 Million Water Treatment Plant in Katosi". Water-technology.net. 18 April 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
^ Athumani, Halima (17 March 2011). "New Water Purification System For Kampala City". Uganda Radio Network. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
External links
Why You Should Be Interested In Mukono-Katosi Road Scandal
vte Mukono DistrictCapital: MukonoCounties andsub-counties
Mukono County
Nakifuma County
Towns and villages
Bukeerere
Mukono
Namilyango
Kalagi
Katosi
Kasawo
Kisoga
Kyetume
Mbalala
Nakifuma
Nagalama
Kabembe
Nagojje
Namagunga
Namataba
Seeta
Economy
Namanve Coca Cola Plant
East African Medical Vitals
Global Paper Limited
Kampala Cement Company Limited
Katosi Water Works
Tian Tang Group
Banking
Absa Bank Uganda Limited
Centenary Bank
DFCU Bank
Ecobank
Equity Bank Uganda Limited
Finance Trust Bank
Housing Finance Bank
Stanbic Bank Uganda Limited
United Bank for Africa
Opportunity Bank Uganda
Pride Microfinance Limited
FINCA Uganda Limited
Notable landmarks
Sezibwa River
Lake Victoria
Ssekabaka Kintu's Palace at Dindo
Transport
Kampala–Jinja Highway
Kampala–Jinja Expressway
Mukono–Kayunga–Njeru Road
Mukono–Kyetume–Katosi–Nyenga Road
Tondeka Metro Bus Service
Education
Uganda Christian University
Namilyango College
Mount Saint Mary's College Namagunga
Uganda Campus of Limkokwing University of Creative Technology
Energy
Namanve Thermal Power Station
Health
Mukono Health Centre IV
Naggalama Hospital
Notable people
Janat Mukwaya
David Kato
Ronald Kibuule
Betty Nambooze
Jennifer Musisi
Joseph Semwanga
Lydia Jazmine
Teacher Mpamire
00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mukono District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukono_District"},{"link_name":"Central Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Region,_Uganda"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda"},{"link_name":"urban center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_center"},{"link_name":"Mukono District Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukono_District"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Place in Central Region, UgandaKatosi is a town in the Mukono District of the Central Region of Uganda. The town is an urban center under Mukono District Administration.[1]","title":"Katosi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mukono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukono"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lake Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Kampala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampala"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Population-5"}],"text":"Katosi is located approximately 29 kilometres (18 mi), by road, south-east of Mukono, the location of the district headquarters.[2] This location is along the northern shore of Lake Victoria, approximately 52 kilometres (32 mi), by road, southeast of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda.[3]The geographical coordinates of Katosi are 0°09'10.0\"N, 32°48'05.0\"E (Latitude:0.152778; Longitude:32.801389).[4] The town's average elevation is approximately 1,133 metres (3,717 ft) above sea level.[5]","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Koome Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koome_Island"},{"link_name":"Mukono District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukono_District"},{"link_name":"Buvuma Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buvuma_District"},{"link_name":"Buvuma District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buvuma_District"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Traditionally, Katosi was a fishing village and a landing site for water craft transporting people and merchandise between Koome Island in Mukono District and the Buvuma Islands in neighboring Buvuma District and the mainland.[6][7] During the last decade of the 20th century and in the first decade of the 21st century, Katosi became a major fishing center, with the majority of the catch exported to Europe and the Middle East.[citation needed] As the fishing village has increased in economic importance, the human population has increased as well.Katosi has a high population of AIDS orphans and widows.[8]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Water and Sewerage Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Water_and_Sewerage_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Mukono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukono"},{"link_name":"Kira Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kira_Town"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"In 2011, the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), the government parastatal responsible for water supply and sanitation, announced plans to build a water treatment plant in Katosi, capable of supplying 120,000 cubic meters (120,000,000 L) of purified water daily. The new water plant will cost approximately US$306 million and will supply mainly the rapidly growing towns of Mukono and Kira Town.[9][10]","title":"Recent developments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katosi&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Population-5"}],"text":"As of January 2015[update], the estimated population of Katosi was 16,442.[5]","title":"Population"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.katosi-community.org"},{"link_name":"NGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGO"},{"link_name":"National Water and Sewerage Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Water_and_Sewerage_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Katosi Water Treatment Plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katosi_Water_Works"}],"text":"The following points of interest lie within or near Katosi:Offices of Katosi Intercomunity Development Alliance (KIDA), an NGO\nOffices of Katosi Town Council\nOffices of Katosi Women Development Trust (KWDT), an NGO\nOffices of Katosi Women Fishing & Development Association (KWFDA), another NGO\nThe site where National Water and Sewerage Corporation built the Katosi Water Treatment Plant.\nKatosi Landing Site\nKatosi Fish Market\nKatosi Central Market","title":"Points of interest"}] | [] | [{"title":"Uganda National Roads Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_National_Roads_Authority"}] | [{"reference":"Daily Monitor (19 October 2017). \"Government considers scrapping new towns in Mukono\". Daily Monitor. Kampala. Retrieved 8 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/government-considers-scrapping-new-towns-in-mukono-1722738","url_text":"\"Government considers scrapping new towns in Mukono\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Monitor","url_text":"Daily Monitor"}]},{"reference":"Google (8 June 2021). \"Road Distance Between Mukono Town And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. 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Retrieved 8 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google","url_text":"Google"},{"url":"https://www.google.com/maps/dir/Kampala/KATOSI+TRADING+CENTRE,+Mukono/@0.3281214,32.5556869,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dbc0f9d74b39b:0x4538903dd96b6fec!2m2!1d32.5825197!2d0.3475964!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dedd10d58ac79:0xc35edc3373bbf7!2m2!1d32.8006901!2d0.1521867!3e0","url_text":"\"Road Distance Between Kampala City Centre And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps","url_text":"Google Maps"}]},{"reference":"Google (8 June 2021). \"Location of Katosi Town, Mukono District, Central Region, Uganda\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 8 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google","url_text":"Google"},{"url":"https://www.google.com/maps/place/0%C2%B009'10.0%22N+32%C2%B048'05.0%22E/@0.1515594,32.8010494,1265m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x0!8m2!3d0.1527778!4d32.8013889","url_text":"\"Location of Katosi Town, Mukono District, Central Region, Uganda\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps","url_text":"Google Maps"}]},{"reference":"\"Estimated Human Population of Katosi In 2015\". GetAMap.net. Retrieved 23 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.getamap.net/maps/uganda/uganda_(general)/_katosi/","url_text":"\"Estimated Human Population of Katosi In 2015\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fishing in Uganda\". classicuganda.com. Retrieved 2020-05-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://classicuganda.com/destinations/uganda/fishing-in-uganda/","url_text":"\"Fishing in Uganda\""}]},{"reference":"\"Children and fishing, in Katosi community – Jai Jagat 2020\". Retrieved 2020-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://jaijagat2020.org/2018/03/children-and-fishing-in-katosi-community/","url_text":"\"Children and fishing, in Katosi community – Jai Jagat 2020\""}]},{"reference":"Mugalu, Moses (7 June 2012). \"Feature: Religions United Against HIV In Katosi\". The Observer (Uganda). Retrieved 23 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.observer.ug/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19148%3Afeature-religions-united-against-hiv-in-katosi&catid=57%3Afeature&Itemid=69","url_text":"\"Feature: Religions United Against HIV In Katosi\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer_(Uganda)","url_text":"The Observer (Uganda)"}]},{"reference":"\"Uganda To Build US$306 Million Water Treatment Plant in Katosi\". Water-technology.net. 18 April 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.water-technology.net/news/news116532.html","url_text":"\"Uganda To Build US$306 Million Water Treatment Plant in Katosi\""}]},{"reference":"Athumani, Halima (17 March 2011). \"New Water Purification System For Kampala City\". Uganda Radio Network. Retrieved 23 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=32244","url_text":"\"New Water Purification System For Kampala City\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Katosi¶ms=00_09_10_N_32_48_05_E_","external_links_name":"00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Katosi¶ms=00_09_10_N_32_48_05_E_region:UG_type:city(16442)","external_links_name":"00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katosi&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://www.katosi-community.org/","external_links_name":"NGO"},{"Link":"https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/news/national/government-considers-scrapping-new-towns-in-mukono-1722738","external_links_name":"\"Government considers scrapping new towns in Mukono\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/maps/dir/Mukono/KATOSI+TRADING+CENTRE,+Mukono/@0.1543169,32.778013,15.04z/data=!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dc7b71409b0a5:0xdddaf82b549ec570!2m2!1d32.7520139!2d0.3548655!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dedd10d58ac79:0xc35edc3373bbf7!2m2!1d32.8006901!2d0.1521867!3e0","external_links_name":"\"Road Distance Between Mukono Town And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/maps/dir/Kampala/KATOSI+TRADING+CENTRE,+Mukono/@0.3281214,32.5556869,11z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m14!4m13!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dbc0f9d74b39b:0x4538903dd96b6fec!2m2!1d32.5825197!2d0.3475964!1m5!1m1!1s0x177dedd10d58ac79:0xc35edc3373bbf7!2m2!1d32.8006901!2d0.1521867!3e0","external_links_name":"\"Road Distance Between Kampala City Centre And Katosi Trading Centre, Mukono District, Uganda\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/maps/place/0%C2%B009'10.0%22N+32%C2%B048'05.0%22E/@0.1515594,32.8010494,1265m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x0!8m2!3d0.1527778!4d32.8013889","external_links_name":"\"Location of Katosi Town, Mukono District, Central Region, Uganda\""},{"Link":"http://www.getamap.net/maps/uganda/uganda_(general)/_katosi/","external_links_name":"\"Estimated Human Population of Katosi In 2015\""},{"Link":"http://classicuganda.com/destinations/uganda/fishing-in-uganda/","external_links_name":"\"Fishing in Uganda\""},{"Link":"https://jaijagat2020.org/2018/03/children-and-fishing-in-katosi-community/","external_links_name":"\"Children and fishing, in Katosi community – Jai Jagat 2020\""},{"Link":"http://www.observer.ug/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19148%3Afeature-religions-united-against-hiv-in-katosi&catid=57%3Afeature&Itemid=69","external_links_name":"\"Feature: Religions United Against HIV In Katosi\""},{"Link":"http://www.water-technology.net/news/news116532.html","external_links_name":"\"Uganda To Build US$306 Million Water Treatment Plant in Katosi\""},{"Link":"http://ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=32244","external_links_name":"\"New Water Purification System For Kampala City\""},{"Link":"http://www.monitor.co.ug/artsculture/Reviews/why-you-should-be-interested--Mukono-Katosi-road-scandal/-/691232/2444640/-/12rvoqqz/-/index.html","external_links_name":"Why You Should Be Interested In Mukono-Katosi Road Scandal"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Katosi¶ms=00_09_10_N_32_48_05_E_","external_links_name":"00°09′10″N 32°48′05″E / 0.15278°N 32.80139°E / 0.15278; 32.80139"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooting_Bec_Cup | Tooting Bec Cup | ["1 History","2 Winners","3 Tournament winners","4 References"] | The Tooting Bec Cup is a trophy currently awarded by the Professional Golfers' Association of Great Britain and Ireland to the association member born in, or with a parent or parents born in, the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland who returns the lowest single-round score in The Open Championship.
Inaugurated in 1901 the Tooting Bec Challenge Cup was originally a separate competition. From 1910 it was awarded to the winner of a southern section qualifying competition for a major tournament and then since 1924 it has been awarded to the best round in The Open Championship by a British or Irish member of the PGA. It is the PGA's oldest trophy, predating the northern section's Leeds Cup which was first contested in 1902.
History
The Tooting Bec Challenge Cup was originally a 36-hole stroke play tournament organised by the London and Counties Professional Golfers' Association, the forerunner of the Professional Golfers' Association. The tournament was held on 15 October 1901 at the Tooting Bec Golf Club, Furzedown and the cup was donated by the Tooting Bec club. Of the 50 members who entered 46 played. J.H. Taylor won the event and was presented with the cup by the club captain, Norman Bailey. With the formation of the PGA in late 1901, the cup became an event organised by the southern section of the PGA.
Since 1924, it has not been a standalone tournament, and the trophy has been awarded to the PGA member from the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland who records the lowest single-round score in the Open. The precise qualification rule has varied. Henry Cotton did not receive it in 1934, despite his rounds of 65 and 67, because at the time the award went "to the member of P.G.A. living in Great Britain who accomplishes the best single round during the championship" and Cotton was then living in Belgium.
Winners
Year
Player(s)
Score
2021
Shane Lowry
65
2020
Not awarded
2019
Danny Willett
65
2018
2017
Paul Casey
66
Ross Fisher
2016
Rory McIlroy
67
2015
Pádraig Harrington
65
2014
Rory McIlroy
66
2013
Ian Poulter
67
2012
Paul Lawrie
65
2011
Darren Clarke
68
Graeme McDowell
2010
Andrew Coltart
66
2009
Luke Donald
67
2008
David Howell
67
2007
Pádraig Harrington
67
Paul McGinley
2006
Greg Owen
67
2005
Colin Montgomerie
66
2004
Lee Westwood
67
2003
Nick Faldo
67
2002
Colin Montgomerie
64
2001
Colin Montgomerie
65
Des Smyth
2000
Darren Clarke
68
Pádraig Harrington
Dean Robertson
1999
Paul Lawrie
67
1998
Andrew Coltart
68
Philip Walton
1997
Stephen Ames
66
Darren Clarke
David Tapping
1996
Paul Broadhurst
65
Paul McGinley
1995
Nick Faldo
67
1994
Nick Faldo
64
1993
Nick Faldo
63
1992
Nick Faldo
64
1991
Roger Chapman
66
Eamonn Darcy
1990
Paul Broadhurst
63
1989
Wayne Stephens
66
1988
Sandy Lyle
67
1987
Ross Drummond
66
1986
Gordon J. Brand
68
1985
Christy O'Connor Jnr
64
1984
Sam Torrance
66
1983
Denis Durnian
66
1982
Sandy Lyle
66
1981
Gordon J. Brand
65
1980
Ken Brown
68
Eamonn Darcy
Bill McColl
1979
Bill Longmuir
65
1978
Gary Cullen
67
1977
Tommy Horton
65
1976
Mark James
66
1975
Maurice Bembridge
67
Neil Coles
Bernard Gallacher
David Huish
1974
John Garner
69
John Morgan
Peter Townsend
1973
Neil Coles
66
1972
Harry Bannerman
67
Guy Hunt
Tony Jacklin
1971
Peter Oosterhuis
66
1970
Neil Coles
65
1969
Christy O'Connor Snr
65
1968
Brian Barnes
70
Gordon Cunningham
1967
Hugh Boyle
68
Lionel Platts
1966
Peter Butler
65
1965
Brian Huggett
68
1964
Malcolm Gregson
67
Bernard Hunt
1963
Tom Haliburton
68
Christy O'Connor Snr
1962
Syd Scott
68
1961
Christy O'Connor Snr
67
1960
Bernard Hunt
66
1959
Peter Alliss
67
1958
Eric Brown
65
1957
Laurie Ayton, Jnr
67
Eric Brown
John Fallon
1956
Dennis Smalldon
68
1955
John Fallon
67
1954
Jack Hargreaves
67
Syd Scott
1953
Dai Rees
70
Eric Lester
1952
Fred Daly
67
1951
Jimmy Adams
68
Charlie Ward
1950
Fred Daly
66
1949
Jimmy Adams
67
Ken Bousfield
1948
Henry Cotton
66
1947
Laurie Ayton, Jnr
69
Henry Cotton
1939
Dick Burton
70
Jack Busson
Max Faulkner
1938
Dick Burton
69
Jack Busson
1937
Reg Whitcombe
70
1936
Bill Branch
68
1935
Alf Perry
67
1934
Bill Davies
68
1933
Abe Mitchell
68
1932
Arthur Havers
68
1931
Held in abeyance
1930
Archie Compston
68
1929
Percy Alliss
69
1928
Held in abeyance
1927
Fred Robson
69
1926
Held in abeyance
1925
Ted Ray
73
1924
Ernest Whitcombe
70
Tournament winners
This table gives details of the tournament winners from 1901 to 1923. From 1910 the cup was awarded to the winner of a qualifying competition for a major tournament.
Year
Winner
Country
Venue
Score
Marginof victory
Runner(s)-up
Winner'sshare (£)
Ref
1901
J.H. Taylor
England
Tooting Bec Golf Club
149
3 strokes
James Hepburn Rowland Jones
1902
James Braid
Scotland
Romford Golf Club
148
6 strokes
Ralph Smith
1903
James Braid
Scotland
Hanger Hill Golf Club
148
3 strokes
Harry Vardon Jack White
1904
James Braid
Scotland
West Middlesex Golf Club
147
Playoff(18 holes)
John McLaren
1905
Alfred Toogood
England
Northwood Golf Club
150
1 stroke
J.H. Taylor
1906
William Lonie
Scotland
Ashford Manor Golf Club
152
4 strokes
Wilfrid Reid
1907
James Braid
Scotland
South Herts Golf Club
151
3 strokes
J.H. Taylor
1908
Rowland Jones
England
Neasden Golf Club
153
Playoff(18 holes)
Ernest Gray
1909
James Sherlock
England
Maidenhead Golf Club
149
4 strokes
James Braid
1910
James Sherlock
England
Stoke Poges Golf Club
148
4 strokes
Tom Ball Ernest Gaudin Charles Mayo Tom Vardon
1911
Harry Vardon
Jersey
Banstead Downs Golf Club
154
Playoff(18 holes)
Wilfrid Reid
1912
Phil Gaudin
Jersey
Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club
147
Playoff(18 holes)
James Braid
1913
Ted Ray
Jersey
Old Fold Manor Golf Club
145
Playoff(18 holes)
James Batley
1914–19: No tournament
1920
Ted Ray
Jersey
Worplesdon Golf Club
149
1 stroke
Abe Mitchell
10
1921
Arnaud Massy
France
Cooden Beach Golf Club
147
1 stroke
Fred Robson Ted Ray
25
1922: No tournament
1923
George Duncan
Scotland
Purley Downs Golf Club
142
2 strokes
Ted Ray
In 1904 the PGA experimented with handicaps and John McLaren, a new professional, was one of six professionals to receive strokes. Vardon won the playoff, played the same evening, scoring 76 to McLaren's 81−3=78. The 1908 playoff was also played in the evening after the tournament.
The 1910 event was planned for 11 May at Banstead Downs but was cancelled because of the death of Edward VII. The cup was awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the News of the World Match Play.
In 1911 it was to be awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the Sphere and Tatler Foursomes Tournament. Vardon and Reid tied in the qualifying event and had a playoff two days later to determine the winner of the cup. Vardon won with a score of 76 to Reid's 78.
Because of congestion during the 1911 qualifying, the 1912 southern section qualifying competition for the Sphere and Tatler tournament was played on two courses. Half played at West Herts Golf Club and half at Purley Downs Golf Club. Phil Gaudin and James Braid led their respective events, both scoring 147, and a playoff between them would determine the winner of the cup. The playoff did not take place for nearly a year, being played on 31 March 1913 at Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club. Gaudin scored 76 to Braid's 81.
The same system was used in 1913. Half played at Fulwell Golf Club and half at Denham Golf Club. At Fulwell, Rowland Jones and Ted Ray tied on 145 while at Denham, James Batley and Harry Vardon led on 152. A playoff between the four players would determine the winner of the cup. As in 1912, the playoff did not take place for nearly a year, being played on 14 April 1914 at Thorpe Hall Golf Club. 18 holes were played and resulted in another tie. Batley and Ray scoring 74, with Jones on 77 and Vardon on 78. There was then a further playoff on 20 April 1914 at Old Fold Manor Golf Club. Again 18 holes were played, Ray winning with a score of 74 to Batley's 76.
In 1920, 1921 and 1923 the trophy was awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the Daily Mail Tournament.
References
^ "Tooting Bec Cup". PGA. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2009.
^ "Tooting Bec Cup". PGA European Tour. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
^ "The Open's prized silverware". PGA. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ "Another PGA medal haul for Rory". PGA. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
^ a b "London and Counties Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 16 October 1901. p. 9.
^ "Awards for Cotton and Davies". The Times. 2 August 1934. p. 4.
^ "Lowry doubles up in The Open by winning two PGA awards". The PGA. 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ "Danny Willett of England is presented with the Tooting Bec Cup". Getty Images. 17 September 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ The PGA (23 May 2018). "Historic honour". Twitter. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ The PGA (23 May 2018). "Medal winner". Twitter. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ "Professional competition at Romford". The Times. 18 September 1902. p. 10.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 13 May 1903. p. 9.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 5 May 1904. p. 12.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association's tournament". The Times. 4 May 1905. p. 12.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 26 April 1906. p. 11.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 16 May 1907. p. 12.
^ "Professional Golfers' Association". The Times. 14 May 1908. p. 19.
^ "Tooting Bec Cup competition". The Times. 13 May 1909. p. 18.
^ "The £240 competition – Southern section". The Times. 21 July 1910. p. 18.
^ "Southern professional tournament". The Times. 4 May 1911. p. 15.
^ "The Tooting Bec cup". The Times. 6 May 1911. p. 15.
^ "Professional foursomes tournament – Qualifying competitions". The Times. 25 April 1912. p. 13.
^ "The Tooting Bec cup". The Times. 1 April 1913. p. 16.
^ "Professional golfers association – Southern qualifying competition". The Glasgow Herald. 8 May 1913. p. 14.
^ "Professionals at Thorpe Hall". The Glasgow Herald. 15 April 1914. p. 15.
^ "Ray wins the "Tooting Bec" cup". The Glasgow Herald. 21 April 1914. p. 14.
^ "Worplesdon tournament – Ray's great round". The Glasgow Herald. 16 April 1920. p. 13.
^ "The £600 tournament – Southern section qualifying play". The Glasgow Herald. 22 April 1921. p. 4.
^ "Great round by Duncan". The Times. 20 April 1923. p. 6.
^ "Club Makers, Professionals and Course Designers: Alexander and John McLaren". North Berwick. Retrieved 11 June 2015. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Open Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Championship"},{"link_name":"Leeds Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_Cup"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Inaugurated in 1901 the Tooting Bec Challenge Cup was originally a separate competition. From 1910 it was awarded to the winner of a southern section qualifying competition for a major tournament and then since 1924 it has been awarded to the best round in The Open Championship by a British or Irish member of the PGA. 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Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.H._Taylor"},{"link_name":"Norman Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Bailey_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times16oct1901-5"},{"link_name":"Henry Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Cotton_(golfer)"},{"link_name":"1934","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934_Open_Championship"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Tooting Bec Challenge Cup was originally a 36-hole stroke play tournament organised by the London and Counties Professional Golfers' Association, the forerunner of the Professional Golfers' Association. The tournament was held on 15 October 1901 at the Tooting Bec Golf Club, Furzedown and the cup was donated by the Tooting Bec club. Of the 50 members who entered 46 played. J.H. Taylor won the event and was presented with the cup by the club captain, Norman Bailey.[5] With the formation of the PGA in late 1901, the cup became an event organised by the southern section of the PGA.Since 1924, it has not been a standalone tournament, and the trophy has been awarded to the PGA member from the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland who records the lowest single-round score in the Open. The precise qualification rule has varied. Henry Cotton did not receive it in 1934, despite his rounds of 65 and 67, because at the time the award went \"to the member of P.G.A. living in Great Britain who accomplishes the best single round during the championship\" and Cotton was then living in Belgium.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John McLaren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_McLaren_(golfer)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Edward VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VII"},{"link_name":"News of the World Match Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_of_the_World_Match_Play"},{"link_name":"Sphere and Tatler Foursomes Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_and_Tatler_Foursomes_Tournament"},{"link_name":"West Herts Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Herts_Golf_Club&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Purley Downs Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Purley_Downs_Golf_Club&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Mid-Surrey_Golf_Club"},{"link_name":"Fulwell Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulwell_Golf_Club"},{"link_name":"Rowland Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Jones_(golfer)"},{"link_name":"Harry Vardon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Vardon"},{"link_name":"Thorpe Hall Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thorpe_Hall_Golf_Club&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Old Fold Manor Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Fold_Manor_Golf_Club&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Daily Mail Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mail_Tournament"}],"text":"This table gives details of the tournament winners from 1901 to 1923. From 1910 the cup was awarded to the winner of a qualifying competition for a major tournament.In 1904 the PGA experimented with handicaps and John McLaren, a new professional, was one of six professionals to receive strokes. Vardon won the playoff, played the same evening, scoring 76 to McLaren's 81−3=78.[30] The 1908 playoff was also played in the evening after the tournament.The 1910 event was planned for 11 May at Banstead Downs but was cancelled because of the death of Edward VII. The cup was awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the News of the World Match Play.In 1911 it was to be awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the Sphere and Tatler Foursomes Tournament. Vardon and Reid tied in the qualifying event and had a playoff two days later to determine the winner of the cup. Vardon won with a score of 76 to Reid's 78.Because of congestion during the 1911 qualifying, the 1912 southern section qualifying competition for the Sphere and Tatler tournament was played on two courses. Half played at West Herts Golf Club and half at Purley Downs Golf Club. Phil Gaudin and James Braid led their respective events, both scoring 147, and a playoff between them would determine the winner of the cup. The playoff did not take place for nearly a year, being played on 31 March 1913 at Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club. Gaudin scored 76 to Braid's 81.The same system was used in 1913. Half played at Fulwell Golf Club and half at Denham Golf Club. At Fulwell, Rowland Jones and Ted Ray tied on 145 while at Denham, James Batley and Harry Vardon led on 152. A playoff between the four players would determine the winner of the cup. As in 1912, the playoff did not take place for nearly a year, being played on 14 April 1914 at Thorpe Hall Golf Club. 18 holes were played and resulted in another tie. Batley and Ray scoring 74, with Jones on 77 and Vardon on 78. There was then a further playoff on 20 April 1914 at Old Fold Manor Golf Club. Again 18 holes were played, Ray winning with a score of 74 to Batley's 76.In 1920, 1921 and 1923 the trophy was awarded to the winner of the southern section qualifying competition for the Daily Mail Tournament.","title":"Tournament winners"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Tooting Bec Cup\". PGA. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufen_District | Laufen District | ["1 Geography","2 Municipalities","3 Demographics","4 Politics","5 Religion","6 Education","7 References"] | Coordinates: 47°25′N 7°30′E / 47.417°N 7.500°E / 47.417; 7.500"Laufental" redirects here. For the village in Bavaria, see Laufenthal.
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District in SwitzerlandLaufen District
Bezirk LaufenDistrictCountry SwitzerlandCanton Basel-LandschaftCapitalLaufenArea • Total89.55 km2 (34.58 sq mi)Population (2021) • Total20,524 • Density230/km2 (590/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Municipalities13
Laufen District or Laufental District (French: District de Laufon) is one of the five districts of the largely German-speaking canton of Basel-Country, Switzerland. Its capital is the town of Laufen.
Prior to 1994, it was a district of the canton of Bern, one of the seven historical districts of the Bernese Jura. In 1979, three neighbouring French-speaking districts of Bern seceded to form the new canton of Jura. Laufen was left as an exclave of Bern, wedged between Jura, Solothurn, Basel-Country, and France. In 1989, the populace voted to secede from Bern and join Basel-Country. After a transitional period of preparation, this was effected in 1994.
It had a population of 20,524 (as of 30 June 2021).
Geography
Laufen district has an area, as of 2009, of 89.56 square kilometers (34.58 sq mi). Of this area, 32.47 km2 (12.54 sq mi) or 36.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 46.75 km2 (18.05 sq mi) or 52.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 9.43 km2 (3.64 sq mi) or 10.5% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.62 km2 (0.24 sq mi) or 0.7% is either rivers or lakes and 0.25 km2 (0.097 sq mi) or 0.3% is unproductive land.
Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 1.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 4.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.2%. Out of the forested land, 49.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 17.1% is used for growing crops and 14.9% is pastures, while 1.6% is used for orchards or vine crops and 2.6% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.
Municipalities
Laufen contains a total of thirteen municipalities:
Municipality
Population(30 June 2021)
Area, km²
Blauen
705
7.13
Brislach
1,722
9.39
Burg im Leimental
281
2.83
Dittingen
738
6.75
Duggingen
1,550
5.86
Grellingen
1,896
3.31
Laufen
5,814
11.37
Liesberg
1,111
12.49
Nenzlingen
457
3.66
Roggenburg
271
6.65
Röschenz
1,887
10.07
Wahlen
1,529
5.42
Zwingen
2,563
4.62
Total
20,524
89.55
Demographics
Laufen district has a population (as of June 2021) of 20,524. As of 2008, 14.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals.
Most of the population (as of 2000) speaks German (15,363 or 89.4%), with Italian language being second most common (513 or 3.0%) and Albanian being third (261 or 1.5%). There are 235 people who speak French and 10 people who speak Romansh.
As of 2008, the gender distribution of the population was 50.4% male and 49.6% female. The population was made up of 15,891 Swiss citizens (83.9% of the population), and 3,044 non-Swiss residents (16.1%) Of the population in the municipality 5,928 or about 34.5% were born in the Laufen district and lived there in 2000. There were 3,214 or 18.7% who were born in the same canton, while 4,923 or 28.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 2,544 or 14.8% were born outside of Switzerland.
In 2008 there were 142 live births to Swiss citizens and 27 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 127 deaths of Swiss citizens and 6 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 15 while the foreign population increased by 21. There were 15 Swiss men and 10 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 58 non-Swiss men and 48 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 67 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 77 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.8%.
The age distribution, as of 2010, in the Laufen district is; 1,227 children or 6.5% of the population are between 0 and 6 years old and 2,882 teenagers or 15.2% are between 7 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,196 people or 11.6% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,457 people or 13.0% are between 30 and 39, 3,467 people or 18.3% are between 40 and 49, and 3,838 people or 20.3% are between 50 and 64. The senior population distribution is 2,147 people or 11.3% of the population are between 65 and 79 years old and there are 721 people or 3.8% who are over 80.
As of 2000, there were 7,062 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 8,472 married individuals, 912 widows or widowers and 736 individuals who are divorced.
There were 1,932 households that consist of only one person and 497 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 7,107 households that answered this question, 27.2% were households made up of just one person and 74 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 2,161 married couples without children, 2,343 married couples with children There were 370 single parents with a child or children. There were 115 households that were made up unrelated people and 112 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.
As of 2000 the average price to rent a two-room apartment was about 829.00 CHF (US$660, £370, €530), a three-room apartment was about 1007.00 CHF (US$810, £450, €640) and a four-room apartment cost an average of 1267.00 CHF (US$1010, £570, €810).
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 29.42% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (22.66%), the FDP (20.09%) and the SP (15.9%). In the federal election, a total of 6,170 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.2%.
Religion
From the 2000 census, 10,857 or 63.2% were Roman Catholic, while 2,629 or 15.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 140 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.81% of the population), there were 138 individuals (or about 0.80% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 308 individuals (or about 1.79% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 10 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 660 (or about 3.84% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 32 individuals who were Buddhist, 94 individuals who were Hindu and 16 individuals who belonged to another church. 1,769 (or about 10.30% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 529 individuals (or about 3.08% of the population) did not answer the question.
Education
In the Laufen district about 6,544 or (38.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 1,705 or (9.9%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule). Of the 1,705 who completed tertiary schooling, 66.5% were Swiss men, 22.6% were Swiss women, 7.0% were non-Swiss men and 3.9% were non-Swiss women.
References
^ a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office-Land Use Statistics 2009 data (in German) accessed 25 March 2010
^ a b Canton of Basel-Land Statistics, Wohnbevölkerung nach Nationalität und Konfession per 30. Juni 2021 (in German) accessed 22 September 2021
^ a b Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Superweb database - Gemeinde Statistics 1981-2008 Archived 2010-06-28 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 19 June 2010
^ a b c d e f STAT-TAB Datenwürfel für Thema 40.3 - 2000 Archived 2013-08-09 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 2 February 2011
^ a b Canton of Basel-Land Statistics, Wohnbevölkerung nach Nationalität und Konfession per 30. September 2010 (in German) accessed 16 February 2011
^ Canton of Basel-Land Statistics Archived 2010-11-07 at the Wayback Machine, Mieter- und Genossenschafterwohnungen1 nach Zimmerzahl und Mietpreis 2000 (in German) accessed 20 February 2011
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Bevölkerungsentwicklung nach Region, 1850-2000 Archived 2014-09-30 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 29 January 2011
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Nationalratswahlen 2007: Stärke der Parteien und Wahlbeteiligung, nach Gemeinden/Bezirk/Canton Archived 2015-05-14 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 28 May 2010
vte Districts of the Canton of Basel-Landschaft
Arlesheim
Laufen
Liestal
Sissach
Waldenburg
Districts of Switzerland
Municipalities of the canton of Basel-Landschaft
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
47°25′N 7°30′E / 47.417°N 7.500°E / 47.417; 7.500 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Laufenthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufenthal"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"canton of Basel-Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Laufen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufen,_Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"canton of Bern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Bern"},{"link_name":"Bernese Jura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernese_Jura"},{"link_name":"French-speaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romandie"},{"link_name":"canton of Jura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Jura"},{"link_name":"exclave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclave"},{"link_name":"Solothurn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Solothurn"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"}],"text":"\"Laufental\" redirects here. For the village in Bavaria, see Laufenthal.District in SwitzerlandLaufen District or Laufental District (French: District de Laufon) is one of the five districts of the largely German-speaking canton of Basel-Country, Switzerland. Its capital is the town of Laufen.Prior to 1994, it was a district of the canton of Bern, one of the seven historical districts of the Bernese Jura. In 1979, three neighbouring French-speaking districts of Bern seceded to form the new canton of Jura. Laufen was left as an exclave of Bern, wedged between Jura, Solothurn, Basel-Country, and France. In 1989, the populace voted to secede from Bern and join Basel-Country. After a transitional period of preparation, this was effected in 1994.It had a population of 20,524 (as of 30 June 2021).","title":"Laufen District"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BFS_land-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BFS_land-1"}],"text":"Laufen district has an area, as of 2009[update], of 89.56 square kilometers (34.58 sq mi). Of this area, 32.47 km2 (12.54 sq mi) or 36.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 46.75 km2 (18.05 sq mi) or 52.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 9.43 km2 (3.64 sq mi) or 10.5% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.62 km2 (0.24 sq mi) or 0.7% is either rivers or lakes and 0.25 km2 (0.097 sq mi) or 0.3% is unproductive land.[1]Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 1.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 4.9% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.2%. Out of the forested land, 49.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.4% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 17.1% is used for growing crops and 14.9% is pastures, while 1.6% is used for orchards or vine crops and 2.6% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.[1]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"municipalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BL_Stat_2021-2"},{"link_name":"Blauen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blauen,_Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"Brislach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brislach"},{"link_name":"Burg im Leimental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burg_im_Leimental"},{"link_name":"Dittingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dittingen"},{"link_name":"Duggingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duggingen"},{"link_name":"Grellingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grellingen"},{"link_name":"Laufen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufen,_Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"Liesberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liesberg"},{"link_name":"Nenzlingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenzlingen"},{"link_name":"Roggenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roggenburg,_Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"Röschenz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6schenz"},{"link_name":"Wahlen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahlen"},{"link_name":"Zwingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwingen"}],"text":"Laufen contains a total of thirteen municipalities:Municipality\n\nPopulation(30 June 2021)[2]\n\nArea, km²\n\n\nBlauen\n705\n\n7.13\n\n\nBrislach\n1,722\n\n9.39\n\n\nBurg im Leimental\n281\n\n2.83\n\n\nDittingen\n738\n\n6.75\n\n\nDuggingen\n1,550\n\n5.86\n\n\nGrellingen\n1,896\n\n3.31\n\n\nLaufen\n5,814\n\n11.37\n\n\nLiesberg\n1,111\n\n12.49\n\n\nNenzlingen\n457\n\n3.66\n\n\nRoggenburg\n271\n\n6.65\n\n\nRöschenz\n1,887\n\n10.07\n\n\nWahlen\n1,529\n\n5.42\n\n\nZwingen\n2,563\n\n4.62\n\n\nTotal\n20,524\n\n89.55","title":"Municipalities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BL_Stat_2021-2"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_superweb-3"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Italian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Romansh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romansh_language"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BL_Stat_Age-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"population growth rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_growth#Population_growth_rate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_superweb-3"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BL_Stat_Age-5"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rent-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Laufen district has a population (as of June 2021[update]) of 20,524.[2] As of 2008[update], 14.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals.[3]Most of the population (as of 2000[update]) speaks German (15,363 or 89.4%), with Italian language being second most common (513 or 3.0%) and Albanian being third (261 or 1.5%). There are 235 people who speak French and 10 people who speak Romansh.[4]As of 2008[update], the gender distribution of the population was 50.4% male and 49.6% female. The population was made up of 15,891 Swiss citizens (83.9% of the population), and 3,044 non-Swiss residents (16.1%)[5] Of the population in the municipality 5,928 or about 34.5% were born in the Laufen district and lived there in 2000. There were 3,214 or 18.7% who were born in the same canton, while 4,923 or 28.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 2,544 or 14.8% were born outside of Switzerland.[4]In 2008[update] there were 142 live births to Swiss citizens and 27 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 127 deaths of Swiss citizens and 6 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 15 while the foreign population increased by 21. There were 15 Swiss men and 10 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 58 non-Swiss men and 48 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 67 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 77 people. This represents a population growth rate of 0.8%.[3]The age distribution, as of 2010[update], in the Laufen district is; 1,227 children or 6.5% of the population are between 0 and 6 years old and 2,882 teenagers or 15.2% are between 7 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,196 people or 11.6% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,457 people or 13.0% are between 30 and 39, 3,467 people or 18.3% are between 40 and 49, and 3,838 people or 20.3% are between 50 and 64. The senior population distribution is 2,147 people or 11.3% of the population are between 65 and 79 years old and there are 721 people or 3.8% who are over 80.[5]As of 2000[update], there were 7,062 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 8,472 married individuals, 912 widows or widowers and 736 individuals who are divorced.[4]There were 1,932 households that consist of only one person and 497 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 7,107 households that answered this question, 27.2% were households made up of just one person and 74 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 2,161 married couples without children, 2,343 married couples with children There were 370 single parents with a child or children. There were 115 households that were made up unrelated people and 112 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.[4]As of 2000[update] the average price to rent a two-room apartment was about 829.00 CHF (US$660, £370, €530), a three-room apartment was about 1007.00 CHF (US$810, £450, €640) and a four-room apartment cost an average of 1267.00 CHF (US$1010, £570, €810).[6]The historical population is given in the following chart:[7]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2007 federal election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Swiss_federal_election"},{"link_name":"SVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"CVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"FDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDP.The_Liberals"},{"link_name":"SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"voter turnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voter_turnout"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 29.42% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (22.66%), the FDP (20.09%) and the SP (15.9%). In the federal election, a total of 6,170 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.2%.[8]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"Swiss Reformed Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Reformed_Church"},{"link_name":"members of an Orthodox church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy#Christianity"},{"link_name":"Christian Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Catholic_Church_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Islamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"agnostic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism"},{"link_name":"atheist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"}],"text":"From the 2000 census[update], 10,857 or 63.2% were Roman Catholic, while 2,629 or 15.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 140 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.81% of the population), there were 138 individuals (or about 0.80% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 308 individuals (or about 1.79% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 10 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 660 (or about 3.84% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 32 individuals who were Buddhist, 94 individuals who were Hindu and 16 individuals who belonged to another church. 1,769 (or about 10.30% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 529 individuals (or about 3.08% of the population) did not answer the question.[4]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"upper secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland#Secondary"},{"link_name":"University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Fachhochschule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fachhochschule"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-4"}],"text":"In the Laufen district about 6,544 or (38.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 1,705 or (9.9%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule). Of the 1,705 who completed tertiary schooling, 66.5% were Swiss men, 22.6% were Swiss women, 7.0% were non-Swiss men and 3.9% were non-Swiss women.[4]","title":"Education"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Laufen_District¶ms=47_25_N_7_30_E_source:eowiki_region:CH","external_links_name":"47°25′N 7°30′E / 47.417°N 7.500°E / 47.417; 7.500"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Fde.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBezirk_Laufen&sl=de&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en","external_links_name":"View"},{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laufen_District&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/02/03/blank/data/gemeindedaten.html","external_links_name":"Swiss Federal Statistical Office-Land Use Statistics"},{"Link":"https://www.statistik.bl.ch/web_portal/1_1","external_links_name":"Canton of Basel-Land Statistics"},{"Link":"http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/infothek/onlinedb/superweb/login.html","external_links_name":"Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Superweb database - Gemeinde Statistics 1981-2008"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100628151016/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/infothek/onlinedb/superweb/login.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.3%20-%202000/40.3%20-%202000.asp?lang=1&prod=40&secprod=3&openChild=true","external_links_name":"STAT-TAB Datenwürfel für Thema 40.3 - 2000"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130809142611/http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.3%20-%202000/40.3%20-%202000.asp?lang=1&prod=40&secprod=3&openChild=true","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.statistik.bl.ch/stabl_data/stabl_bv/index.php?titel_id=5&thema_id=2&unterthema_id=58","external_links_name":"Canton of Basel-Land Statistics"},{"Link":"http://www.statistik.bl.ch/stabl_data/stabl_generator/titel.php?thema_id=6&unterthema_id=14&titel_id=81&modular=0","external_links_name":"Canton of Basel-Land Statistics"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101107024216/http://www.statistik.bl.ch/stabl_data/stabl_generator/titel.php?thema_id=6&unterthema_id=14&titel_id=81&modular=0","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.4%20-%201850-2000/40.4%20-%201850-2000.asp?lang=1&prod=40&secprod=4&openChild=true","external_links_name":"Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Bevölkerungsentwicklung nach Region, 1850-2000"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140930162751/http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.4%20-%201850-2000/40.4%20-%201850-2000.asp?lang=1&prod=40&secprod=4&openChild=true","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/data/04/03.html","external_links_name":"Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Nationalratswahlen 2007: Stärke der Parteien und Wahlbeteiligung, nach Gemeinden/Bezirk/Canton"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150514211354/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/data/04/03.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/154183671","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008482","external_links_name":"Historical Dictionary of Switzerland"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Laufen_District¶ms=47_25_N_7_30_E_source:eowiki_region:CH","external_links_name":"47°25′N 7°30′E / 47.417°N 7.500°E / 47.417; 7.500"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manassas_Park_station | Manassas Park station | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Coordinates: 38°45′56″N 77°26′26″W / 38.76556°N 77.44056°W / 38.76556; -77.44056Rail station in Manassas Park, Virginia
Manassas ParkManassas Park station in August 2018.General informationLocation9300 Manassas DriveManassas, VirginiaUnited StatesCoordinates38°45′56″N 77°26′26″W / 38.76556°N 77.44056°W / 38.76556; -77.44056Line(s)NS Washington DistrictPlatforms1 side platformTracks2Connections OmniRide: 67, ConnectConstructionParking600 spacesBicycle facilitiesBicycle racksAccessibleYesOther informationFare zone6HistoryOpened1992Services
Preceding station
Virginia Railway Express
Following station
Manassastoward Broad Run
Manassas Line
Burke Centretoward Washington, D.C.
Location
Manassas Park station is a Virginia Railway Express station in Manassas Park, Virginia. The station serves the Virginia Railway Express Manassas Line, and shares the right-of-way with Amtrak's Cardinal and Crescent trains; however, no Amtrak trains stop here.
References
^ "Manassas-Manassas Park". Omniride. Potomac and Rapphanock Transportation Commission. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
^ "OmniRide Connect Microtransit Service". Omniride. Potomac and Rappahanock Transportation Commission. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
^ Fehr, Stephen; Sanchez, Carlos (18 June 1992). "Getting On Track". Washington Post. ProQuest 408134230. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
External links
Official website
Station from Manassas Drive from Google Maps Street View
vte Virginia Railway ExpressManassas
Broad Run
Manassas
Manassas Park
Clifton (special events only)
Burke Centre
Rolling Road
Backlick Road
Alexandria
Crystal City
L'Enfant Plaza
Washington, D.C.
Fredericksburg
Spotsylvania
Fredericksburg
Leeland Road
Brooke
Quantico
Potomac Shores
Rippon
Woodbridge
Lorton
Franconia–Springfield
Alexandria
Crystal City
L'Enfant
Washington, D.C.
Administered by the Northern Virginia Transportation Commission & Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission and operated by Keolis • Italics indicate future station
This Virginia train station-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Virginia Railway Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Railway_Express"},{"link_name":"Manassas Park, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manassas_Park,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Virginia Railway Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Railway_Express"},{"link_name":"Manassas Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manassas_Line"},{"link_name":"Amtrak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amtrak"},{"link_name":"Cardinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_(train)"},{"link_name":"Crescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crescent_(train)"}],"text":"Rail station in Manassas Park, VirginiaManassas Park station is a Virginia Railway Express station in Manassas Park, Virginia. The station serves the Virginia Railway Express Manassas Line, and shares the right-of-way with Amtrak's Cardinal and Crescent trains; however, no Amtrak trains stop here.","title":"Manassas Park station"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Manassas-Manassas Park\". Omniride. Potomac and Rapphanock Transportation Commission. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://omniride.com/service/schedules/manassas-manassas-park/","url_text":"\"Manassas-Manassas Park\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230315032544/https://omniride.com/service/schedules/manassas-manassas-park/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"OmniRide Connect Microtransit Service\". Omniride. Potomac and Rappahanock Transportation Commission. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://omniride.com/service/connect/","url_text":"\"OmniRide Connect Microtransit Service\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230315032614/https://omniride.com/service/connect/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fehr, Stephen; Sanchez, Carlos (18 June 1992). \"Getting On Track\". Washington Post. ProQuest 408134230. Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/06/18/getting-on-track/17395a0f-8401-4481-840d-980c3ddc4b41/","url_text":"\"Getting On Track\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/408134230","url_text":"408134230"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170805021307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/06/18/getting-on-track/17395a0f-8401-4481-840d-980c3ddc4b41/","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Manassas_Park_station¶ms=38_45_56_N_77_26_26_W_type:railwaystation_region:US-VA","external_links_name":"38°45′56″N 77°26′26″W / 38.76556°N 77.44056°W / 38.76556; -77.44056"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Manassas_Park_station¶ms=38_45_56_N_77_26_26_W_type:railwaystation_region:US-VA","external_links_name":"38°45′56″N 77°26′26″W / 38.76556°N 77.44056°W / 38.76556; -77.44056"},{"Link":"https://omniride.com/service/schedules/manassas-manassas-park/","external_links_name":"\"Manassas-Manassas Park\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230315032544/https://omniride.com/service/schedules/manassas-manassas-park/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://omniride.com/service/connect/","external_links_name":"\"OmniRide Connect Microtransit Service\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230315032614/https://omniride.com/service/connect/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/06/18/getting-on-track/17395a0f-8401-4481-840d-980c3ddc4b41/","external_links_name":"\"Getting On Track\""},{"Link":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/408134230","external_links_name":"408134230"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170805021307/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/06/18/getting-on-track/17395a0f-8401-4481-840d-980c3ddc4b41/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.vre.org/service/stations/manassas-park/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ie=UTF8&ll=38.764458,-77.442311&spn=0.004191,0.013443&z=17&layer=c&cbll=38.764458,-77.442311&panoid=lfnn_YLdEro-bpv06gNI2g&cbp=12,38.11,,0,4.21","external_links_name":"Station from Manassas Drive from Google Maps Street View"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manassas_Park_station&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_core | Morality | ["1 History","2 Ethics","3 Descriptive and normative","4 Realism and anti-realism","5 Anthropology","5.1 Morality with practical reasoning","5.2 Tribal and territorial","5.3 In-group and out-group","5.4 Comparing cultures","6 Evolution","7 Psychology","7.1 Moral cognition","8 Neuroscience","8.1 Brain areas","9 Genetics","10 Politics","11 Religion","11.1 Positions","11.2 Empirical analyses","12 See also","13 Notes","14 References","15 Further reading","16 External links"] | Differentiation between right and wrong
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Morality (novella), Morality (The Armando Iannucci Shows), Morals (film), and The Immoralist. Not to be confused with Morale.
Allegory with a portrait of a Venetian senator (Allegory of the morality of earthly things), attributed to Tintoretto, 1585
Morality (from Latin moralitas 'manner, character, proper behavior') is the categorization of intentions, decisions and actions into those that are proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that is understood to be universal. Morality may also be specifically synonymous with "goodness", "appropriateness" or "rightness".
Moral philosophy includes meta-ethics, which studies abstract issues such as moral ontology and moral epistemology, and normative ethics, which studies more concrete systems of moral decision-making such as deontological ethics and consequentialism. An example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states: "One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself."
Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any particular set of moral standards and/or principles.
History
See also: Evolution of morality and History of ethics
Ethics
See also: Sittlichkeit, Confucius, Laozi, and Tao Te Ching
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality. The word "ethics" is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual." Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics, sometimes distinguish between ethics and morality.
Immanuel Kant introduced the categorical imperative: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law."
Philosopher Simon Blackburn writes that "Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Immanuel Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations."
Descriptive and normative
In its descriptive sense, "morality" refers to personal or cultural values, codes of conduct or social mores from a society that provides these codes of conduct in which it applies and is accepted by an individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong. Descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.
In its normative sense, "morality" refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures. Normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.
Realism and anti-realism
Philosophical theories on the nature and origins of morality (that is, theories of meta-ethics) are broadly divided into two classes:
Moral realism is the class of theories which hold that there are true moral statements that report objective moral facts. For example, while they might concede that forces of social conformity significantly shape individuals' "moral" decisions, they deny that those cultural norms and customs define morally right behavior. This may be the philosophical view propounded by ethical naturalists, but not all moral realists accept that position (e.g. ethical non-naturalists).
Moral anti-realism, on the other hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Instead, they hold that moral sentences are either categorically false claims of objective moral facts (error theory); claims about subjective attitudes rather than objective facts (ethical subjectivism); or else do not attempt to describe the world at all but rather something else, like an expression of an emotion or the issuance of a command (non-cognitivism).
Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism. For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives, and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being, respectively.
Anthropology
Morality with practical reasoning
Practical reason is necessary for the moral agency but it is not a sufficient condition for moral agency. Real life issues that need solutions do need both rationality and emotion to be sufficiently moral. One uses rationality as a pathway to the ultimate decision, but the environment and emotions towards the environment at the moment must be a factor for the result to be truly moral, as morality is subject to culture. Something can only be morally acceptable if the culture as a whole has accepted this to be true. Both practical reason and relevant emotional factors are acknowledged as significant in determining the morality of a decision.
Tribal and territorial
Celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality. She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive: it defines a person's territory, including his or her property and dependents, which is not to be damaged or interfered with. Apart from these proscriptions, territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual. These norms will be arbitrary, culturally dependent and 'flexible', whereas territorial morality aims at rules which are universal and absolute, such as Kant's 'categorical imperative' and Geisler's graded absolutism. Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status.
In-group and out-group
Main article: In-group and out-group
Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of moral rules to people depending on their membership of an "in-group" (the individual and those they believe to be of the same group) or an "out-group" (people not entitled to be treated according to the same rules). Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival. This belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution. In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards the out-group. Gary R. Johnson and V.S. Falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives, but far less so by liberals.
In-group preference is also helpful at the individual level for the passing on of one's genes. For example, a mother who favors her own children more highly than the children of other people will give greater resources to her children than she will to strangers', thus heightening her children's chances of survival and her own gene's chances of being perpetuated. Due to this, within a population, there is substantial selection pressure exerted toward this kind of self-interest, such that eventually, all parents wind up favoring their own children (the in-group) over other children (the out-group).
Comparing cultures
Peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined. The major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge; courage; humanity; justice; temperance; and transcendence. Each of these include several divisions. For instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence.
Still, others theorize that morality is not always absolute, contending that moral issues often differ along cultural lines. A 2014 PEW research study among several nations illuminates significant cultural differences among issues commonly related to morality, including divorce, extramarital affairs, homosexuality, gambling, abortion, alcohol use, contraceptive use, and premarital sex. Each of the 40 countries in this study has a range of percentages according to what percentage of each country believes the common moral issues are acceptable, unacceptable, or not moral issues at all. Each percentage regarding the significance of the moral issue varies greatly on the culture in which the moral issue is presented.
Advocates of a theory known as moral relativism subscribe to the notion that moral virtues are right or wrong only within the context of a certain standpoint (e.g., cultural community). In other words, what is morally acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another. They further contend that no moral virtue can objectively be proven right or wrong Critics of moral relativism point to historical atrocities such as infanticide, slavery, or genocide as counter arguments, noting the difficulty in accepting these actions simply through cultural lenses.
Fons Trompenaars, author of Did the Pedestrian Die?, tested members of different cultures with various moral dilemmas. One of these was whether the driver of a car would have his friend, a passenger riding in the car, lie in order to protect the driver from the consequences of driving too fast and hitting a pedestrian. Trompenaars found that different cultures had quite different expectations, from none to definite.
Anthropologists from Oxford's Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology (part of the School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography) analysed ethnographic accounts of ethics from 60 societies, comprising over 600,000 words from over 600 sources and discovered what they believe to be seven universal moral rules: help your family, help your group, return favours, be brave, defer to superiors, divide resources fairly, and respect others' property.
Evolution
See also: Altruism § Evolutionary explanations, Evolution of morality, and Evolutionary ethics
The development of modern morality is a process closely tied to sociocultural evolution. Some evolutionary biologists, particularly sociobiologists, believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through group selection (although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory). Some sociobiologists contend that the set of behaviors that constitute morality evolved largely because they provided possible survival or reproductive benefits (i.e. increased evolutionary success). Humans consequently evolved "pro-social" emotions, such as feelings of empathy or guilt, in response to these moral behaviors.
On this understanding, moralities are sets of self-perpetuating and biologically driven behaviors which encourage human cooperation. Biologists contend that all social animals, from ants to elephants, have modified their behaviors, by restraining immediate selfishness in order to improve their evolutionary fitness. Human morality, although sophisticated and complex relative to the moralities of other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group's cohesion and thereby reducing the individuals' fitness.
On this view, moral codes are ultimately founded on emotional instincts and intuitions that were selected for in the past because they aided survival and reproduction (inclusive fitness). Examples: the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the Westermarck effect, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding.
The phenomenon of reciprocity in nature is seen by evolutionary biologists as one way to begin to understand human morality. Its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources, especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably. For example, some vampire bats fail to feed on prey some nights while others manage to consume a surplus. Bats that did eat will then regurgitate part of their blood meal to save a conspecific from starvation. Since these animals live in close-knit groups over many years, an individual can count on other group members to return the favor on nights when it goes hungry (Wilkinson, 1984)
Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups (e.g., wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees). They define morality as "a suite of interrelated other-regarding behaviors that cultivate and regulate complex interactions within social groups." This suite of behaviors includes empathy, reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, and a sense of fairness. In related work, it has been convincingly demonstrated that chimpanzees show empathy for each other in a wide variety of contexts. They also possess the ability to engage in deception, and a level of social politics prototypical of our own tendencies for gossip and reputation management.
Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons. Other theories are that increasing complexity was simply a correlate of increasing group size and brain size, and in particular the development of theory of mind abilities.
Psychology
Main article: Moral psychology
See also: Kohlberg's stages of moral development and Jean Piaget § Education and development of morality
Kohlberg's model of moral development
In modern moral psychology, morality is sometimes considered to change through personal development. Several psychologists have produced theories on the development of morals, usually going through stages of different morals. Lawrence Kohlberg, Jean Piaget, and Elliot Turiel have cognitive-developmental approaches to moral development; to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains. In the Ethics of care approach established by Carol Gilligan, moral development occurs in the context of caring, mutually responsive relationships which are based on interdependence, particularly in parenting but also in social relationships generally. Social psychologists such as Martin Hoffman and Jonathan Haidt emphasize social and emotional development based on biology, such as empathy. Moral identity theorists, such as William Damon and Mordechai Nisan, see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self-identity that is defined by moral purposes: this moral self-identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes. Of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud, who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super-ego as guilt-shame avoidance. Theories of moral development therefore tend to regard it as positive moral development: the higher stages are morally higher, though this, naturally, involves a circular argument. The higher stages are better because they are higher, but the better higher because they are better.
As an alternative to viewing morality as an individual trait, some sociologists as well as social- and discursive psychologists have taken upon themselves to study the in-vivo aspects of morality by examining how persons conduct themselves in social interaction.
A new study analyses the common perception of a decline in morality in societies worldwide and throughout history. Adam M. Mastroianni and Daniel T. Gilbert present a series of studies indicating that the perception of moral decline is an illusion and easily produced, with implications for misallocation of resources, underuse of social support, and social influence. To begin with, the authors demonstrate that people in no less than 60 nations hold the belief that morality is deteriorating continuously, and this conviction has been present for the last 70 years. Subsequently, they indicate that people ascribe this decay to the declining morality of individuals as they age and the succeeding generations. Thirdly, the authors demonstrate that people's evaluations of the morality of their peers have not decreased over time, indicating that the belief in moral decline is an illusion. Lastly, the authors explain a basic psychological mechanism that uses two well-established phenomena (distorted exposure to information and distorted memory of information) to cause the illusion of moral decline. The authors present studies that validate some of the predictions about the circumstances in which the perception of moral decline is attenuated, eliminated, or reversed (e.g., when participants are asked about the morality of people closest to them or people who lived before they were born).
Moral cognition
Moral cognition refers to cognitive processes implicated in moral judgment and decision making, and moral action. It consists of several domain-general cognitive processes, ranging from perception of a morally salient stimulus to reasoning when faced with a moral dilemma. While it is important to mention that there is not a single cognitive faculty dedicated exclusively to moral cognition, characterizing the contributions of domain-general processes to moral behavior is a critical scientific endeavor to understand how morality works and how it can be improved.
Cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists investigate the inputs to these cognitive processes and their interactions, as well as how these contribute to moral behavior by running controlled experiments. In these experiments putatively moral versus nonmoral stimuli are compared to each other, while controlling for other variables such as content or working memory load. Often, the differential neural response to specifically moral statements or scenes, are examined using functional neuroimaging experiments.
Critically, the specific cognitive processes that are involved depend on the prototypical situation that a person encounters. For instance, while situations that require an active decision on a moral dilemma may require active reasoning, an immediate reaction to a shocking moral violation may involve quick, affect-laden processes. Nonetheless, certain cognitive skills such as being able to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions to oneself, and others is a common feature of a broad range of prototypical situations. In line with this, a meta-analysis found overlapping activity between moral emotion and moral reasoning tasks, suggesting a shared neural network for both tasks. The results of this meta-analysis, however, also demonstrated that the processing of moral input is affected by task demands.
Regarding the issues of morality in video games, some scholars believe that because players appear in video games as actors, they maintain a distance between their sense of self and the role of the game in terms of imagination. Therefore, the decision-making and moral behavior of players in the game are not representing player's Moral dogma.
It has been recently found that moral judgment consists in concurrent evaluations of three different components that align with precepts from three dominant moral theories (virtue ethics, deontology, and consequentialism): the character of a person (Agent-component, A); their actions (Deed-component, D); and the consequences brought about in the situation (Consequences-component, C). This, implies that various inputs of the situation a person encounters affect moral cognition.
Jonathan Haidt distinguishes between two types of moral cognition: moral intuition and moral reasoning. Moral intuition involves the fast, automatic, and affective processes that result in an evaluative feeling of good-bad or like-dislike, without awareness of going through any steps. Conversely, moral reasoning does involve conscious mental activity to reach a moral judgment. Moral reasoning is controlled and less affective than moral intuition. When making moral judgments, humans perform moral reasoning to support their initial intuitive feeling. However, there are three ways humans can override their immediate intuitive response. The first way is conscious verbal reasoning (for example, examining costs and benefits). The second way is reframing a situation to see a new perspective or consequence, which triggers a different intuition. Finally, one can talk to other people which illuminates new arguments. In fact, interacting with other people is the cause of most moral change.
Neuroscience
See also: Science of morality and Neuromorality
The brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by multiple quantitative large-scale meta-analyses of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature. The neural network underlying moral decisions overlaps with the network pertaining to representing others' intentions (i.e., theory of mind) and the network pertaining to representing others' (vicariously experienced) emotional states (i.e., empathy). This supports the notion that moral reasoning is related to both seeing things from other persons' points of view and to grasping others' feelings. These results provide evidence that the neural network underlying moral decisions is probably domain-global (i.e., there might be no such things as a "moral module" in the human brain) and might be dissociable into cognitive and affective sub-systems.
Cognitive neuroscientist Jean Decety thinks that the ability to recognize and vicariously experience what another individual is undergoing was a key step forward in the evolution of social behavior, and ultimately, morality. The inability to feel empathy is one of the defining characteristics of psychopathy, and this would appear to lend support to Decety's view. Recently, drawing on empirical research in evolutionary theory, developmental psychology, social neuroscience, and psychopathy, Jean Decety argued that empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary.
Brain areas
An essential, shared component of moral judgment involves the capacity to detect morally salient content within a given social context. Recent research implicated the salience network in this initial detection of moral content. The salience network responds to behaviorally salient events and may be critical to modulate downstream default and frontal control network interactions in the service of complex moral reasoning and decision-making processes.
The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC), a region involved in valuation, while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area, a region that plays a key role in understanding intentions and beliefs.
Stimulation of the VMPC by transcranial magnetic stimulation, or neurological lesion, has been shown to inhibit the ability of human subjects to take into account intent when forming a moral judgment. According to such investigations, TMS did not disrupt participants' ability to make any moral judgment. On the contrary, moral judgments of intentional harms and non-harms were unaffected by TMS to either the RTPJ or the control site; presumably, however, people typically make moral judgments of intentional harms by considering not only the action's harmful outcome but the agent's intentions and beliefs. So why were moral judgments of intentional harms not affected by TMS to the RTPJ? One possibility is that moral judgments typically reflect a weighted function of any morally relevant information that is available at the time. Based on this view, when information concerning the agent's belief is unavailable or degraded, the resulting moral judgment simply reflects a higher weighting of other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). Alternatively, following TMS to the RTPJ, moral judgments might be made via an abnormal processing route that does not take belief into account. On either account, when belief information is degraded or unavailable, moral judgments are shifted toward other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). For intentional harms and non-harms, however, the outcome suggests the same moral judgment as to the intention. Thus, the researchers suggest that TMS to the RTPJ disrupted the processing of negative beliefs for both intentional harms and attempted harms, but the current design allowed the investigators to detect this effect only in the case of attempted harms, in which the neutral outcomes did not afford harsh moral judgments on their own.
Similarly, individuals with a lesion of the VMPC judge an action purely on its outcome and are unable to take into account the intent of that action.
Genetics
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Moral intuitions may have genetic bases. A 2022 study conducted by scholars Michael Zakharin and Timothy C. Bates, and published by the European Journal of Personality, found that moral foundations have significant genetic bases. Another study, conducted by Smith and Hatemi, similarly found significant evidence in support of moral heritability by looking at and comparing the answers of moral dilemmas between twins.
Genetics play a role in influencing prosocial behaviors and moral decision-making. Genetics contribute to the development and expression of certain traits and behaviors, including those related to morality. However, it is important to note that while genetics play a role in shaping certain aspects of moral behavior, morality itself is a multifaceted concept that encompasses cultural, societal, and personal influences as well.
Politics
If morality is the answer to the question 'how ought we to live' at the individual level, politics can be seen as addressing the same question at the social level, though the political sphere raises additional problems and challenges. It is therefore unsurprising that evidence has been found of a relationship between attitudes in morality and politics. Moral foundations theory, authored by Jonathan Haidt and colleagues, has been used to study the differences between liberals and conservatives, in this regard. Haidt found that Americans who identified as liberals tended to value care and fairness higher than loyalty, respect and purity. Self-identified conservative Americans valued care and fairness less and the remaining three values more. Both groups gave care the highest over-all weighting, but conservatives valued fairness the lowest, whereas liberals valued purity the lowest. Haidt also hypothesizes that the origin of this division in the United States can be traced to geo-historical factors, with conservatism strongest in closely knit, ethnically homogeneous communities, in contrast to port-cities, where the cultural mix is greater, thus requiring more liberalism.
Group morality develops from shared concepts and beliefs and is often codified to regulate behavior within a culture or community. Various defined actions come to be called moral or immoral. Individuals who choose moral action are popularly held to possess "moral fiber", whereas those who indulge in immoral behavior may be labeled as socially degenerate. The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of Cistercian reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the Dowager Empress in the subjugation of China to European interests). Within nationalist movements, there has been some tendency to feel that a nation will not survive or prosper without acknowledging one common morality, regardless of its content.
Political morality is also relevant to the behavior internationally of national governments, and to the support they receive from their host population. The Sentience Institute, co-founded by Jacy Reese Anthis, analyzes the trajectory of moral progress in society via the framework of an expanding moral circle. Noam Chomsky states that
... if we adopt the principle of universality: if an action is right (or wrong) for others, it is right (or wrong) for us. Those who do not rise to the minimal moral level of applying to themselves the standards they apply to others—more stringent ones, in fact—plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response; or of right and wrong, good and evil.
In fact, one of them, maybe the most, elementary of moral principles is that of universality, that is, If something's right for me, it's right for you; if it's wrong for you, it's wrong for me. Any moral code that is even worth looking at has that at its core somehow.
Religion
Main articles: Ethics in religion and Morality and religion
See also: Divine command theory, Divine law, Religious law, Secular ethics, and Secular morality
Religion and morality are not synonymous. Morality does not depend upon religion although for some this is "an almost automatic assumption". According to The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, religion and morality "are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other. Conceptually and in principle, morality and a religious value system are two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides."
Positions
Within the wide range of moral traditions, religious value-systems co-exist with contemporary secular frameworks such as consequentialism, freethought, humanism, utilitarianism, and others. There are many types of religious value-systems. Modern monotheistic religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and to a certain degree others such as Sikhism and Zoroastrianism, define right and wrong by the laws and rules as set forth by their respective scriptures and as interpreted by religious leaders within each respective faith. Other religions spanning pantheistic to nontheistic tend to be less absolute. For example, within Buddhism, the intention of the individual and the circumstances should be accounted for in the form of merit, to determine if an action is termed right or wrong. Barbara Stoler Miller points out a further disparity between the values of religious traditions, stating that in Hinduism, "practically, right and wrong are decided according to the categories of social rank, kinship, and stages of life. For modern Westerners, who have been raised on ideals of universality and egalitarianism, this relativity of values and obligations is the aspect of Hinduism most difficult to understand".
Religions provide different ways of dealing with moral dilemmas. For example, Hinduism lacks any absolute prohibition on killing, recognizing that it "may be inevitable and indeed necessary" in certain circumstances. Monotheistic traditions view certain acts - such as abortion or divorce - in more absolute terms. Religion is not always positively associated with morality. Philosopher David Hume stated that "the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a superstitious piety and devotion; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals, from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere."
Religious value-systems can be used to justify acts that are contrary to general contemporary morality, such as massacres, misogyny and slavery. For example, Simon Blackburn states that "apologists for Hinduism defend or explain away its involvement with the caste system, and apologists for Islam defend or explain away its harsh penal code or its attitude to women and infidels". In regard to Christianity, he states that the "Bible can be read as giving us a carte blanche for harsh attitudes to children, the mentally handicapped, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with various sexual habits, and elderly women", and notes morally-suspect themes in the Bible's New Testament as well. Elizabeth Anderson likewise holds that "the Bible contains both good and evil teachings", and it is "morally inconsistent". Christian apologists address Blackburn's viewpoints and construe that Jewish laws in the Hebrew Bible showed the evolution of moral standards towards protecting the vulnerable, imposing a death penalty on those pursuing slavery and treating slaves as persons and not as property. Humanists like Paul Kurtz believe that we can identify moral values across cultures, even if we do not appeal to a supernatural or universalist understanding of principles – values including integrity, trustworthiness, benevolence, and fairness. These values can be resources for finding common ground between believers and nonbelievers.
Empirical analyses
Several studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries, and the overall relationship between faith and crime is unclear. A 2001 review of studies on this topic found "The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently, no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime." Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, based on studies conducted during 14 months in Scandinavia in 2005–2006, notes that Denmark and Sweden, "which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world", enjoy "among the lowest violent crime rates in the world the lowest levels of corruption in the world".
Dozens of studies have been conducted on this topic since the twentieth century. A 2005 study by Gregory S. Paul published in the Journal of Religion and Society stated that, "In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies," and "In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and "theistic" Portugal. In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study. he concludes that a "complex relationship" exists between religiosity and homicide "with some dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it". In April 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects' pro-social sentiments were published in the Social Psychological and Personality Science journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more motivated by their own compassion to perform pro-social behaviors. Religious people were found to be less motivated by compassion to be charitable than by an inner sense of moral obligation.
See also
Ethics
Integrity
Applied ethics
Appeal to tradition
Buddhist ethics
Christian ethics
Emotional intelligence
Ethical dilemma
Good and evil
Ideology
Index of ethics articles
Islamic ethics
Jewish ethics
Moral agency
Moral character
Moral conviction
Moral intelligence
Moral outsourcing
Moral panic
Moral skepticism
Outline of ethics
Value theory
Worldview
Notes
a.^ Studies on divorce in the United States done by the Barna Group suggested that atheists and agnostics have lower divorce rates than faith groups on average (though some faith groups had lower rates still). The study notes that fewer atheists and agnostics enter into marriage relative to faith-based individuals.
b.^ Some studies appear to show positive links in the relationship between religiosity and moral behavior Modern research in criminology also suggests an inverse relationship between religion and crime, with some studies establishing this connection. A meta-analysis of 60 studies on religion and crime concluded, "religious behaviors and beliefs exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior".
c.^ Zuckerman identifies that Scandinavians have "relatively high rates of petty crime and burglary", but "their overall rates of violent crime—such as murder, aggravated assault, and rape—are among the lowest on earth" (Zuckerman 2008, pp. 5–6).
d.^ The authors also state that "A few hundred years ago rates of homicide were astronomical in Christian Europe and the American colonies," and "the least theistic secular developing democracies such as Japan, France, and Scandinavia have been most successful in these regards." They argue for a positive correlation between the degree of public religiosity in a society and certain measures of dysfunction, an analysis published later in the same journal argues that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions in the research.
e.^ Blackburn provides examples such as the phrase in Exodus 22:18 that has "helped to burn alive tens or hundreds of thousands of women in Europe and America": "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live," and notes that the Old Testament God apparently has "no problems with a slave-owning society", considers birth control a crime punishable by death, and "is keen on child abuse". Others interpret these passages differently, arguing for example that Jewish laws show the evolution of moral standards in society: that Jews actually threatened those who pursued forced slavery with the death penalty, held that slaves were persons instead of property, and protected them in several ways.
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^ e.g. a survey Archived 2007-10-08 at the Wayback Machine by Robert Putnam showing that membership of religious groups was positively correlated with membership of voluntary organisations
^ As is stated in: Chu, Doris C. (2007). "Religiosity and Desistance From Drug Use". Criminal Justice and Behavior. 34 (5): 661–79. doi:10.1177/0093854806293485. S2CID 145491534.
^
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Powell, K. (1997). "Correlates of violent and nonviolent behavior among vulnerable inner-city youths". Family and Community Health. 20 (2): 38–47. doi:10.1097/00003727-199707000-00006.
^ Paul, Gregory S. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society. 7. Baltimore, MD: 4–5, 8. Archived from the original on 2011-12-14.
^ Paul, Gregory S. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society. 7. Baltimore, MD: 11. Archived from the original on 2011-12-14.
^ Paul, Gregory S. (2005). "Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look". Journal of Religion and Society. 7. Baltimore, MD. Archived from the original on 2011-12-14.
^ Gerson Moreno-Riaño; Mark Caleb Smith; Thomas Mach (2006). "Religiosity, Secularism, and Social Health". Journal of Religion and Society. 8. Cedarville University. Archived from the original on 2011-10-28.
^ Blackburn, Simon (2001). Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-280442-6.
^ Westacott, Emrys. "Moral Relativism". iep.utm.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
Further reading
Churchland, Patricia Smith (2011). Braintrust : What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13703-2. (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
Richard Dawkins, "The roots of morality: why are we good?", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-552-77429-1).
Harris, Sam (2010). The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4391-7121-9.
Lunn, Arnold, and Garth Lean (1964). The New Morality. London: Blandford Press.
John Newton, Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. ISBN 0967370574.
Prinz, Jesse (Jan–Feb 2013). "Morality is a Culturally Conditioned Response". Philosophy Now.
Slater S.J., Thomas (1925). "Book I: Morality" . A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries. Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.
Stace, Walter Terence (1937). The Concept of Morals. New York: The MacMillan Company; Reprinted 1975 by permission of Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., and also reprinted by Peter Smith Publisher Inc, January 1990. ISBN 978-0-8446-2990-2.
Trompenaars, Fons (2003). Did the Pedestrian Die?: Insights from the World's Greatest Culture Guru. Oxford: Capstone. ISBN 978-1-84112-436-0.
Yandell, Keith E. (1973). God, man, and religion: readings in the philosophy of religion. McGraw-Hill. containing articles by Paterson Brown:
"Religious Morality", (from Mind, 1963).
"Religious Morality: a Reply to Flew and Campbell", (from Mind, 1964).
"God and the Good", (from Religious Studies, 1967).
Ashley Welch, "Virtuous behaviors sanction later sins: people are quick to treat themselves after a good deed or healthy act" March 4, 2012.
Roberto Andorno, "Do our moral judgements need to be guided by principles?" Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 2012, 21(4), 457–65.
External links
Look up morality in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Morality.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Morality.
The Definition of Morality, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Boston College's Morality Lab
Morality and Judaism, chabad.org
"The Moral Instinct" by Steven Pinker, The New York Times, 13 January 2008
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Nicomachean Ethics (c. 322 BC)
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A Treatise of Human Nature (1740)
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An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1780)
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
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On the Genealogy of Morality (1887)
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The Culture of Narcissism (1979)
A Conflict of Visions (1987)
The Closing of the American Mind (1987)
Gender Trouble (1990)
The Malaise of Modernity (1991)
Intellectuals and Society (2010)
See also
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Morality (novella)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality_(novella)"},{"link_name":"Morality (The Armando Iannucci Shows)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality_(The_Armando_Iannucci_Shows)"},{"link_name":"Morals (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morals_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Immoralist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Immoralist"},{"link_name":"Morale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morale"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tintoretto_Allegory.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tintoretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"moralitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/moralitas#Latin"},{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_character"},{"link_name":"intentions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention"},{"link_name":"actions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_actions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"code of conduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_conduct"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"synonymous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym"},{"link_name":"goodness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good"},{"link_name":"Moral philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_philosophy"},{"link_name":"meta-ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-ethics"},{"link_name":"ontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"normative ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics"},{"link_name":"deontological ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics"},{"link_name":"consequentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism"},{"link_name":"ethical philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"link_name":"Golden Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Rule"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flew-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Immorality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immorality"},{"link_name":"good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good"},{"link_name":"amorality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorality"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Morality (novella), Morality (The Armando Iannucci Shows), Morals (film), and The Immoralist. Not to be confused with Morale.Allegory with a portrait of a Venetian senator (Allegory of the morality of earthly things), attributed to Tintoretto, 1585Morality (from Latin moralitas 'manner, character, proper behavior') is the categorization of intentions, decisions and actions into those that are proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong).[1] Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that is understood to be universal.[2] Morality may also be specifically synonymous with \"goodness\", \"appropriateness\" or \"rightness\".Moral philosophy includes meta-ethics, which studies abstract issues such as moral ontology and moral epistemology, and normative ethics, which studies more concrete systems of moral decision-making such as deontological ethics and consequentialism. An example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states: \"One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself.\"[3][4]Immorality is the active opposition to morality (i.e. opposition to that which is good or right), while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any particular set of moral standards and/or principles.[5][6][7]","title":"Morality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Evolution of morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_morality"},{"link_name":"History of ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ethics"}],"text":"See also: Evolution of morality and History of ethics","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sittlichkeit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sittlichkeit"},{"link_name":"Confucius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius"},{"link_name":"Laozi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi"},{"link_name":"Tao Te Ching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching"},{"link_name":"Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"deontological ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontological_ethics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"categorical imperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_imperative"},{"link_name":"Simon Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)"},{"link_name":"Aristotelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelianism"},{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"See also: Sittlichkeit, Confucius, Laozi, and Tao Te ChingEthics (also known as moral philosophy) is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality. The word \"ethics\" is \"commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual.\"[8] Likewise, certain types of ethical theories, especially deontological ethics, sometimes distinguish between ethics and morality.Immanuel Kant introduced the categorical imperative: \"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.\"Philosopher Simon Blackburn writes that \"Although the morality of people and their ethics amounts to the same thing, there is a usage that restricts morality to systems such as that of Immanuel Kant, based on notions such as duty, obligation, and principles of conduct, reserving ethics for the more Aristotelian approach to practical reasoning, based on the notion of a virtue, and generally avoiding the separation of 'moral' considerations from other practical considerations.\"[9]","title":"Ethics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personal or cultural values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)"},{"link_name":"codes of conduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_of_conduct"},{"link_name":"mores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mores"},{"link_name":"Descriptive ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_ethics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gert-10"},{"link_name":"normative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative"},{"link_name":"Normative ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gert-10"}],"text":"In its descriptive sense, \"morality\" refers to personal or cultural values, codes of conduct or social mores from a society that provides these codes of conduct in which it applies and is accepted by an individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong. Descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.[10]In its normative sense, \"morality\" refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores held by any particular peoples or cultures. Normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense.[10]","title":"Descriptive and normative"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meta-ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-ethics"},{"link_name":"Moral realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_realism"},{"link_name":"conformity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"norms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)"},{"link_name":"customs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)"},{"link_name":"ethical naturalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_naturalism"},{"link_name":"ethical non-naturalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"anti-realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism"},{"link_name":"error theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_theory"},{"link_name":"ethical subjectivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism"},{"link_name":"non-cognitivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cognitivism"},{"link_name":"subjectivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism"},{"link_name":"moral universalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_universalism"},{"link_name":"universal prescriptivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism"},{"link_name":"divine command theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_command_theory"},{"link_name":"ideal observer theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory"}],"text":"Philosophical theories on the nature and origins of morality (that is, theories of meta-ethics) are broadly divided into two classes:Moral realism is the class of theories which hold that there are true moral statements that report objective moral facts. For example, while they might concede that forces of social conformity significantly shape individuals' \"moral\" decisions, they deny that those cultural norms and customs define morally right behavior. This may be the philosophical view propounded by ethical naturalists, but not all moral realists accept that position (e.g. ethical non-naturalists).[11]\nMoral anti-realism, on the other hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Instead, they hold that moral sentences are either categorically false claims of objective moral facts (error theory); claims about subjective attitudes rather than objective facts (ethical subjectivism); or else do not attempt to describe the world at all but rather something else, like an expression of an emotion or the issuance of a command (non-cognitivism).Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism. For example, universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non-cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives, and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being, respectively.","title":"Realism and anti-realism"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Anthropology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"neutrality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view"},{"link_name":"disputed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Morality"}],"sub_title":"Morality with practical reasoning","text":"Practical reason is necessary for the moral agency but it is not a sufficient condition for moral agency.[12] Real life issues that need solutions do need both rationality and emotion to be sufficiently moral. One uses rationality as a pathway to the ultimate decision, but the environment and emotions towards the environment at the moment must be a factor for the result to be truly moral, as morality is subject to culture. Something can only be morally acceptable if the culture as a whole has accepted this to be true. Both practical reason and relevant emotional factors are acknowledged as significant in determining the morality of a decision.[13][neutrality is disputed]","title":"Anthropology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celia Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celia_Green"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Green-14"},{"link_name":"Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"categorical imperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_imperative"},{"link_name":"Geisler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Geisler"},{"link_name":"graded absolutism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graded_absolutism"}],"sub_title":"Tribal and territorial","text":"Celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality.[14] She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive: it defines a person's territory, including his or her property and dependents, which is not to be damaged or interfered with. Apart from these proscriptions, territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual. These norms will be arbitrary, culturally dependent and 'flexible', whereas territorial morality aims at rules which are universal and absolute, such as Kant's 'categorical imperative' and Geisler's graded absolutism. Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status.","title":"Anthropology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in-group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-group"},{"link_name":"evolutionary psychologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism"},{"link_name":"patriotism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haidt-17"},{"link_name":"conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative"},{"link_name":"liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism"},{"link_name":"selection pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_pressure"}],"sub_title":"In-group and out-group","text":"Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of moral rules to people depending on their membership of an \"in-group\" (the individual and those they believe to be of the same group) or an \"out-group\" (people not entitled to be treated according to the same rules). Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival. This belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution.[15] In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards the out-group.[16] Gary R. Johnson and V.S. Falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted[17] that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives, but far less so by liberals.In-group preference is also helpful at the individual level for the passing on of one's genes. For example, a mother who favors her own children more highly than the children of other people will give greater resources to her children than she will to strangers', thus heightening her children's chances of survival and her own gene's chances of being perpetuated. Due to this, within a population, there is substantial selection pressure exerted toward this kind of self-interest, such that eventually, all parents wind up favoring their own children (the in-group) over other children (the out-group).","title":"Anthropology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"humanity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)"},{"link_name":"love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love"},{"link_name":"kindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindness"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Fons Trompenaars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fons_Trompenaars"},{"link_name":"moral dilemmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_dilemma"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Comparing cultures","text":"Peterson and Seligman[18] approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined. The major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge; courage; humanity; justice; temperance; and transcendence. Each of these include several divisions. For instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence.Still, others theorize that morality is not always absolute, contending that moral issues often differ along cultural lines. A 2014 PEW research study among several nations illuminates significant cultural differences among issues commonly related to morality, including divorce, extramarital affairs, homosexuality, gambling, abortion, alcohol use, contraceptive use, and premarital sex. Each of the 40 countries in this study has a range of percentages according to what percentage of each country believes the common moral issues are acceptable, unacceptable, or not moral issues at all. Each percentage regarding the significance of the moral issue varies greatly on the culture in which the moral issue is presented.[19]Advocates of a theory known as moral relativism subscribe to the notion that moral virtues are right or wrong only within the context of a certain standpoint (e.g., cultural community). In other words, what is morally acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another. They further contend that no moral virtue can objectively be proven right or wrong [20] Critics of moral relativism point to historical atrocities such as infanticide, slavery, or genocide as counter arguments, noting the difficulty in accepting these actions simply through cultural lenses.Fons Trompenaars, author of Did the Pedestrian Die?, tested members of different cultures with various moral dilemmas. One of these was whether the driver of a car would have his friend, a passenger riding in the car, lie in order to protect the driver from the consequences of driving too fast and hitting a pedestrian. Trompenaars found that different cultures had quite different expectations, from none to definite.[21]Anthropologists from Oxford's Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology (part of the School of Anthropology & Museum Ethnography) analysed ethnographic accounts of ethics from 60 societies, comprising over 600,000 words from over 600 sources and discovered what they believe to be seven universal moral rules: help your family, help your group, return favours, be brave, defer to superiors, divide resources fairly, and respect others' property.[22][23]","title":"Anthropology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Altruism § Evolutionary explanations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism#Evolutionary_explanations"},{"link_name":"Evolution of morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_morality"},{"link_name":"Evolutionary ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics"},{"link_name":"sociocultural evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution"},{"link_name":"evolutionary biologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology"},{"link_name":"sociobiologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology"},{"link_name":"group selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection"},{"link_name":"cooperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperation"},{"link_name":"selfishness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfishness"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shermer-24"},{"link_name":"inclusive fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_fitness"},{"link_name":"maternal bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_bond"},{"link_name":"Westermarck effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westermarck_effect"},{"link_name":"taboos against incest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo"},{"link_name":"inbreeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding"},{"link_name":"reciprocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocity_(evolution)"},{"link_name":"vampire bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_bat"},{"link_name":"conspecific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspecificity"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"empathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"gossip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossip"},{"link_name":"reputation management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_management"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"hominid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_ape"},{"link_name":"theory of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind"}],"text":"See also: Altruism § Evolutionary explanations, Evolution of morality, and Evolutionary ethicsThe development of modern morality is a process closely tied to sociocultural evolution. Some evolutionary biologists, particularly sociobiologists, believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through group selection (although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory). Some sociobiologists contend that the set of behaviors that constitute morality evolved largely because they provided possible survival or reproductive benefits (i.e. increased evolutionary success). Humans consequently evolved \"pro-social\" emotions, such as feelings of empathy or guilt, in response to these moral behaviors.On this understanding, moralities are sets of self-perpetuating and biologically driven behaviors which encourage human cooperation. Biologists contend that all social animals, from ants to elephants, have modified their behaviors, by restraining immediate selfishness in order to improve their evolutionary fitness. Human morality, although sophisticated and complex relative to the moralities of other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group's cohesion and thereby reducing the individuals' fitness.[24]On this view, moral codes are ultimately founded on emotional instincts and intuitions that were selected for in the past because they aided survival and reproduction (inclusive fitness). Examples: the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring; the Westermarck effect, where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction, underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding.The phenomenon of reciprocity in nature is seen by evolutionary biologists as one way to begin to understand human morality. Its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources, especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably. For example, some vampire bats fail to feed on prey some nights while others manage to consume a surplus. Bats that did eat will then regurgitate part of their blood meal to save a conspecific from starvation. Since these animals live in close-knit groups over many years, an individual can count on other group members to return the favor on nights when it goes hungry (Wilkinson, 1984)Marc Bekoff and Jessica Pierce (2009) have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups (e.g., wolves, coyotes, elephants, dolphins, rats, chimpanzees). They define morality as \"a suite of interrelated other-regarding behaviors that cultivate and regulate complex interactions within social groups.\" This suite of behaviors includes empathy, reciprocity, altruism, cooperation, and a sense of fairness.[25] In related work, it has been convincingly demonstrated that chimpanzees show empathy for each other in a wide variety of contexts.[26] They also possess the ability to engage in deception, and a level of social politics[27] prototypical of our own tendencies for gossip and reputation management.Christopher Boehm (1982)[28] has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons. Other theories are that increasing complexity was simply a correlate of increasing group size and brain size, and in particular the development of theory of mind abilities.","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kohlberg's stages of moral development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development"},{"link_name":"Jean Piaget § Education and development of morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget#Education_and_development_of_morality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kohlberg_Model_of_Moral_Development.svg"},{"link_name":"Kohlberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg"},{"link_name":"moral psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_psychology"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Kohlberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg"},{"link_name":"Jean Piaget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget"},{"link_name":"Elliot Turiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Turiel"},{"link_name":"moral development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_development"},{"link_name":"Ethics of care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_care"},{"link_name":"Carol Gilligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Gilligan"},{"link_name":"interdependence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdependence"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Social psychologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"},{"link_name":"Martin Hoffman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hoffman"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Haidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt"},{"link_name":"empathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy"},{"link_name":"Moral identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_identity"},{"link_name":"William Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Damon"},{"link_name":"Mordechai Nisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordechai_Nisan"},{"link_name":"psychoanalysts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalyst"},{"link_name":"Sigmund Freud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud"},{"link_name":"super-ego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-ego"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"See also: Kohlberg's stages of moral development and Jean Piaget § Education and development of moralityKohlberg's model of moral developmentIn modern moral psychology, morality is sometimes considered to change through personal development. Several psychologists have produced theories on the development of morals, usually going through stages of different morals. Lawrence Kohlberg, Jean Piaget, and Elliot Turiel have cognitive-developmental approaches to moral development; to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains. In the Ethics of care approach established by Carol Gilligan, moral development occurs in the context of caring, mutually responsive relationships which are based on interdependence, particularly in parenting but also in social relationships generally.[29] Social psychologists such as Martin Hoffman and Jonathan Haidt emphasize social and emotional development based on biology, such as empathy. Moral identity theorists, such as William Damon and Mordechai Nisan, see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self-identity that is defined by moral purposes: this moral self-identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes. Of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud, who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super-ego as guilt-shame avoidance. Theories of moral development therefore tend to regard it as positive moral development: the higher stages are morally higher, though this, naturally, involves a circular argument. The higher stages are better because they are higher, but the better higher because they are better.As an alternative to viewing morality as an individual trait, some sociologists as well as social- and discursive psychologists have taken upon themselves to study the in-vivo aspects of morality by examining how persons conduct themselves in social interaction.[30][31][32][33]A new study analyses the common perception of a decline in morality in societies worldwide and throughout history. Adam M. Mastroianni and Daniel T. Gilbert present a series of studies indicating that the perception of moral decline is an illusion and easily produced, with implications for misallocation of resources, underuse of social support, and social influence. To begin with, the authors demonstrate that people in no less than 60 nations hold the belief that morality is deteriorating continuously, and this conviction has been present for the last 70 years. Subsequently, they indicate that people ascribe this decay to the declining morality of individuals as they age and the succeeding generations. Thirdly, the authors demonstrate that people's evaluations of the morality of their peers have not decreased over time, indicating that the belief in moral decline is an illusion. Lastly, the authors explain a basic psychological mechanism that uses two well-established phenomena (distorted exposure to information and distorted memory of information) to cause the illusion of moral decline. The authors present studies that validate some of the predictions about the circumstances in which the perception of moral decline is attenuated, eliminated, or reversed (e.g., when participants are asked about the morality of people closest to them or people who lived before they were born).[34]","title":"Psychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sinnott-Armstrong2012-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sinnott-Armstrong2013-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"neuroimaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"moral emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_emotions"},{"link_name":"moral reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"deontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deontology"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Haidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt"},{"link_name":"affective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Moral cognition","text":"Moral cognition refers to cognitive processes implicated in moral judgment and decision making, and moral action. It consists of several domain-general cognitive processes, ranging from perception of a morally salient stimulus to reasoning when faced with a moral dilemma. While it is important to mention that there is not a single cognitive faculty dedicated exclusively to moral cognition,[35][36] characterizing the contributions of domain-general processes to moral behavior is a critical scientific endeavor to understand how morality works and how it can be improved.[37]Cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists investigate the inputs to these cognitive processes and their interactions, as well as how these contribute to moral behavior by running controlled experiments.[38] In these experiments putatively moral versus nonmoral stimuli are compared to each other, while controlling for other variables such as content or working memory load. Often, the differential neural response to specifically moral statements or scenes, are examined using functional neuroimaging experiments.Critically, the specific cognitive processes that are involved depend on the prototypical situation that a person encounters.[39] For instance, while situations that require an active decision on a moral dilemma may require active reasoning, an immediate reaction to a shocking moral violation may involve quick, affect-laden processes. Nonetheless, certain cognitive skills such as being able to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions to oneself, and others is a common feature of a broad range of prototypical situations. In line with this, a meta-analysis found overlapping activity between moral emotion and moral reasoning tasks, suggesting a shared neural network for both tasks.[40] The results of this meta-analysis, however, also demonstrated that the processing of moral input is affected by task demands.Regarding the issues of morality in video games, some scholars believe that because players appear in video games as actors, they maintain a distance between their sense of self and the role of the game in terms of imagination. Therefore, the decision-making and moral behavior of players in the game are not representing player's Moral dogma.[41]It has been recently found that moral judgment consists in concurrent evaluations of three different components that align with precepts from three dominant moral theories (virtue ethics, deontology, and consequentialism): the character of a person (Agent-component, A); their actions (Deed-component, D); and the consequences brought about in the situation (Consequences-component, C).[42] This, implies that various inputs of the situation a person encounters affect moral cognition.Jonathan Haidt distinguishes between two types of moral cognition: moral intuition and moral reasoning. Moral intuition involves the fast, automatic, and affective processes that result in an evaluative feeling of good-bad or like-dislike, without awareness of going through any steps. Conversely, moral reasoning does involve conscious mental activity to reach a moral judgment. Moral reasoning is controlled and less affective than moral intuition. When making moral judgments, humans perform moral reasoning to support their initial intuitive feeling. However, there are three ways humans can override their immediate intuitive response. The first way is conscious verbal reasoning (for example, examining costs and benefits). The second way is reframing a situation to see a new perspective or consequence, which triggers a different intuition. Finally, one can talk to other people which illuminates new arguments. In fact, interacting with other people is the cause of most moral change. [43]","title":"Psychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Science of morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_morality"},{"link_name":"Neuromorality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromorality"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bzdok-44"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-40"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bzdok-44"},{"link_name":"Jean Decety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Decety"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"psychopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopath"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"evolutionary theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_theory"},{"link_name":"developmental psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology"},{"link_name":"social neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neuroscience"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"text":"See also: Science of morality and NeuromoralityThe brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by multiple quantitative large-scale meta-analyses of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature.[44][40][45][46] The neural network underlying moral decisions overlaps with the network pertaining to representing others' intentions (i.e., theory of mind) and the network pertaining to representing others' (vicariously experienced) emotional states (i.e., empathy). This supports the notion that moral reasoning is related to both seeing things from other persons' points of view and to grasping others' feelings. These results provide evidence that the neural network underlying moral decisions is probably domain-global (i.e., there might be no such things as a \"moral module\" in the human brain) and might be dissociable into cognitive and affective sub-systems.[44]Cognitive neuroscientist Jean Decety thinks that the ability to recognize and vicariously experience what another individual is undergoing was a key step forward in the evolution of social behavior, and ultimately, morality.[47] The inability to feel empathy is one of the defining characteristics of psychopathy, and this would appear to lend support to Decety's view.[48][49] Recently, drawing on empirical research in evolutionary theory, developmental psychology, social neuroscience, and psychopathy, Jean Decety argued that empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary.[50][51]","title":"Neuroscience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"salience network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salience_network"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceB-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"ventromedial prefrontal cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex"},{"link_name":"temporoparietal junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporoparietal_junction"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceB-52"},{"link_name":"transcranial magnetic stimulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Brain areas","text":"An essential, shared component of moral judgment involves the capacity to detect morally salient content within a given social context. Recent research implicated the salience network in this initial detection of moral content.[52] The salience network responds to behaviorally salient events [53] and may be critical to modulate downstream default and frontal control network interactions in the service of complex moral reasoning and decision-making processes.The explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC), a region involved in valuation, while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area, a region that plays a key role in understanding intentions and beliefs.[54][52]Stimulation of the VMPC by transcranial magnetic stimulation, or neurological lesion, has been shown to inhibit the ability of human subjects to take into account intent when forming a moral judgment. According to such investigations, TMS did not disrupt participants' ability to make any moral judgment. On the contrary, moral judgments of intentional harms and non-harms were unaffected by TMS to either the RTPJ or the control site; presumably, however, people typically make moral judgments of intentional harms by considering not only the action's harmful outcome but the agent's intentions and beliefs. So why were moral judgments of intentional harms not affected by TMS to the RTPJ? One possibility is that moral judgments typically reflect a weighted function of any morally relevant information that is available at the time. Based on this view, when information concerning the agent's belief is unavailable or degraded, the resulting moral judgment simply reflects a higher weighting of other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). Alternatively, following TMS to the RTPJ, moral judgments might be made via an abnormal processing route that does not take belief into account. On either account, when belief information is degraded or unavailable, moral judgments are shifted toward other morally relevant factors (e.g., outcome). For intentional harms and non-harms, however, the outcome suggests the same moral judgment as to the intention. Thus, the researchers suggest that TMS to the RTPJ disrupted the processing of negative beliefs for both intentional harms and attempted harms, but the current design allowed the investigators to detect this effect only in the case of attempted harms, in which the neutral outcomes did not afford harsh moral judgments on their own.[55]Similarly, individuals with a lesion of the VMPC judge an action purely on its outcome and are unable to take into account the intent of that action.[56]","title":"Neuroscience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timothy C. Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_C._Bates"},{"link_name":"European Journal of Personality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Journal_of_Personality"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"text":"Moral intuitions may have genetic bases. A 2022 study conducted by scholars Michael Zakharin and Timothy C. Bates, and published by the European Journal of Personality, found that moral foundations have significant genetic bases.[57] Another study, conducted by Smith and Hatemi, similarly found significant evidence in support of moral heritability by looking at and comparing the answers of moral dilemmas between twins.[58]Genetics play a role in influencing prosocial behaviors and moral decision-making. Genetics contribute to the development and expression of certain traits and behaviors, including those related to morality. However, it is important to note that while genetics play a role in shaping certain aspects of moral behavior, morality itself is a multifaceted concept that encompasses cultural, societal, and personal influences as well.","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Moral foundations theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Haidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt2004-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham2013-61"},{"link_name":"liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism"},{"link_name":"conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haidt-17"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port"},{"link_name":"concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"beliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"Cistercian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian"},{"link_name":"Dowager Empress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Cixi"},{"link_name":"nationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism"},{"link_name":"Sentience Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience_Institute"},{"link_name":"Jacy Reese Anthis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacy_Reese_Anthis"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-introducing-63"},{"link_name":"Noam Chomsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zmag-64"}],"text":"If morality is the answer to the question 'how ought we to live' at the individual level, politics can be seen as addressing the same question at the social level, though the political sphere raises additional problems and challenges.[59] It is therefore unsurprising that evidence has been found of a relationship between attitudes in morality and politics. Moral foundations theory, authored by Jonathan Haidt and colleagues,[60][61] has been used to study the differences between liberals and conservatives, in this regard.[17][62] Haidt found that Americans who identified as liberals tended to value care and fairness higher than loyalty, respect and purity. Self-identified conservative Americans valued care and fairness less and the remaining three values more. Both groups gave care the highest over-all weighting, but conservatives valued fairness the lowest, whereas liberals valued purity the lowest. Haidt also hypothesizes that the origin of this division in the United States can be traced to geo-historical factors, with conservatism strongest in closely knit, ethnically homogeneous communities, in contrast to port-cities, where the cultural mix is greater, thus requiring more liberalism.Group morality develops from shared concepts and beliefs and is often codified to regulate behavior within a culture or community. Various defined actions come to be called moral or immoral. Individuals who choose moral action are popularly held to possess \"moral fiber\", whereas those who indulge in immoral behavior may be labeled as socially degenerate. The continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality; an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community (a positive example would be the function of Cistercian reform in reviving monasticism; a negative example would be the role of the Dowager Empress in the subjugation of China to European interests). Within nationalist movements, there has been some tendency to feel that a nation will not survive or prosper without acknowledging one common morality, regardless of its content.Political morality is also relevant to the behavior internationally of national governments, and to the support they receive from their host population. The Sentience Institute, co-founded by Jacy Reese Anthis, analyzes the trajectory of moral progress in society via the framework of an expanding moral circle.[63] Noam Chomsky states that... if we adopt the principle of universality: if an action is right (or wrong) for others, it is right (or wrong) for us. Those who do not rise to the minimal moral level of applying to themselves the standards they apply to others—more stringent ones, in fact—plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response; or of right and wrong, good and evil.\nIn fact, one of them, maybe the most, elementary of moral principles is that of universality, that is, If something's right for me, it's right for you; if it's wrong for you, it's wrong for me. Any moral code that is even worth looking at has that at its core somehow.[64]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Divine command theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_command_theory"},{"link_name":"Divine law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_law"},{"link_name":"Religious law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law"},{"link_name":"Secular ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_ethics"},{"link_name":"Secular morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_morality"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"text":"See also: Divine command theory, Divine law, Religious law, Secular ethics, and Secular moralityReligion and morality are not synonymous. Morality does not depend upon religion although for some this is \"an almost automatic assumption\".[65] According to The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics, religion and morality \"are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other. Conceptually and in principle, morality and a religious value system are two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides.\"[66]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consequentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism"},{"link_name":"freethought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freethought"},{"link_name":"humanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism"},{"link_name":"utilitarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism"},{"link_name":"monotheistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheistic"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Sikhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhism"},{"link_name":"Zoroastrianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"},{"link_name":"scriptures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptures"},{"link_name":"religious leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_leader"},{"link_name":"pantheistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheistic"},{"link_name":"nontheistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontheistic"},{"link_name":"Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Barbara Stoler Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Stoler_Miller"},{"link_name":"Hinduism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"egalitarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianism"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"abortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion"},{"link_name":"divorce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#endnote_Anone"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"superstitious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstitious"},{"link_name":"piety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piety"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"massacres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre"},{"link_name":"misogyny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misogyny"},{"link_name":"slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery"},{"link_name":"Simon Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn"},{"link_name":"caste system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#endnote_Enone"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"apologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apologists"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-colley1-75"},{"link_name":"Jewish laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha"},{"link_name":"Hebrew Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Bible"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-enrichmentjournal1-76"},{"link_name":"Paul Kurtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kurtz"},{"link_name":"moral values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_value"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Positions","text":"Within the wide range of moral traditions, religious value-systems co-exist with contemporary secular frameworks such as consequentialism, freethought, humanism, utilitarianism, and others. There are many types of religious value-systems. Modern monotheistic religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and to a certain degree others such as Sikhism and Zoroastrianism, define right and wrong by the laws and rules as set forth by their respective scriptures and as interpreted by religious leaders within each respective faith. Other religions spanning pantheistic to nontheistic tend to be less absolute. For example, within Buddhism, the intention of the individual and the circumstances should be accounted for in the form of merit, to determine if an action is termed right or wrong.[67] Barbara Stoler Miller points out a further disparity between the values of religious traditions, stating that in Hinduism, \"practically, right and wrong are decided according to the categories of social rank, kinship, and stages of life. For modern Westerners, who have been raised on ideals of universality and egalitarianism, this relativity of values and obligations is the aspect of Hinduism most difficult to understand\".[68]Religions provide different ways of dealing with moral dilemmas. For example, Hinduism lacks any absolute prohibition on killing, recognizing that it \"may be inevitable and indeed necessary\" in certain circumstances.[69] Monotheistic traditions view certain acts - such as abortion or divorce - in more absolute terms.[a] Religion is not always positively associated with morality. Philosopher David Hume stated that \"the greatest crimes have been found, in many instances, to be compatible with a superstitious piety and devotion; Hence it is justly regarded as unsafe to draw any inference in favor of a man's morals, from the fervor or strictness of his religious exercises, even though he himself believe them sincere.\"[70]Religious value-systems can be used to justify acts that are contrary to general contemporary morality, such as massacres, misogyny and slavery. For example, Simon Blackburn states that \"apologists for Hinduism defend or explain away its involvement with the caste system, and apologists for Islam defend or explain away its harsh penal code or its attitude to women and infidels\".[71] In regard to Christianity, he states that the \"Bible can be read as giving us a carte blanche for harsh attitudes to children, the mentally handicapped, animals, the environment, the divorced, unbelievers, people with various sexual habits, and elderly women\",[72] and notes morally-suspect themes in the Bible's New Testament as well.[73][e] Elizabeth Anderson likewise holds that \"the Bible contains both good and evil teachings\", and it is \"morally inconsistent\".[74] Christian apologists address Blackburn's viewpoints[75] and construe that Jewish laws in the Hebrew Bible showed the evolution of moral standards towards protecting the vulnerable, imposing a death penalty on those pursuing slavery and treating slaves as persons and not as property.[76] Humanists like Paul Kurtz believe that we can identify moral values across cultures, even if we do not appeal to a supernatural or universalist understanding of principles – values including integrity, trustworthiness, benevolence, and fairness. These values can be resources for finding common ground between believers and nonbelievers.[77]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#endnote_Bnone"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baier-78"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#endnote_Cnone"},{"link_name":"Gregory S. Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_S._Paul"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#endnote_Dnone"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jensen-81"},{"link_name":"pro-social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosocial_behavior"},{"link_name":"Social Psychological and Personality Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Psychological_and_Personality_Science"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Empirical analyses","text":"Several studies have been conducted on the empirics of morality in various countries, and the overall relationship between faith and crime is unclear.[b] A 2001 review of studies on this topic found \"The existing evidence surrounding the effect of religion on crime is varied, contested, and inconclusive, and currently, no persuasive answer exists as to the empirical relationship between religion and crime.\"[78] Phil Zuckerman's 2008 book, Society without God, based on studies conducted during 14 months in Scandinavia in 2005–2006, notes that Denmark and Sweden, \"which are probably the least religious countries in the world, and possibly in the history of the world\", enjoy \"among the lowest violent crime rates in the world [and] the lowest levels of corruption in the world\".[79][c]Dozens of studies have been conducted on this topic since the twentieth century. A 2005 study by Gregory S. Paul published in the Journal of Religion and Society stated that, \"In general, higher rates of belief in and worship of a creator correlate with higher rates of homicide, juvenile and early adult mortality, STD infection rates, teen pregnancy, and abortion in the prosperous democracies,\" and \"In all secular developing democracies a centuries long-term trend has seen homicide rates drop to historical lows\" with the exceptions being the United States (with a high religiosity level) and \"theistic\" Portugal.[80][d] In a response, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study.[81] he concludes that a \"complex relationship\" exists between religiosity and homicide \"with some dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it\". In April 2012, the results of a study which tested their subjects' pro-social sentiments were published in the Social Psychological and Personality Science journal in which non-religious people had higher scores showing that they were more motivated by their own compassion to perform pro-social behaviors. Religious people were found to be less motivated by compassion to be charitable than by an inner sense of moral obligation.[82][83]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Anone"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"atheists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheists"},{"link_name":"agnostics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnostics"},{"link_name":"lower rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_and_divorce"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-barna1-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Bnone"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"criminology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_criminology_and_sociology_of_education"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baier-78"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Cnone"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Dnone"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Enone"},{"link_name":"Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus"},{"link_name":"Old Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-colley1-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-enrichmentjournal1-76"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy-96"}],"text":"a.^ Studies on divorce in the United States done by the Barna Group suggested that atheists and agnostics have lower divorce rates than faith groups on average (though some faith groups had lower rates still).[84][85] The study notes that fewer atheists and agnostics enter into marriage relative to faith-based individuals.\nb.^ Some studies appear to show positive links in the relationship between religiosity and moral behavior[86][87][88] Modern research in criminology also suggests an inverse relationship between religion and crime,[89] with some studies establishing this connection.[90] A meta-analysis of 60 studies on religion and crime concluded, \"religious behaviors and beliefs exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior\".[78]\nc.^ Zuckerman identifies that Scandinavians have \"relatively high rates of petty crime and burglary\", but \"their overall rates of violent crime—such as murder, aggravated assault, and rape—are among the lowest on earth\" (Zuckerman 2008, pp. 5–6).\nd.^ The authors also state that \"A few hundred years ago rates of homicide were astronomical in Christian Europe and the American colonies,\"[91] and \"the least theistic secular developing democracies such as Japan, France, and Scandinavia have been most successful in these regards.\"[92] They argue for a positive correlation between the degree of public religiosity in a society and certain measures of dysfunction,[93] an analysis published later in the same journal argues that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions in the research.[94]\ne.^ Blackburn provides examples such as the phrase in Exodus 22:18 that has \"helped to burn alive tens or hundreds of thousands of women in Europe and America\": \"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live,\" and notes that the Old Testament God apparently has \"no problems with a slave-owning society\", considers birth control a crime punishable by death, and \"is keen on child abuse\".[95] Others interpret these passages differently, arguing for example that Jewish laws show the evolution of moral standards in society: that Jews actually threatened those who pursued forced slavery with the death penalty, held that slaves were persons instead of property, and protected them in several ways.[75][76][96]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Churchland, Patricia Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Churchland"},{"link_name":"Braintrust : What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tLsIzyFR08IC"},{"link_name":"Princeton University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-13703-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13703-2"},{"link_name":"The Montreal Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.themontrealreview.com/2009/What-neuroscience-tells-us-about-morality.php"},{"link_name":"Richard Dawkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins"},{"link_name":"The God Delusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_God_Delusion"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-552-77429-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-552-77429-1"},{"link_name":"Harris, Sam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Harris"},{"link_name":"The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moral_Landscape"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4391-7121-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-7121-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0967370574","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0967370574"},{"link_name":"Prinz, Jesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Prinz"},{"link_name":"\"Morality is a Culturally Conditioned Response\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//philosophynow.org/issues/82/Morality_is_a_Culturally_Conditioned_Response"},{"link_name":"Philosophy Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_Now"},{"link_name":"\"Book I: Morality\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_manual_of_moral_theology_for_English-speaking_countries/Book_1#19"},{"link_name":"Stace, Walter Terence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Terence_Stace"},{"link_name":"The Concept of Morals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/conceptofmorals029360mbp"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8446-2990-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8446-2990-2"},{"link_name":"Trompenaars, Fons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fons_Trompenaars"},{"link_name":"Did the Pedestrian Die?: Insights from the World's Greatest Culture Guru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=BAYKAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84112-436-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84112-436-0"},{"link_name":"God, man, and religion: readings in the philosophy of religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/godmanreligionre0000yand"},{"link_name":"\"Religious Morality\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20101227173500/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/rel.m.html"},{"link_name":"\"Religious Morality: a Reply to Flew and Campbell\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20101227180203/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/reply.html"},{"link_name":"\"God and the Good\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20101125212955/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/god.g.html"},{"link_name":"Religious Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Studies_(journal)"},{"link_name":"\"Virtuous behaviors sanction later sins: people are quick to treat themselves after a good deed or healthy act\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=license-to-sin"},{"link_name":"Roberto Andorno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Andorno"},{"link_name":"\"Do our moral judgements need to be guided by principles?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/1488903/Do_our_moral_judgements_need_to_be_guided_by_principles"}],"text":"Churchland, Patricia Smith (2011). Braintrust : What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13703-2. (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)\nRichard Dawkins, \"The roots of morality: why are we good?\", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-552-77429-1).\nHarris, Sam (2010). The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4391-7121-9.\nLunn, Arnold, and Garth Lean (1964). The New Morality. London: Blandford Press.\nJohn Newton, Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. ISBN 0967370574.\nPrinz, Jesse (Jan–Feb 2013). \"Morality is a Culturally Conditioned Response\". Philosophy Now.\nSlater S.J., Thomas (1925). \"Book I: Morality\" . A manual of moral theology for English-speaking countries. Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.\nStace, Walter Terence (1937). The Concept of Morals. New York: The MacMillan Company; Reprinted 1975 by permission of Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., and also reprinted by Peter Smith Publisher Inc, January 1990. ISBN 978-0-8446-2990-2.\nTrompenaars, Fons (2003). Did the Pedestrian Die?: Insights from the World's Greatest Culture Guru. Oxford: Capstone. ISBN 978-1-84112-436-0.\nYandell, Keith E. (1973). God, man, and religion: readings in the philosophy of religion. McGraw-Hill. containing articles by Paterson Brown:\n\"Religious Morality\", (from Mind, 1963).\n\"Religious Morality: a Reply to Flew and Campbell\", (from Mind, 1964).\n\"God and the Good\", (from Religious Studies, 1967).\nAshley Welch, \"Virtuous behaviors sanction later sins: people are quick to treat themselves after a good deed or healthy act\" March 4, 2012.\nRoberto Andorno, \"Do our moral judgements need to be guided by principles?\" Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 2012, 21(4), 457–65.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Allegory with a portrait of a Venetian senator (Allegory of the morality of earthly things), attributed to Tintoretto, 1585","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Tintoretto_Allegory.jpg/220px-Tintoretto_Allegory.jpg"},{"image_text":"Immanuel Kant introduced the categorical imperative: \"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kohlberg's model of moral development","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Kohlberg_Model_of_Moral_Development.svg/220px-Kohlberg_Model_of_Moral_Development.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"title":"Integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrity"},{"title":"Applied ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics"},{"title":"Appeal to tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition"},{"title":"Buddhist ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_ethics"},{"title":"Christian ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_ethics"},{"title":"Emotional intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence"},{"title":"Ethical dilemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_dilemma"},{"title":"Good and evil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_and_evil"},{"title":"Ideology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology"},{"title":"Index of ethics articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles"},{"title":"Islamic ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_ethics"},{"title":"Jewish ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_ethics"},{"title":"Moral agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_agency"},{"title":"Moral character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_character"},{"title":"Moral conviction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_conviction"},{"title":"Moral intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_intelligence"},{"title":"Moral outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_outsourcing"},{"title":"Moral panic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_panic"},{"title":"Moral skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_skepticism"},{"title":"Outline of ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_ethics"},{"title":"Value theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory"},{"title":"Worldview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview"}] | [{"reference":"Long, A. A.; Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: Translations of the Principal Sources with Philosophical Commentary. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 366–67. ISBN 978-0521275569.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AfemGeG8SysC","url_text":"The Hellenistic Philosophers: Translations of the Principal Sources with Philosophical Commentary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521275569","url_text":"978-0521275569"}]},{"reference":"Stanford University (2011). \"The Definition of Morality\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 22 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality-definition/","url_text":"\"The Definition of Morality\""}]},{"reference":"Antony Flew, ed. (1979). \"golden rule\". A Dictionary of Philosophy. London: Pan Books in association with The MacMillan Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0333262047. The maxim 'Treat others how you wish to be treated'. Various expressions of this fundamental moral rule are to be found in tenets of most religions and creeds through the ages, testifying to its universal applicability.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Flew","url_text":"Antony Flew"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Books","url_text":"Pan Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers","url_text":"The MacMillan Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333262047","url_text":"978-0333262047"}]},{"reference":"Stace, Walter T. (1937). The Concept of Morals. New York: The MacMillan Company; reprinted by Peter Smith Publisher Inc, January 1990. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8446-2990-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.213305","url_text":"The Concept of Morals"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.213305/page/n152","url_text":"136"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8446-2990-2","url_text":"978-0-8446-2990-2"}]},{"reference":"Johnstone, Megan-Jane (2008). Bioethics: A Nursing Perspective. Vol. 3. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 102–03. ISBN 978-0-7295-3873-2. PMID 2129925.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7295-3873-2","url_text":"978-0-7295-3873-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2129925","url_text":"2129925"}]},{"reference":"Superson, Anita (2009). The Moral Skeptic. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–59. ISBN 978-0-19-537662-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537662-3","url_text":"978-0-19-537662-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Amorality\". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2010-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/amorality","url_text":"\"Amorality\""}]},{"reference":"Deigh, John (2015). \"ethics\". In Audi, Robert (ed.). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 328. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139057509. ISBN 9781139057509.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Audi","url_text":"Audi, Robert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cambridge_Dictionary_of_Philosophy","url_text":"The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139057509","url_text":"10.1017/CBO9781139057509"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139057509","url_text":"9781139057509"}]},{"reference":"Blackburn, Simon (2008). \"morality\". The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 241. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001. ISBN 9780199541430.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Blackburn","url_text":"Blackburn, Simon"},{"url":"https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001/acref-9780199541430-e-2075","url_text":"\"morality\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Philosophy","url_text":"The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199541430.001.0001","url_text":"10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199541430","url_text":"9780199541430"}]},{"reference":"Gert, Bernard; Gert, Joshua (2016). \"The Definition of Morality\". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.","urls":[{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/morality-definition/","url_text":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"}]},{"reference":"Ezedike, Edward Uzoma (2020-01-02). \"Morality within the limits of practical reason: a critique of Kant's concept of moral virtue\". International Journal of Ethics and Systems. 36 (2): 205–216. doi:10.1108/ijoes-11-2018-0171. ISSN 2514-9369. S2CID 214501283.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijoes-11-2018-0171","url_text":"\"Morality within the limits of practical reason: a critique of Kant's concept of moral virtue\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijoes-11-2018-0171","url_text":"10.1108/ijoes-11-2018-0171"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2514-9369","url_text":"2514-9369"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214501283","url_text":"214501283"}]},{"reference":"Richardson, Henry S. (2018), \"Moral Reasoning\", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2022-05-04","urls":[{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/reasoning-moral/","url_text":"\"Moral Reasoning\""}]},{"reference":"Haidt, Jonathan; Graham, Jesse (2007). \"When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals may not Recognize\" (PDF). Social Justice Research. 20: 98–116. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.385.3650. doi:10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z. S2CID 6824095. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-30. Retrieved 2014-09-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140830110131/http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.graham.2007.when-morality-opposes-justice.pub041.pdf","url_text":"\"When Morality Opposes Justice: Conservatives Have Moral Intuitions that Liberals may not Recognize\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.385.3650","url_text":"10.1.1.385.3650"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11211-007-0034-z","url_text":"10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6824095","url_text":"6824095"},{"url":"http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.graham.2007.when-morality-opposes-justice.pub041.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Global Views on Morality\". PewResearch.org. 15 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pewglobal.org/2014/04/15/global-morality/table/alcohol-use/","url_text":"\"Global Views on Morality\""}]},{"reference":"Trompenaars, Fons (2003). Did the Pedestrian Die: Insights from the World's Greatest Culture!. Wiley. ISBN 978-1841124360.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BAYKAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Did the Pedestrian Die: Insights from the World's Greatest Culture!"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841124360","url_text":"978-1841124360"}]},{"reference":"Curry, Oliver Scott; Mullins, Daniel Austin; Whitehouse, Harvey (2019). \"Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies\". Current Anthropology. 60 (1): 47–69. doi:10.1086/701478. S2CID 150324056.","urls":[{"url":"https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:8dd8d82d-3829-4857-bcf4-eebf196d11be","url_text":"\"Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Anthropology","url_text":"Current Anthropology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F701478","url_text":"10.1086/701478"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150324056","url_text":"150324056"}]},{"reference":"\"Seven moral rules found all around the world | University of Oxford\". www.ox.ac.uk. 11 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2019-02-11-seven-moral-rules-found-all-around-world","url_text":"\"Seven moral rules found all around the world | University of Oxford\""}]},{"reference":"Shermer, Michael (2004). \"Transcendent Morality\". The Science of Good and Evil. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-7520-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Shermer","url_text":"Shermer, Michael"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eevvWAcMBaAC&q=shermer+exegesis&pg=PA19","url_text":"\"Transcendent Morality\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_of_Good_and_Evil","url_text":"The Science of Good and Evil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7520-5","url_text":"978-0-8050-7520-5"}]},{"reference":"O'Connell, Sanjida (July 1995). \"Empathy in chimpanzees: Evidence for theory of mind?\". Primates. 36 (3): 397–410. doi:10.1007/BF02382862. ISSN 0032-8332. 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Journal of Social and Biological Sciences. 5 (4): 413–22. doi:10.1016/s0140-1750(82)92069-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-1750%2882%2992069-3","url_text":"10.1016/s0140-1750(82)92069-3"}]},{"reference":"Bergmann Jörg (1998). \"Introduction:Morality in discourse\". Research on Language and Social Interaction. 31 (3/4): 279–74. doi:10.1080/08351813.1998.9683594.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08351813.1998.9683594","url_text":"10.1080/08351813.1998.9683594"}]},{"reference":"Drew, Paul; Heritage, John, eds. (1992). Talk at work: Interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 137–62.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Button, Graham, ed. (1991). Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 227–51.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cromdal Jakob; Michael Tholander (2014). \"Morality in professional practice\". Journal of Applied Linguistics and Professional Practice. 9 (2): 155–64. doi:10.1558/japl.v9i2.25734.","urls":[{"url":"http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-116647","url_text":"\"Morality in professional practice\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fjapl.v9i2.25734","url_text":"10.1558/japl.v9i2.25734"}]},{"reference":"Mastroianni, Adam M.; Gilbert, Daniel T. (2023). \"The illusion of moral decline\". Nature. 618 (7966): 782–789. Bibcode:2023Natur.618..782M. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06137-x. PMC 10284688. PMID 37286595.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10284688","url_text":"\"The illusion of moral decline\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)","url_text":"Nature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.618..782M","url_text":"2023Natur.618..782M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06137-x","url_text":"10.1038/s41586-023-06137-x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10284688","url_text":"10284688"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37286595","url_text":"37286595"}]},{"reference":"Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Wheatley, Thalia (2012). \"The Disunity of Morality and Why it Matters to Philosophy\". Monist. 95 (3): 355–77. doi:10.5840/monist201295319.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist201295319","url_text":"\"The Disunity of Morality and Why it Matters to Philosophy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist201295319","url_text":"10.5840/monist201295319"}]},{"reference":"Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Wheatley, Thalia (13 February 2013). \"Are moral judgments unified?\". Philosophical Psychology. 27 (4): 451–74. doi:10.1080/09515089.2012.736075. S2CID 143876741.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09515089.2012.736075","url_text":"10.1080/09515089.2012.736075"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143876741","url_text":"143876741"}]},{"reference":"Young, Liane; Dungan, James (January 2012). \"Where in the brain is morality? Everywhere and maybe nowhere\". Social Neuroscience. 7 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.569146. PMID 21590587. S2CID 14074566.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17470919.2011.569146","url_text":"10.1080/17470919.2011.569146"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21590587","url_text":"21590587"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14074566","url_text":"14074566"}]},{"reference":"Yoder, Keith J.; Decety, Jean (12 December 2017). \"The neuroscience of morality and social decision-making\". Psychology, Crime & Law. 24 (3): 279–95. doi:10.1080/1068316X.2017.1414817. PMC 6372234. PMID 30766017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6372234","url_text":"\"The neuroscience of morality and social decision-making\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1068316X.2017.1414817","url_text":"10.1080/1068316X.2017.1414817"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6372234","url_text":"6372234"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30766017","url_text":"30766017"}]},{"reference":"Monin, Benoît; Pizarro, David A.; Beer, Jennifer S. (2007). \"Deciding versus reacting: Conceptions of moral judgment and the reason-affect debate\". Review of General Psychology. 11 (2): 99–111. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.99. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Small_(cricketer) | John Small (cricketer) | ["1 Cricket career","1.1 1764–1771","1.2 1772–1775","1.3 Later career","2 Style and technique","3 Family and personal life","4 Legacy","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 External links"] | English cricketer
For other people with the same name, see John Small.
John SmallPersonal informationFull nameJohn SmallBorn(1737-04-19)19 April 1737Empshott, Hampshire, EnglandDied31 December 1826(1826-12-31) (aged 89)Petersfield, Hampshire, EnglandNicknameOld SmallBattingRight-handedRoleBatsmanDomestic team information
YearsTeam1768–1798Hampshire
Source: CricInfo, 31 July 2009
John Small (19 April 1737 – 31 December 1826) was an English professional cricketer who played during the 18th century and had one of the longest careers on record. Born at Empshott, Hampshire, he is generally regarded as the greatest batsman of the 18th century and acknowledged as having been the first to master the use of the modern straight bat which was introduced in the 1760s. He probably scored the earliest known century in important cricket. The strength of the Hambledon/Hampshire team during Small's prime years can be seen in the team being rated the (unofficial) Champion County in 10 seasons: 1766–1771, 1776–1777, 1779 and 1783. He died at Petersfield, where he was in residence for most of his life and where he established businesses.
Small was a very influential player who was involved in the creation of two significant permanent additions to the Laws of Cricket: the maximum width of the bat and the introduction of the middle stump in the wicket. Acclaimed as the greatest player associated with the famous Hambledon Club, Small is the first person known to have been described in literature in terms that attest him to have been a "superstar". In 1997, he was named by The Times as one of its 100 Greatest Cricketers of All Time.
Cricket career
Small was a playing member of Hambledon during its years of greatness. He was definitely playing for Hambledon by 1764 and his name is found in the club's scorecards until 1798 when he was over 60. Knowledge of the early years of his career are sketchy due to the lack of detailed records before scorecards became common from 1772, but it is believed he began playing in top-class cricket during the 1750s and may well have taken part in the earliest known Hambledon matches, a tri-series against Dartford in 1756.
1764–1771
The earliest definite mention of Small dates from the 1764 season when Hambledon played three matches against Chertsey.
In August 1768, Small scored more than 140 runs for Hambledon against Kent at Broadhalfpenny Down. This was a feat almost unheard of at that time but it is not quite clear from the original source if it was in one innings or his match total. Only a week later, playing for Hambledon against Sussex at Broadhalfpenny Down, Small scored "about four-score notches ... and was not out when the game was finished", Hambledon winning by 7 wickets.
In 1769, Hambledon played Caterham at Guildford Bason and won by 4 wickets. A contemporary report in the Reading Mercury states that "the utmost activity and skill in the game was displayed by each individual through the whole course of this match, but particularly the batting of Messrs Small and John Bayton on the Hambledon side".
Small was involved in one of the most controversial incidents in early cricket history when Hambledon played Chertsey at Laleham Burway in September 1771. Hambledon won the match by 1 wicket. It was in this game that Chertsey's Thomas White used a bat that was as wide as the wicket, possibly in an attempt to force an issue about the width of the new straight bats that had recently replaced the old curved sticks. Whether that was White's intention is unclear but his action ensured that a new rule was passed which limited the width to 4.25 inches. This rule supported a written motion presented by Hambledon bowler Thomas Brett that was counter-signed by club captain Richard Nyren and senior batsman Small. The original of Brett's memorandum, bearing Small's signature, is maintained by Marylebone Cricket Club in its museum at Lord's.
1772–1775
The production of match scorecards became common from the 1772 season and three 1772 cards have survived. Small played in all three matches and was easily the season's highest runscorer with 213 in his six innings. The only other player to exceed 100 was William Yalden who made 136, also in six innings. In the first match of the season, Small scored 78 for Hampshire against All-England out of a team total of 146. In the second innings, he scored 34 out of 79 and his team won by 53 runs, an illustration of his enormous value to Hampshire. His innings of 78 was the highest individual score definitely recorded to that time. Although higher scores such as Richard Newland's 88 in 1745 and Small's own 140-plus in 1768 have been mentioned in the sources, it is not clear if those were definitely made in one innings or if they were match totals.
Small's 1772 aggregate of 213 runs from six innings would give him an average of 35.50 if all his innings were completed (scorecards in 1772 do not confirm the not out batsmen). This may seem low by modern standards but scores were much lower in general at the time.
Small has been recorded in a number of single wicket matches, but he seems to have been less successful in this form of cricket than in the eleven-a-side version. On 22–23 May 1775, he played in one single wicket innings that was of enormous significance in the evolution of the sport because it led directly to the introduction of the third (middle) stump to what had always been a two-stump wicket. This was the single wicket "fives" game at the Artillery Ground when a Hambledon Five defeated a Kent Five by one wicket, the not out batsman being Small who in the course of his second innings was beaten three times by Lumpy Stevens, only for the ball to pass through the two-stump wicket each time without hitting the stumps or the bail. As a result of Lumpy's protests, the middle stump was legalised and introduced, although its introduction was gradual.
Small's most famous feat was scoring the earliest known century in a first-class match when he made 136 not out for Hampshire against Surrey at Broadhalfpenny Down in July 1775. This beat John Minshull's score of 107 set in 1769 and it was the first century scored in a match that has been awarded first-class status. It lasted only until 1777 when James Aylward set a new mark with a score of 167. Small scored this century in the 5th wicket turned the match in Hampshire's favour, and they eventually won by 296 runs after having looked certain to lose before Small and Richard Nyren came together.
Later career
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Style and technique
Along with other greats of the Hambledon era such as Billy Beldham and Tom Walker, Small did much to lay the foundations of what can now be recognised as modern batting technique. He was noted for his sound defence but he was also a fluent strokemaker who used his wrists particularly well. John Nyren described him as the "best short runner of his day" and believed him to be "the first who turned the short run to account".
Small rarely if ever bowled but he was "an admirable fieldsman, always playing middle wicket" and "as active as a hare".
It is sometimes said that Small invented the straight bat, replacing the old curved bat in the 1760s after bowlers started pitching the ball instead of skimming or trundling it. It is more accurate to say that he was the first batsman to master the use of the straight bat and that he subsequently manufactured them in his workshop.
Family and personal life
John Small's tombstone in the churchyard at St Peter's Church, Petersfield.
Nyren says that Small was "a remarkably well-made and well-knit man of a handsome countenance and honest expression".
He was married and had at least five children including three daughters who died in childhood (see photograph of the family's tombstone). His wife Ann (born c.1739) died on 22 November 1802, aged 63. His two sons, Jack and Eli, also played senior cricket. Mrs Ann Small was a vociferous supporter of the Hambledon team and was a regular attendee at its matches, often travelling with the team to away games too.
Outside cricket, Small's profession was originally a cobbler but he later expanded his business to include the manufacture of cricket bats and balls.
Small was musical and could play both the fiddle and the double bass. One of his greatest admirers was the cricket patron John Sackville, 3rd Duke of Dorset, who, when learning of Small's musical skills, sent him "a handsome violin". Small returned the favour by sending the Duke a present of two newly made cricket bats and balls.
Legacy
Like so many of his contemporaries, Small's fame is based largely on the testimony paid to him by John Nyren in The Cricketers of My Time. Small received high praise indeed for Nyren wrote that "(Small) shines among them (i.e., the Hambledon players) in all the lustre of a star of the first magnitude" (i.e., a superstar).
His legacy is well summarised by a contemporary verse about him which, it is believed, he displayed on a sign outside his workshop in Petersfield:
Here lives John Small, Makes bat and ball,Pitches a wicket, plays at cricketWith any man in England.
In 1997, in an article in The Times, former Wisden Cricketers' Almanack editor John Woodcock named Small in his 100 Greatest Cricketers of All Time.
References
^ a b c Haygarth, p. 242.
^ a b c Mote, p. 97.
^ Waghorn, Cricket Scores, p. 66.
^ McCann, p. 73.
^ Waghorn, Dawn of Cricket, p. 33.
^ Buckley, p. 56.
^ Waghorn, Cricket Scores, p. 76.
^ a b Nyren, p. 156.
^ "Who has the most Test wickets without dismissing the same man twice?". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 29 March 2022.
^ Ashley-Cooper, p. 177.
^ "The origins of cricket jargon". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
^ Haygarth, p. 21.
^ Haygarth, p. 25.
^ "From Minshull to Collins". www.espncricinfo.com. 20 April 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
^ Haygarth, p. 25.
^ a b c d e f Nyren, pp. 57-58.
^ Note that the term "short run" refers to what would now be called a "quick single".
^ a b Mote, pp. 96-97.
^ Mote, p. 95.
^ "Woodcock's Hundred". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
Bibliography
Altham, H. S. (1962). A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914). George Allen & Unwin.
Ashley-Cooper, F. S. (1924). Hambledon Cricket Chronicle 1772–1796. Jenkins.
Birley, Derek (1999). A Social History of English Cricket. Aurum.
Bowen, Rowland (1970). Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development. Eyre & Spottiswoode.
Buckley, G. B. (1935). Fresh Light on 18th Century Cricket. Cotterell.
Haygarth, Arthur (1862). Scores & Biographies, Volume 1 (1744–1826). Lillywhite.
Maun, Ian (2011). From Commons to Lord's, Volume Two: 1751 to 1770. Martin Wilson. ISBN 978-0-9569066-0-1.
McCann, Tim (2004). Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century. Sussex Record Society.
Mote, Ashley (1997). The Glory Days of Cricket. Robson.
Nyren, John (1998). Ashley Mote (ed.). The Cricketers of my Time. Robson.
Swanton, E. W., ed. (1986). Barclays World of Cricket. Willow Books. ISBN 0-00-218193-2.
Underdown, David (2000). Start of Play. Allen Lane.
Waghorn, H. T. (1899). Cricket Scores, Notes, etc. (1730–1773). Blackwood.
Waghorn, H. T. (1906). The Dawn of Cricket. Electric Press.
Wilson, Martin (2005). An Index to Waghorn. Bodyline.
External links
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Small played in all three matches and was easily the season's highest runscorer with 213 in his six innings. The only other player to exceed 100 was William Yalden who made 136, also in six innings. In the first match of the season, Small scored 78 for Hampshire against All-England out of a team total of 146.[9] In the second innings, he scored 34 out of 79 and his team won by 53 runs, an illustration of his enormous value to Hampshire.[10] His innings of 78 was the highest individual score definitely recorded to that time. Although higher scores such as Richard Newland's 88 in 1745 and Small's own 140-plus in 1768 have been mentioned in the sources, it is not clear if those were definitely made in one innings or if they were match totals.Small's 1772 aggregate of 213 runs from six innings would give him an average of 35.50 if all his innings were completed (scorecards in 1772 do not confirm the not out batsmen). This may seem low by modern standards but scores were much lower in general at the time.Small has been recorded in a number of single wicket matches, but he seems to have been less successful in this form of cricket than in the eleven-a-side version. On 22–23 May 1775, he played in one single wicket innings that was of enormous significance in the evolution of the sport because it led directly to the introduction of the third (middle) stump to what had always been a two-stump wicket. This was the single wicket \"fives\" game at the Artillery Ground when a Hambledon Five defeated a Kent Five by one wicket, the not out batsman being Small who in the course of his second innings was beaten three times by Lumpy Stevens, only for the ball to pass through the two-stump wicket each time without hitting the stumps or the bail.[11][8] As a result of Lumpy's protests, the middle stump was legalised and introduced, although its introduction was gradual.[12]Small's most famous feat was scoring the earliest known century in a first-class match when he made 136 not out for Hampshire against Surrey at Broadhalfpenny Down in July 1775.[13] This beat John Minshull's score of 107 set in 1769 and it was the first century scored in a match that has been awarded first-class status. It lasted only until 1777 when James Aylward set a new mark with a score of 167.[14] Small scored this century in the 5th wicket turned the match in Hampshire's favour, and they eventually won by 296 runs after having looked certain to lose before Small and Richard Nyren came together.[15]","title":"Cricket career"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Later career","title":"Cricket career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Billy Beldham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Beldham"},{"link_name":"Tom Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Walker_(cricketer)"},{"link_name":"batting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batting_(cricket)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SB242-1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M96-18"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mote97-2"}],"text":"Along with other greats of the Hambledon era such as Billy Beldham and Tom Walker, Small did much to lay the foundations of what can now be recognised as modern batting technique. He was noted for his sound defence but he was also a fluent strokemaker who used his wrists particularly well.[1] John Nyren described him as the \"best short runner of his day\" and believed him to be \"the first who turned the short run to account\".[16][17]Small rarely if ever bowled but he was \"an admirable fieldsman, always playing middle wicket\" and \"as active as a hare\".[16]It is sometimes said that Small invented the straight bat, replacing the old curved bat in the 1760s after bowlers started pitching the ball instead of skimming or trundling it.[18] It is more accurate to say that he was the first batsman to master the use of the straight bat and that he subsequently manufactured them in his workshop.[2]","title":"Style and technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnSmall.JPG"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"},{"link_name":"Jack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Small"},{"link_name":"Eli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Small"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"cobbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoemaking"},{"link_name":"cricket bats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_bat"},{"link_name":"balls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_ball"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M96-18"},{"link_name":"fiddle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddle"},{"link_name":"double bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bass"},{"link_name":"John Sackville, 3rd Duke of Dorset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sackville,_3rd_Duke_of_Dorset"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"}],"text":"John Small's tombstone in the churchyard at St Peter's Church, Petersfield.Nyren says that Small was \"a remarkably well-made and well-knit man of a handsome countenance and honest expression\".[16]He was married and had at least five children including three daughters who died in childhood (see photograph of the family's tombstone). His wife Ann (born c.1739) died on 22 November 1802, aged 63. His two sons, Jack and Eli, also played senior cricket. Mrs Ann Small was a vociferous supporter of the Hambledon team and was a regular attendee at its matches, often travelling with the team to away games too.[19]Outside cricket, Small's profession was originally a cobbler but he later expanded his business to include the manufacture of cricket bats and balls.[18]Small was musical and could play both the fiddle and the double bass. One of his greatest admirers was the cricket patron John Sackville, 3rd Duke of Dorset, who, when learning of Small's musical skills, sent him \"a handsome violin\".[16] Small returned the favour by sending the Duke a present of two newly made cricket bats and balls.[16]","title":"Family and personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Nyren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nyren"},{"link_name":"superstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstar"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JN57-16"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SB242-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mote97-2"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Wisden Cricketers' Almanack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack"},{"link_name":"John Woodcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Woodcock_(cricket_writer)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Like so many of his contemporaries, Small's fame is based largely on the testimony paid to him by John Nyren in The Cricketers of My Time. Small received high praise indeed for Nyren wrote that \"(Small) shines among them (i.e., the Hambledon players) in all the lustre of a star of the first magnitude\" (i.e., a superstar).[16]His legacy is well summarised by a contemporary verse about him which, it is believed, he displayed on a sign outside his workshop in Petersfield:Here lives John Small, Makes bat and ball,Pitches a wicket, plays at cricketWith any man in England.[1][2]In 1997, in an article in The Times, former Wisden Cricketers' Almanack editor John Woodcock named Small in his 100 Greatest Cricketers of All Time.[20]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Altham, H. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Altham"},{"link_name":"Ashley-Cooper, F. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._S._Ashley-Cooper"},{"link_name":"Birley, Derek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Birley"},{"link_name":"Bowen, Rowland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Bowen"},{"link_name":"Buckley, G. B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._B._Buckley"},{"link_name":"Haygarth, Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Haygarth"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9569066-0-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9569066-0-1"},{"link_name":"McCann, Tim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_J._McCann"},{"link_name":"Mote, Ashley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Mote"},{"link_name":"Nyren, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nyren"},{"link_name":"Swanton, E. W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._W._Swanton"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-218193-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-218193-2"},{"link_name":"Underdown, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Underdown"},{"link_name":"Waghorn, H. T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._T._Waghorn"},{"link_name":"Waghorn, H. T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._T._Waghorn"}],"text":"Altham, H. S. (1962). A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914). George Allen & Unwin.\nAshley-Cooper, F. S. (1924). Hambledon Cricket Chronicle 1772–1796. Jenkins.\nBirley, Derek (1999). A Social History of English Cricket. Aurum.\nBowen, Rowland (1970). Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development. Eyre & Spottiswoode.\nBuckley, G. B. (1935). Fresh Light on 18th Century Cricket. Cotterell.\nHaygarth, Arthur (1862). Scores & Biographies, Volume 1 (1744–1826). Lillywhite.\nMaun, Ian (2011). From Commons to Lord's, Volume Two: 1751 to 1770. Martin Wilson. ISBN 978-0-9569066-0-1.\nMcCann, Tim (2004). Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century. Sussex Record Society.\nMote, Ashley (1997). The Glory Days of Cricket. Robson.\nNyren, John (1998). Ashley Mote (ed.). The Cricketers of my Time. Robson.\nSwanton, E. W., ed. (1986). Barclays World of Cricket. Willow Books. ISBN 0-00-218193-2.\nUnderdown, David (2000). Start of Play. Allen Lane.\nWaghorn, H. T. (1899). Cricket Scores, Notes, etc. (1730–1773). Blackwood.\nWaghorn, H. T. (1906). The Dawn of Cricket. Electric Press.\nWilson, Martin (2005). An Index to Waghorn. Bodyline.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"John Small's tombstone in the churchyard at St Peter's Church, Petersfield.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/JohnSmall.JPG/220px-JohnSmall.JPG"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Who has the most Test wickets without dismissing the same man twice?\". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 29 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ask-steven-who-has-the-most-test-wickets-without-dismissing-the-same-man-twice-1307791","url_text":"\"Who has the most Test wickets without dismissing the same man twice?\""}]},{"reference":"\"The origins of cricket jargon\". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 4 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/articles/z683qp3","url_text":"\"The origins of cricket jargon\""}]},{"reference":"\"From Minshull to Collins\". www.espncricinfo.com. 20 April 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/from-minshull-to-collins-138524","url_text":"\"From Minshull to Collins\""}]},{"reference":"\"Woodcock's Hundred\". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 31 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/153288.html","url_text":"\"Woodcock's Hundred\""}]},{"reference":"Altham, H. S. (1962). A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914). George Allen & Unwin.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Altham","url_text":"Altham, H. S."}]},{"reference":"Ashley-Cooper, F. S. (1924). Hambledon Cricket Chronicle 1772–1796. Jenkins.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._S._Ashley-Cooper","url_text":"Ashley-Cooper, F. S."}]},{"reference":"Birley, Derek (1999). A Social History of English Cricket. Aurum.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Birley","url_text":"Birley, Derek"}]},{"reference":"Bowen, Rowland (1970). Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development. Eyre & Spottiswoode.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Bowen","url_text":"Bowen, Rowland"}]},{"reference":"Buckley, G. B. (1935). Fresh Light on 18th Century Cricket. Cotterell.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._B._Buckley","url_text":"Buckley, G. B."}]},{"reference":"Haygarth, Arthur (1862). Scores & Biographies, Volume 1 (1744–1826). Lillywhite.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Haygarth","url_text":"Haygarth, Arthur"}]},{"reference":"Maun, Ian (2011). From Commons to Lord's, Volume Two: 1751 to 1770. Martin Wilson. ISBN 978-0-9569066-0-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9569066-0-1","url_text":"978-0-9569066-0-1"}]},{"reference":"McCann, Tim (2004). Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century. Sussex Record Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_J._McCann","url_text":"McCann, Tim"}]},{"reference":"Mote, Ashley (1997). The Glory Days of Cricket. Robson.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Mote","url_text":"Mote, Ashley"}]},{"reference":"Nyren, John (1998). Ashley Mote (ed.). The Cricketers of my Time. Robson.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nyren","url_text":"Nyren, John"}]},{"reference":"Swanton, E. W., ed. (1986). Barclays World of Cricket. Willow Books. ISBN 0-00-218193-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._W._Swanton","url_text":"Swanton, E. 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Bodyline.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/20817.html","external_links_name":"CricInfo"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Small_(cricketer)&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ask-steven-who-has-the-most-test-wickets-without-dismissing-the-same-man-twice-1307791","external_links_name":"\"Who has the most Test wickets without dismissing the same man twice?\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/articles/z683qp3","external_links_name":"\"The origins of cricket jargon\""},{"Link":"https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/from-minshull-to-collins-138524","external_links_name":"\"From Minshull to Collins\""},{"Link":"http://www.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/153288.html","external_links_name":"\"Woodcock's Hundred\""},{"Link":"https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/20817.html","external_links_name":"John Small"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur | René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur | ["1 Life","2 Selected works","3 Publications","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"] | French entomologist and writer
"Réaumur" redirects here. For other uses, see Réaumur (disambiguation).
RéaumurLine engraving by Gustav Metzeroth, 1859Born(1683-02-28)28 February 1683La Rochelle, FranceDied17 October 1757(1757-10-17) (aged 74)Saint-Julien-du-Terroux, Mayenne, FranceKnown forTemperature scale named after him, founder of ethologyAwardsMember of the Académie des Sciences; royal and military Order of Saint Louis; Fellow of the Royal Society; Royal Swedish Academy of SciencesScientific careerFieldsEntomologyPatronsPierre Varignon
René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (French: ; 28 February 1683, La Rochelle – 17 October 1757, Saint-Julien-du-Terroux) was a French entomologist and writer who contributed to many different fields, especially the study of insects. He introduced the Réaumur temperature scale.
Life
Réaumur was born in a prominent La Rochelle family and educated in Paris. He learned philosophy in the Jesuits' college at Poitiers, and in 1699 went to Bourges to study civil law and mathematics under the charge of an uncle, canon of La Sainte-Chapelle. In 1703 he went to Paris, where he continued the study of mathematics and physics. In 1708, at the age of 24, he was nominated by Pierre Varignon (who taught him mathematics) and elected a member of the Académie des Sciences. From this time onwards for nearly half a century hardly a year passed in which the Mémoires de l'Académie did not contain at least one paper by Réaumur.
At first, his attention was occupied by mathematical studies, especially in geometry. In 1710, he was named the chief editor of the Descriptions of the Arts and Trades, a major government project which resulted in the establishment of manufactures new to France and the revival of neglected industries. For discoveries regarding iron and steel he was awarded a pension of 12,000 livres. Content with his ample private income, he requested that the money should go to the Académie des Sciences for the furtherance of experiments on improved industrial processes. In 1731 he became interested in meteorology, and invented the thermometer scale which bears his name: the Réaumur. In 1735, for family reasons, he accepted the post of commander and intendant of the royal and military Order of Saint Louis. He discharged his duties with scrupulous attention, but refused the pay. He took great delight in the systematic study of natural history. His friends often called him "the Pliny of the 18th century".
He loved retirement and lived at his country residences, including his chateau La Bermondière, Saint-Julien-du-Terroux, Maine, where he had a serious fall from a horse, which led to his death. He bequeathed his manuscripts, which filled 138 portfolios, and his natural history collections to the Académie des Sciences.
René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur by Simmonneau after Alexis Simon Belle
Réaumur's scientific papers deal with many branches of science. His first, in 1708, was on a general problem in geometry. His last, in 1756, on the forms of birds' nests. He proved experimentally the fact that the strength of a rope is more than the sum of the strengths of its separate strands. He examined and reported on the auriferous (gold-bearing) rivers, the turquoise mines, the forests and the fossil beds of France. He devised the method of tinning iron that is still employed, and investigated the differences between iron and steel, correctly showing that the amount of carbon is greatest in cast iron, less in steel, and least in wrought iron. His book on this subject (1722) was translated into English and German.
He was noted for a thermometer he constructed on the principle of taking the freezing point of water as 0°, and graduating the tube into degrees each of which was one-thousandth of the volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark. It was an accident dependent on the particular alcohol employed which made the boiling-point of water 108°; mercurial thermometers graduated into 80 equal parts between the freezing- and boiling-points of water are named Réaumur thermometers but diverge from his design and intention.
Réaumur wrote much on natural history. Early in life he described the locomotor system of the Echinodermata, and showed that the supposed ability of replacing their lost limbs was actually true. He has been considered as a founder of ethology.
In 1710 he wrote a paper on the possibility of spiders being used to produce silk, which was so celebrated at the time that the Kangxi Emperor of China had it translated into Chinese. His observations of wasps making paper from wood fibres have led some to credit him with this change in paper-making techniques. It was over a century before wood pulp was used on any industrial scale in paper making.
He studied the relationship between the growth of insects and temperature. He also computed the rate of growth of insect populations and noted that there must be natural checks since the theoretical population numbers achieveable by geometric progression were not matched by observations of actual populations.
He also studied botanical and agricultural matters, and devised processes for preserving birds and eggs. He elaborated a system of artificial incubation, and made important observations on the digestion of carnivorous and graminivorous (grass-eating) birds. One of his greatest works is the Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes, 6 vols., with 267 plates (Amsterdam, 1734–1742). It describes the appearance, habits and locality of all the known insects except the beetles, and is a marvel of patient and accurate observation. Among other important facts stated in this work are the experiments which enabled Réaumur to prove the correctness of Peyssonel's hypothesis, that corals are animals and not plants.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in November 1738 by virtue of the fact that:His Name hath been known for many years among the Learned by Several Curious disertations published in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris & in particular by a very Learned and usefull book wrote in French entitled 'The Art of Converting Forged Iron into Steel' and 'the Art of Soft'ning Cast Iron' printed at Paris 1722 4to and lately by his 'Curious Memoires relating to the History of Insects' at Paris in 4to three Volumes of which work have been Laid before the Royal Society.He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1748.
He is commemorated in numerous place names including the rue Réaumur and the Réaumur - Sébastopol metro station in Paris and the Place Réaumur, Le Havre.
Selected works
Dissected head of a deer showing Bot fly larvae
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes, 1734
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1722. L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé. Paris, France.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1734–1742. Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes. Six volumes. Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, France.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1749. Art de faire éclorre et d'élever en tout saison des oiseaux Domestiques de toutes espèces. Two volumes. Imprimerie royale, Paris, France.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1750. The art of hatching and bringing up domestic fowls. London, UK.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1800. Short history of bees I. The natural history of bees . . . Printed for Vernor and Hood in the Poultry, by J. Cundee, London, UK.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1926. The natural history of ants, from an unpublished manuscript. W. M. Wheeler, editor and translator. Knopf, New York City, USA. Reprinted 1977. Arno Press, New York City, USA.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1939. Morceaux choisis. Jean Torlais, editor. Gallimard, Paris, France.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1955. Histoire des scarabées. M. Caullery, introduction. Volume 11 of Encyclopédie Entomologique. Paul Lechevalier, Paris, France.
Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1956. Memoirs on steel and iron. A. G. Sisco, translator. C. S. Smith, introduction and notes. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
Publications
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1734.
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1736.
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1737.
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 4. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1738.
Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 5. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1740.
Notes
^ a b Egerton, F. N. 2006. A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 21: Réaumur and His History of Insects. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 87(3):212–224.
^ La Bermondière.
^ 100 °C * 0.00108 К−1 / 0.001 °Ré−1
^ Wheeler, W. M. 1926. Introduction, annotations and bibliography. In R.-A.F.de Réaumur 1926. Knopf, New York City, USA.
^ "No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper". www.uh.edu.
^ "On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)". aleph0.clarku.edu.
^ "Library and Archive Catalogue". The Royal Society. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
References
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur.
Works by or about René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur at Internet Archive
Digitalies text of Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes
Website of the Manoir Des Sciences at Reaumur
Gaedike, R.; Groll, E. K. & Taeger, A. 2012: Bibliography of the entomological literature from the beginning until 1863 : online database – version 1.0 – Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut.
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Réaumur (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[ʁeomyʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Rochelle"},{"link_name":"Saint-Julien-du-Terroux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Julien-du-Terroux"},{"link_name":"entomologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologist"},{"link_name":"study of insects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomology"},{"link_name":"Réaumur temperature scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale"}],"text":"\"Réaumur\" redirects here. For other uses, see Réaumur (disambiguation).René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (French: [ʁeomyʁ]; 28 February 1683, La Rochelle – 17 October 1757, Saint-Julien-du-Terroux) was a French entomologist and writer who contributed to many different fields, especially the study of insects. He introduced the Réaumur temperature scale.","title":"René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jesuits'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Poitiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poitiers"},{"link_name":"Bourges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourges"},{"link_name":"civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"La Sainte-Chapelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Sainte-Chapelle"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris,_France"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"Pierre Varignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Varignon"},{"link_name":"Académie des Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-egerton-1"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"Descriptions of the Arts and Trades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptions_of_the_Arts_and_Trades"},{"link_name":"livres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_livre"},{"link_name":"meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology"},{"link_name":"thermometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer"},{"link_name":"Réaumur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale"},{"link_name":"intendant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intendant_(government_official)"},{"link_name":"Order of Saint Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Louis"},{"link_name":"Pliny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Saint-Julien-du-Terroux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Julien-du-Terroux"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_R.A.F._de_reaumur_by_P._Simmonneau_Wellcome_M0014820.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alexis Simon Belle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Simon_Belle"},{"link_name":"rope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rope"},{"link_name":"turquoise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turquoise"},{"link_name":"fossil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil"},{"link_name":"tinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinning"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"wrought iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron"},{"link_name":"thermometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer"},{"link_name":"freezing point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_point"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Réaumur thermometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale"},{"link_name":"Echinodermata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinodermata"},{"link_name":"ethology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Kangxi Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"natural checks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_check"},{"link_name":"geometric progression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_progression"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-egerton-1"},{"link_name":"incubation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_incubation"},{"link_name":"Peyssonel's hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peyssonel%27s_hypothesis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"corals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences"}],"text":"Réaumur was born in a prominent La Rochelle family and educated in Paris. He learned philosophy in the Jesuits' college at Poitiers, and in 1699 went to Bourges to study civil law and mathematics under the charge of an uncle, canon of La Sainte-Chapelle. In 1703 he went to Paris, where he continued the study of mathematics and physics. In 1708, at the age of 24, he was nominated by Pierre Varignon (who taught him mathematics) and elected a member of the Académie des Sciences.[1] From this time onwards for nearly half a century hardly a year passed in which the Mémoires de l'Académie did not contain at least one paper by Réaumur.At first, his attention was occupied by mathematical studies, especially in geometry. In 1710, he was named the chief editor of the Descriptions of the Arts and Trades, a major government project which resulted in the establishment of manufactures new to France and the revival of neglected industries. For discoveries regarding iron and steel he was awarded a pension of 12,000 livres. Content with his ample private income, he requested that the money should go to the Académie des Sciences for the furtherance of experiments on improved industrial processes. In 1731 he became interested in meteorology, and invented the thermometer scale which bears his name: the Réaumur. In 1735, for family reasons, he accepted the post of commander and intendant of the royal and military Order of Saint Louis. He discharged his duties with scrupulous attention, but refused the pay. He took great delight in the systematic study of natural history. His friends often called him \"the Pliny of the 18th century\".He loved retirement and lived at his country residences, including his chateau La Bermondière,[2] Saint-Julien-du-Terroux, Maine, where he had a serious fall from a horse, which led to his death. He bequeathed his manuscripts, which filled 138 portfolios, and his natural history collections to the Académie des Sciences.René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur by Simmonneau after Alexis Simon BelleRéaumur's scientific papers deal with many branches of science. His first, in 1708, was on a general problem in geometry. His last, in 1756, on the forms of birds' nests. He proved experimentally the fact that the strength of a rope is more than the sum of the strengths of its separate strands. He examined and reported on the auriferous (gold-bearing) rivers, the turquoise mines, the forests and the fossil beds of France. He devised the method of tinning iron that is still employed, and investigated the differences between iron and steel, correctly showing that the amount of carbon is greatest in cast iron, less in steel, and least in wrought iron. His book on this subject (1722) was translated into English and German.He was noted for a thermometer he constructed on the principle of taking the freezing point of water as 0°, and graduating the tube into degrees each of which was one-thousandth of the volume contained by the bulb and tube up to the zero mark. It was an accident dependent on the particular alcohol employed which made the boiling-point of water 108°;[3] mercurial thermometers graduated into 80 equal parts between the freezing- and boiling-points of water are named Réaumur thermometers but diverge from his design and intention.Réaumur wrote much on natural history. Early in life he described the locomotor system of the Echinodermata, and showed that the supposed ability of replacing their lost limbs was actually true. He has been considered as a founder of ethology.[4]In 1710 he wrote a paper on the possibility of spiders being used to produce silk, which was so celebrated at the time that the Kangxi Emperor of China had it translated into Chinese. His observations of wasps making paper from wood fibres have led some to credit him with this change in paper-making techniques. It was over a century before wood pulp was used on any industrial scale in paper making.[5]He studied the relationship between the growth of insects and temperature. He also computed the rate of growth of insect populations and noted that there must be natural checks since the theoretical population numbers achieveable by geometric progression were not matched by observations of actual populations.[1]He also studied botanical and agricultural matters, and devised processes for preserving birds and eggs. He elaborated a system of artificial incubation, and made important observations on the digestion of carnivorous and graminivorous (grass-eating) birds. One of his greatest works is the Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes, 6 vols., with 267 plates (Amsterdam, 1734–1742). It describes the appearance, habits and locality of all the known insects except the beetles, and is a marvel of patient and accurate observation. Among other important facts stated in this work are the experiments which enabled Réaumur to prove the correctness of Peyssonel's hypothesis, that corals are animals and not plants.[6]He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in November 1738[7] by virtue of the fact that:His Name hath been known for many years among the Learned by Several Curious disertations published in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris & in particular by a very Learned and usefull book wrote in French entitled 'The Art of Converting Forged Iron into Steel' and 'the Art of Soft'ning Cast Iron' printed at Paris 1722 4to and lately by his 'Curious Memoires relating to the History of Insects' at Paris in 4to three Volumes of which work have been Laid before the Royal Society.He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1748.He is commemorated in numerous place names including the rue Réaumur and the Réaumur - Sébastopol metro station in Paris and the Place Réaumur, Le Havre.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DeerBotFlyReaumur.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bot fly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot_fly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R%C3%A9aumur,_Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Ferchault_de_%E2%80%93_M%C3%A9moires_pour_servir_a_l%27histoire_des_insectes,_1734_%E2%80%93_BEIC_8796756.jpg"}],"text":"Dissected head of a deer showing Bot fly larvaeMémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes, 1734Réaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1722. L'art de convertir le fer forgé en acier, et l'art d'adoucir le fer fondu, ou de faire des ouvrages de fer fondu aussi finis que le fer forgé. Paris, France.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1734–1742. Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes. Six volumes. Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, France.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1749. Art de faire éclorre et d'élever en tout saison des oiseaux Domestiques de toutes espèces. Two volumes. Imprimerie royale, Paris, France.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1750. The art of hatching and bringing up domestic fowls. London, UK.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1800. Short history of bees I. The natural history of bees . . . Printed for Vernor and Hood in the Poultry, by J. Cundee, London, UK.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1926. The natural history of ants, from an unpublished manuscript. W. M. Wheeler, editor and translator. [Includes French text.] Knopf, New York City, USA. Reprinted 1977. Arno Press, New York City, USA.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1939. Morceaux choisis. Jean Torlais, editor. Gallimard, Paris, France.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1955. Histoire des scarabées. M. Caullery, introduction. Volume 11 of Encyclopédie Entomologique. Paul Lechevalier, Paris, France.\nRéaumur, R.-A. F. de. 1956. Memoirs on steel and iron. A. G. Sisco, translator. C. S. Smith, introduction and notes. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.","title":"Selected works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8796756"},{"link_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8799075"},{"link_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8801052"},{"link_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8803101"},{"link_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8805408"}],"text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1734.\nMémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1736.\nMémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1737.\nMémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 4. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1738.\nMémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 5. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1740.","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-egerton_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-egerton_1-1"},{"link_name":"A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 21: Réaumur and His History of Insects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history21.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"La Bermondière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//bernard.langellier.pagesperso-orange.fr/imgbiogra/reaumur.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.uh.edu/engines/epi1052.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/UnColl/Rdetc/Coral.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20130415171654/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=(Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27)"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27%29"}],"text":"^ a b Egerton, F. N. 2006. A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 21: Réaumur and His History of Insects. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 87(3):212–224.\n\n^ La Bermondière.\n\n^ 100 °C * 0.00108 К−1 / 0.001 °Ré−1\n\n^ Wheeler, W. M. 1926. Introduction, annotations and bibliography. In R.-A.F.de Réaumur 1926. Knopf, New York City, USA.\n\n^ \"No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper\". www.uh.edu.\n\n^ \"On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)\". aleph0.clarku.edu.\n\n^ \"Library and Archive Catalogue\". The Royal Society. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2010.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur by Simmonneau after Alexis Simon Belle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Portrait_of_R.A.F._de_reaumur_by_P._Simmonneau_Wellcome_M0014820.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_R.A.F._de_reaumur_by_P._Simmonneau_Wellcome_M0014820.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dissected head of a deer showing Bot fly larvae","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/DeerBotFlyReaumur.jpg/170px-DeerBotFlyReaumur.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes, 1734","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/R%C3%A9aumur%2C_Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Ferchault_de_%E2%80%93_M%C3%A9moires_pour_servir_a_l%27histoire_des_insectes%2C_1734_%E2%80%93_BEIC_8796756.jpg/220px-R%C3%A9aumur%2C_Ren%C3%A9-Antoine_Ferchault_de_%E2%80%93_M%C3%A9moires_pour_servir_a_l%27histoire_des_insectes%2C_1734_%E2%80%93_BEIC_8796756.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1734.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8796756","url_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"}]},{"reference":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1736.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8799075","url_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"}]},{"reference":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1737.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8801052","url_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"}]},{"reference":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 4. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1738.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8803101","url_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"}]},{"reference":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes (in French). Vol. 5. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. 1740.","urls":[{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8805408","url_text":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper\". www.uh.edu.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1052.htm","url_text":"\"No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper\""}]},{"reference":"\"On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)\". aleph0.clarku.edu.","urls":[{"url":"http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/UnColl/Rdetc/Coral.html","url_text":"\"On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\". The Royal Society. Archived from the original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130415171654/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=(Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27)","url_text":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\""},{"url":"http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27%29","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de\" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/R%C3%A9aumur,_Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de","url_text":"\"Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8796756","external_links_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8799075","external_links_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8801052","external_links_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8803101","external_links_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=8805408","external_links_name":"Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history21.pdf","external_links_name":"A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 21: Réaumur and His History of Insects"},{"Link":"http://bernard.langellier.pagesperso-orange.fr/imgbiogra/reaumur.html","external_links_name":"La Bermondière"},{"Link":"http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1052.htm","external_links_name":"\"No. 1052: Of Wasps Making Paper\""},{"Link":"http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/UnColl/Rdetc/Coral.html","external_links_name":"\"On Coral and Coral Reefs (1871)\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130415171654/http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=(Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27)","external_links_name":"\"Library and Archive Catalogue\""},{"Link":"http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27Reaumur%27%29","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/R%C3%A9aumur,_Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de","external_links_name":"\"Réaumur, René Antoine Ferchault de\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28%28Ren%C3%A9+Antoine+Ferchault+de+R%C3%A9aumur%29%20OR%20%28Ren%2A+Antoine+Ferchault+de+R%2Aaumur%29%29%20OR%20%28%221683-1757%22%20AND%20%28%22R%C3%A9aumur%22%20OR%20Reaumur%29%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29","external_links_name":"Works by or about René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070714142231/http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/207/","external_links_name":"Digitalies text of Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des insectes"},{"Link":"http://www.manoirdessciencesdereaumur.fr/","external_links_name":"Website of the Manoir Des Sciences at Reaumur"},{"Link":"http://sdei.senckenberg.de/index/index.php?befehl=about","external_links_name":"Gaedike, R.; Groll, E. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRAS_17423-1755 | IRAS 17423-1755 | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 17h 45m 14.19s, −17° 56′ 46.9″Nebula in the constellation Sagittarius
IRAS 17423-1755Emission nebulaPlanetary nebulaPlanetary nebula IRAS 17423-1755 taken by the Hubble Space TelescopeObservation data: J2000 epochRight ascension17h 45m 14.19sDeclination−17° 56′ 46.9″Distance18,000 lyApparent magnitude (V)12.87ConstellationSagittariusDesignationsGSC2 S2202023288 , 2MASS J17451419-1756469, PK 009+05 1,
DENIS-P J174514.1-175646, GSC 06253-02182, MSX6C G009.3628+05.7782, PN G009.3+05.7,
GLMP 632, Hen 3-1475, PDS 465, 17423-1755See also: Lists of nebulae
IRAS 17423-1755 also known as Henize 3-1475 is a planetary nebula, located in the constellation of Sagittarius around 18,000 light-years away from earth. The central star is around 20,000 times as luminous as the Sun.
References
^ a b c "Search Results for IRAS 17423-1755". Astronomical Database. SIMBAD. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
^ a b "A cosmic garden sprinkler". ESA/Hubble Picture of the Week. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
vteConstellation of Sagittarius
List of stars in Sagittarius
Galactic Center
Central Molecular Zone
Large Sagittarius Star Cloud
Sagittarius in Chinese astronomy
Wow! signal
StarsBayer
α (Rukbat)
β1 (Arkab Prior)
β2 (Arkab Posterior)
γ1 (W)
γ2 (Alnasl)
δ (Kaus Media)
ε (Kaus Australis)
ζ (Ascella)
η
θ1
θ2
ι
κ1
κ2
λ (Kaus Borealis)
μ (Polis)
ν1 (Ainalrami)
ν2
ξ1
ξ2
ο
π (Albaldah)
ρ1
ρ2
σ (Nunki)
τ
υ
φ
χ1
χ2
χ3
ψ
ω (Terebellum)
Flamsteed
1
4
5
6
7
9
12
14
15
16
17
18
21
23
24
25
26
28
29
30
31
33
43 (d)
50
51 (h1)
52 (h2)
53
54 (e1)
55 (e2)
56 (f)
57
59 (b)
60 (A)
61 (g)
62 (c)
63
65
63 Oph
Variable
T
U
X (3)
Y
RR
RS
RY
RZ
VX
VY
VZ
WZ
XX
XZ
YY
YZ
AQ
AS
AV
BB
FN
GM
GU
KW
MV
V348
V350
V356
V440
V505
V523
V526
V617
V630
V725
V732
V774
V919
V1017
V1059
V1216
V1223
V1647
V1942
V3792
V3795
V3804
V3879
V3885
V3890
V3892
V3894
V3903 (11)
V3961
V3984
V4021
V4024
V4028
V4029
V4030
V4046
V4050
V4064
V4072
V4089
V4091
V4138
V4140
V4160
V4169
V4190
V4198
V4199
V4200
V4332
V4333
V4334
V4371
V4375
V4381
V4387
V4405
V4407
V4434
V4444
V4580
V4633
V4641
V4647 (Pistol Star)
V4650
V4728
V4743
V4745
V4998
V5112
V5115
V5116
V5125
V5157
V5555
V5558
V5652
V5668
V5856
HR
6617
6679
6680
6691
6692
6693
6704
6716
6739
6748
6762
6766
6769
6777
6780
6788
6798
6835
6836
6838
6842
6864
6874
6889
6907
6909
6914
6919
6933
6936
6944
6960
6972
6988
6990
6998
7026
7029
7035
7038
7072
7104
7126
7128
7151
7159
7164
7166
7168
7182
7186
7195
7203
7205
7211
7230
7239
7240
7246
7265
7276
7277
7282
7316
7317
7327
7330
7334
7350
7355
7360
7367
7378
7380
7392
7398
7410
7433
7443
7454
7473
7491
7496
7507
7532
7538
7585
7616
7627
7629
7630
7631
7639
7643
7652
7658
7659
7703
7706
7725
7765
7799
7801
7808
HD
163296
163758
164604 (Pincoya)
164816
165052
169142
170657
171238
175390
175754
180902
181342
181720
183577
187085
187150
190647
313846
316285
Other
2MASS 19281982-2640123
2MASS J18352154–3123385
2MASS J19513587-3510375
4U 1755-33
4U 1820-30
A1742-294
Ap 1-11
AS 295
BD -18 5550
Bursting Pulsar
CWISEP J1935-1546
GCIRS 13E
745
GGD 27
GRO J1744−28
GRS 1758-258
GS 1826-24
GX 3-1
GX 5-1
GX 9-1
GX 13+1
HATS-36
Herschel 36
HETE J1900.1-2455
IRAS 17423-1755
IRAS 18162−2048
GCIRS 3
GCIRS 7
GCIRS 8*
GCIRS 16SW
Gomez's Hamburger
G0.238-0.071
K2-2016-BLG-0005L
LBV 1806-20
LS IV -12 111
MACHO 176.18833.411
MACHO-1997-BLG-41
MACHO-98-BLG-35
NGC 6822-WR 12
PSR B1744−24A
PSR B1749−28
PSR B1757−24
PSR B1758−23
PSR B1800−21
PSR B1821−24
PSR B1857−26
PSR J1808−2024
PSR J1747−2958
PSR J1748−2446ad
S2
S55
S62
S4716
SAX J1747.0−2853
SAX J1808.4−3658
SAX J1810.8−2609
SWEEPS J175853.92−291120.6
SWEEPS J175902.00-291323.7
SWEEPS J175902.67−291153.5
Swift J1745-26
SWIFT J1756.9−2508
Th 4-4
W33A
WASP-67
WD 0032−317
WR 102
c
ea
ka
WR 101-2
WR 104
WR 110
WR 111
WR 112
XTE J1748−288
XTE J1807−294
XTE J1810−197
XTE J1814−338
Exoplanets
HATS-36b
HD 164604 b
HD 181720 b
K2-2016-BLG-0005Lb
KMT-2022-BLG-0440L b
MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb
MOA-2007-BLG-400Lb
MOA-2009-BLG-387Lb
MOA-2010-BLG-477Lb
OGLE-2003-BLG-235Lb
OGLE-2005-BLG-169Lb
OGLE-2018-BLG-1119Lb
OGLE-TR-10b
OGLE-TR-56b
SWIFT J1756.9-2508 b
StarclustersNGC
NGC 6440
NGC 6520
NGC 6522
NGC 6528
NGC 6530
NGC 6540
NGC 6544
NGC 6553
NGC 6558
NGC 6569
NGC 6603
NGC 6624
NGC 6638
NGC 6642
NGC 6717
NGC 6723
Other
1806−20 cluster
2MASS-GC02
Arches Cluster
CO-0.40-0.22
Messier 18
Messier 21
Messier 22
Messier 23
Messier 25
Messier 28
Messier 54
Messier 55
Messier 69
Messier 70
Messier 75
Quintuplet cluster
Small Sagittarius Star Cloud
NebulaeNGC
NGC 6822 (Bubble Nebula)
NGC 6445
NGC 6559
NGC 6563
NGC 6565
NGC 6578
NGC 6589
NGC 6590
NGC 6818
Other
Barnard 92
G1.9+0.3
HCN-0.009-0.044
Lagoon Nebula
Large Molecule Heimat
M 1-42
M2-42
Omega Nebula
Pistol Nebula
Red Spider Nebula
Ring Nebula
Trifid Nebula
GalaxiesNGC
NGC 6822
NGC 6902
Other
MRC 2011-298
PKS 2000-330
Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular Galaxy
Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy
Galaxy clusters
ESO 593-8
Astronomical events
GLEAM-X J162759.5−523504.3
MOA-2007-BLG-192L
MOA-2007-BLG-400L
MOA-2009-BLG-387L
MOA-2010-BLG-477L
MOA-2011-BLG-262L
OGLE-2003-BLG-235L
OGLE-2005-BLG-169L
Nova Sagittarii 1982
Category
This nebula-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"17h 45m 14.19s, −17° 56′ 46.9″","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wikisky.org/?ra=17.753941666667&de=-17.946361111111&zoom=6&show_grid=1&show_constellation_lines=1&show_constellation_boundaries=1&show_const_names=1&show_galaxies=1&img_source=IMG_all"},{"link_name":"planetary nebula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula"},{"link_name":"constellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"Sagittarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)"}],"text":"Coordinates: 17h 45m 14.19s, −17° 56′ 46.9″Nebula in the constellation SagittariusIRAS 17423-1755 also known as Henize 3-1475 is a planetary nebula, located in the constellation of Sagittarius around 18,000 light-years away from earth. The central star is around 20,000 times as luminous as the Sun.","title":"IRAS 17423-1755"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Search Results for IRAS 17423-1755\". Astronomical Database. SIMBAD. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=Hen+3-1475","url_text":"\"Search Results for IRAS 17423-1755\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMBAD","url_text":"SIMBAD"}]},{"reference":"\"A cosmic garden sprinkler\". ESA/Hubble Picture of the Week. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1241a/","url_text":"\"A cosmic garden sprinkler\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.wikisky.org/?ra=17.753941666667&de=-17.946361111111&zoom=6&show_grid=1&show_constellation_lines=1&show_constellation_boundaries=1&show_const_names=1&show_galaxies=1&img_source=IMG_all","external_links_name":"17h 45m 14.19s, −17° 56′ 46.9″"},{"Link":"http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=Hen+3-1475","external_links_name":"\"Search Results for IRAS 17423-1755\""},{"Link":"http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1241a/","external_links_name":"\"A cosmic garden sprinkler\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IRAS_17423-1755&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdrive_pedal | List of distortion pedals | ["1 Fuzz pedals","1.1 Arbiter Fuzz Face","1.2 Electro-Harmonix Big Muff","1.3 Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone","1.4 Sola Sound / Vox Tone Bender","1.5 Univox Super-Fuzz","2 Distortion pedals","2.1 Boss DS-1 Distortion","2.2 Boss HM-2 Heavy Metal","2.3 Boss MT-2 Metal Zone","2.4 Marshall Shredmaster","2.5 MXR Distortion +","2.6 Pro Co Rat","3 Overdrive pedals","3.1 Analog Man King of Tone","3.2 Boss BD-2 Blues Driver","3.3 Boss OD-1 OverDrive","3.4 Boss SD-1 Super OverDrive","3.5 Fulltone OCD","3.6 Hermida Audio Zendrive","3.7 Ibanez Tube Screamer","3.8 Klon Centaur","3.9 Marshall Bluesbreaker","3.10 Nobels ODR-1","3.11 Paul Cochrane Timmy","4 See also","5 References"] | Distortion pedals are a type of effects unit designed to add distortion to an audio signal to create a warm, gritty, or fuzzy character. Depending on the style of signal clipping, the broader category of distortion pedals is typically divided into fuzz pedals, distortion pedals, or overdrive pedals. Designed for electric guitar and bass and operated by the player's foot, distortion pedals are most frequently placed in the signal chain between the guitar and amplifier.
The use of distortion pedals was popularized by Keith Richard's use of a Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone pedal on the 1965 Rolling Stones song "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction". Later pedals like the Pro Co Rat and Ibanez Tube Screamer have achieved iconic status among guitarists and are a key element in many players' tones. Industry publications often publish lists of influential and popular models.
Fuzz pedals
Arbiter Fuzz Face
Main article: Fuzz Face
Arbiter Electronics released the first Fuzz Face in 1969, featuring a unique round metal housing inspired by a microphone stand and with the arrangement of volume knob, distortion knob, and logo intentionally resembling a face. The Fuzz Face's first production run lasted until 1976/77, then was reissued from 1986 until 1990. In 1993, Dunlop Manufacturing took over production and has continued to issue several varieties of the pedal. Jimi Hendrix popularized the Fuzz Face and was known to buy multiple copies at a time to identify the best ones; his pedal chain often consisted of a wah-wah pedal into a Fuzz Face, then into a Uni-Vibe. Other notable users include Duane Allman, Stevie Ray Vaughan Pete Townshend, Eric Johnson, and George Harrison.
Electro-Harmonix Big Muff
Main article: Electro-Harmonix Big Muff
The Big Muff Pi (π), often known simply as the Big Muff, is a fuzz pedal produced in New York City by the Electro-Harmonix company, along with their Russian sister company Sovtek, primarily for use with the electric guitar. Released in 1969 and designed with an emphasis on long sustain compared to existing fuzzes, the Big Muff Pi was the first overwhelming success for Electro-Harmonix's line of pedals. Due to its reliability, its low price, and its distinctive sound, the Big Muff sold consistently through the 1970s and was found in numerous guitarists' pedal collections, including David Gilmour and Carlos Santana. The "sustained grind" of the Big Muff was later an integral part of the sound of many alternative rock bands through the 1980s and 1990s, being used extensively by the Smashing Pumpkins, Dinosaur Jr., NOFX, Bush and Mudhoney.
Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone
Main article: Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone
The Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone was the first widely marketed fuzz distortion guitar and bass effect. Introduced in 1962, it achieved widespread popularity in 1965 after the Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards prominent use of the FZ-1 on the group's hit, "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction". Later in 1965, the design was slightly modified and designated as the model FZ1-1a. In the wake of the success of "Satisfaction," numerous recordings, mostly from 1960s garage rock and psychedelic acts, featured Maestro Fuzz-Tones on guitar. More significant design changes made after 1967 resulted in different renditions of the Fuzz-Tone released over the years. In the 1990s, Gibson re-issued the FZ-1a, but it was later discontinued.
Sola Sound / Vox Tone Bender
Main article: Tone Bender
Released in 1965, Sola Sound's Tone Bender was a re-creation of the popular Maestro Fuzz-Tone, but with more sustain and intended for the European market. For U.S. distribution, Vox released a version in 1967 based on Sola Sound's MK1.5 Tone Bender update, one of many the pedal went through. With different component values and transistors being used over the years, earlier variants are fuller sounding, while later ones are bright and cutting. Notable examples of the Tone Bender in use include Jeff Beck's sitar-like guitar solo on the Yardbirds' 1965 song "Heart Full of Soul" and Mick Ronson's guitar work on David Bowie's 1972 song "Moonage Daydream".
Univox Super-Fuzz
Main article: Univox Super-Fuzz
The Univox Super-Fuzz circuit was designed in the late 1960s by the Japanese company Honey, in the form of a multi-effect called the Honey Psychedelic Machine. Later on, Honey was acquired by Shin-ei, who produced the effect separately and imported it to the USA via Unicord, the parent company of Univox. The first Super-Fuzzes were made in 1968, and production continued until the late 70s. The pedal is unique in that the full-wave rectification of the circuit produces an upper octave as well as a slight lower octave. This also gives the sound a lot of compression and a mild ring modulator effect. A second unique feature is a tone switch that engages a 1 kHz filter that "scoops" the mids, giving a fat, bassy tone.
Distortion pedals
Boss DS-1 Distortion
Main article: Boss DS-1
Introduced in 1978, the DS-1 was Boss's first distortion pedal, and second pedal release overall, following the CE-1 Chorus Ensemble. The DS-1 uses two hard-clipping diodes for an aggressive edge, similar to the ProCo Rat, released the same year. This type of circuit became known as "distortion," as opposed to the soft-clipping "overdrive" of Boss's later overdrive pedals. The DS-1 uses a preamplifier instead of the conventional op-amp for a gritty, warm tone. When the original Toshiba TA7136AP preamp became scarce, the circuit was redesigned in 1994, introducing several "quirks"—lower volume levels, noise at higher gain levels, and a "waspy" edge due to higher frequencies not being filtered out. These issues led to the pedal being popular among modifiers.
The DS-1 is Boss's bestselling pedal of all time.
Boss HM-2 Heavy Metal
Main article: Boss HM-2
The Boss HM-2, first issued in October 1983, was manufactured in Japan until 1988, then in Taiwan until 1991. It was designed to emulate the mid-range response of a Marshall stack. Achieving only moderate success in the glam metal scene, the pedal was discontinued in 1991; it was succeeded by the HM-3 Hyper Metal and MT-2 Metal Zone, the latter of which became a commercial success and top-selling pedal for Boss. Following its discontinuance, the HM-2 developed a cult following in the heavy metal scene and is especially associated with Swedish death metal. In 2020, Boss issued a "Waza Craft" edition of the pedal, the HM-2W.
Boss MT-2 Metal Zone
The Metal Zone was released in 1991, following the discontinuation of the earlier HM-2 Heavy Metal, which failed to sell well during its production run, but was popular among death metal players, since amplifiers of the time were not capable of the amount of distortion players wanted without being boosted with a pedal. With the MT-2, Boss sought to appeal to that market with an improved pedal as death metal's popularity surged. The MT-2 sported a complex design for a distortion pedal, with a dual-stage gain circuit, seven filters for both pre- and post-distortion, and a semi-parametric three-band EQ section. The pedal's thick, saturated, tight tone and the extreme sounds the pedal was able to produce thanks to its powerful EQ controls made the MT-2 divisive both upon its release and throughout its ongoing production. Guitar World characterized the general reaction to the pedal as "inspiring or confusing," and the pedal is often lampooned on the internet as the worst distortion ever made. Many in the metal community embraced the sound, however, with Nathan Weaver of Wolves in the Throne Room favorably describing the MT-2 as a "fucked-up, corpse-grinding type sound." Despite this, the pedal has found fans like Prince when used on lower gain settings or as a boost.
The Metal Zone has sold over a million units, making it the company's best-selling pedal behind only the DS-1.
Marshall Shredmaster
The Shredmaster was the high-gain model of a trio of pedals, including the Drivemaster and Bluesbreaker, released by Marshall in 1991. Each pedal was meant to imitate the sound of a particular Marshall amplifier. The trio was discontinued one year afterwards in 1992. The Shredmaster has a lot in common with Marshall's Guv’nor pedal, with the first half of both circuits being nearly identical. However, the Shredmaster has an additional gain recovery stage, and though the three tone knobs appear to be the same on the outside, the tone stack is different. The Shredmaster is frequently associated with Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood.
The series was reissued by Marshall in 2023.
MXR Distortion +
Main article: MXR Distortion +
MXR scored its first success with the Phase 90 and followed quickly with a trio of 1974 releases, including the Distortion +. MXR's pedals were notable for their small footprint, as effects pedals were typically housed in large enclosures at the time, and durability, since MXR was initially founded to address the issue of other manufacturers' pedals' unreliability. The Distortion + has found a wide range of fans, like Randy Rhoads in his work with Ozzy Osbourne, Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead, Bob Mould of Hüsker Dü, Dave Murray of Iron Maiden, and Thom Yorke of Radiohead.
Pro Co Rat
Main article: Pro Co RAT
Developed in 1978 with mass production beginning a year later, the Pro Co Rat was the first mass-produced distortion pedal. In the Rat, Pro Co's engineers sought to improve upon the earlier Fuzz Face and ultimately designed a pedal with, as Guitar World wrote, a "hard, aggressive sound and tight, focused clipping" that set the template for modern distortion circuits. Pro Co has released numerous versions of the Rat since its initial release, and its enduring popularity has spawned numerous clones and tributes from other pedal manufacturers like JHS Pedals and Wampler Pedals.
Overdrive pedals
Analog Man King of Tone
The King of Tone, released in 2005, was designed by Analog Man founder Mike Piera and Jim Weider to recreate the tone of the then-discontinued Marshall Bluesbreaker pedal with its settings maxed to the point the original pedal took on a different character. A two-sided pedal with independent controls and internal DIP switches to choose between boost, overdrive, and distortion modes, the King of Tone quickly developed a strong following and a years-long waiting list. Vintage Guitar dubbed the pedal one of a few "holy grail" overdrives. To satisfy demand for the pedal, Analog Man later developed a single-sided variation, the Prince of Tone, that could be produced faster. Analog Man subsequently partnered with MXR to release a smaller format, mass-produced version, the Duke of Tone.
Boss BD-2 Blues Driver
In 1995, Boss released the BD-2, an overdrive pedal aimed at blues players who sought to add distortion while maintaining their amp's signal clarity and dynamics. At the time, blues was experiencing a resurgence thanks to Eric Clapton and Gary Moore. The pedal has a clear, punchy tone and features a flatter EQ-curve for a more amp-like tone than similar pedals, like the Ibanez Tube Screamer.
Notable players who use the BD-2 include Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Billie Joe Armstrong of Green Day.
Boss OD-1 OverDrive
With the 1977 release of the OD-1 OverDrive, Boss coined the term "overdrive," a reference to the pedal's asymmetrical-clipping, tube-like distortion in comparison to the brash sound of "fuzz" pedals available. The OD-1's layout was simple—with only "Level" and "OverDrive" controls. The OD-1 was an immediate success, as the pedal afforded players more amp-like distortion at lower volume levels no matter what amp was being used. Within a few years, however, the pedal's voicing was considered overly "sweet" as rock music became more aggressive and the fixed frequency limited its versatility. With the surging popularity of the OD-1-influenced Tube Screamer and its addition of a tone control, Boss began including a "Tone" knob on its pedals with the 1981 SD-1 and the OD-1 was discontinued in 1985.
Boss SD-1 Super OverDrive
The Super OverDrive was released in 1981 as Boss's second overdrive pedal, adding a tone control to the earlier OD-1 design, while continuing to replicate the sound of tube amp-style overdrive via an asymmetrical clipping circuit and an inherent midrange-focus, but with less bass roll-off. The asymmetrical clipping lent the pedal a more aggressive character compared to the rival Tube Screamer, and it became popular in the growing hard rock and heavy metal subgenres with guitarists frequently using it to boost already-overdriven amplifiers like the Marshall JCM800 into higher-gain sounds.
In 2021, Boss released a 40th anniversary edition of the pedal, with the original circuit having remained unchanged since its introduction. Guitar dubbed the pedal one of only a handful to ever achieve "truly iconic status."
Fulltone OCD
In 2004, Fulltone released the Obsessive Compulsive Drive (OCD), which was designed as "an open-sounding distortion pedal with decent headroom to more faithfully emulate a driven tube amp," with a circuit similar to the earlier Voodoo Labs Overdrive, itself a variation of the Ibanez Tubescreamer. An op amp-based pedal, the OCD has gone through multiple iterations, with changes from versions 1.1 to 1.7 being generally subtle alterations of the pedal's EQ response. Version 2 brought more noticeable changes, with a new output buffer, a 2N5457 JFET transistor input stage, and the option to use a new type of switching, enhanced bypass, instead of true bypass. After the first iteration, the drive pot's value was increased for a more "dramatic" distortion, and an asymmetric 1N34 germanium diode was later added to shift the character of the clipping.
The OCD was dubbed by Music Radar "one of the most legendary overdrives ever made."
Hermida Audio Zendrive
Alfonso Hermida released the Zendrive in 2004 to acclaim as the overdrive pedal that most successfully emulates the breakup and response of the Dumble Amplifiers Overdrive Special, a famously expensive and exclusive amplifier—just as the Zendrive would become, with used prices reaching over a thousand dollars, and having fans like Overdrive Special-owner Robben Ford. Struggling to keep up with demand, Hermida partnered with the company Lovepedals in 2013 to take over Zendrive manufacturing. Despite this, the Zendrive remains rare on the pedal market.
Ibanez Tube Screamer
Main article: Ibanez Tube Screamer
The Ibanez Tube Screamer (TS808/TS9) was designed in the late 1970s by Susumu Tamura of Maxon. It has a characteristic mid-boosted tone popular with blues, rock and metal players. The Tube Screamer has been used by many guitarists to create their signature sound, and is one of the most successful, widely copied, and custom-modified ("modded") overdrive pedals in the history of the electric guitar.
Klon Centaur
Main article: Klon Centaur
The Klon Centaur, made by American engineer Bill Finnegan, was released in 1994 with the aim of recreating the harmonically rich distortion of a guitar amplifier at a high volume. Finnegan wanted a "big, open" sound, with a "hint of tube clipping", that would not sound like a pedal was being used. He was quickly overwhelmed with orders, each taking 12–14 weeks, as Finnegan handmade the pedals himself. Deciding the profit margin was not sustainable, Finnegan discontinued the original Centaur in 2008, having produced 8,000 units, but later contracted out the manufacturing of a revised design, the Klon KTR. By 2019, used Centaurs sold for between $1,900 and US$2,500. According to Guitar.com, which named the Centaur one of the industry's greatest effect pedals, "The Klon Centaur is either the greatest, most useful overdrive ever made, or the worst example of guitarists losing all sense of perspective about how much good tone should cost."
The Klon Centaur has been used by guitarists including Jeff Beck, John Mayer, Joe Perry (of Aerosmith), Nels Cline (of Wilco), Matt Schofield, and Ed O'Brien (of Radiohead).
Marshall Bluesbreaker
Launched in 1991, alongside the Drivemaster and Shredmaster, the Bluesbreaker overdrive was Marshall's first attempt at recreating the tone of a specific amp in a pedal—Marshall's own 1962 "Bluesbreaker" combo, nicknamed for its use by Eric Clapton when he played with John Mayall & The Bluesbreakers. While exceeding at adding subtle grit to a clean amp, the pedal failed to capture the tone of its namesake amp and was not a success during its limited initial production run. This changed years later when John Mayer started using a Bluesbreaker on his pedalboard, reigniting industry interest in it. Many pedal makers developed modified recreations of the original circuit, most notably Analogman's King of Tone. Marshall reissued the Bluesbreaker in 2023.
Nobels ODR-1
The ODR-1 was created for the German brand Nobels by Kai Tachibana, who was dissatisfied with the strong increase in middle frequencies and decrease in bass common in other overdrive pedals. Sometimes referred to as "the other green overdrive," the ODR-1, with its fuller sound, became a favorite pedal for Nashville session players like Tom Bukovac and Tim Pierce. Besides its unique, more balanced EQ curve, the ODR-1 eschews the conventional tone knob, which cuts or boosts treble frequencies, for a "Spectrum" control that simultaneously boosts/cuts both highs and lower-mids as the knob is turned. Original '90s ODR-1s have been listed on the secondhand market for as much as $2,000.
Paul Cochrane Timmy
Cochrane first produced the Tim overdrive, one of the first boutique overdrive pedals, which became popular for its open, uncompressed tone with expanded EQ options. However, as the pedal was quite large, Cochrane released a smaller, four-knob option, the Timmy, which quickly surpassed the Tim in popularity. Guitar World places the Timmy in the Tube Screamer "family tree," while noting it does not have the Tube Screamer's characteristic mid-hump and is less compressed at lower gain levels. In the boutique market, the Timmy's transparent character and Volume/Gain/Bass/Treble control layout has been widely copied. Despite the pedal's success, Cochrane has continued to build the pedals himself and sells them at a reasonable price-point; Cochrane additionally assists the DIY community in creating Timmy-style pedals.
In 2020, Cochrane partnered with MXR to release a smaller format, mass-produced version of the Timmy.
See also
Boss' notable pedals
Treble booster
References
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Guitar World. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"effects unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_unit"},{"link_name":"distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_(music)"},{"link_name":"clipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(audio)"},{"link_name":"electric guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar"},{"link_name":"signal chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_chain"},{"link_name":"Keith Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Richard"},{"link_name":"Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maestro_FZ-1_Fuzz-Tone"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stones"},{"link_name":"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(I_Can%27t_Get_No)_Satisfaction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pro Co Rat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Co_Rat"},{"link_name":"Ibanez Tube Screamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibanez_Tube_Screamer"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Murphy-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsley-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dickson-7"}],"text":"Distortion pedals are a type of effects unit designed to add distortion to an audio signal to create a warm, gritty, or fuzzy character. 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The \"sustained grind\" of the Big Muff was later an integral part of the sound of many alternative rock bands through the 1980s and 1990s, being used extensively by the Smashing Pumpkins, Dinosaur Jr., NOFX, Bush and Mudhoney.","title":"Fuzz pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fuzz distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzbox#1960s:_fuzz,_distortion,_and_introduction_of_commercial_devices"},{"link_name":"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/(I_Can%27t_Get_No)_Satisfaction"},{"link_name":"garage rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garage_rock"},{"link_name":"psychedelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_rock"},{"link_name":"Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson_(guitar_company)"}],"sub_title":"Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone","text":"The Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone was the first widely marketed fuzz distortion guitar and bass effect. Introduced in 1962, it achieved widespread popularity in 1965 after the Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards prominent use of the FZ-1 on the group's hit, \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\". Later in 1965, the design was slightly modified and designated as the model FZ1-1a. In the wake of the success of \"Satisfaction,\" numerous recordings, mostly from 1960s garage rock and psychedelic acts, featured Maestro Fuzz-Tones on guitar. More significant design changes made after 1967 resulted in different renditions of the Fuzz-Tone released over the years. 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For U.S. distribution, Vox released a version in 1967 based on Sola Sound's MK1.5 Tone Bender update, one of many the pedal went through. With different component values and transistors being used over the years, earlier variants are fuller sounding, while later ones are bright and cutting. Notable examples of the Tone Bender in use include Jeff Beck's sitar-like guitar solo on the Yardbirds' 1965 song \"Heart Full of Soul\" and Mick Ronson's guitar work on David Bowie's 1972 song \"Moonage Daydream\".[16]","title":"Fuzz pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Univox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univox"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Univox Super-Fuzz","text":"The Univox Super-Fuzz circuit was designed in the late 1960s by the Japanese company Honey, in the form of a multi-effect called the Honey Psychedelic Machine. Later on, Honey was acquired by Shin-ei, who produced the effect separately and imported it to the USA via Unicord, the parent company of Univox. The first Super-Fuzzes were made in 1968, and production continued until the late 70s.[17] The pedal is unique in that the full-wave rectification of the circuit produces an upper octave as well as a slight lower octave. This also gives the sound a lot of compression and a mild ring modulator effect. A second unique feature is a tone switch that engages a 1 kHz filter that \"scoops\" the mids, giving a fat, bassy tone.[18]","title":"Fuzz pedals"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_Corporation"},{"link_name":"ProCo Rat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProCo_Rat"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lynham-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lynham-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing-20"}],"sub_title":"Boss DS-1 Distortion","text":"Introduced in 1978, the DS-1 was Boss's first distortion pedal, and second pedal release overall, following the CE-1 Chorus Ensemble. The DS-1 uses two hard-clipping diodes for an aggressive edge, similar to the ProCo Rat, released the same year. This type of circuit became known as \"distortion,\" as opposed to the soft-clipping \"overdrive\" of Boss's later overdrive pedals.[19] The DS-1 uses a preamplifier instead of the conventional op-amp for a gritty, warm tone. When the original Toshiba TA7136AP preamp became scarce, the circuit was redesigned in 1994, introducing several \"quirks\"—lower volume levels, noise at higher gain levels, and a \"waspy\" edge due to higher frequencies not being filtered out. These issues led to the pedal being popular among modifiers.[19]The DS-1 is Boss's bestselling pedal of all time.[20]","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gearnews-waza-21"},{"link_name":"mid-range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-range_speaker"},{"link_name":"Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Amplification"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_amplifier#Stacks"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rolandcorp-22"},{"link_name":"glam metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glam_metal"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rolandcorp-22"},{"link_name":"heavy metal scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_subculture"},{"link_name":"Swedish death metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_death_metal"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guitar-reissue-23"}],"sub_title":"Boss HM-2 Heavy Metal","text":"The Boss HM-2, first issued in October 1983, was manufactured in Japan until 1988, then in Taiwan until 1991.[21] It was designed to emulate the mid-range response of a Marshall stack.[22] Achieving only moderate success in the glam metal scene, the pedal was discontinued in 1991; it was succeeded by the HM-3 Hyper Metal and MT-2 Metal Zone, the latter of which became a commercial success and top-selling pedal for Boss.[22] Following its discontinuance, the HM-2 developed a cult following in the heavy metal scene and is especially associated with Swedish death metal. In 2020, Boss issued a \"Waza Craft\" edition of the pedal, the HM-2W.[23]","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HM-2 Heavy Metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_HM-2"},{"link_name":"death metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_metal"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsely-24"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing-20"},{"link_name":"Guitar World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_World"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsely-24"},{"link_name":"Wolves in the Throne Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolves_in_the_Throne_Room"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsely-24"},{"link_name":"Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_(musician)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsely-24"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing-20"}],"sub_title":"Boss MT-2 Metal Zone","text":"The Metal Zone was released in 1991, following the discontinuation of the earlier HM-2 Heavy Metal, which failed to sell well during its production run, but was popular among death metal players, since amplifiers of the time were not capable of the amount of distortion players wanted without being boosted with a pedal. With the MT-2, Boss sought to appeal to that market with an improved pedal as death metal's popularity surged.[24] The MT-2 sported a complex design for a distortion pedal, with a dual-stage gain circuit, seven filters for both pre- and post-distortion, and a semi-parametric three-band EQ section. The pedal's thick, saturated, tight tone[20] and the extreme sounds the pedal was able to produce thanks to its powerful EQ controls made the MT-2 divisive both upon its release and throughout its ongoing production. Guitar World characterized the general reaction to the pedal as \"inspiring or confusing,\"[24] and the pedal is often lampooned on the internet as the worst distortion ever made. Many in the metal community embraced the sound, however, with Nathan Weaver of Wolves in the Throne Room favorably describing the MT-2 as a \"fucked-up, corpse-grinding type sound.\"[24] Despite this, the pedal has found fans like Prince when used on lower gain settings or as a boost.[24]The Metal Zone has sold over a million units, making it the company's best-selling pedal behind only the DS-1.[20]","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Amplification"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"},{"link_name":"Jonny Greenwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonny_Greenwood"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2142-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Marshall Shredmaster","text":"The Shredmaster was the high-gain model of a trio of pedals, including the Drivemaster and Bluesbreaker, released by Marshall in 1991.[25] Each pedal was meant to imitate the sound of a particular Marshall amplifier. The trio was discontinued one year afterwards in 1992.[26] The Shredmaster has a lot in common with Marshall's Guv’nor pedal, with the first half of both circuits being nearly identical. However, the Shredmaster has an additional gain recovery stage, and though the three tone knobs appear to be the same on the outside, the tone stack is different.[27][28] The Shredmaster is frequently associated with Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood.[29]The series was reissued by Marshall in 2023.[30]","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MXR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MXR"},{"link_name":"Phase 90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_90"},{"link_name":"Randy Rhoads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Rhoads"},{"link_name":"Ozzy Osbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gill-31"},{"link_name":"Jerry Garcia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Garcia"},{"link_name":"Grateful Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gill-31"},{"link_name":"Bob Mould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Mould"},{"link_name":"Hüsker Dü","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCsker_D%C3%BC"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Dave Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Murray_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Iron Maiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Maiden"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Thom Yorke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thom_Yorke"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"}],"sub_title":"MXR Distortion +","text":"MXR scored its first success with the Phase 90 and followed quickly with a trio of 1974 releases, including the Distortion +. MXR's pedals were notable for their small footprint, as effects pedals were typically housed in large enclosures at the time, and durability, since MXR was initially founded to address the issue of other manufacturers' pedals' unreliability. The Distortion + has found a wide range of fans, like Randy Rhoads in his work with Ozzy Osbourne,[31] Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead,[31] Bob Mould of Hüsker Dü,[32] Dave Murray of Iron Maiden,[33] and Thom Yorke of Radiohead.","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MusicRadar_85_reissue_review-34"},{"link_name":"Guitar World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_World"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horsley-4"},{"link_name":"JHS Pedals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JHS_Pedals"},{"link_name":"Wampler Pedals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wampler_Pedals"}],"sub_title":"Pro Co Rat","text":"Developed in 1978 with mass production beginning a year later,[34] the Pro Co Rat was the first mass-produced distortion pedal. In the Rat, Pro Co's engineers sought to improve upon the earlier Fuzz Face and ultimately designed a pedal with, as Guitar World wrote, a \"hard, aggressive sound and tight, focused clipping\" that set the template for modern distortion circuits.[4] Pro Co has released numerous versions of the Rat since its initial release, and its enduring popularity has spawned numerous clones and tributes from other pedal manufacturers like JHS Pedals and Wampler Pedals.","title":"Distortion pedals"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jim Weider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Weider"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-35"},{"link_name":"MXR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MXR"}],"sub_title":"Analog Man King of Tone","text":"The King of Tone, released in 2005, was designed by Analog Man founder Mike Piera and Jim Weider to recreate the tone of the then-discontinued Marshall Bluesbreaker pedal with its settings maxed to the point the original pedal took on a different character. A two-sided pedal with independent controls and internal DIP switches to choose between boost, overdrive, and distortion modes, the King of Tone quickly developed a strong following and a years-long waiting list. Vintage Guitar dubbed the pedal one of a few \"holy grail\" overdrives.[35] To satisfy demand for the pedal, Analog Man later developed a single-sided variation, the Prince of Tone, that could be produced faster. Analog Man subsequently partnered with MXR to release a smaller format, mass-produced version, the Duke of Tone.","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brakes-36"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton"},{"link_name":"Gary Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Moore"},{"link_name":"Ibanez Tube Screamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibanez_Tube_Screamer"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robertson-37"},{"link_name":"Tom Morello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Morello"},{"link_name":"Rage Against the Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_Against_the_Machine"},{"link_name":"Billie Joe Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billie_Joe_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"Green Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Day"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robertson-37"}],"sub_title":"Boss BD-2 Blues Driver","text":"In 1995, Boss released the BD-2, an overdrive pedal aimed at blues players who sought to add distortion while maintaining their amp's signal clarity and dynamics.[36] At the time, blues was experiencing a resurgence thanks to Eric Clapton and Gary Moore. The pedal has a clear, punchy tone and features a flatter EQ-curve for a more amp-like tone than similar pedals, like the Ibanez Tube Screamer.[37]Notable players who use the BD-2 include Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Billie Joe Armstrong of Green Day.[37]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brakes-36"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colic-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colic-38"}],"sub_title":"Boss OD-1 OverDrive","text":"With the 1977 release of the OD-1 OverDrive, Boss coined the term \"overdrive,\" a reference to the pedal's asymmetrical-clipping, tube-like distortion[36] in comparison to the brash sound of \"fuzz\" pedals available.[38] The OD-1's layout was simple—with only \"Level\" and \"OverDrive\" controls. The OD-1 was an immediate success, as the pedal afforded players more amp-like distortion at lower volume levels no matter what amp was being used. Within a few years, however, the pedal's voicing was considered overly \"sweet\" as rock music became more aggressive and the fixed frequency limited its versatility. With the surging popularity of the OD-1-influenced Tube Screamer and its addition of a tone control, Boss began including a \"Tone\" knob on its pedals with the 1981 SD-1 and the OD-1 was discontinued in 1985.[38]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing-20"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brakes-36"},{"link_name":"Marshall JCM800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_JCM800"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colic-38"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing-20"},{"link_name":"Guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Watts-39"}],"sub_title":"Boss SD-1 Super OverDrive","text":"The Super OverDrive was released in 1981 as Boss's second overdrive pedal, adding a tone control to the earlier OD-1 design, while continuing to replicate the sound of tube amp-style overdrive[20] via an asymmetrical clipping circuit and an inherent midrange-focus, but with less bass roll-off.[36] The asymmetrical clipping lent the pedal a more aggressive character compared to the rival Tube Screamer, and it became popular in the growing hard rock and heavy metal subgenres with guitarists frequently using it to boost already-overdriven amplifiers like the Marshall JCM800 into higher-gain sounds.[38]In 2021, Boss released a 40th anniversary edition of the pedal,[20] with the original circuit having remained unchanged since its introduction. Guitar dubbed the pedal one of only a handful to ever achieve \"truly iconic status.\"[39]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fulltone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulltone"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCD-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCD-40"},{"link_name":"op amp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_amp"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCD-40"},{"link_name":"germanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCD-40"},{"link_name":"Music Radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Radar"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sharma-41"}],"sub_title":"Fulltone OCD","text":"In 2004, Fulltone released the Obsessive Compulsive Drive (OCD), which was designed as \"an open-sounding distortion pedal with decent headroom to more faithfully emulate a driven tube amp,\"[40] with a circuit similar to the earlier Voodoo Labs Overdrive, itself a variation of the Ibanez Tubescreamer.[40] An op amp-based pedal, the OCD has gone through multiple iterations, with changes from versions 1.1 to 1.7 being generally subtle alterations of the pedal's EQ response. Version 2 brought more noticeable changes, with a new output buffer, a 2N5457 JFET transistor input stage, and the option to use a new type of switching, enhanced bypass, instead of true bypass.[40] After the first iteration, the drive pot's value was increased for a more \"dramatic\" distortion, and an asymmetric 1N34 germanium diode was later added to shift the character of the clipping.[40]The OCD was dubbed by Music Radar \"one of the most legendary overdrives ever made.\"[41]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dumble Amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumble_Amplifiers"},{"link_name":"Robben Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robben_Ford"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oleszko-42"}],"sub_title":"Hermida Audio Zendrive","text":"Alfonso Hermida released the Zendrive in 2004 to acclaim as the overdrive pedal that most successfully emulates the breakup and response of the Dumble Amplifiers Overdrive Special, a famously expensive and exclusive amplifier—just as the Zendrive would become, with used prices reaching over a thousand dollars, and having fans like Overdrive Special-owner Robben Ford. Struggling to keep up with demand, Hermida partnered with the company Lovepedals in 2013 to take over Zendrive manufacturing. Despite this, the Zendrive remains rare on the pedal market.[42]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_music"},{"link_name":"electric guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hunter-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GuitarVerdictReview-44"}],"sub_title":"Ibanez Tube Screamer","text":"The Ibanez Tube Screamer (TS808/TS9) was designed in the late 1970s by Susumu Tamura of Maxon. It has a characteristic mid-boosted tone popular with blues, rock and metal players. The Tube Screamer has been used by many guitarists to create their signature sound, and is one of the most successful, widely copied, and custom-modified (\"modded\") overdrive pedals in the history of the electric guitar.[43][44]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"guitar amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_amplifier"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Premier_Guitar-2014-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Premier_Guitar-2014-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guitar.com-2019-46"},{"link_name":"Guitar.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar.com"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guitar.com-2019-46"},{"link_name":"Jeff Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Beck"},{"link_name":"John Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer"},{"link_name":"Joe Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Perry_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Aerosmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosmith"},{"link_name":"Nels Cline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nels_Cline"},{"link_name":"Wilco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilco"},{"link_name":"Matt Schofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Schofield"},{"link_name":"Ed O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Premier_Guitar-2014-45"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Klon Centaur","text":"The Klon Centaur, made by American engineer Bill Finnegan, was released in 1994 with the aim of recreating the harmonically rich distortion of a guitar amplifier at a high volume.[45] Finnegan wanted a \"big, open\" sound, with a \"hint of tube clipping\", that would not sound like a pedal was being used.[45] He was quickly overwhelmed with orders, each taking 12–14 weeks, as Finnegan handmade the pedals himself. Deciding the profit margin was not sustainable, Finnegan discontinued the original Centaur in 2008, having produced 8,000 units, but later contracted out the manufacturing of a revised design, the Klon KTR. By 2019, used Centaurs sold for between $1,900 and US$2,500.[46] According to Guitar.com, which named the Centaur one of the industry's greatest effect pedals, \"The Klon Centaur is either the greatest, most useful overdrive ever made, or the worst example of guitarists losing all sense of perspective about how much good tone should cost.\"[46]The Klon Centaur has been used by guitarists including Jeff Beck, John Mayer, Joe Perry (of Aerosmith), Nels Cline (of Wilco), Matt Schofield, and Ed O'Brien (of Radiohead).[45][47]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bluesbreaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Bluesbreaker"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton"},{"link_name":"John Mayall & The Bluesbreakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayall_%26_The_Bluesbreakers"},{"link_name":"John Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayer"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Purvis-48"}],"sub_title":"Marshall Bluesbreaker","text":"Launched in 1991, alongside the Drivemaster and Shredmaster, the Bluesbreaker overdrive was Marshall's first attempt at recreating the tone of a specific amp in a pedal—Marshall's own 1962 \"Bluesbreaker\" combo, nicknamed for its use by Eric Clapton when he played with John Mayall & The Bluesbreakers. While exceeding at adding subtle grit to a clean amp, the pedal failed to capture the tone of its namesake amp and was not a success during its limited initial production run. This changed years later when John Mayer started using a Bluesbreaker on his pedalboard, reigniting industry interest in it. Many pedal makers developed modified recreations of the original circuit, most notably Analogman's King of Tone. Marshall reissued the Bluesbreaker in 2023.[48]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"green overdrive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibanez_Tube_Screamer"},{"link_name":"Nashville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville"},{"link_name":"Tom Bukovac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Bukovac"},{"link_name":"Tim Pierce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Pierce"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Curwen-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laing_ODR-50"}],"sub_title":"Nobels ODR-1","text":"The ODR-1 was created for the German brand Nobels by Kai Tachibana, who was dissatisfied with the strong increase in middle frequencies and decrease in bass common in other overdrive pedals. Sometimes referred to as \"the other green overdrive,\" the ODR-1, with its fuller sound, became a favorite pedal for Nashville session players like Tom Bukovac and Tim Pierce. Besides its unique, more balanced EQ curve, the ODR-1 eschews the conventional tone knob, which cuts or boosts treble frequencies, for a \"Spectrum\" control that simultaneously boosts/cuts both highs and lower-mids as the knob is turned.[49] Original '90s ODR-1s have been listed on the secondhand market for as much as $2,000.[50]","title":"Overdrive pedals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"boutique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutique"},{"link_name":"Guitar World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar_World"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lynham_Timmy-51"},{"link_name":"MXR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MXR"}],"sub_title":"Paul Cochrane Timmy","text":"Cochrane first produced the Tim overdrive, one of the first boutique overdrive pedals, which became popular for its open, uncompressed tone with expanded EQ options. However, as the pedal was quite large, Cochrane released a smaller, four-knob option, the Timmy, which quickly surpassed the Tim in popularity. Guitar World places the Timmy in the Tube Screamer \"family tree,\" while noting it does not have the Tube Screamer's characteristic mid-hump and is less compressed at lower gain levels. In the boutique market, the Timmy's transparent character and Volume/Gain/Bass/Treble control layout has been widely copied. Despite the pedal's success, Cochrane has continued to build the pedals himself and sells them at a reasonable price-point; Cochrane additionally assists the DIY community in creating Timmy-style pedals.[51]In 2020, Cochrane partnered with MXR to release a smaller format, mass-produced version of the Timmy.","title":"Overdrive pedals"}] | [] | [{"title":"Boss' notable pedals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_Corporation#Notable_pedals"},{"title":"Treble booster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treble_booster"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Art of the Stompbox\". 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.museumofmakingmusic.org/stompbox-birth","url_text":"\"The Art of the Stompbox\""}]},{"reference":"\"FuzzEffect: The Fuzz Story and Photos\". Retrieved 13 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fuzzeffect.com/","url_text":"\"FuzzEffect: The Fuzz Story and Photos\""}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Bill. \"10 Stompboxes That Changed the World\". premierguitar.com. Premier Guitar. Retrieved 12 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.premierguitar.com/gear/10-stompboxes-that-changed-the-world","url_text":"\"10 Stompboxes That Changed the World\""}]},{"reference":"Horsley, Jonathon. \"Best distortion pedals: the top 11 high-gain stompboxes for guitarists\". guitarworld.com. Guitar World. Retrieved 11 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/the-best-distortion-pedals","url_text":"\"Best distortion pedals: the top 11 high-gain stompboxes for guitarists\""}]},{"reference":"Astley-Brown, Michael. \"Best distortion pedals: our pick of the top gain stages for guitar\". musicradar.com. Music Radar. 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Guitar World.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/classic-gear-paul-cochrane-timmy","url_text":"\"Classic gear: Paul Cochrane Timmy\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.museumofmakingmusic.org/stompbox-birth","external_links_name":"\"The Art of the Stompbox\""},{"Link":"http://www.fuzzeffect.com/","external_links_name":"\"FuzzEffect: The Fuzz Story and Photos\""},{"Link":"https://www.premierguitar.com/gear/10-stompboxes-that-changed-the-world","external_links_name":"\"10 Stompboxes That Changed the World\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/the-best-distortion-pedals","external_links_name":"\"Best distortion pedals: the top 11 high-gain stompboxes for guitarists\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/news/best-distortion-pedals","external_links_name":"\"Best distortion pedals: our pick of the top gain stages for guitar\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarplayer.com/gear/the-top-50-stompboxes-of-all-time-50-years-of-foot-stompin-tone","external_links_name":"\"The Best Guitar Effects Pedals of All Time\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/that-pedal-show-mick-taylor-dan-steinhardt-legendary-pedals","external_links_name":"\"That Pedal Show rate the most legendary pedals of all time: the deserving, the overrated and the total sleepers\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JB1W2dn31rwC","external_links_name":"Jimi Hendrix: Electric Gypsy"},{"Link":"https://www.uberproaudio.com/who-plays-what/392-duane-allman-guitar-gear-rig","external_links_name":"\"Duane Allman Guitar Gear Rig\""},{"Link":"https://www.thewho.net/whotabs/gear/guitar/fuzzface.html","external_links_name":"\"Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face fuzz box | Pete Townshend's Guitar Gear | Whotabs\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071022233005/http://modernguitars.com/archives/001025.html","external_links_name":"\"Eric Johnson Interview\""},{"Link":"http://www.modernguitars.com/archives/001025.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110724013318/http://www.pinkfloydfan.net/t11634-phil-taylor-welcome-machines-guitar.html","external_links_name":"\"Welcome to the Machines\""},{"Link":"http://www.pinkfloydfan.net/t11634-Phil-Taylor-welcome-machines-guitar.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.premierguitar.com/gear/fifty-years-of-filth-the-story-of-the-mighty-tone-bender-fuzz","external_links_name":"\"Fifty Years of Filth: The Story of the Mighty Tone Bender Fuzz\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarplayer.com/reviews/boss-ds-1w-waza-craft-distortion-review","external_links_name":"\"Boss DS-1W Waza Craft Distortion Review\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/news/boss-announces-anniversary-versions-of-the-sd-1-super-overdrive-and-mt-2-metal-zone-pedals","external_links_name":"\"Boss announces anniversary versions of the SD-1 Super Overdrive and MT-2 Metal Zone pedals\""},{"Link":"https://www.gearnews.com/boss-shares-images-of-new-waza-hm-2w-cosmetic-prototype-on-facebook/","external_links_name":"\"Boss shares images of new Waza HM-2W cosmetic prototype on Facebook\""},{"Link":"https://rolandcorp.com.au/blog/boss-cult-classics","external_links_name":"\"BOSS Cult Classics\""},{"Link":"https://guitar.com/news/gear-news/boss-hm2w-waza-craft-first-look/","external_links_name":"\"Here's a First Look At The Boss Hm-2 Waza Craft Reissue\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/boss-mt-2-metal-zone-legacy","external_links_name":"\"How the Boss MT-2 Metal Zone conquered the world and inspired a new generation of metal guitar players\""},{"Link":"http://www.pedalsandeffects.com/blog/2015/11/12/vintage-pedal-of-the-week-marshall","external_links_name":"\"Vintage Pedal of the Week: Marshall\""},{"Link":"https://marshall.com/live-for-music/history/history-of-pedals-part-2","external_links_name":"\"History of Pedals – Part 2\""},{"Link":"https://aionfx.com/project/solstice-legacy/","external_links_name":"\"Solstice (Legacy PCB)\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarplayer.com/news/we-copied-them-exactly-marshalls-steve-smith-introduces-the-new-guvnor-bluesbreaker-drivemaster-and-shredmaster-reissues","external_links_name":"\"\"We Copied Them Exactly\": Marshall's Steve Smith Introduces the New Guv'nor, Bluesbreaker, Drivemaster and Shredmaster Reissues\""},{"Link":"https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/how-to-play-the-guitar-like-radiohead-jonny-greenwood/","external_links_name":"\"How to play the guitar like Radiohead's Jonny Greenwood\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/news/marshall-vintage-reissue-pedals","external_links_name":"\"The Guv'Nor, Drivemaster, Bluesbreaker and Shredmaster return as Marshall officially reissues its famous vintage stompbox range\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/magazine/out-box-guitar-world-celebrates-time-honored-history-mxr-effect-pedals","external_links_name":"\"Out of the Box: Guitar World Celebrates the Time-Honored History of MXR Effect Pedals\""},{"Link":"http://acltv.com/2013/01/25/gear-blog-bob-mould/","external_links_name":"\"Gear Blog: Bob Mould\""},{"Link":"https://www.premierguitar.com/articles/23207-iron-maiden-out-of-thin-air","external_links_name":"\"Iron Maiden: Out of Thin Air\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/reviews/guitars/pro-co-reissue-85-whiteface-rat-267601","external_links_name":"\"Pro Co Reissue '85 Whiteface RAT\""},{"Link":"https://www.vintageguitar.com/39251/analog-mans-king-of-tone-overdrive/","external_links_name":"\"Analog Man's King of Tone\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/boss-analog-overdrive-pedals","external_links_name":"\"Boss analog overdrives: what you need to know about the iconic drive pedals\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/ibanez-tube-screamer-vs-boss-blues-driver","external_links_name":"\"Ibanez Tube Screamer vs Boss Blues Driver: which is better?\""},{"Link":"https://mixdownmag.com.au/features/gear-icons-boss-sd-1-super-overdrive/","external_links_name":"\"Gear Icons: Boss SD-1 Super Overdrive\""},{"Link":"https://guitar.com/features/interviews/why-the-boss-sd-1-overdrive-pro-guitarists-secret-ingredient-40-years/","external_links_name":"\"\"I could have done 90 per cent of my career with an SD-1\": why the BOSS overdrive has been the pro guitarist's secret ingredient for 40 years\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/how-to/the-fx-files-fulltone-ocd#:~:text=Although%20this%20has%20never%20been,from%20the%20Ibanez%20Tube%20Screamer.","external_links_name":"\"The FX files: Fulltone OCD\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/reviews/warm-audio-odd-box-v1-hard-clipping-overdrive-pedal-review","external_links_name":"\"Warm Audio ODD Box V1 Hard-Clipping Overdrive Pedal review\""},{"Link":"https://guitar.com/reviews/effects-pedal/warm-audio-warmdrive-review-bringing-the-zendrive-vibe-to-the-masses/","external_links_name":"\"Warm Audio Warmdrive review – bringing the Zendrive vibe to the masses\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7DjYrk7Vap4C&pg=PA68","external_links_name":"Guitar Effects Pedals: The Practical Handbook"},{"Link":"https://www.guitarverdict.com/effect/ibanez-ts9-tube-screamer-review/","external_links_name":"\"Ibanez TS9 Tube Screamer Review\""},{"Link":"https://www.premierguitar.com/gear/bill-finnegan-klon","external_links_name":"\"Builder Profile: Klon's Bill Finnegan\""},{"Link":"https://guitar.com/guides/buyers-guide/the-top-20-effects-of-all-time/","external_links_name":"\"The top 20 effects of all time\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/news/radiohead-ed-obrien-klon-auction","external_links_name":"\"Radiohead's Ed O'Brien is selling his Klon Centaur and other effects for charity\""},{"Link":"https://guitar.com/reviews/effects-pedal/marshall-bluesbreaker-review/","external_links_name":"\"Marshall BluesBreaker review: can this much-copied drive pedal pick up right where it left off?\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/reviews/nobels-odr-1-bc-and-odr-mini-review","external_links_name":"\"Nobels ODR-1 BC & ODR-mini review\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicradar.com/news/is-the-nobels-odr-1-the-real-holy-grail-overdrive-pedal","external_links_name":"\"Is the Nobels ODR-1 the real holy grail overdrive pedal?\""},{"Link":"https://www.guitarworld.com/features/classic-gear-paul-cochrane-timmy","external_links_name":"\"Classic gear: Paul Cochrane Timmy\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cik | Čik | ["1 Course","2 Characteristics","3 References"] | Coordinates: 45°42′N 20°03′E / 45.700°N 20.050°E / 45.700; 20.050River in SerbiaČik (Чик)LocationCountrySerbiaPhysical characteristicsSource • locationSubotička Peščara, Vojvodina, Serbia • elevation128 m (420 ft)
Mouth • locationTisa river at Bačko Petrovo Selo, Vojvodina, SerbiaLength95 km (59 mi)Basin size481 km2 (186 sq mi)Basin featuresProgressionTisza→ Danube→ Black Sea
The Čik or Čiker (Serbian Cyrillic: Чик or Чикер; Hungarian: Csík-ér, Croatian: Čik or Čiker) is a river in northern Serbia. A 95 km (59 mi) long right tributary to the Tisa river, it flows entirely within the Bačka region of Vojvodina province.
Course
The Čik springs out in the northwestern part of the Subotička Peščara, between the village of Donji Tavankut and the city of Subotica, near the Hungarian border, at an altitude of 128 m (420 ft). It starts as an unimportant slow stream of water near the Tavankut hamlets of Čikerija and Kobino Selo. From its source to the mouth, the river flows in the southeast direction, next to the hamlets of Verušić and Naumovićevo.
As the river grows, next to the villages of Višnjevac, Čantavir and Bačko Dušanovo, dams were constructed to regulate the flow, in both upper and lower course. In the lower course there are thick growths of reed on the banks of the river, which is at this point 2–4 m deep. After the villages of Tornjoš, Svetićevo and Obornjača, the river empties into the Tisa at the village of Bačko Petrovo Selo, at an altitude of 74 m (243 ft).
Characteristics
The Čik has been neglected by environmental institutions for some time, but in the 1990s the lower part of the course was cleaned and the once almost-dead river was re-populated with many species of fish (carp, pike, bream, pike-perch, tench), becoming a major fishing resort.
The Čik belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is neither channeled nor navigable. Itself, it drains an area of 481 km2 (186 sq mi). The name of the river comes from the Hungarian word csikó, meaning foal.
After World War I, a new border was drawn between Hungary and the newly formed Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (future Yugoslavia), as stipulated by the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. The border left significant number of divided ethnic population on both sides, so both states encouraged the relocation. Those who decided to move were called "optants". Serbian optants changed their land in Hungary for the land of the Hungarian optants in Yugoslavia. A group of optants settled along the Čik river close to the border and formed a new settlement called Čikerija. It mirrored the Csikéria village on the Hungarian side. Čikerija originally consisted of 28 salaši, individual family farms, founded by the optants from the Hungarian village of Deszk, near Szeged, which still has a Serbian minority. By 2018, only one salaš was still operational. The hamlet belonged to the village of Tavankut, until Tavankut was divided in three separate settlements in 1978 when Čikerija became part of the newly carved village of Ljutovo.
References
Jovan Đ. Marković (1990): Enciklopedijski geografski leksikon Jugoslavije; Svjetlost-Sarajevo; ISBN 86-01-02651-6
^ Aleksandra Isakov (26 November 2018). "Porodice koje su se odlučile za Srbiju" . Politika (in Serbian). p. 11.
^ Sistematski spisak naselja u Republici Srbiji, str. 90 . Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade. 2011. ISBN 978-86-6161-013-4.
45°42′N 20°03′E / 45.700°N 20.050°E / 45.700; 20.050
Authority control databases: National
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_language"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language"},{"link_name":"Croatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_language"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"Tisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisza"},{"link_name":"Bačka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka"},{"link_name":"Vojvodina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodina"}],"text":"River in SerbiaThe Čik or Čiker (Serbian Cyrillic: Чик or Чикер; Hungarian: Csík-ér, Croatian: Čik or Čiker) is a river in northern Serbia. A 95 km (59 mi) long right tributary to the Tisa river, it flows entirely within the Bačka region of Vojvodina province.","title":"Čik"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Subotička Peščara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suboti%C4%8Dka_Pe%C5%A1%C4%8Dara"},{"link_name":"Donji Tavankut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donji_Tavankut"},{"link_name":"Subotica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subotica"},{"link_name":"Verušić","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Veru%C5%A1i%C4%87&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Naumovićevo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naumovi%C4%87evo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Višnjevac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1njevac,_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Čantavir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cantavir"},{"link_name":"Bačko Dušanovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dko_Du%C5%A1anovo"},{"link_name":"reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phragmites"},{"link_name":"Tornjoš","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornjo%C5%A1"},{"link_name":"Svetićevo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sveti%C4%87evo"},{"link_name":"Obornjača","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obornja%C4%8Da_(Ba%C4%8Dka_Topola)"},{"link_name":"Tisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisza"},{"link_name":"Bačko Petrovo Selo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dko_Petrovo_Selo"}],"text":"The Čik springs out in the northwestern part of the Subotička Peščara, between the village of Donji Tavankut and the city of Subotica, near the Hungarian border, at an altitude of 128 m (420 ft). It starts as an unimportant slow stream of water near the Tavankut hamlets of Čikerija and Kobino Selo. From its source to the mouth, the river flows in the southeast direction, next to the hamlets of Verušić and Naumovićevo.As the river grows, next to the villages of Višnjevac, Čantavir and Bačko Dušanovo, dams were constructed to regulate the flow, in both upper and lower course. In the lower course there are thick growths of reed on the banks of the river, which is at this point 2–4 m deep. After the villages of Tornjoš, Svetićevo and Obornjača, the river empties into the Tisa at the village of Bačko Petrovo Selo, at an altitude of 74 m (243 ft).","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carp"},{"link_name":"pike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esox"},{"link_name":"bream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bream"},{"link_name":"pike-perch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sander_(genus)"},{"link_name":"tench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tench"},{"link_name":"Black Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea"},{"link_name":"drainage basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin"},{"link_name":"foal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foal"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Serbs,_Croats,_and_Slovenes"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Trianon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon"},{"link_name":"Csikéria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csik%C3%A9ria"},{"link_name":"salaši","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sala%C5%A1"},{"link_name":"Deszk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deszk"},{"link_name":"Szeged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szeged"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ljutovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljutovo"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The Čik has been neglected by environmental institutions for some time, but in the 1990s the lower part of the course was cleaned and the once almost-dead river was re-populated with many species of fish (carp, pike, bream, pike-perch, tench), becoming a major fishing resort.The Čik belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is neither channeled nor navigable. Itself, it drains an area of 481 km2 (186 sq mi). The name of the river comes from the Hungarian word csikó, meaning foal.After World War I, a new border was drawn between Hungary and the newly formed Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (future Yugoslavia), as stipulated by the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. The border left significant number of divided ethnic population on both sides, so both states encouraged the relocation. Those who decided to move were called \"optants\". Serbian optants changed their land in Hungary for the land of the Hungarian optants in Yugoslavia. A group of optants settled along the Čik river close to the border and formed a new settlement called Čikerija. It mirrored the Csikéria village on the Hungarian side. Čikerija originally consisted of 28 salaši, individual family farms, founded by the optants from the Hungarian village of Deszk, near Szeged, which still has a Serbian minority. By 2018, only one salaš was still operational.[1] The hamlet belonged to the village of Tavankut, until Tavankut was divided in three separate settlements in 1978 when Čikerija became part of the newly carved village of Ljutovo.[2]","title":"Characteristics"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Aleksandra Isakov (26 November 2018). \"Porodice koje su se odlučile za Srbiju\" [Families which opted for Serbia]. Politika (in Serbian). p. 11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/416633/Porodice-koje-su-se-odlucile-za-Srbiju","url_text":"\"Porodice koje su se odlučile za Srbiju\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika","url_text":"Politika"}]},{"reference":"Sistematski spisak naselja u Republici Srbiji, str. 90 [Systematic list of the settlements in the Republic of Serbia, page 90]. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, Belgrade. 2011. ISBN 978-86-6161-013-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-6161-013-4","url_text":"978-86-6161-013-4"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%C4%8Cik¶ms=45_42_N_20_03_E_region:RS_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"45°42′N 20°03′E / 45.700°N 20.050°E / 45.700; 20.050"},{"Link":"http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/416633/Porodice-koje-su-se-odlucile-za-Srbiju","external_links_name":"\"Porodice koje su se odlučile za Srbiju\""},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%C4%8Cik¶ms=45_42_N_20_03_E_region:RS_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"45°42′N 20°03′E / 45.700°N 20.050°E / 45.700; 20.050"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge564482&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_of_1928_(United_States_Currency) | Series of 1928 (United States Currency) | ["1 Federal Reserve Notes","1.1 Design changes","1.2 Series of 1928 Federal Reserve Note denomination set","2 United States (Legal Tender) Notes","2.1 Series of 1928 United States Note denomination set","3 Silver Certificates and Gold Certificates","3.1 Series of 1928 Gold Certificate denomination set","4 Gallery","5 References","6 External links"] | A $5 Federal Reserve Note, Series of 1928A.A $5 United States Note, Series of 1928F.The very first 1928 Silver Certificate issued (i.e., Serial number 1).
The Series of 1928 was the first issue of small-size currency printed and released by the U.S. government. These notes, first released to the public on July 10, 1929, were the first standardized notes in terms of design and characteristics, featuring similar portraits and other facets. These notes were also the first to measure 6.313" by 2.688", smaller than the large-sized predecessors of Series 1923 and earlier that measured 7.438" by 3.141".
Federal Reserve Notes
Federal Reserve Notes featured a green Treasury Seal starting in 1928. This was the only type of currency that, at first, featured the seal over the large engraved word to the right of the portrait.
These notes also carried a seal bearing the identity of the Federal Reserve Bank of issuance. The bank was noted in the black, circular seal to the left of the portrait. This can be seen in the picture at the upper right, with a "7" in the seal. The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, responsible for the 7th district of the Federal Reserve System, issued this note. The regional seal is a design facet unique to Federal Reserve Notes, because almost all other types of notes were issued directly by the U.S. Treasury.
The 1928 Federal Reserve Notes were redeemable as per the following legend in the upper left corner of the note: Redeemable in gold on demand at the United States Treasury, or in gold or lawful money at any Federal Reserve Bank. While these notes were issued by the Federal Reserve Banks, they were still obligations of the U.S. Government, as stated: The United States of America will pay to the bearer on demand dollars. This obligation to exchange FRNs for gold ended in the early 1930s as the United States outlawed the private ownership of gold and left the gold standard in response to the Great Depression.
Design changes
The $5, $10, and $20 denominations were the first to be issued.
Series of 1928A for $5, $10, and $20 notes resulted from a signature change, and corresponds to Series of 1928 for the $50 and $100 denominations.
Series of 1928B for $5, $10, and $20 notes; Series of 1928A for $50 and $100 notes; and Series of 1928 for the large denominations reflected a change in the Federal Reserve Seal to contain a letter instead of a number. The four corner numbers were aligned vertically, as well, causing a shift in plate position letters on certain denominations.
Series of 1928C included only $5, $10, and $20 notes. This series of notes saw very low printing figures as a result of the Great Depression, as only certain districts issued notes. This series, the result of a signature change, is also known for its specific light green Treasury Seal variety.
Series of 1928D, also the result of a signature change, included only $5 notes and all notes were issued by the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. These 1928D series $5 notes are among the rarest small-size notes in existence today.
Series of 1928 Federal Reserve Note denomination set
All banknotes in the following table are Series of 1928 Federal Reserve Notes from the National Numismatic Collection at the National Museum of American History (Smithsonian Institution).
Complete denomination type set of 1928 Federal Reserve Notes
Value
Series
Fr.
Image
Portrait
5$5
1928B
Fr.1952-J
LincolnAbraham Lincoln
10$10
1928
Fr.2000-G
JacksonAlexander Hamilton
20$20
1928
Fr.2050-G
ClevelandAndrew Jackson
50$50
1928
Fr.2100-J
GrantUlysses S. Grant
100$100
1928
Fr.2150-G
FranklinBenjamin Franklin
500$500
1928
Fr.2200-G
McKinleyWilliam McKinley
1000$1,000
1928
Fr.2210-G
ClevelandGrover Cleveland
5000$5,000
1928
Fr.2220-G
MadisonJames Madison
10000$10,000
1928
Fr.2230-B
ChaseSalmon P. Chase
United States (Legal Tender) Notes
Series of 1928 United States Notes were issued in $2 (through 1928G) and $5 (through 1928F) denominations until the early 1950s. Also, for a brief period in 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued as a response to the Great Depression. Most of these remained in storage before being released in Puerto Rico during 1948-9.
Series of 1928 United States Note denomination set
Complete denomination type set of 1928 Legal Tender Notes
Value
Series
Fr
Image
Portrait
$1
1928
Fr.1500
George Washington
$2
1928
Fr.1501
Thomas Jefferson
$5
1928
Fr.1525
Abraham Lincoln
Silver Certificates and Gold Certificates
Series of 1928 through 1928E silver certificates were only issued in the $1 denomination. The design closely followed the 1923 $1 Silver Certificate.
1928 saw the last issuance of Gold Certificates to the public prior to their confiscation during the Great Depression.
Series of 1928 Gold Certificate denomination set
Complete denomination type set of 1928 Gold Certificates
Value
Series
Fr
Image
Portrait
10$10
19281928
Fr.2400
Alexander Hamilton
20$20
19281928
Fr.2402
Andrew Jackson
50$50
19281928
Fr.2404
Ulysses S. Grant
100$100
19281928
Fr.2405
Benjamin Franklin
500$500
19281928
Fr.2407
William McKinley
1000$1,000
19281928
Fr.2408
Grover Cleveland
5000$5,000
19281928
Fr.2410
James Madison
10000$10,000
19281928
Fr.2411
Salmon P. Chase
Gallery
A $1 Silver Certificate, Series of 1928.
Common reverse of 1928 $1 Silver Certificates and $1 United States Notes.
References
Money portalNumismatics portalUnited States portal
^ "U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing - History Timeline". Moneyfactory.gov. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ "History of Currency Designs". USPaperMoney.Info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ a b c "Chronology of Small-Size Notes". USPaperMoney.Info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ a b "History of Currency Designs". USPaperMoney.Info. 1933-05-12. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ "1928 & 1934 FRN Seals". Ussmallnotes.info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
^ "Gold Certificates". People.ku.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-04-13. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
External links
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Six Kinds of United States Paper Currency
History of Currency Designs
Series of 1928 and 1934 Federal Reserve Note Seal Colors
Series of 1928 and 1934 Gold Certificates | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5_28abf.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5dollar.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Small_Size_Silver_Certificate_(face,_1928).jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"large-sized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large-sized_note"}],"text":"A $5 Federal Reserve Note, Series of 1928A.A $5 United States Note, Series of 1928F.The very first 1928 Silver Certificate issued (i.e., Serial number 1).The Series of 1928 was the first issue of small-size currency printed and released by the U.S. government. These notes, first released to the public on July 10, 1929, were the first standardized notes in terms of design and characteristics, featuring similar portraits and other facets.[1] These notes were also the first to measure 6.313\" by 2.688\", smaller than the large-sized predecessors of Series 1923 and earlier that measured 7.438\" by 3.141\".","title":"Series of 1928 (United States Currency)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Notes"},{"link_name":"Treasury Seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System"},{"link_name":"outlawed the private ownership of gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_6102"},{"link_name":"gold standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_standard"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"}],"text":"Federal Reserve Notes featured a green Treasury Seal starting in 1928. This was the only type of currency that, at first, featured the seal over the large engraved word to the right of the portrait.[2]These notes also carried a seal bearing the identity of the Federal Reserve Bank of issuance. The bank was noted in the black, circular seal to the left of the portrait. This can be seen in the picture at the upper right, with a \"7\" in the seal. The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, responsible for the 7th district of the Federal Reserve System, issued this note. The regional seal is a design facet unique to Federal Reserve Notes, because almost all other types of notes were issued directly by the U.S. Treasury.The 1928 Federal Reserve Notes were redeemable as per the following legend in the upper left corner of the note: Redeemable in gold on demand at the United States Treasury, or in gold or lawful money at any Federal Reserve Bank. While these notes were issued by the Federal Reserve Banks, they were still obligations of the U.S. Government, as stated: The United States of America will pay to the bearer on demand [so many] dollars. This obligation to exchange FRNs for gold ended in the early 1930s as the United States outlawed the private ownership of gold and left the gold standard in response to the Great Depression.","title":"Federal Reserve Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"$5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_five-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"$10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_ten-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"$20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_twenty-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"$50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_fifty-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"$100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one_hundred-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uspapermoney1-3"},{"link_name":"large denominations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_denominations_of_United_States_currency"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bare_url-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uspapermoney1-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_Atlanta"}],"sub_title":"Design changes","text":"The $5, $10, and $20 denominations were the first to be issued.Series of 1928A for $5, $10, and $20 notes resulted from a signature change, and corresponds to Series of 1928 for the $50 and $100 denominations.[3]\nSeries of 1928B for $5, $10, and $20 notes; Series of 1928A for $50 and $100 notes; and Series of 1928 for the large denominations reflected a change in the Federal Reserve Seal to contain a letter instead of a number.[4] The four corner numbers were aligned vertically, as well, causing a shift in plate position letters on certain denominations.\nSeries of 1928C included only $5, $10, and $20 notes.[3] This series of notes saw very low printing figures as a result of the Great Depression, as only certain districts issued notes. This series, the result of a signature change, is also known for its specific light green Treasury Seal variety.[5]\nSeries of 1928D, also the result of a signature change, included only $5 notes and all notes were issued by the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. These 1928D series $5 notes are among the rarest small-size notes in existence today.","title":"Federal Reserve Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Numismatic Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Numismatic_Collection"},{"link_name":"National Museum of American History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution"}],"sub_title":"Series of 1928 Federal Reserve Note denomination set","text":"All banknotes in the following table are Series of 1928 Federal Reserve Notes from the National Numismatic Collection at the National Museum of American History (Smithsonian Institution).","title":"Federal Reserve Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Note"},{"link_name":"$2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_two-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uspapermoney1-3"},{"link_name":"$1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bare_url-4"}],"text":"Series of 1928 United States Notes were issued in $2 (through 1928G) and $5 (through 1928F) denominations until the early 1950s.[3] Also, for a brief period in 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued as a response to the Great Depression. Most of these remained in storage before being released in Puerto Rico during 1948-9.[4]","title":"United States (Legal Tender) Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Series of 1928 United States Note denomination set","title":"United States (Legal Tender) Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"silver certificates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_certificate_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Gold Certificates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_certificate_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"confiscation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Order_6102"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Series of 1928 through 1928E silver certificates were only issued in the $1 denomination. The design closely followed the 1923 $1 Silver Certificate.1928 saw the last issuance of Gold Certificates to the public prior to their confiscation during the Great Depression.[6]","title":"Silver Certificates and Gold Certificates"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Series of 1928 Gold Certificate denomination set","title":"Silver Certificates and Gold Certificates"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_$1_1928_Silver_Certificate.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_$1_1928_Silver_Certificate_reverse.jpg"}],"text":"A $1 Silver Certificate, Series of 1928.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCommon reverse of 1928 $1 Silver Certificates and $1 United States Notes.","title":"Gallery"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing - History Timeline\". Moneyfactory.gov. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://moneyfactory.gov/historytimeline.html","url_text":"\"U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing - History Timeline\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of Currency Designs\". USPaperMoney.Info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/history/1928.html","url_text":"\"History of Currency Designs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chronology of Small-Size Notes\". USPaperMoney.Info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/general/chron_s.html","url_text":"\"Chronology of Small-Size Notes\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of Currency Designs\". USPaperMoney.Info. 1933-05-12. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/history/1933.html","url_text":"\"History of Currency Designs\""}]},{"reference":"\"1928 & 1934 FRN Seals\". Ussmallnotes.info. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ussmallnotes.info/1928FRNseals.htm","url_text":"\"1928 & 1934 FRN Seals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gold Certificates\". People.ku.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-04-13. Retrieved 2013-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130413064330/http://people.ku.edu/~kaf/pmoney/gc.htm","url_text":"\"Gold Certificates\""},{"url":"http://people.ku.edu/~kaf/pmoney/gc.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://moneyfactory.gov/historytimeline.html","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing - History Timeline\""},{"Link":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/history/1928.html","external_links_name":"\"History of Currency Designs\""},{"Link":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/general/chron_s.html","external_links_name":"\"Chronology of Small-Size Notes\""},{"Link":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/history/1933.html","external_links_name":"\"History of Currency Designs\""},{"Link":"http://www.ussmallnotes.info/1928FRNseals.htm","external_links_name":"\"1928 & 1934 FRN Seals\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130413064330/http://people.ku.edu/~kaf/pmoney/gc.htm","external_links_name":"\"Gold Certificates\""},{"Link":"http://people.ku.edu/~kaf/pmoney/gc.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.moneyfactory.gov/","external_links_name":"Bureau of Engraving and Printing"},{"Link":"http://www.friesian.com/notes.htm","external_links_name":"Six Kinds of United States Paper Currency"},{"Link":"http://www.uspapermoney.info/history/","external_links_name":"History of Currency Designs"},{"Link":"http://www.ussmallnotes.info/1928FRNseals.htm","external_links_name":"Series of 1928 and 1934 Federal Reserve Note Seal Colors"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130413064330/http://people.ku.edu/~kaf/pmoney/gc.htm","external_links_name":"Series of 1928 and 1934 Gold Certificates"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_Kublanovskaya | Vera Kublanovskaya | ["1 Early life","2 Education","3 Scientific works","4 Publications","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | Russian mathematician (1920–2012)
Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya (née Totubalina; November 21, 1920 – February 21, 2012 ) was a Russian mathematician noted for her work on developing computational methods for solving spectral problems of algebra. She proposed the QR algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors in 1961, which has been named as one of the ten most important algorithms of the twentieth century. This algorithm was proposed independently by the English computer scientist John G.F. Francis in 1959.
Early life
Kublanovskaya was born in November 1920 in Krokhona, a village near Belozersk in Vologda Oblast, Russia. She was born in a farming and fishing family as one of nine siblings. She died at the age of 91 years old in February 2012.
Education
Kublanovskaya started her tertiary education in 1939 at the Gertzen Pedagogical Institute in Leningrad. There, she was encouraged to pursue a career in mathematics. She moved on to study mathematics at Leningrad State University in 1945 and graduated in 1948. Following her graduation, she joined the Leningrad Branch of the Steklov Mathematical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. She remained there for 64 years of her life.
In 1955, she got a first doctorate degree on the application of analytic continuation to numeric methods. In 1972 she obtained a secondary doctorate on the use of orthogonal transformations to solve algebraic problems.
In October 1985, she was awarded an honorary doctorate at Umeå University, Sweden, with which she has collaborated.
Scientific works
During her first PhD, she joined Leonid Kantorovich's group that was working on developing a universal computer language in the USSR. Her task was to select and classify matrix operations that are useful in numerical linear algebra.
Her subsequent works have been foundational in furthering mathematical research and software development. She is mentioned in the Book of Proofs
Publications
On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem
On a method of solving the complete eigenvalue problem for a degenerate matrix
Methods and algorithms of solving spectral problems for polynomial and rational matrices
To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. V
To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. IX
Notes
^ Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya, July 17, 2012
^ Dongarra & Sullivan (2000)
^ "Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya". SIAM News. Retrieved 2020-03-07.
^ a b "Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya". MacTutor. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
^ "Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya". www.bookofproofs.org. Retrieved 2020-03-07.
^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1962-01-01). "On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem". USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics. 1 (3): 637–657. doi:10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X. ISSN 0041-5553.
^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1966-01-01). "On a method of solving the complete eigenvalue problem for a degenerate matrix". USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics. 6 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1016/0041-5553(66)90001-2. ISSN 0041-5553.
^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1999-09-01). "Methods and algorithms of solving spectral problems for polynomial and rational matrices". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 96 (3): 3085–3287. doi:10.1007/BF02168360. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 120403984.
^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (2010-03-01). "To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. V". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 165 (5): 574–588. doi:10.1007/s10958-010-9827-y. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 189871368.
^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (2012-05-01). "To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. IX". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 182 (6): 814–822. doi:10.1007/s10958-012-0789-0. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 189871944.
References
Dongarra, Jack J.; Sullivan, Francis (2000), "Guest editors' introduction: The top 10 algorithms", Computing in Science & Engineering, 2 (1): 22–23, Bibcode:2000CSE.....2a..22D, doi:10.1109/MCISE.2000.814652, ISSN 1521-9615.
Golub, Gene H.; Uhlig, Frank (2009), "The QR algorithm: 50 years later – its genesis by John Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya, and subsequent developments", IMA Journal of Numerical Analysis, 29 (3): 467–485, doi:10.1093/imanum/drp012, ISSN 0272-4979.
Kon'kova, Ya.; Simonova, V.N.; Khazanov, V.B. (2000), "Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya. Short Biography", Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 114 (6): 1755–56, doi:10.1023/A:1022491200674, S2CID 118551402.
External links
MacTutor History of Mathematics biography
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Belgium
United States
Academics
MathSciNet
zbMATH | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"QR algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_algorithm"},{"link_name":"eigenvalues and eigenvectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"John G.F. Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G.F._Francis"}],"text":"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya (née Totubalina; November 21, 1920 – February 21, 2012 [1]) was a Russian mathematician noted for her work on developing computational methods for solving spectral problems of algebra. She proposed the QR algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors in 1961, which has been named as one of the ten most important algorithms of the twentieth century.[2] This algorithm was proposed independently by the English computer scientist John G.F. Francis in 1959.","title":"Vera Kublanovskaya"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belozersk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belozersk"},{"link_name":"Vologda Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vologda_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Kublanovskaya was born in November 1920 in Krokhona, a village near Belozersk in Vologda Oblast, Russia. She was born in a farming and fishing family as one of nine siblings. She died at the age of 91 years old in February 2012. [3]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"}],"text":"Kublanovskaya started her tertiary education in 1939 at the Gertzen Pedagogical Institute in Leningrad.[4] There, she was encouraged to pursue a career in mathematics. She moved on to study mathematics at Leningrad State University in 1945 and graduated in 1948. Following her graduation, she joined the Leningrad Branch of the Steklov Mathematical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. She remained there for 64 years of her life.In 1955, she got a first doctorate degree on the application of analytic continuation to numeric methods. In 1972 she obtained a secondary doctorate on the use of orthogonal transformations to solve algebraic problems.In October 1985, she was awarded an honorary doctorate at Umeå University, Sweden, with which she has collaborated.[4]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leonid Kantorovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Kantorovich"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"During her first PhD, she joined Leonid Kantorovich's group that was working on developing a universal computer language in the USSR. Her task was to select and classify matrix operations that are useful in numerical linear algebra.Her subsequent works have been foundational in furthering mathematical research and software development. She is mentioned in the Book of Proofs [5]","title":"Scientific works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem [6]\nOn a method of solving the complete eigenvalue problem for a degenerate matrix [7]\nMethods and algorithms of solving spectral problems for polynomial and rational matrices [8]\nTo solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. V [9]\nTo solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. IX [10]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/obituaries-vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Dongarra & Sullivan (2000)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDongarraSullivan2000"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/obituaries-vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_4-1"},{"link_name":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Kublanovskaya/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bookofproofs.org/history/vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0041-5553%2863%2990168-X"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0041-5553","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0041-5553"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0041-5553(66)90001-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0041-5553%2866%2990001-2"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0041-5553","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0041-5553"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF02168360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02168360"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1573-8795","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-8795"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"120403984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120403984"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. 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SIAM News. Retrieved 2020-03-07.\n\n^ a b \"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\". MacTutor. Retrieved 29 January 2021.\n\n^ \"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\". www.bookofproofs.org. Retrieved 2020-03-07.\n\n^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1962-01-01). \"On some algorithms for the solution of the complete eigenvalue problem\". USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics. 1 (3): 637–657. doi:10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X. ISSN 0041-5553.\n\n^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1966-01-01). \"On a method of solving the complete eigenvalue problem for a degenerate matrix\". USSR Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Physics. 6 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1016/0041-5553(66)90001-2. ISSN 0041-5553.\n\n^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (1999-09-01). \"Methods and algorithms of solving spectral problems for polynomial and rational matrices\". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 96 (3): 3085–3287. doi:10.1007/BF02168360. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 120403984.\n\n^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (2010-03-01). \"To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. V\". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 165 (5): 574–588. doi:10.1007/s10958-010-9827-y. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 189871368.\n\n^ Kublanovskaya, V. N. (2012-05-01). \"To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. IX\". Journal of Mathematical Sciences. 182 (6): 814–822. doi:10.1007/s10958-012-0789-0. ISSN 1573-8795. S2CID 189871944.","title":"Notes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\". SIAM News. Retrieved 2020-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/obituaries-vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya","url_text":"\"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\". MacTutor. Retrieved 29 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Kublanovskaya/","url_text":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\". www.bookofproofs.org. 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(2000), \"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya. Short Biography\", Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 114 (6): 1755–56, doi:10.1023/A:1022491200674, S2CID 118551402","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1022491200674","url_text":"10.1023/A:1022491200674"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118551402","url_text":"118551402"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/obituaries-vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya","external_links_name":"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya"},{"Link":"https://sinews.siam.org/Details-Page/obituaries-vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya","external_links_name":"\"Obituaries: Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\""},{"Link":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Kublanovskaya/","external_links_name":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\""},{"Link":"https://www.bookofproofs.org/history/vera-nikolaevna-kublanovskaya/","external_links_name":"\"Vera Nikolaevna Kublanovskaya\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0041-5553%2863%2990168-X","external_links_name":"10.1016/0041-5553(63)90168-X"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0041-5553","external_links_name":"0041-5553"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0041-5553%2866%2990001-2","external_links_name":"10.1016/0041-5553(66)90001-2"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0041-5553","external_links_name":"0041-5553"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02168360","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF02168360"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-8795","external_links_name":"1573-8795"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120403984","external_links_name":"120403984"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10958-010-9827-y","external_links_name":"\"To solving problems of algebra for two-parameter matrices. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Uisneach | Hill of Uisneach | [] | Hill in County Westmeath, Ireland
Hill of UisneachIrish: Uisneach; Cnoc UisnighInformation signShown within island of IrelandAlternative nameUshnagh (anglicisation)LocationCounty Westmeath, IrelandCoordinates53°29′24″N 7°33′43″W / 53.490°N 7.562°W / 53.490; -7.562TypeAncient ceremonial siteHeight182 metres (597 ft)HistoryPeriodsIron Age–Middle AgesCulturesGaelicSite notesPublic accessYes
National monument of IrelandOfficial nameUshnagh Hill, CatstoneReference no.155
The Hill of Uisneach or Ushnagh (Irish: Uisneach or Cnoc Uisnigh) is a hill and ancient ceremonial site in the barony of Rathconrath in County Westmeath, Ireland. It is a protected national monument. It consists of numerous monuments and earthworks—prehistoric and medieval—including a probable megalithic tomb, burial mounds, enclosures, standing stones, holy wells and a medieval road. Uisneach is near the geographical centre of Ireland, and in Irish mythology it is deemed to be the symbolic and sacred centre of the island. It was said to be the burial place of the mythical Tuatha Dé Danann, and a place of assembly associated with the druids and the festival of Bealtaine.
The summit is 182 metres (597 ft) above sea level and lies north of the R390 road, 8 km east of the village of Ballymore and beside the village of Loughnavalley. The hill occupies parts of four adjacent townlands: Ushnagh Hill, Mweelra, Rathnew, and Kellybrook.
Name
The hill is called Uisneach in both Irish and English, with the alternative Irish name Cnoc Uisnigh meaning "hill of Uisneach". It is also anglicized as 'Ushnagh', such as in the name of the townland. In Old and Middle Irish it was spelt Uisnech. Eric P. Hamp derives the name from Proto-Celtic *us-tin-ako- meaning "place of the hearth" or "place of cinders". T. F. O'Rahilly derived it from *ostinako- meaning "angular place".
Features
The site consists of a set of monuments and earthworks spread over two square kilometres. About twenty are visible, and the remains of at least twenty others have been identified under the ground. They include a probable megalithic tomb, burial mounds, enclosures, standing stones, holy wells and a medieval road. They date from the Neolithic to the early Middle Ages, showing that the site has been the focus of human activity for about 5,000 years. Several sites were excavated in the 1920s by R.A.S. Macalister and R. Praeger.
The summit has panoramic views, from which hills in at least twenty counties can be seen. On the summit is the remains of a probable megalithic tomb, known as 'St Patrick's Bed', which was once surrounded by a ring ditch. Downslope to the east is a small lake known as Loch Lugh or Loch Lugborta, and on a rise east of this is a burial mound known as Carn Lughdach, which was also once surrounded by a ring ditch. South of these are two holy wells, one of which is known as Tobernaslath and sits beside a circular enclosure and standing stone.
On the southwest side of the hill is a large, oddly-shaped limestone rock; a glacial erratic almost 6 metres (20 ft) tall and thought to weigh over 30 tons. In prehistory an earthen bank was dug around it to mark it out as a special place. In Irish it is called the Ail na Míreann ("stone of the divisions"), as it is said to have been where the borders of the provinces met. It is nicknamed the Cat Stone, allegedly because it resembles the shape of a sitting cat.
Site of Celtic Festival of Bealtaine on the Hill of Uisneach
The biggest monument at Uisneach is Rathnew, the remains of a figure-of-eight shaped earthwork. An early medieval road leads towards Rathnew from the foot of the hill. Rathnew was originally one round enclosure marked by a ditch, with an eastern entrance. Inside it were several pits containing partly-burnt animal bones, each sealed with large flat stones. It appears that fires "had been kindled, and then suddenly quenched" with water or soil, in a ritual. There was also a large ash bed containing thoroughly-charred animal skeletons. This appears to have been "a sanctuary-site, in which fire was kept burning perpetually, or kindled at frequent intervals", where animal sacrifices were offered. Later, in the early medieval period, a large figure-of-eight shaped earthwork was raised on this site. It was a large round enclosure, with a smaller round enclosure joined to it, marked by a bank and ditch. Within each enclosure was a small stone building and a souterrain. It is suggested that Rathnew at this time was a place of royal and religious gatherings, and may have served as a royal residence of the kings of Meath during these gatherings. The Clann Cholmáin chieftains, who became kings of Meath, were styled "Kings of Uisnech" in early-medieval king lists.
The Stone of the Divisions
There is also Tuar Uí Cobhthaigh / Toorcoffey (Coffey's Tower) named after the brehon law O'Cobhthaigh family who were known as the filí or ollamhs of Uisneach.
In Irish mythology
In Irish mythology, Uisneach is described as the sacred centre of Ireland, the burial place of Irish gods such as Lugh and the Dagda, the site of a sacred tree (the Bile Uisnig), and a place of assembly (the mórdáil Uisnig) associated with the druids, which, according to later tradition, was held during the festival of Bealtaine. The Ail na Míreann ("stone of the divisions") in particular is described as the navel of Ireland. It is seen as a kind of omphalos or axis mundi of Ireland, a meeting place between the Earth and the Otherworld and the source of creation. It is said to have marked the meeting point of the provinces.
The Dindsenchas ("lore of places") says that Uisneach is where the druid Mide lit a sacred fire that blazed for seven years. The tale Tucait Baile Mongáin ("Mongan's Frenzy") describes how a great hailstorm during an assembly on the hill created the twelve chief rivers of Ireland. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn ("Book of the Taking of Ireland"), the Gaels (Milesians) meet the goddess Ériu at Uisneach where, after some conversation and drama, the Milesian poet Amergin promises to give the land her name. She is said to be buried under the Ail na Míreann.
In mythology, Uisneach and Tara are said to be linked. In the literature, Tara is mainly associated with royal power, while Uisneach is mainly associated with spiritual power. Anciently, both locations had festivals or meetings every seven years – the Feast of Tara at Samhain and the Great Meeting of Uisneach at Beltane; at the Feast of Tara new laws were passed and councils formed. It was linked to Tara by the ancient road called the Slighe Assail; the modern R392 road mostly follows its route.
The tragic tale of Deirdre and the "sons of Uisnech" or "sons of Uisliu" (Naisi, Ardan and Ainle) is part of the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology.
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain") says that Stonehenge originally stood at the 'hill of Killare' (mons Killaraus) in Ireland, before being moved to Britain. This is thought to refer to Uisneach, as Killare is a place at the foot of the hill.
References
^ Irish Placenames Database Archived 3 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 5 August 2010.
^ National Monuments in State care Archived 20 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, National Monuments Service, archaeology.ie. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
^ Alwyn Rees and Brinley Rees. Celtic Heritage. Thames and Hudson: New York, 1961. ISBN 0-500-27039-2. pp. 159-161.
^ a b c d e f g h Schot, Roseanne (2006). "Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric cult centre and royal site in Co. Westmeath". Journal of Irish Archaeology, issue 15. pp.39-46
^ a b Ordnance Survey map Archived 29 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Select Wind Report option for contour map. Select Historic 6" option for townland boundaries. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
^ Zair, Nicholas. The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Brill Publishers, 2012. p.28
^ a b c Schot, Roseanne (2011). "From cult centre to royal centre: monuments, myths and other revelations at Uisneach", in Landscapes of Cult and Kingship, Four Courts Press. pp.87–113
^ a b c Schot, Roseanne (2006). "Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric cult centre and royal site in Co. Westmeath". Journal of Irish Archaeology, issue 15. pp.47-66
^ Bradley, Richard (2012). The Idea of Order: The circular archetype in prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–6.
^ a b Monaghan, Patricia (2004). The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing. p. 460.
^ The Irish ordeals, Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword. Translated by Stokes, Whitley. Section 56 – via The Corpus of Electronic Texts.
^ Chadwick, Nora (2004) . The Growth of Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 544.
^ Veach, Colin (2015). Lordship in Four Realms: The Lacy family, 1166–1241. Oxford University Press. p. 62.
Further reading
Jestice, Phyllis G. (2000). Encyclopedia of Irish Spirituality. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. ISBN 1-57607-146-4.
MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869157-2.
vteIrish mythology: the Mythological CycleSupernaturalfiguresTuatha DéDanann
Abcán
Aed
Aengus
Anu-Danu-Danand
Áine
Bé Chuille
Béḃinn
Boann
Bodb Derg
Bres
Brian
Brigid
Cermait
Cian
Clídna
Dagda
Delbáeth-Tuirenn
Dian Cecht-Miach-Airmed
Ecne
Ernmas
Étaín
Ériu-Banba-Fódla
Fiacha
Flidais
Fuamnach
Lén
Lir
Lug
Mac Gréine-Mac Cuill-Mac Cecht
Macha
Manannán
Midir
Morrígan (Badb, Nemain)
Neit
Nuada (Nechtan, Elcmar)
Ogma
Trí Dé Dána (Goibniu, Credne, Luchta)
Fomhoraigh
Balor
Bres
Cethlenn
Cichol
Conand
Elatha
Ethniu
Tethra
Others
Caillech
Carman
Crom Cruach
Donn
Mug Ruith
Tailtiu
Tlachtga
Tuan mac Cairill
Settlers
Cesair
Partholón
Nemed
Fir Bolg
Aengus mac Umor
Eochaid mac Eirc
Fiacha Cennfinnán
Fodbgen
Gann-Genann-Sengann
Rinnal
Rudraige
Sláine
Sreng
Milesians
Amergin Glúingel
Breogán
Éber Donn
Éber Finn
Érimón
Fénius Farsaid
Goídel Glas
Lámfhind
Míl
Scota
Creatures
Aes Síde
Enbarr
Failinis
Glas Gaibhnenn
Items
Areadbhar
Four Treasures
Fragarach
Lúin of Celtchar
Uaithne
Places
Otherworld
Mag Mell
Tír na nÓg
Tech Duinn
Brú na Bóinne
Connla's Well
Emain Ablach
Fintan's Grave
Teamhair
Toraigh
Uisneach
Texts
Lebor Gabála Érenn
Cath Maige Tuired
Tochmarc Étaíne
Aided Chlainne Lir
Aided Chlainne Tuirenn
Immram Brain
Dindsenchas
part of a series on Celtic mythology
vteMountains and hills of Leinster
List of mountains in Ireland
List of mountains and hills of County Dublin
Blackstairs Mountains
Black Rock Mountain
Blackstairs Mountain
Croaghaun
Mount Leinster
Cooley Mountains
Clermont Carn
Slieve Foy
Slieveardagh Hills
Clomantagh Hill
Knocknamuck
Slieve Bloom Mountains
Arderin
Barcam
Baunreaghcong
Carroll's Hill
Castleconor
Farbreague
Garraunbaun
Ridge of Capard
Stillbrook Hill
Wolftrap Mountain
Wicklow Mountains
Annagh Hill
Barnaslingan
Bray Head
Benleagh
Camaderry
Camenabologue
Carrick Mountain
Carrickgollogan
Carrigvore
Cloghernagh
Conavalla
Corrigasleggaun
Croaghanmoira
Croghan Mountain
Cupidstown Hill
Djouce
Duff Hill
Gravale
Great Sugar Loaf
Keadeen Mountain
Kilmashogue
Kippure
Larch Hill
Little Sugar Loaf
Lobawn
Lugduff
Luggala
Lugnaquilla
Maulin
Moanbane
Montpelier Hill
Mullacor
Mullaghcleevaun
Prince William's Seat
Scarr
Seefingan
Silsean
Slievegad
Slievemaan
Sugarloaf (West Wicklow)
Table Mountain
Tibradden Mountain
Tonduff
Tonelagee
Turlough Hill
Two Rock and Three Rock Mountain
War Hill
Others
Brandon Hill
Ben of Howth
Coppanagh
Croghan Hill
Dalkey Hill
Dún Ailinne
Faughan Hill
Hill of Allen
Hill of Ben
Hill of Tara
Hill of Uisneach
Hill of Ward
Killiney Hill
Knockeyon
Mount Alto
Mullaghreelan
Mullaghmast
Mullaghmeen
Naul Hills
Shielmartin Hill
Slieveboy
Slieve na Calliagh
Tara Hill | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"barony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baronies_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Rathconrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rathconrath_(barony)"},{"link_name":"County Westmeath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Westmeath"},{"link_name":"national monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_monument_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"prehistoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)"},{"link_name":"megalithic tomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_megalithic_tombs"},{"link_name":"burial mounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus"},{"link_name":"standing stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_stone"},{"link_name":"holy wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_well"},{"link_name":"geographical centre of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_centre_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rees159-61-3"},{"link_name":"Tuatha Dé Danann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann"},{"link_name":"druids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid"},{"link_name":"Bealtaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-osi-5"},{"link_name":"R390 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R390_road_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Ballymore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballymore,_County_Westmeath"},{"link_name":"Loughnavalley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loughnavalley"},{"link_name":"townlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townland"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-osi-5"}],"text":"The Hill of Uisneach or Ushnagh (Irish: Uisneach or Cnoc Uisnigh)[1] is a hill and ancient ceremonial site in the barony of Rathconrath in County Westmeath, Ireland. It is a protected national monument.[2] It consists of numerous monuments and earthworks—prehistoric and medieval—including a probable megalithic tomb, burial mounds, enclosures, standing stones, holy wells and a medieval road. Uisneach is near the geographical centre of Ireland, and in Irish mythology it is deemed to be the symbolic and sacred centre of the island.[3] It was said to be the burial place of the mythical Tuatha Dé Danann, and a place of assembly associated with the druids and the festival of Bealtaine.[4]The summit is 182 metres (597 ft) above sea level[5] and lies north of the R390 road, 8 km east of the village of Ballymore and beside the village of Loughnavalley. The hill occupies parts of four adjacent townlands: Ushnagh Hill, Mweelra, Rathnew, and Kellybrook.[5]","title":"Hill of Uisneach"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"townland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townland"},{"link_name":"Old","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish"},{"link_name":"Middle Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Irish"},{"link_name":"Eric P. Hamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_P._Hamp"},{"link_name":"Proto-Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic"},{"link_name":"T. F. O'Rahilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._F._O%27Rahilly"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The hill is called Uisneach in both Irish and English, with the alternative Irish name Cnoc Uisnigh meaning \"hill of Uisneach\". It is also anglicized as 'Ushnagh', such as in the name of the townland. In Old and Middle Irish it was spelt Uisnech. Eric P. Hamp derives the name from Proto-Celtic *us-tin-ako- meaning \"place of the hearth\" or \"place of cinders\". T. F. O'Rahilly derived it from *ostinako- meaning \"angular place\".[6]","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"megalithic tomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_megalithic_tombs"},{"link_name":"burial mounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus"},{"link_name":"standing stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_stone"},{"link_name":"holy wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_well"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"early Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"counties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"glacial erratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_erratic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_2-7"},{"link_name":"the provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Site_of_Celtic_Festival_of_Bealtaine.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_47-66-8"},{"link_name":"animal sacrifices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_sacrifice"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_47-66-8"},{"link_name":"early medieval period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400-800)"},{"link_name":"souterrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souterrain"},{"link_name":"kings of Meath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Meath"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_47-66-8"},{"link_name":"Clann Cholmáin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clann_Cholm%C3%A1in"},{"link_name":"Kings of Uisnech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Uisnech"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romantic_Ireland_(1905)_(14769773905).jpg"},{"link_name":"brehon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehon"},{"link_name":"O'Cobhthaigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93_Cobhthaigh"},{"link_name":"filí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"ollamhs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ollamhs"}],"text":"The site consists of a set of monuments and earthworks spread over two square kilometres. About twenty are visible, and the remains of at least twenty others have been identified under the ground. They include a probable megalithic tomb, burial mounds, enclosures, standing stones, holy wells and a medieval road. They date from the Neolithic to the early Middle Ages, showing that the site has been the focus of human activity for about 5,000 years.[4] Several sites were excavated in the 1920s by R.A.S. Macalister and R. Praeger.[4]The summit has panoramic views, from which hills in at least twenty counties can be seen.[4] On the summit is the remains of a probable megalithic tomb, known as 'St Patrick's Bed', which was once surrounded by a ring ditch. Downslope to the east is a small lake known as Loch Lugh or Loch Lugborta, and on a rise east of this is a burial mound known as Carn Lughdach, which was also once surrounded by a ring ditch. South of these are two holy wells, one of which is known as Tobernaslath and sits beside a circular enclosure and standing stone.[4]On the southwest side of the hill is a large, oddly-shaped limestone rock; a glacial erratic almost 6 metres (20 ft) tall and thought to weigh over 30 tons. In prehistory an earthen bank was dug around it to mark it out as a special place.[7] In Irish it is called the Ail na Míreann (\"stone of the divisions\"), as it is said to have been where the borders of the provinces met. It is nicknamed the Cat Stone, allegedly because it resembles the shape of a sitting cat.Site of Celtic Festival of Bealtaine on the Hill of UisneachThe biggest monument at Uisneach is Rathnew, the remains of a figure-of-eight shaped earthwork. An early medieval road leads towards Rathnew from the foot of the hill.[8] Rathnew was originally one round enclosure marked by a ditch, with an eastern entrance. Inside it were several pits containing partly-burnt animal bones, each sealed with large flat stones. It appears that fires \"had been kindled, and then suddenly quenched\" with water or soil, in a ritual. There was also a large ash bed containing thoroughly-charred animal skeletons. This appears to have been \"a sanctuary-site, in which fire was kept burning perpetually, or kindled at frequent intervals\", where animal sacrifices were offered.[8] Later, in the early medieval period, a large figure-of-eight shaped earthwork was raised on this site. It was a large round enclosure, with a smaller round enclosure joined to it, marked by a bank and ditch. Within each enclosure was a small stone building and a souterrain. It is suggested that Rathnew at this time was a place of royal and religious gatherings, and may have served as a royal residence of the kings of Meath during these gatherings.[8] The Clann Cholmáin chieftains, who became kings of Meath, were styled \"Kings of Uisnech\" in early-medieval king lists.[4]The Stone of the DivisionsThere is also Tuar Uí Cobhthaigh / Toorcoffey (Coffey's Tower) named after the brehon law O'Cobhthaigh family who were known as the filí or ollamhs of Uisneach.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irish mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology"},{"link_name":"Lugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh"},{"link_name":"the Dagda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dagda"},{"link_name":"sacred tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_tree"},{"link_name":"druids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid"},{"link_name":"Bealtaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bealtaine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"navel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navel"},{"link_name":"omphalos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalos"},{"link_name":"axis mundi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_mundi"},{"link_name":"Otherworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_39-46-4"},{"link_name":"the provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Dindsenchas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dindsenchas"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_2-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schot_2-7"},{"link_name":"Lebor Gabála Érenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn"},{"link_name":"Gaels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels"},{"link_name":"Milesians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians_(Irish)"},{"link_name":"Ériu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89riu"},{"link_name":"Amergin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amergin_Gl%C3%BAingel"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Monaghan-10"},{"link_name":"Tara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Tara"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Monaghan-10"},{"link_name":"Samhain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhain"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Slighe Assail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_great_roads_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"R392 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R392_road_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Deirdre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre"},{"link_name":"Naisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naoise"},{"link_name":"Ulster Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey of Monmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth"},{"link_name":"Historia Regum Britanniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"hill of Killare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Killaraus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"In Irish mythology, Uisneach is described as the sacred centre of Ireland, the burial place of Irish gods such as Lugh and the Dagda, the site of a sacred tree (the Bile Uisnig), and a place of assembly (the mórdáil Uisnig) associated with the druids, which, according to later tradition, was held during the festival of Bealtaine.[4] The Ail na Míreann (\"stone of the divisions\") in particular is described as the navel of Ireland. It is seen as a kind of omphalos or axis mundi of Ireland, a meeting place between the Earth and the Otherworld and the source of creation.[4] It is said to have marked the meeting point of the provinces.[9]The Dindsenchas (\"lore of places\") says that Uisneach is where the druid Mide lit a sacred fire that blazed for seven years.[7] The tale Tucait Baile Mongáin (\"Mongan's Frenzy\") describes how a great hailstorm during an assembly on the hill created the twelve chief rivers of Ireland.[7] In the Lebor Gabála Érenn (\"Book of the Taking of Ireland\"), the Gaels (Milesians) meet the goddess Ériu at Uisneach where, after some conversation and drama, the Milesian poet Amergin promises to give the land her name. She is said to be buried under the Ail na Míreann.[10]In mythology, Uisneach and Tara are said to be linked. In the literature, Tara is mainly associated with royal power, while Uisneach is mainly associated with spiritual power.[10] Anciently, both locations had festivals or meetings every seven years – the Feast of Tara at Samhain and the Great Meeting of Uisneach at Beltane; at the Feast of Tara new laws were passed and councils formed.[11] It was linked to Tara by the ancient road called the Slighe Assail; the modern R392 road mostly follows its route.The tragic tale of Deirdre and the \"sons of Uisnech\" or \"sons of Uisliu\" (Naisi, Ardan and Ainle) is part of the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology.[12]Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (\"History of the Kings of Britain\") says that Stonehenge originally stood at the 'hill of Killare' (mons Killaraus) in Ireland, before being moved to Britain. This is thought to refer to Uisneach, as Killare is a place at the foot of the hill.[13]","title":"In Irish mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-57607-146-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-146-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-869157-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-869157-2"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Irish_mythology_(mythological)"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Irish_mythology_(mythological)"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Irish_mythology_(mythological)"},{"link_name":"Irish mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_mythology"},{"link_name":"Mythological Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythological_Cycle"},{"link_name":"Supernaturalfigures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities"},{"link_name":"Tuatha DéDanann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann"},{"link_name":"Abcán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abc%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Aed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aed_(god)"},{"link_name":"Aengus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aengus"},{"link_name":"Anu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu_(Irish_goddess)"},{"link_name":"Danu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danu_(Irish_goddess)"},{"link_name":"Danand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danand"},{"link_name":"Áine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ine"},{"link_name":"Bé Chuille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9_Chuille"},{"link_name":"Béḃinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9%E1%B8%83inn"},{"link_name":"Boann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boann"},{"link_name":"Bodb Derg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodb_Derg"},{"link_name":"Bres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bres"},{"link_name":"Brian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Brigid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigid"},{"link_name":"Cermait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cermait"},{"link_name":"Cian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cian"},{"link_name":"Clídna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%ADodhna"},{"link_name":"Dagda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dagda"},{"link_name":"Delbáeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delb%C3%A1eth"},{"link_name":"Tuirenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuireann"},{"link_name":"Dian Cecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dian_Cecht"},{"link_name":"Miach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miach"},{"link_name":"Airmed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airmed"},{"link_name":"Ecne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecne"},{"link_name":"Ernmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernmas"},{"link_name":"Étaín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ta%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Ériu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89riu"},{"link_name":"Banba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banba"},{"link_name":"Fódla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3dla"},{"link_name":"Fiacha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiacha_mac_Delba%C3%ADth"},{"link_name":"Flidais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flidais"},{"link_name":"Fuamnach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuamnach"},{"link_name":"Lén","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9n"},{"link_name":"Lir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lir"},{"link_name":"Lug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh"},{"link_name":"Mac Gréine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Gr%C3%A9ine"},{"link_name":"Mac Cuill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Cuill"},{"link_name":"Mac Cecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Cecht"},{"link_name":"Macha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macha"},{"link_name":"Manannán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manann%C3%A1n_mac_Lir"},{"link_name":"Midir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midir"},{"link_name":"Morrígan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Morr%C3%ADgan"},{"link_name":"Badb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badb"},{"link_name":"Nemain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemain"},{"link_name":"Neit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neit"},{"link_name":"Nuada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuada_Airgetl%C3%A1m"},{"link_name":"Nechtan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nechtan_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Elcmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elcmar"},{"link_name":"Ogma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogma"},{"link_name":"Goibniu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goibniu"},{"link_name":"Credne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creidhne"},{"link_name":"Luchta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchtaine"},{"link_name":"Fomhoraigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomorians"},{"link_name":"Balor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balor"},{"link_name":"Bres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bres"},{"link_name":"Cethlenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cethlenn"},{"link_name":"Cichol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cichol_Gricenchos"},{"link_name":"Conand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conand_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Elatha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elatha"},{"link_name":"Ethniu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethniu"},{"link_name":"Tethra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethra"},{"link_name":"Caillech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailleach"},{"link_name":"Carman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carman"},{"link_name":"Crom Cruach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crom_Cruach"},{"link_name":"Donn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donn"},{"link_name":"Mug Ruith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mug_Ruith"},{"link_name":"Tailtiu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailtiu"},{"link_name":"Tlachtga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlachtga"},{"link_name":"Tuan mac Cairill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuan_mac_Cairill"},{"link_name":"Settlers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn"},{"link_name":"Cesair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessair"},{"link_name":"Partholón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthol%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Nemed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemed"},{"link_name":"Fir Bolg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fir_Bolg"},{"link_name":"Aengus mac Umor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aonghus_mac_%C3%9Amh%C3%B3r"},{"link_name":"Eochaid mac Eirc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eochaid_mac_Eirc"},{"link_name":"Fiacha Cennfinnán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiacha_Cennfinn%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Fodbgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fodbgen"},{"link_name":"Gann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gann_mac_Dela"},{"link_name":"Genann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genann"},{"link_name":"Sengann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengann_mac_Dela"},{"link_name":"Rinnal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinnal"},{"link_name":"Rudraige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudraige_mac_Dela"},{"link_name":"Sláine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sl%C3%A1ine_mac_Dela"},{"link_name":"Sreng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sreng"},{"link_name":"Milesians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians_(Irish)"},{"link_name":"Amergin Glúingel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amergin_Gl%C3%BAingel"},{"link_name":"Breogán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breog%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Éber Donn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ber_Donn"},{"link_name":"Éber Finn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eber_Finn"},{"link_name":"Érimón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89rim%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Fénius Farsaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9nius_Farsaid"},{"link_name":"Goídel Glas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%ADdel_Glas"},{"link_name":"Lámfhind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1mfhind"},{"link_name":"Míl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADl_Esp%C3%A1ine"},{"link_name":"Scota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scota"},{"link_name":"Aes Síde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aos_S%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Enbarr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enbarr"},{"link_name":"Failinis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failinis"},{"link_name":"Glas Gaibhnenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glas_Gaibhnenn"},{"link_name":"Areadbhar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugh#Areadbhar"},{"link_name":"Four Treasures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Treasures_of_the_Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann"},{"link_name":"Fragarach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragarach"},{"link_name":"Lúin of Celtchar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAin_of_Celtchar"},{"link_name":"Uaithne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uaithne"},{"link_name":"Otherworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Otherworld"},{"link_name":"Mag Mell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag_Mell"},{"link_name":"Tír na nÓg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADr_na_n%C3%93g"},{"link_name":"Tech Duinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donn"},{"link_name":"Brú na Bóinne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BA_na_B%C3%B3inne"},{"link_name":"Connla's Well","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connla%27s_Well"},{"link_name":"Emain Ablach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emain_Ablach"},{"link_name":"Fintan's Grave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fintan%27s_Grave"},{"link_name":"Teamhair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Tara"},{"link_name":"Toraigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory_Island"},{"link_name":"Uisneach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Lebor Gabála Érenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn"},{"link_name":"Cath Maige Tuired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuired"},{"link_name":"Tochmarc Étaíne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tochmarc_%C3%89ta%C3%ADne"},{"link_name":"Aided Chlainne Lir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Lir"},{"link_name":"Aided Chlainne Tuirenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Immram Brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_Bran"},{"link_name":"Dindsenchas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dindsenchas"},{"link_name":"Celtic mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_mythology"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Mountains_and_hills_of_Leinster"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Mountains_and_hills_of_Leinster"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mountains_and_hills_of_Leinster"},{"link_name":"Leinster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leinster"},{"link_name":"List of mountains in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"List of mountains and hills of County Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountains_and_hills_of_County_Dublin"},{"link_name":"Blackstairs Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstairs_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Black Rock Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Rock_Mountain,_County_Wexford"},{"link_name":"Blackstairs Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstairs_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Croaghaun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croaghaun,_County_Carlow"},{"link_name":"Mount Leinster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Leinster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leinster_locator_map.svg"},{"link_name":"Cooley Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooley_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Clermont Carn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clermont_Carn"},{"link_name":"Slieve Foy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slieve_Foy"},{"link_name":"Slieveardagh Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slieveardagh_Hills"},{"link_name":"Clomantagh Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clomantagh_Hill"},{"link_name":"Knocknamuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knocknamuck"},{"link_name":"Slieve Bloom Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slieve_Bloom_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Arderin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arderin"},{"link_name":"Barcam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcam"},{"link_name":"Baunreaghcong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baunreaghcong"},{"link_name":"Carroll's Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carroll%27s_Hill"},{"link_name":"Castleconor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castleconor"},{"link_name":"Farbreague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farbreague"},{"link_name":"Garraunbaun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garraunbaun"},{"link_name":"Ridge of Capard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_of_Capard"},{"link_name":"Stillbrook Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stillbrook_Hill"},{"link_name":"Wolftrap Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolftrap_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Wicklow Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicklow_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Annagh Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annagh_Hill"},{"link_name":"Barnaslingan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnaslingan"},{"link_name":"Bray Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bray_Head"},{"link_name":"Benleagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benleagh"},{"link_name":"Camaderry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camaderry"},{"link_name":"Camenabologue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camenabologue"},{"link_name":"Carrick Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrick_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Carrickgollogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrickgollogan"},{"link_name":"Carrigvore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrigvore"},{"link_name":"Cloghernagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloghernagh"},{"link_name":"Conavalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conavalla"},{"link_name":"Corrigasleggaun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrigasleggaun"},{"link_name":"Croaghanmoira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croaghanmoira"},{"link_name":"Croghan Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croghan_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Cupidstown Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupidstown_Hill"},{"link_name":"Djouce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djouce"},{"link_name":"Duff Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duff_Hill"},{"link_name":"Gravale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravale"},{"link_name":"Great Sugar Loaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sugar_Loaf"},{"link_name":"Keadeen Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keadeen_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Kilmashogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilmashogue"},{"link_name":"Kippure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kippure"},{"link_name":"Larch Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larch_Hill"},{"link_name":"Little Sugar Loaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Sugar_Loaf"},{"link_name":"Lobawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobawn"},{"link_name":"Lugduff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugduff"},{"link_name":"Luggala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luggala"},{"link_name":"Lugnaquilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugnaquilla"},{"link_name":"Maulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maulin"},{"link_name":"Moanbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moanbane"},{"link_name":"Montpelier Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpelier_Hill"},{"link_name":"Mullacor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullacor"},{"link_name":"Mullaghcleevaun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullaghcleevaun"},{"link_name":"Prince William's Seat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_William%27s_Seat"},{"link_name":"Scarr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarr"},{"link_name":"Seefingan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seefingan"},{"link_name":"Silsean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silsean"},{"link_name":"Slievegad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Slievemaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slievemaan"},{"link_name":"Sugarloaf (West Wicklow)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarloaf_(West_Wicklow)"},{"link_name":"Table Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_Mountain_(Wicklow)"},{"link_name":"Tibradden Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibradden_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Tonduff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonduff"},{"link_name":"Tonelagee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonelagee"},{"link_name":"Turlough Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turlough_Hill"},{"link_name":"Two Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Rock"},{"link_name":"Three Rock Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rock_Mountain"},{"link_name":"War Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Hill"},{"link_name":"Brandon Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Hill"},{"link_name":"Ben of Howth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_of_Howth"},{"link_name":"Coppanagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppanagh"},{"link_name":"Croghan Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croghan_Hill"},{"link_name":"Dalkey Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalkey_Hill"},{"link_name":"Dún Ailinne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BAn_Ailinne"},{"link_name":"Faughan Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faughan_Hill"},{"link_name":"Hill of Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Allen"},{"link_name":"Hill of Ben","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Ben"},{"link_name":"Hill of Tara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Tara"},{"link_name":"Hill of Uisneach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Hill of Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Ward"},{"link_name":"Killiney Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killiney_Hill"},{"link_name":"Knockeyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knockeyon"},{"link_name":"Mount Alto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Alto,_Kilkenny"},{"link_name":"Mullaghreelan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullaghreelan"},{"link_name":"Mullaghmast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullaghmast"},{"link_name":"Mullaghmeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullaghmeen"},{"link_name":"Naul Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naul_Hills"},{"link_name":"Shielmartin Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielmartin_Hill"},{"link_name":"Slieveboy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slieveboy"},{"link_name":"Slieve na Calliagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slieve_na_Calliagh"},{"link_name":"Tara Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Hill,_County_Wexford"}],"text":"Jestice, Phyllis G. (2000). Encyclopedia of Irish Spirituality. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. ISBN 1-57607-146-4.\nMacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869157-2.vteIrish mythology: the Mythological CycleSupernaturalfiguresTuatha DéDanann\nAbcán\nAed\nAengus\nAnu-Danu-Danand\nÁine\nBé Chuille\nBéḃinn\nBoann\nBodb Derg\nBres\nBrian\nBrigid\nCermait\nCian\nClídna\nDagda\nDelbáeth-Tuirenn\nDian Cecht-Miach-Airmed\nEcne\nErnmas\nÉtaín\nÉriu-Banba-Fódla\nFiacha\nFlidais\nFuamnach\nLén\nLir\nLug\nMac Gréine-Mac Cuill-Mac Cecht\nMacha\nManannán\nMidir\nMorrígan (Badb, Nemain)\nNeit\nNuada (Nechtan, Elcmar)\nOgma\nTrí Dé Dána (Goibniu, Credne, Luchta)\nFomhoraigh\nBalor\nBres\nCethlenn\nCichol\nConand\nElatha\nEthniu\nTethra\nOthers\nCaillech\nCarman\nCrom Cruach\nDonn\nMug Ruith\nTailtiu\nTlachtga\nTuan mac Cairill\nSettlers\nCesair\nPartholón\nNemed\nFir Bolg\nAengus mac Umor\nEochaid mac Eirc\nFiacha Cennfinnán\nFodbgen\nGann-Genann-Sengann\nRinnal\nRudraige\nSláine\nSreng\nMilesians\nAmergin Glúingel\nBreogán\nÉber Donn\nÉber Finn\nÉrimón\nFénius Farsaid\nGoídel Glas\nLámfhind\nMíl\nScota\nCreatures\nAes Síde\nEnbarr\nFailinis\nGlas Gaibhnenn\nItems\nAreadbhar\nFour Treasures\nFragarach\nLúin of Celtchar\nUaithne\nPlaces\nOtherworld\nMag Mell\nTír na nÓg\nTech Duinn\nBrú na Bóinne\nConnla's Well\nEmain Ablach\nFintan's Grave\nTeamhair\nToraigh\nUisneach\nTexts\nLebor Gabála Érenn\nCath Maige Tuired\nTochmarc Étaíne\nAided Chlainne Lir\nAided Chlainne Tuirenn\nImmram Brain\nDindsenchas\npart of a series on Celtic mythologyvteMountains and hills of Leinster\nList of mountains in Ireland\nList of mountains and hills of County Dublin\nBlackstairs Mountains\nBlack Rock Mountain\nBlackstairs Mountain\nCroaghaun\nMount Leinster\nCooley Mountains\nClermont Carn\nSlieve Foy\nSlieveardagh Hills\nClomantagh Hill\nKnocknamuck\nSlieve Bloom Mountains\nArderin\nBarcam\nBaunreaghcong\nCarroll's Hill\nCastleconor\nFarbreague\nGarraunbaun\nRidge of Capard\nStillbrook Hill\nWolftrap Mountain\nWicklow Mountains\nAnnagh Hill\nBarnaslingan\nBray Head\nBenleagh\nCamaderry\nCamenabologue\nCarrick Mountain\nCarrickgollogan\nCarrigvore\nCloghernagh\nConavalla\nCorrigasleggaun\nCroaghanmoira\nCroghan Mountain\nCupidstown Hill\nDjouce\nDuff Hill\nGravale\nGreat Sugar Loaf\nKeadeen Mountain\nKilmashogue\nKippure\nLarch Hill\nLittle Sugar Loaf\nLobawn\nLugduff\nLuggala\nLugnaquilla\nMaulin\nMoanbane\nMontpelier Hill\nMullacor\nMullaghcleevaun\nPrince William's Seat\nScarr\nSeefingan\nSilsean\nSlievegad\nSlievemaan\nSugarloaf (West Wicklow)\nTable Mountain\nTibradden Mountain\nTonduff\nTonelagee\nTurlough Hill\nTwo Rock and Three Rock Mountain\nWar Hill\nOthers\nBrandon Hill\nBen of Howth\nCoppanagh\nCroghan Hill\nDalkey Hill\nDún Ailinne\nFaughan Hill\nHill of Allen\nHill of Ben\nHill of Tara\nHill of Uisneach\nHill of Ward\nKilliney Hill\nKnockeyon\nMount Alto\nMullaghreelan\nMullaghmast\nMullaghmeen\nNaul Hills\nShielmartin Hill\nSlieveboy\nSlieve na Calliagh\nTara Hill","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Site of Celtic Festival of Bealtaine on the Hill of Uisneach","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Site_of_Celtic_Festival_of_Bealtaine.jpg/220px-Site_of_Celtic_Festival_of_Bealtaine.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Stone of the Divisions","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Romantic_Ireland_%281905%29_%2814769773905%29.jpg/220px-Romantic_Ireland_%281905%29_%2814769773905%29.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Leinster_locator_map.svg/150px-Leinster_locator_map.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"Bradley, Richard (2012). The Idea of Order: The circular archetype in prehistoric Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Monaghan, Patricia (2004). The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing. p. 460.","urls":[]},{"reference":"The Irish ordeals, Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword. Translated by Stokes, Whitley. Section 56 – via The Corpus of Electronic Texts.","urls":[{"url":"https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T302000/text056.html","url_text":"The Irish ordeals, Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword"}]},{"reference":"Chadwick, Nora (2004) [1932]. The Growth of Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 544.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora_K._Chadwick","url_text":"Chadwick, Nora"}]},{"reference":"Veach, Colin (2015). Lordship in Four Realms: The Lacy family, 1166–1241. Oxford University Press. p. 62.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jestice, Phyllis G. (2000). Encyclopedia of Irish Spirituality. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. ISBN 1-57607-146-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-146-4","url_text":"1-57607-146-4"}]},{"reference":"MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869157-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-869157-2","url_text":"0-19-869157-2"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Hill_of_Uisneach¶ms=53.49_N_7.562_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"53°29′24″N 7°33′43″W / 53.490°N 7.562°W / 53.490; -7.562"},{"Link":"http://www.logainm.ie/Viewer.aspx?text=Ushnagh","external_links_name":"Irish Placenames Database"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120603124449/http://www.logainm.ie/Viewer.aspx?text=Ushnagh","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.archaeology.ie/en/NationalMonuments/SearchByCounty/","external_links_name":"National Monuments in State care"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100220110315/http://www.archaeology.ie/en/NationalMonuments/SearchByCounty/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/12163521/Uisneach_Midi_a_med%C3%B3n_%C3%89renn_a_prehistoric_cult_centre_and_royal_site_in_Co._Westmeath","external_links_name":"Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric cult centre and royal site in Co. Westmeath"},{"Link":"http://maps.osi.ie/publicviewer/#V1,629238,748719,5","external_links_name":"Ordnance Survey map"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120829114800/http://maps.osi.ie/publicviewer/#V1,629238,748719,5","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/12152447/From_cult_centre_to_royal_centre_monuments_myths_and_other_revelations_at_Uisneach","external_links_name":"From cult centre to royal centre: monuments, myths and other revelations at Uisneach"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/12163521/Uisneach_Midi_a_med%C3%B3n_%C3%89renn_a_prehistoric_cult_centre_and_royal_site_in_Co._Westmeath","external_links_name":"Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric cult centre and royal site in Co. Westmeath"},{"Link":"https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T302000/text056.html","external_links_name":"The Irish ordeals, Cormac's adventure in the Land of Promise, and the decision as to Cormac's sword"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navan_Racecourse | Navan Racecourse | ["1 Notable races","2 References","3 External links"] | Navan Racecourse is a horse racing venue at Proudstown near Navan, County Meath, Ireland, approximately 48 kilometres from Dublin. The course stages Flat racing but is best known for National Hunt racing. Navan Racecourse is owned by Horse Racing Ireland.
The course is 1+1⁄2 miles round with a home straight of 3+1⁄2 furlongs, left-handed with wide sweeping bends and an uphill finish from two furlongs out. There is a straight sprint course of six furlongs.
Notable races
Month
DOW
Race Name
Type
Grade
Distance
Age/Sex
February
Sunday
Boyne Hurdle
Hurdle
Grade 2
2m 5f
5yo +
February
Sunday
Ten Up Novice Chase
Chase
Grade 2
3m
5yo +
February
Sunday
Flyingbolt Novice Chase
Chase
Grade 3
2m 1f
5yo +
March
Saturday
Webster Cup Chase
Chase
Grade 2
2m 4f
5yo +
April
Saturday
Ballysax Stakes
Flat
Group 3
1m 2f
3yo only
May
Sunday
Vintage Crop Stakes
Flat
Group 3
1m 6f
4yo +
November
Sunday
Lismullen Hurdle
Hurdle
Grade 2
2m 4f
4yo +
November
Sunday
Fortria Chase
Chase
Grade 2
2m
5yo +
November
Sunday
For Auction Novice Hurdle
Hurdle
Grade 3
2m
4yo +
November
Sunday
Monksfield Novice Hurdle
Hurdle
Grade 2
2m 4f
4yo +
December
Sunday
Tara Hurdle
Hurdle
Handicap
2m 4f
4yo +
December
Sunday
Navan Novice Hurdle
Hurdle
Grade 1
2m 4f
4yo +
References
^ "Navan Racecourse - History / Profile". Retrieved 9 October 2011.
^ "Go Racing - Horse Racing Ireland". Retrieved 24 February 2011.
^ White, John (1992). The Racegoers' Encyclopedia. Collins Willow. p. 142. ISBN 0-00-218404-4.
^ "Navan Racecourse - The Course". Retrieved 9 October 2011.
External links
Official website
vteHorse racing in IrelandVenuesNational Hunt
Kilbeggan
Wexford
Flat
The Curragh
Dundalk
Laytown
Mixed
Ballinrobe
Ballybrit (Galway)
Bellewstown
Clonmel
Cork
Down Royal
Downpatrick
Fairyhouse
Gowran Park
Killarney
Leopardstown
Listowel
Limerick
Navan
Naas
Punchestown
Roscommon
Sligo
Thurles
Tipperary
Tramore
Former Venues
Baldoyle
Greenpark
Howth Park
Mullingar
Phoenix Park
Tralee
Tuam
Named races
List of Irish flat horse races
List of Irish National Hunt races
Regulation
Horse Racing Ireland
Turf Club
Irish Horseracing Regulatory Board
Other bodies
Garda Mounted Unit
Irish National Stud
Racing Academy and Centre of Education
This article about an Irish sports venue is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about a horse racing venue is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Racegoers-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Navan2-4"}],"text":"The course is 1+1⁄2 miles round with a home straight of 3+1⁄2 furlongs, left-handed with wide sweeping bends and an uphill finish from two furlongs out. There is a straight sprint course of six furlongs.[3][4]","title":"Navan Racecourse"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable races"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Navan Racecourse - History / Profile\". Retrieved 9 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.navanracecourse.ie/Navan/Plan-your-Day/History-of-the-Racecourse/","url_text":"\"Navan Racecourse - History / Profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"Go Racing - Horse Racing Ireland\". Retrieved 24 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.goracing.ie/HRI/Resource-Centre/About-HRI/","url_text":"\"Go Racing - Horse Racing Ireland\""}]},{"reference":"White, John (1992). The Racegoers' Encyclopedia. Collins Willow. p. 142. ISBN 0-00-218404-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-218404-4","url_text":"0-00-218404-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Navan Racecourse - The Course\". Retrieved 9 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.navanracecourse.ie/Navan/Racing-Information/Track-Description/","url_text":"\"Navan Racecourse - The Course\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.navanracecourse.ie/Navan/Plan-your-Day/History-of-the-Racecourse/","external_links_name":"\"Navan Racecourse - History / Profile\""},{"Link":"http://www.goracing.ie/HRI/Resource-Centre/About-HRI/","external_links_name":"\"Go Racing - Horse Racing Ireland\""},{"Link":"http://www.navanracecourse.ie/Navan/Racing-Information/Track-Description/","external_links_name":"\"Navan Racecourse - The Course\""},{"Link":"http://www.navanracecourse.ie/Navan/Home/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navan_Racecourse&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Navan_Racecourse&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Johnson_(musician) | Tommy Johnson (musician) | ["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Death","4 In fiction","5 Discography","6 References","7 External links"] | American Delta blues musician (1896–1956)
Tommy JohnsonThe only known verified photograph of Tommy JohnsonBackground informationBornJanuary 1896near Terry, Mississippi, U.S.DiedNovember 1, 1956(1956-11-01) (aged 60)Crystal Springs, Mississippi, U.S.GenresDelta bluesOccupation(s)MusiciansongwriterInstrument(s)GuitarvocalsYears active1914–1956LabelsVictorParamountMusical artist
Tommy Johnson (January 1896 – November 1, 1956) was an American Delta blues musician who recorded in the late 1920s and was known for his eerie falsetto voice and intricate guitar playing.
Early life
Johnson was born near Terry, Mississippi, and in about 1910 moved to Crystal Springs, where he lived for most of his life.
He learned to play the guitar and, by 1914, was supplementing his income by playing at local parties with his brothers Major and LeDell. In 1916 Johnson married and moved to Webb Jennings' plantation near Drew, Mississippi, close to the Dockery Plantation. There he met other musicians, including Charlie Patton and Willie Brown.
Career
By 1920, Johnson was an itinerant musician based in Crystal Springs but traveling widely around the South, sometimes accompanied by Papa Charlie McCoy. In 1928, he made his first recordings, with McCoy, for Victor Records, including "Canned Heat Blues", in which he sang of drinking methanol from the cooking fuel Sterno. The song features the refrain "canned heat, mama, sure, Lord, killing me." The blues group Canned Heat took their name from this song. Johnson's "Big Road Blues" inspired Canned Heat's song "On the Road Again". A significantly different version of the song appears as "Canned Heat" on the album Big Road Blues by K. C. Douglas.
Johnson recorded two further sessions, for Victor in August 1928 and for Paramount Records in December 1929. He did not record again, mistakenly believing that he had signed away his right to record. Some suggest he had been intentionally given this misimpression by people at Paramount Records. This resulted in a legal settlement with the Mississippi Sheiks, who had used the melody of Johnson's "Big Road Blues" in their successful "Stop and Listen". Johnson was party to the copyright settlement but was too drunk at the time to understand what he had signed.
Johnson's recordings established him as the premier Delta blues vocalist of his day, with a powerful voice that could go from a growl to a falsetto. He was an accomplished guitarist. He also performed tricks with his guitar, playing it between his legs and behind his head and throwing it in the air while playing.
His style influenced later blues singers, such as Robert Nighthawk and Howlin' Wolf (whose song "I Asked for Water " was based on Johnson's "Cool Drink of Water Blues"). Johnson was a talented composer, blending fragments of folk poetry and personalized lyrics into set guitar accompaniments to craft striking blues compositions such as "Maggie Campbell".
To enhance his fame, Johnson cultivated a sinister persona. According to his brother LeDell, he claimed to have sold his soul to the Devil at a crossroads in exchange for his mastery of the guitar. This story was later also associated with Robert Johnson, to whom Tommy Johnson was unrelated.
Johnson remained a popular performer in the Jackson area through the 1930s and 1940s, sometimes performing with Ishman Bracey. He influenced other performers, partly because he was willing to teach his style and his repertoire. His influence on local traditions is described by David Evans in the books Tommy Johnson (1971) and Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk Blues (1982).
Death
Johnson died of a heart attack after playing at a local party in 1956. He is buried in the Warm Springs Methodist Church Cemetery, outside Crystal Springs, Mississippi. In April, 2000, Johnson family members gave permission for a headstone to be placed on Johnson's grave organized through the Mt. Zion Memorial Fund, a Mississippi nonprofit corporation active in historic African American cemetery preservation since 1989. Underwriting for the memorial was obtained through the support of blues musician Bonnie Raitt. The large granite memorial engraved with Johnson's portrait and including several of Johnson's best-known songs, added at the family's request, was unveiled in October, 2001 in Crystal Springs, but was not placed on Johnson's actual grave for another 10 years however, because of a dispute between Johnson's family (led by his niece, Vera Johnson Collins), the owners of farm property encircling the cemetery, and the Copiah County Board of Supervisors over a deteriorated road that led to the burial site. The dispute was resolved in October 2012 thanks in large part to research work done by University of Mississippi researcher T.D. Moore. It was finally announced that the headstone would be erected on October 26 of that year. The headstone had been on public display in the Crystal Springs Public Library since being unveiled on October 20, 2001. On the night of Saturday, February 2, 2013, the headstone fell and was damaged. It is a matter of dispute whether it fell because it was inadequately secured or because it was pushed over or deliberately smashed.
The Tommy Johnson Blues Festival is held annually in Crystal Springs on the third weekend in October. The inaugural festival was held in Jackson and Crystal Springs in 2006.
In fiction
In the film O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), a character named Tommy Johnson, played by Chris Thomas King, describes selling his soul to the devil to play guitar. The Tommy Johnson character in the film plays a number of songs originally recorded by the blues musician Skip James and accompanies the Soggy Bottom Boys, a band consisting of the film's three main protagonists plus Johnson, on "Man of Constant Sorrow".
The story of Johnson's selling his soul to the devil was first told by his brother, LaDell Johnson, and reported by David Evans in his 1971 biography of Johnson. This legend was subsequently attributed to the unrelated blues musician Robert Johnson.
Discography
Victor Records, 1928, Memphis, Tennessee
"Cool Drink of Water Blues"
"Big Road Blues"
"Bye-Bye Blues"
"Maggie Campbell Blues"
"Canned Heat Blues"
"Lonesome Home Blues" (take 1)
"Lonesome Home Blues" (take 2)
"Louisiana Blues" (unissued test)
"Big Fat Mama Blues"
Paramount Records, 1929, Grafton, Wisconsin
"I Wonder to Myself"
"Slidin' Delta"
"Lonesome Home Blues"
Untitled song, take 1 ("Morning Prayer Blues")
Untitled song, take 2 ("Boogaloosa Woman")
"Black Mare Blues" (take 1)
"Black Mare Blues" (take 2)
"Ridin' Horse"
"Alcohol and Jake Blues"
"I Want Someone to Love Me"
"Button Up Shoes" (unissued test)
References
^ Eagle, Bob; LeBlanc, Eric S. (2013). Blues: A Regional Experience. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. p. 215. ISBN 978-0313344237.
^ Russell, Tony (1997). The Blues: From Robert Johnson to Robert Cray. Dubai: Carlton Books. pp. 127–128. ISBN 1-85868-255-X.
^ a b c d e f g h i Koda, Cub. "Tommy Johnson: Biography". AllMusic. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
^ Robert Palmer (1981). Deep Blues. Penguin Books. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-14-006223-6.
^ a b c "Lower Mississippi Delta Region: Tommy Johnson". US National Park Service. October 25, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2024.
^ a b Giles Oakley (1997). The Devil's Music. Da Capo Press. pp. 141/2. ISBN 978-0-306-80743-5.
^ Evans, David (1971). Tommy Johnson. Studio Vista, p. 68. ISBN 978-0289701515,
^ Barlow, William (1989). "Looking Up at Down": The Emergence of Blues Culture. Temple University Press, p. 42. ISBN 0-87722-583-4.
^ a b Evans, David (1971). Tommy Johnson. Studio Vista, p. 22. ISBN 978-0289701515.
^ a b Wald, Elijah (January 6, 2004). Escaping the Delta : Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues. Harper Collins. pp. 265–276. ISBN 0-06-052423-5.
^ Evans, David (1982). Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk Blues. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80300-3.
^ "Miss. Bluesman Getting Long Overdue Grave Marker". Associated Press. October 25, 2012. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
^ "Tommy Johnson". MountZionMemorialFund.org. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
^ "Tommy Johnson Headstone Desecrated". Pomeroy Blues and Jazz Society. Pomeroyblues.org. February 3, 2013. Archived from the original on May 9, 2017. Retrieved March 12, 2015.
^ "First Annual Tommy Johnson Celebration" (PDF). Tommy Johnson Blues Foundation. 2006. Retrieved August 31, 2011.
External links
Tommy Johnson Blues Foundation site
Illustrated Tommy Johnson discography
Site for "Crossroads: The Life and Afterlife of Blues Legend Robert Johnson" with links and material related to Tommy Johnson
Canned Heat Blues Lyrics
MP3 Audio file of "Canned Heat Blues" on The Internet Archive
Tommy Johnson on Paramount Records
Tommy Johnson at AllMusic
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Australia
Artists
MusicBrainz
People
Trove
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bare-1"},{"link_name":"Delta blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_blues"},{"link_name":"falsetto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsetto"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-russell-2"}],"text":"Musical artistTommy Johnson (January 1896 – November 1, 1956)[1] was an American Delta blues musician who recorded in the late 1920s and was known for his eerie falsetto voice and intricate guitar playing.[2]","title":"Tommy Johnson (musician)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Terry, Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"Crystal Springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Springs,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"Drew, Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"Dockery Plantation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dockery_Plantation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Charlie Patton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Patton"},{"link_name":"Willie Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Brown_(musician)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trail-5"}],"text":"Johnson was born near Terry, Mississippi, and in about 1910 moved to Crystal Springs, where he lived for most of his life.[3]\nHe learned to play the guitar and, by 1914, was supplementing his income by playing at local parties with his brothers Major and LeDell. In 1916 Johnson married and moved to Webb Jennings' plantation near Drew, Mississippi, close to the Dockery Plantation.[4] There he met other musicians, including Charlie Patton and Willie Brown.[5]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Papa Charlie McCoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papa_Charlie_McCoy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Devil-6"},{"link_name":"Victor Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Records"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"methanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol"},{"link_name":"Sterno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterno"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"Canned Heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canned_Heat"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"On the Road Again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Road_Again_(Canned_Heat_song)"},{"link_name":"K. C. Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._C._Douglas"},{"link_name":"Paramount Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_Records"},{"link_name":"Mississippi Sheiks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Sheiks"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Delta blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_blues"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Devil-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"Robert Nighthawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nighthawk"},{"link_name":"Howlin' Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howlin%27_Wolf"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trail-5"},{"link_name":"lyrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"sold his soul to the Devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deal_with_the_Devil"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trail-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans22-9"},{"link_name":"Robert Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elijah-10"},{"link_name":"Jackson area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Ishman Bracey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishman_Bracey"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"By 1920, Johnson was an itinerant musician based in Crystal Springs but traveling widely around the South, sometimes accompanied by Papa Charlie McCoy.[6] In 1928, he made his first recordings, with McCoy, for Victor Records,[3] including \"Canned Heat Blues\", in which he sang of drinking methanol from the cooking fuel Sterno.[3] The song features the refrain \"canned heat, mama, sure, Lord, killing me.\" The blues group Canned Heat took their name from this song.[3] Johnson's \"Big Road Blues\" inspired Canned Heat's song \"On the Road Again\". A significantly different version of the song appears as \"Canned Heat\" on the album Big Road Blues by K. C. Douglas.Johnson recorded two further sessions, for Victor in August 1928 and for Paramount Records in December 1929. He did not record again, mistakenly believing that he had signed away his right to record. Some suggest he had been intentionally given this misimpression by people at Paramount Records. This resulted in a legal settlement with the Mississippi Sheiks, who had used the melody of Johnson's \"Big Road Blues\" in their successful \"Stop and Listen\". Johnson was party to the copyright settlement but was too drunk at the time to understand what he had signed.[7]Johnson's recordings established him as the premier Delta blues vocalist of his day, with a powerful voice that could go from a growl to a falsetto.[6] He was an accomplished guitarist. He also performed tricks with his guitar, playing it between his legs and behind his head and throwing it in the air while playing.[3]His style influenced later blues singers, such as Robert Nighthawk and Howlin' Wolf (whose song \"I Asked for Water [She Brought Me Gasoline]\" was based on Johnson's \"Cool Drink of Water Blues\").[3][5] Johnson was a talented composer, blending fragments of folk poetry and personalized lyrics into set guitar accompaniments to craft striking blues compositions such as \"Maggie Campbell\".[8]To enhance his fame, Johnson cultivated a sinister persona. According to his brother LeDell, he claimed to have sold his soul to the Devil at a crossroads in exchange for his mastery of the guitar.[5][9] This story was later also associated with Robert Johnson, to whom Tommy Johnson was unrelated.[10]Johnson remained a popular performer in the Jackson area through the 1930s and 1940s, sometimes performing with Ishman Bracey.[3] He influenced other performers, partly because he was willing to teach his style and his repertoire. His influence on local traditions is described by David Evans in the books Tommy Johnson (1971) and Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk Blues (1982).[11]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMG-3"},{"link_name":"Mt. Zion Memorial Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mt._Zion_Memorial_Fund"},{"link_name":"Bonnie Raitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnie_Raitt"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Johnson died of a heart attack after playing at a local party in 1956.[3] He is buried in the Warm Springs Methodist Church Cemetery, outside Crystal Springs, Mississippi.[3] In April, 2000, Johnson family members gave permission for a headstone to be placed on Johnson's grave organized through the Mt. Zion Memorial Fund, a Mississippi nonprofit corporation active in historic African American cemetery preservation since 1989. Underwriting for the memorial was obtained through the support of blues musician Bonnie Raitt. The large granite memorial engraved with Johnson's portrait and including several of Johnson's best-known songs, added at the family's request, was unveiled in October, 2001 in Crystal Springs, but was not placed on Johnson's actual grave for another 10 years however, because of a dispute between Johnson's family (led by his niece, Vera Johnson Collins), the owners of farm property encircling the cemetery, and the Copiah County Board of Supervisors over a deteriorated road that led to the burial site. The dispute was resolved in October 2012 thanks in large part to research work done by University of Mississippi researcher T.D. Moore. It was finally announced that the headstone would be erected on October 26 of that year.[12] The headstone had been on public display in the Crystal Springs Public Library since being unveiled on October 20, 2001. On the night of Saturday, February 2, 2013, the headstone fell and was damaged. It is a matter of dispute whether it fell because it was inadequately secured or because it was pushed over or deliberately smashed.[13][14]The Tommy Johnson Blues Festival is held annually in Crystal Springs on the third weekend in October. The inaugural festival was held in Jackson and Crystal Springs in 2006.[15]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"O Brother, Where Art Thou?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou%3F"},{"link_name":"Chris Thomas King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Thomas_King"},{"link_name":"Skip James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_James"},{"link_name":"Soggy Bottom Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soggy_Bottom_Boys"},{"link_name":"Man of Constant Sorrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_of_Constant_Sorrow"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans22-9"},{"link_name":"Robert Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elijah-10"}],"text":"In the film O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), a character named Tommy Johnson, played by Chris Thomas King, describes selling his soul to the devil to play guitar. The Tommy Johnson character in the film plays a number of songs originally recorded by the blues musician Skip James and accompanies the Soggy Bottom Boys, a band consisting of the film's three main protagonists plus Johnson, on \"Man of Constant Sorrow\".The story of Johnson's selling his soul to the devil was first told by his brother, LaDell Johnson, and reported by David Evans in his 1971 biography of Johnson.[9] This legend was subsequently attributed to the unrelated blues musician Robert Johnson.[10]","title":"In fiction"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Victor Records, 1928, Memphis, Tennessee\"Cool Drink of Water Blues\"\n\"Big Road Blues\"\n\"Bye-Bye Blues\"\n\"Maggie Campbell Blues\"\n\"Canned Heat Blues\"\n\"Lonesome Home Blues\" (take 1)\n\"Lonesome Home Blues\" (take 2)\n\"Louisiana Blues\" (unissued test)\n\"Big Fat Mama Blues\"Paramount Records, 1929, Grafton, Wisconsin\"I Wonder to Myself\"\n\"Slidin' Delta\"\n\"Lonesome Home Blues\"\nUntitled song, take 1 (\"Morning Prayer Blues\")\nUntitled song, take 2 (\"Boogaloosa Woman\")\n\"Black Mare Blues\" (take 1)\n\"Black Mare Blues\" (take 2)\n\"Ridin' Horse\"\n\"Alcohol and Jake Blues\"\n\"I Want Someone to Love Me\"\n\"Button Up Shoes\" (unissued test)","title":"Discography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Eagle, Bob; LeBlanc, Eric S. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_la_Mare | Walter de la Mare | ["1 Life","2 Profile","2.1 Come Hither","2.2 Supernaturalism","2.3 Children's literature","2.4 Theory of imagination","3 Works","3.1 Novels","3.2 Short story collections","3.3 Poetry collections","3.4 Plays","3.5 Nonfiction","3.6 Anthologies edited","4 Legacy","4.1 References in books","4.2 References in music","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","7.1 Footnotes","7.2 Works cited","8 Further reading","9 External links"] | English poet and fiction writer
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Walter de la MareOM CHDrawing of de la Mare by Sir William RothensteinBornWalter John de la Mare(1873-04-25)25 April 1873Charlton, Kent, EnglandDied22 June 1956(1956-06-22) (aged 83)Twickenham, Middlesex, EnglandOccupationWriterGenrePoetrySupernatural fictionChildren's literatureNotable awardsJames Tait Black Memorial Prize 1921 Carnegie Medal 1947
Walter John de la Mare OM CH (/ˈdɛləˌmɛər/; 25 April 1873 – 22 June 1956) was an English poet, short story writer and novelist. He is probably best remembered for his works for children, for his poem "The Listeners", and for his psychological horror short fiction, including "Seaton's Aunt" and "All Hallows". In 1921, his novel Memoirs of a Midget won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction, and his post-war Collected Stories for Children won the 1947 Carnegie Medal for British children's books.
Life
De la Mare was born at 83, Maryon Road, Charlton, then in the county of Kent but now part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich. He was partly descended from a family of French Huguenot silk merchants through his father, James Edward de la Mare (1811–1877), a principal at the Bank of England; his mother was James's second wife, Lucy Sophia (1838–1920), daughter of a Scottish naval surgeon and author, Dr Colin Arrott Browning. (The suggestion that Lucy was related to the poet Robert Browning has been found to be incorrect.) He had two brothers, Francis Arthur Edward and James Herbert, and four sisters, Florence Mary, Constance Eliza, Ethel (who died in infancy) and Ada Mary. De la Mare preferred to be known as "Jack" to his family and friends, as he disliked the name Walter.
De la Mare was educated at St Paul's Cathedral School, then worked from 1890 to 1908 in the statistics department of the London office of Standard Oil. He left the company after Sir Henry Newbolt arranged for him to receive a Civil List pension so that he could concentrate on writing.
In 1892 de la Mare joined the Esperanza Amateur Dramatics Club, where he met and fell in love with (Constance) Elfrida Ingpen, the leading lady, who was ten years older than him. Her father, William Alfred Ingpen, was Clerk to the Insolvent Debtors Court and Clerk of the Rules. De la Mare and Elfrida were married on 4 August 1899, and they went on to have four children: Richard Herbert Ingpen, Colin, Florence and Lucy Elfrida. The family lived in Beckenham and Anerley from 1899 till 1924. The home in Anerley in South London was the scene of many parties, notable for imaginative games of charades.
From 1925 to 1939, de la Mare lived at Hill House, Taplow.
On 7 September 1929, his daughter, Janette de la Mare married Donald John Ringwood in Taplow, Buckinghamshire, England.
In 1940 Elfrida de la Mare was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. She spent the rest of her life as an invalid and died in 1943.
From 1940 until his death de la Mare lived in South End House, Montpelier Row, Twickenham, on the same street on which Alfred, Lord Tennyson, had lived. De la Mare won the annual Carnegie Medal, from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject, for his Collected Stories for Children (Faber and Faber, 1947). It was the first collection to win the award.
De la Mare suffered from a coronary thrombosis in 1947 and died of another in 1956. He spent his final year mostly bedridden, being cared for by a nurse whom he loved but never had a physical relationship with. His ashes are buried in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, where he had once been a choirboy.
Profile
Come Hither
Come Hither is an anthology edited by de la Mare, mostly of poems, but with some prose. It has a frame story and can be read on several levels. It was first published in 1923 and was a success; further editions have followed. It includes a selection of poems by the leading Georgian poets (from de la Mare's perspective).
Supernaturalism
De la Mare was, notably, a writer of ghost stories. His collections Eight Tales, The Riddle and Other Stories, The Connoisseur and Other Stories, On the Edge and The Wind Blows Over each contain several ghost stories.
De la Mare's supernatural horror writings were favourites of H. P. Lovecraft, who in his comprehensive study Supernatural Horror in Literature said that " is able to put into his occasional fear-studies a keen potency which only a rare master can achieve". Lovecraft singled out for praise de la Mare's short stories "Seaton's Aunt", "The Tree", "Out of the Deep", "Mr Kempe", "A Recluse" and "All Hallows", along with his novel The Return.
Gary William Crawford has described de la Mare's supernatural fiction for adults as being "among the finest to appear in the first half of this century", whilst noting the disparity between the high quality and low quantity of de la Mare's mature horror stories. Other notable de la Mare ghost/horror stories are "A:B:O", "Crewe", "The Green Room" and "Winter".
A number of later writers of supernatural fiction, including Robert Aickman, Ramsey Campbell, David A. McIntee and Reggie Oliver, have cited de la Mare's ghost stories as inspirational. The horror scholar S. T. Joshi has said that de la Mare's supernatural fiction "should always have an audience that will shudder apprehensively at its horror and be moved to somber reflection by its pensive philosophy".
Children's literature
For children de la Mare wrote the fairy tale The Three Mulla Mulgars (1910, later retitled The Three Royal Monkeys), praised by the literary historian Julia Briggs as a "neglected masterpiece" and by the critic Brian Stableford as a "classic animal fantasy". Richard Adams described it as his favourite novel.
Joan Aiken cited some of de la Mare's short stories, such as "The Almond Tree" and "Sambo and the Snow Mountains", for their sometimes unexplained quality, which she also employed in her own work.
Theory of imagination
De la Mare with W. B. Yeats and others (photo by Lady Ottoline Morrell)
De la Mare described two distinct "types" of imagination – although "aspects" might be a better term: the childlike and the boylike. It was at the border between the two that Shakespeare, Dante, and the rest of the great poets lay.
De la Mare opined that all children fall into the category of having a childlike imagination at first, which is usually replaced at some point in their lives. He explained in the lecture "Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination" that children "are not bound in by their groping senses. Facts to them are the liveliest of chameleons. They are contemplatives, solitaries, fakirs, who sink again and again out of the noise and fever of existence and into a waking vision." His biographer Doris Ross McCrosson summarises this passage, "Children are, in short, visionaries." This visionary view of life can be seen as either vital creativity and ingenuity, or fatal disconnection from reality (or, in a limited sense, both).
The increasing intrusions of the external world upon the mind, however, frighten the childlike imagination, which "retires like a shocked snail into its shell". From then onward the boyish imagination flourishes, the "intellectual, analytical type".
By adulthood (de la Mare proposed), the childlike imagination has either retreated forever or grown bold enough to face the real world. Thus emerge the two extremes of the spectrum of adult minds: logical and deductive or intuitive and inductive. For de la Mare, "he one knows that beauty is truth, the other reveals that truth is beauty." Yet another way he puts it is that the visionary's source of poetry is within, while the intellectual's sources are without – external – in "action, knowledge of things, and experience" (McCrosson's phrasing). De la Mare hastens to add that this does not make the intellectual's poetry any less good, but it is clear where his own preference lies.
Works
Novels
Henry Brocken (1904)
The Three Mulla Mulgars (1910) (edition illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop ), also published as The Three Royal Monkeys (children's novel)
The Return (1910; revised edition 1922; second revised edition 1945)
Memoirs of a Midget (1921)
Mr Bumps and His Monkey (1942) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)
Short story collections
The Riddle and Other Stories (1923): "The Almond Tree", "The Count's Courtship", "The Looking-Glass", "Miss Duveen", "Selina's Parable", "Seaton's Aunt", "The Bird of Travel", "The Bowl", "The Three Friends", "Lispet", "Lispet and Vaine", "The Tree", "Out of the Deep", "The Creatures", "The Riddle", "The Vats"
Ding Dong Bell (1924): "Lichen", "Benighted", "Strangers and Pilgrims", "Winter"
Broomsticks and Other Tales (1925): "Pigtails, Ltd.", "The Dutch Cheese", "Miss Jemima", "The Thief", "Broomsticks", "Lucy", "A Nose", "The Three Sleeping Boys of Warwickshire", "The Lovely Myfanwy", "Maria-Fly", "Visitors"
The Connoisseur and Other Stories (1926): "Mr Kempe", "Missing", "The Connoisseur". "Disillusioned", "The Nap", "Pretty Poll", "All Hallows", "The Wharf", "The Lost Track"
On the Edge (1930): "A Recluse", "Willows", "Crewe", "At First Sight", "The Green Room", "The Orgy", "An Idyll", "The Picnic", "An Ideal Craftsman"
The Dutch Cheese (1931) (editions illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop and Irene Hawkins ) (children's stories)
The Lord Fish (1933), illustrated by Rex Whistler (children's stories)
The Walter de la Mare Omnibus (1933)
The Wind Blows Over (1936): "What Dreams May Come", "Cape Race", "Physic", "The Talisman", "In the Forest", "A Froward Child", "Miss Miller", "The House", "A Revenant", "A Nest of Singing-Birds", "The Trumpet"
The Nap and Other Stories (1936)
Stories, Essays and Poems (1938)
The Picnic and Other Stories (1941)
The Best Stories of Walter de la Mare (1942)
The Scarecrow and Other Stories (1945)
Collected Stories for Children (1947) (editions illustrated by Irene Hawkins and Robin Jacques )
A Beginning and Other Stories (1955): "Odd Shop", "Music", "The Stranger", "Neighbours", "The Princess", "The Guardian", "The Face", "The Cartouche", "The Picture", "The Quincunx", "An Anniversary", "Bad Company", "A Beginning"
Eight Tales (1971)
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories 1895–1926 (1996): Collection comprising the contents of The Riddle and Other Stories, Ding Dong Bell and The Connoisseur and Other Stories, as well as "Kismet", "The Hangman Luck", "A Mote", "The Village of Old Age", "The Moon's Miracle", "The Giant", "De Mortuis", "The Rejection of the Rector", "The Match-Maker", "The Budget", "The Pear-Tree", "Leap Year", "Promise at Dusk", "Two Days in Town"
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories 1927–1956 (2000): Collection comprising the contents of On the Edge, The Wind Blows Over and A Beginning and Other Stories, as well as "The Lynx", "A Sort of Interview", "The Miller's Tale", "A:B:O.", "The Orgy: An Idyll, Part II", "Late", "Pig", "Dr Iggatt"
Walter de la Mare, Short Stories for Children (2006)
Poetry collections
Songs of Childhood (1902)
Poems (1906)
The Listeners (1912)
Peacock Pie (1913) (editions illustrated by W. Heath Robinson , Claud Lovat Fraser , Rowland Emett and Edward Ardizzone )
The Sunken Garden and Other Poems (1917)
Motley and Other Poems (1918)
The Veil and Other Poems (1921)
Down-Adown-Derry: A Book of Fairy Poems (1922) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)
A Child's Day: A Book of Rhymes (1924) (illustrated by Winifred Bromhall)
Selected Poems by Walter de la Mare (1927, 1931)
Stuff and Nonsense and So On (1927) (editions illustrated by Bold and Margaret Wolpe )
This Year: Next Year (1937) (illustrated by Harold Jones)
Bells and Grass (1941) (editions illustrated by Rowland Emett and Dorothy P. Lathrop )
Time Passes and Other Poems (1942)
Inward Companion (1950)
O Lovely England (1952)
Walter de la Mare: The Complete Poems, ed. Giles de la Mare (1969)
Ariel Poems
Six poems were published by Faber and Faber as part of the Ariel Poems, for both series. They were the following:
Alone (1927)
Self to Self (1928)
The Snowdrop (1929)
News (1930)
To Lucy (1931)
The Winnowing Dream (1954)
Plays
Crossings: A Fairy Play (1921) (book illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop (1923))
Nonfiction
Some Women Novelists of the 'Seventies (1929)
Desert Islands and Robinson Crusoe (1930)
Lewis Carroll (1930)
The Early Novels of Wilkie Collins (1932)
Anthologies edited
Come Hither (1923; new and revised edition, 1928; third edition, reset and printed from new plates, 1957)
Tom Tiddler's Ground (1931; named after the children's game)
Early One Morning, in the Spring: Chapters on Children and on Childhood As It Is Revealed in Particular in Early Memories and in Early Writings (1935)
Behold, This Dreamer!: Of Reverie, Night, Sleep, Dream, Love-Dreams, Nightmare, Death, the Unconscious, the Imagination, Divination, the Artist, and Kindred Subjects (1939)
Love (1943)
Legacy
References in books
C. K. Scott Moncrieff, in translating Marcel Proust's seven-volume work Remembrance of Things Past, used the last line of de la Mare's poem "The Ghost" as the title of the sixth volume, The Sweet Cheat Gone (French: Albertine Disparu and La Fugitive).
In 1944 Faber and Faber and one of de la Mare's friends, a certain Dr Bett, arranged to secretly produce a tribute for his 75th birthday. This publication was a collaborative effort involving many admirers of Walter de la Mare's work, and included individual pieces by a variety of authors, including V. Sackville-West, J. B. Priestley, T. S. Eliot, Siegfried Sassoon, Lord Dunsany, and Henry Williamson.
Richard Adams's debut novel Watership Down (1972) uses several of de la Mare's poems as epigraphs.
De la Mare's play Crossings has an important role in Robertson Davies's novel The Manticore. In 1944, when the protagonist David Staunton is sixteen, de la Mare's play is produced by the pupils of his sister's school in Toronto. Staunton falls deeply in love with the girl playing the main role, a first love that has a profound effect on the rest of his life.
Symposium by Muriel Spark quotes de la Mare's poem "Fare Well": "Look thy last on all things lovely / Every hour.".
References in music
Benjamin Britten set several of de la Mare's verses to music: de la Mare's version of the traditional song "Levy-Dew" in 1934, and five others, which were then collected in Tit for Tat.
Theodore Chanler used texts from de la Mare's story "'Benighted'" for his song cycle 8 Epitaphs.
See also
The Queen's Book of the Red Cross
Notes
^ a b In the lecture "Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination" de la Mare uses the term "imagination" for both the intellectual and the visionary. To simplify and clarify his language de la Mare generally used the more conventional "reason" and "imagination" when discussing the same idea elsewhere.
References
Footnotes
^ Alec Guinness, Blessings in Disguise, p. 93.
^ Reid-Walsh, Jacqueline (1988). The Burning-Glass: A Developmental Study of Walter de la Mare's Poetry (PDF) (PhD). Montreal: McGill University. pp. 51–56. Includes the poem itself and analysis.
^ "Fiction winners". James Tait Black Prizes: Previous Winners. The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
^ a b Winning Year: 1947. Living Archive: Celebrating the Carnegie and Greenaway Winners. CILIP. Archived 8 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
^ a b Theresa Whistler, "Mare, Walter John de la (1873–1956)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edition, October 2006. Retrieved 2 April 2013.
^ Beckenham heritage, "Beckenham period"
^ Peggy Denton, "Walter de la Mare – Poet of Anerley and South East London", The Norwood Society.
^ Walter de la Mare www.londonremembers.com, accessed 17 September 2022
^ "Jannette, daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare, dancing at Ciro's Club, London". alamy.com. 1928. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
^ "Stealing Cakes". Getty Images. 7 September 1929. Retrieved 20 July 2023. Julian de la Mare and Jane Baddeley (daughter of Angela Baddeley) fight for the last of the cakes at the wedding of Janette de la Mare and Donald John Ringwood in Taplow. Janette is the daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare.
^ James Campbell, A kind of magic, The Guardian, 10 June 2006.
^ essays at hplovecraft.com
^ a b Gary William Crawford, "On the Edge: the Ghost Stories of Walter de la Mare" in Darrell Schweitzer, ed., Discovering Classic Horror Fiction I, Wildside Press, 1992, pp. 53–56. ISBN 1-58715-002-6.
^ The Return, Walter de la Mare, at books.google.co.uk
^ Julia Briggs, "Transitions", in Peter Hunt, ed., Children's literature: An Illustrated History, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 181. ISBN 0-19-212320-3.
^ "De la Mare, Walter" in Brian Stableford,
The A to Z of Fantasy Literature. Scarecrow Press, 2005, pp. 104–05.
^ Reddit AMA, 25 September 2013.
^ Joan Aiken (1976). Geoff Fox; Graham Hammond; Terry Jones; Frederic Smith; Kenneth Sterck (eds.). Writers, Critics, and Children. New York: Agathon Press. pp. 24. ISBN 0-87586-054-0.
^ de la Mare, Walter (1919). Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
^ de la Mare 1950.
^ de la Mare 1929.
^ Wikisource, Remembrance of Things Past (series title). Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Walter de la Mare (on Wikisource), The Ghost (anthologized in Collected poems, 1901-1918 and Motley). Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Various contributors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on His 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 5.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 19.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 15.
^ Chandran, K. Narayana (Spring 1997). "Phantoms of the Mind: T.S. Eliot's 'To Walter De la Mare'". Papers on Language & Literature. 33 (2). Retrieved 28 June 2019.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 106.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 110.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 114.
^ Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 171.
^ Richard Adams, Watership Down. 1974 Reprint by Penguin Books. Retrieved 19 August 2019.
^ William Barry Urquhart (1975). Jungian Psychology in Robertson Davies' Fifth Business and The Manticore: The Hero and His Quest. Thesis (M.A.)--University of New Brunswick., passim
^ Walter de la Mare (lyrics) and Benjamin Britten (music), Tit for Tat (1968). Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ "Eight Epitaphs". Song of America. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
Works cited
de la Mare, Walter (1950). Inward Companion. London: Faber and Faber. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
de la Mare, Walter (1929). "The Snowdrop". Poetry Nook. Drawings by Claudia Guercio. London: Faber and Faber. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
Further reading
Adrian, Jack, "De la Mare, Walter", in David Pringle (ed), St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers. London: St. James Press, 1998. ISBN 1558622063
Blackmore, Leigh (2017). S. T. Joshi (ed.). "In Pursuit of the Transcendent: The Weird Verse of Walter de la Mare". Spectral Realms (6).
Bleiler, Everett (1948). The Checklist of Fantastic Literature. Chicago: Shasta Publishers. pp. 96–97.
McCrosson, Doris Ross (1966). Walter de la Mare. Twayne.
Wagenknecht, Edward, "Walter de la Mare", in Seven Masters of Supernatural Fiction. New York: Greenwood, 1991. ISBN 0313279608.
Whistler, Theresa (1993). Imagination of the Heart:The Life of Walter de la Mare.
Willison, I. R., ed. (1972). "Water John De La Mare". The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Volume 4: 1900–1950. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–262. ISBN 0-521-08535-7.
External links
Walter de la Mare at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from Wikisource
Walter de la Mare Society Website
Works by Walter de la Mare in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
Works by Walter de la Mare at Project Gutenberg
Works by Walter de la Mare at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Walter de la Mare at Internet Archive
Works by Walter de la Mare at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Walter de la Mare: A Database – a secondary bibliography
"de La Mare, Walter" in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy
Song: The Listeners (Walter de la Mare) on YouTube — the famous poem recorded as a song (2009), music composed by Bernd Wahlbrinck
"Neglected Gems: The Poetry of Walter de la Mare" by Adam Sedia
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit"},{"link_name":"CH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companion_of_Honour"},{"link_name":"/ˈdɛləˌmɛər/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"works for children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_literature"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"psychological horror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_horror"},{"link_name":"Memoirs of a Midget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoirs_of_a_Midget"},{"link_name":"James Tait Black Memorial Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tait_Black_Memorial_Prize"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Collected Stories for Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collected_Stories_for_Children"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_(literary_award)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medal1947-4"}],"text":"Walter John de la Mare OM CH (/ˈdɛləˌmɛər/;[1] 25 April 1873 – 22 June 1956) was an English poet, short story writer and novelist. He is probably best remembered for his works for children, for his poem \"The Listeners\",[2] and for his psychological horror short fiction, including \"Seaton's Aunt\" and \"All Hallows\". In 1921, his novel Memoirs of a Midget won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction,[3] and his post-war Collected Stories for Children won the 1947 Carnegie Medal for British children's books.[4]","title":"Walter de la Mare"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charlton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton,_Greenwich"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"Royal Borough of Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Borough_of_Greenwich"},{"link_name":"Huguenot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot"},{"link_name":"Bank of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_England"},{"link_name":"naval surgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship%27s_doctor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mare,_Walter_John_de_la_1873%E2%80%931956-5"},{"link_name":"Robert Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Browning"},{"link_name":"St Paul's Cathedral School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral_School"},{"link_name":"Standard Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Oil"},{"link_name":"Henry Newbolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Newbolt"},{"link_name":"Civil List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_List"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mare,_Walter_John_de_la_1873%E2%80%931956-5"},{"link_name":"Beckenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckenham"},{"link_name":"Anerley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anerley"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"charades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charades"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Taplow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taplow"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gettyimages/3361811-10"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"South End House, Montpelier Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_End_House,_Montpelier_Row"},{"link_name":"Twickenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twickenham"},{"link_name":"Alfred, Lord Tennyson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_(literary_award)"},{"link_name":"Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CILIP"},{"link_name":"British subject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_subject"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medal1947-4"},{"link_name":"coronary thrombosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_thrombosis"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-campbell-11"},{"link_name":"St Paul's Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral"}],"text":"De la Mare was born at 83, Maryon Road, Charlton, then in the county of Kent but now part of the Royal Borough of Greenwich. He was partly descended from a family of French Huguenot silk merchants through his father, James Edward de la Mare (1811–1877), a principal at the Bank of England; his mother was James's second wife, Lucy Sophia (1838–1920), daughter of a Scottish naval surgeon and author, Dr Colin Arrott Browning.[5] (The suggestion that Lucy was related to the poet Robert Browning has been found to be incorrect.) He had two brothers, Francis Arthur Edward and James Herbert, and four sisters, Florence Mary, Constance Eliza, Ethel (who died in infancy) and Ada Mary. De la Mare preferred to be known as \"Jack\" to his family and friends, as he disliked the name Walter.De la Mare was educated at St Paul's Cathedral School, then worked from 1890 to 1908 in the statistics department of the London office of Standard Oil. He left the company after Sir Henry Newbolt arranged for him to receive a Civil List pension so that he could concentrate on writing.In 1892 de la Mare joined the Esperanza Amateur Dramatics Club, where he met and fell in love with (Constance) Elfrida Ingpen, the leading lady, who was ten years older than him. Her father, William Alfred Ingpen, was Clerk to the Insolvent Debtors Court and Clerk of the Rules.[5] De la Mare and Elfrida were married on 4 August 1899, and they went on to have four children: Richard Herbert Ingpen, Colin, Florence and Lucy Elfrida. The family lived in Beckenham and Anerley from 1899 till 1924.[6] The home in Anerley in South London was the scene of many parties, notable for imaginative games of charades.[7]From 1925 to 1939, de la Mare lived at Hill House, Taplow.[8]On 7 September 1929, his daughter, Janette de la Mare[9] married Donald John Ringwood in Taplow, Buckinghamshire, England.[10]In 1940 Elfrida de la Mare was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. She spent the rest of her life as an invalid and died in 1943.From 1940 until his death de la Mare lived in South End House, Montpelier Row, Twickenham, on the same street on which Alfred, Lord Tennyson, had lived. De la Mare won the annual Carnegie Medal, from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British subject, for his Collected Stories for Children (Faber and Faber, 1947).[4] It was the first collection to win the award.De la Mare suffered from a coronary thrombosis in 1947 and died of another in 1956. He spent his final year mostly bedridden, being cared for by a nurse whom he loved but never had a physical relationship with.[11] His ashes are buried in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, where he had once been a choirboy.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"frame story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_story"},{"link_name":"Georgian poets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_poets"}],"sub_title":"Come Hither","text":"Come Hither is an anthology edited by de la Mare, mostly of poems, but with some prose. It has a frame story and can be read on several levels. It was first published in 1923 and was a success; further editions have followed. It includes a selection of poems by the leading Georgian poets (from de la Mare's perspective).","title":"Profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ghost stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_story"},{"link_name":"Eight Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Tales"},{"link_name":"H. P. Lovecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft"},{"link_name":"Supernatural Horror in Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural_Horror_in_Literature"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Gary William Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_William_Crawford"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwc-13"},{"link_name":"Robert Aickman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Aickman"},{"link_name":"Ramsey Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey_Campbell"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwc-13"},{"link_name":"David A. McIntee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._McIntee"},{"link_name":"Reggie Oliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie_Oliver_(writer)"},{"link_name":"S. T. Joshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._T._Joshi"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Supernaturalism","text":"De la Mare was, notably, a writer of ghost stories. His collections Eight Tales, The Riddle and Other Stories, The Connoisseur and Other Stories, On the Edge and The Wind Blows Over each contain several ghost stories.De la Mare's supernatural horror writings were favourites of H. P. Lovecraft, who in his comprehensive study Supernatural Horror in Literature said that \"[de la Mare] is able to put into his occasional fear-studies a keen potency which only a rare master can achieve\".[12] Lovecraft singled out for praise de la Mare's short stories \"Seaton's Aunt\", \"The Tree\", \"Out of the Deep\", \"Mr Kempe\", \"A Recluse\" and \"All Hallows\", along with his novel The Return.Gary William Crawford has described de la Mare's supernatural fiction for adults as being \"among the finest to appear in the first half of this century\", whilst noting the disparity between the high quality and low quantity of de la Mare's mature horror stories.[13] Other notable de la Mare ghost/horror stories are \"A:B:O\", \"Crewe\", \"The Green Room\" and \"Winter\".A number of later writers of supernatural fiction, including Robert Aickman, Ramsey Campbell,[13] David A. McIntee and Reggie Oliver, have cited de la Mare's ghost stories as inspirational. The horror scholar S. T. Joshi has said that de la Mare's supernatural fiction \"should always have an audience that will shudder apprehensively at its horror and be moved to somber reflection by its pensive philosophy\".[14]","title":"Profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fairy tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Brian Stableford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Stableford"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Richard Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Adams"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Joan Aiken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Aiken"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Children's literature","text":"For children de la Mare wrote the fairy tale The Three Mulla Mulgars (1910, later retitled The Three Royal Monkeys), praised by the literary historian Julia Briggs as a \"neglected masterpiece\"[15] and by the critic Brian Stableford as a \"classic animal fantasy\".[16] Richard Adams described it as his favourite novel.[17]Joan Aiken cited some of de la Mare's short stories, such as \"The Almond Tree\" and \"Sambo and the Snow Mountains\", for their sometimes unexplained quality, which she also employed in her own work.[18][clarification needed]","title":"Profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Butler_Yeats,_Walter_de_la_Mare_and_others_by_Lady_Ottoline_Morrell.jpg"},{"link_name":"W. B. Yeats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._B._Yeats"},{"link_name":"Lady Ottoline Morrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Ottoline_Morrell"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante"},{"link_name":"Rupert Brooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Brooke"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intellectual-20"},{"link_name":"fakirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakir"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum"},{"link_name":"logical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical"},{"link_name":"deductive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive"},{"link_name":"intuitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)"},{"link_name":"inductive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intellectual-20"}],"sub_title":"Theory of imagination","text":"De la Mare with W. B. Yeats and others (photo by Lady Ottoline Morrell)De la Mare described two distinct \"types\" of imagination – although \"aspects\" might be a better term: the childlike and the boylike. It was at the border between the two that Shakespeare, Dante, and the rest of the great poets lay.De la Mare opined that all children fall into the category of having a childlike imagination at first, which is usually replaced at some point in their lives. He explained in the lecture \"Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination\"[19][a] that children \"are not bound in by their groping senses. Facts to them are the liveliest of chameleons. [...] They are contemplatives, solitaries, fakirs, who sink again and again out of the noise and fever of existence and into a waking vision.\" His biographer Doris Ross McCrosson summarises this passage, \"Children are, in short, visionaries.\" This visionary view of life can be seen as either vital creativity and ingenuity, or fatal disconnection from reality (or, in a limited sense, both).The increasing intrusions of the external world upon the mind, however, frighten the childlike imagination, which \"retires like a shocked snail into its shell\". From then onward the boyish imagination flourishes, the \"intellectual, analytical type\".By adulthood (de la Mare proposed), the childlike imagination has either retreated forever or grown bold enough to face the real world. Thus emerge the two extremes of the spectrum of adult minds: logical and deductive or intuitive and inductive. For de la Mare, \"[t]he one knows that beauty is truth, the other reveals that truth is beauty.\" Yet another way he puts it is that the visionary's source of poetry is within, while the intellectual's sources are without – external – in \"action, knowledge of things, and experience\" (McCrosson's phrasing). De la Mare hastens to add that this does not make the intellectual's poetry any less good, but it is clear where his own preference lies.[a]","title":"Profile"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"},{"link_name":"Memoirs of a Midget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoirs_of_a_Midget"},{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"}],"sub_title":"Novels","text":"Henry Brocken (1904)\nThe Three Mulla Mulgars (1910) (edition illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop [1919]), also published as The Three Royal Monkeys (children's novel)\nThe Return (1910; revised edition 1922; second revised edition 1945)\nMemoirs of a Midget (1921)\nMr Bumps and His Monkey (1942) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"},{"link_name":"Collected Stories for Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collected_Stories_for_Children"},{"link_name":"Robin Jacques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Jacques"},{"link_name":"Eight Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Tales"}],"sub_title":"Short story collections","text":"The Riddle and Other Stories (1923): \"The Almond Tree\", \"The Count's Courtship\", \"The Looking-Glass\", \"Miss Duveen\", \"Selina's Parable\", \"Seaton's Aunt\", \"The Bird of Travel\", \"The Bowl\", \"The Three Friends\", \"Lispet\", \"Lispet and Vaine\", \"The Tree\", \"Out of the Deep\", \"The Creatures\", \"The Riddle\", \"The Vats\"\nDing Dong Bell (1924): \"Lichen\", \"Benighted\", \"Strangers and Pilgrims\", \"Winter\"\nBroomsticks and Other Tales (1925): \"Pigtails, Ltd.\", \"The Dutch Cheese\", \"Miss Jemima\", \"The Thief\", \"Broomsticks\", \"Lucy\", \"A Nose\", \"The Three Sleeping Boys of Warwickshire\", \"The Lovely Myfanwy\", \"Maria-Fly\", \"Visitors\"\nThe Connoisseur and Other Stories (1926): \"Mr Kempe\", \"Missing\", \"The Connoisseur\". \"Disillusioned\", \"The Nap\", \"Pretty Poll\", \"All Hallows\", \"The Wharf\", \"The Lost Track\"\nOn the Edge (1930): \"A Recluse\", \"Willows\", \"Crewe\", \"At First Sight\", \"The Green Room\", \"The Orgy\", \"An Idyll\", \"The Picnic\", \"An Ideal Craftsman\"\nThe Dutch Cheese (1931) (editions illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop [1931] and Irene Hawkins [1947]) (children's stories)\nThe Lord Fish (1933), illustrated by Rex Whistler (children's stories)\nThe Walter de la Mare Omnibus (1933)\nThe Wind Blows Over (1936): \"What Dreams May Come\", \"Cape Race\", \"Physic\", \"The Talisman\", \"In the Forest\", \"A Froward Child\", \"Miss Miller\", \"The House\", \"A Revenant\", \"A Nest of Singing-Birds\", \"The Trumpet\"\nThe Nap and Other Stories (1936)\nStories, Essays and Poems (1938)\nThe Picnic and Other Stories (1941)\nThe Best Stories of Walter de la Mare (1942)\nThe Scarecrow and Other Stories (1945)\nCollected Stories for Children (1947) (editions illustrated by Irene Hawkins [1947] and Robin Jacques [1957])\nA Beginning and Other Stories (1955): \"Odd Shop\", \"Music\", \"The Stranger\", \"Neighbours\", \"The Princess\", \"The Guardian\", \"The Face\", \"The Cartouche\", \"The Picture\", \"The Quincunx\", \"An Anniversary\", \"Bad Company\", \"A Beginning\"\nEight Tales (1971)\nWalter de la Mare, Short Stories 1895–1926 (1996): Collection comprising the contents of The Riddle and Other Stories, Ding Dong Bell and The Connoisseur and Other Stories, as well as \"Kismet\", \"The Hangman Luck\", \"A Mote\", \"The Village of Old Age\", \"The Moon's Miracle\", \"The Giant\", \"De Mortuis\", \"The Rejection of the Rector\", \"The Match-Maker\", \"The Budget\", \"The Pear-Tree\", \"Leap Year\", \"Promise at Dusk\", \"Two Days in Town\"\nWalter de la Mare, Short Stories 1927–1956 (2000): Collection comprising the contents of On the Edge, The Wind Blows Over and A Beginning and Other Stories, as well as \"The Lynx\", \"A Sort of Interview\", \"The Miller's Tale\", \"A:B:O.\", \"The Orgy: An Idyll, Part II\", \"Late\", \"Pig\", \"Dr Iggatt\"\nWalter de la Mare, Short Stories for Children (2006)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"W. Heath Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Heath_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Claud Lovat Fraser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claud_Lovat_Fraser"},{"link_name":"Rowland Emett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Emett"},{"link_name":"Edward Ardizzone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Ardizzone"},{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"},{"link_name":"Margaret Wolpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margaret_Wolpe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Harold Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Jones_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Rowland Emett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Emett"},{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Mare1950-21"},{"link_name":"Faber and Faber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faber_and_Faber"},{"link_name":"Ariel Poems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Poems"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_la_Mare1929-22"}],"sub_title":"Poetry collections","text":"Songs of Childhood (1902)\nPoems (1906)\nThe Listeners (1912)\nPeacock Pie (1913) (editions illustrated by W. Heath Robinson [1916], Claud Lovat Fraser [1924], Rowland Emett [1941] and Edward Ardizzone [1946])\nThe Sunken Garden and Other Poems (1917)\nMotley and Other Poems (1918)\nThe Veil and Other Poems (1921)\nDown-Adown-Derry: A Book of Fairy Poems (1922) (illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop)\nA Child's Day: A Book of Rhymes (1924) (illustrated by Winifred Bromhall)\nSelected Poems by Walter de la Mare (1927, 1931)\nStuff and Nonsense and So On (1927) (editions illustrated by Bold [1927] and Margaret Wolpe [1946])\nThis Year: Next Year (1937) (illustrated by Harold Jones)\nBells and Grass (1941) (editions illustrated by Rowland Emett [1941] and Dorothy P. Lathrop [1942])\nTime Passes and Other Poems (1942)\nInward Companion (1950)[20]\nO Lovely England (1952)\nWalter de la Mare: The Complete Poems, ed. Giles de la Mare (1969)Ariel PoemsSix poems were published by Faber and Faber as part of the Ariel Poems, for both series. They were the following:Alone (1927)\nSelf to Self (1928)\nThe Snowdrop (1929)[21]\nNews (1930)\nTo Lucy (1931)\nThe Winnowing Dream (1954)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dorothy P. Lathrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_P._Lathrop"}],"sub_title":"Plays","text":"Crossings: A Fairy Play (1921) (book illustrated by Dorothy P. Lathrop (1923))","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Nonfiction","text":"Some Women Novelists of the 'Seventies (1929)\nDesert Islands and Robinson Crusoe (1930)\nLewis Carroll (1930)\nThe Early Novels of Wilkie Collins (1932)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the children's game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Tiddler%27s_Ground"}],"sub_title":"Anthologies edited","text":"Come Hither (1923; new and revised edition, 1928; third edition, reset and printed from new plates, 1957)\nTom Tiddler's Ground (1931; named after the children's game)\nEarly One Morning, in the Spring: Chapters on Children and on Childhood As It Is Revealed in Particular in Early Memories and in Early Writings (1935)\nBehold, This Dreamer!: Of Reverie, Night, Sleep, Dream, Love-Dreams, Nightmare, Death, the Unconscious, the Imagination, Divination, the Artist, and Kindred Subjects (1939)\nLove (1943)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C. K. Scott Moncrieff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._K._Scott_Moncrieff"},{"link_name":"Marcel Proust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Proust"},{"link_name":"Remembrance of Things Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remembrance_of_Things_Past"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Faber and Faber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faber_and_Faber"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"V. Sackville-West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_Sackville-West"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"J. B. Priestley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Priestley"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"T. S. Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Siegfried Sassoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_Sassoon"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Lord Dunsany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Plunkett,_18th_Baron_of_Dunsany"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Henry Williamson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Williamson"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Richard Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Adams"},{"link_name":"Watership Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watership_Down"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Robertson Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertson_Davies"},{"link_name":"The Manticore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manticore"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Muriel Spark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_Spark"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"References in books","text":"C. K. Scott Moncrieff, in translating Marcel Proust's seven-volume work Remembrance of Things Past, used the last line of de la Mare's poem \"The Ghost\" as the title of the sixth volume, The Sweet Cheat Gone[22][23] (French: Albertine Disparu and La Fugitive).In 1944 Faber and Faber and one of de la Mare's friends, a certain Dr Bett, arranged to secretly produce a tribute for his 75th birthday.[24] This publication was a collaborative effort involving many admirers of Walter de la Mare's work, and included individual pieces by a variety of authors, including V. Sackville-West,[25] J. B. Priestley,[26] T. S. Eliot,[27][28] Siegfried Sassoon,[29] Lord Dunsany,[30] and Henry Williamson.[31]Richard Adams's debut novel Watership Down (1972) uses several of de la Mare's poems as epigraphs.[32]De la Mare's play Crossings has an important role in Robertson Davies's novel The Manticore. In 1944, when the protagonist David Staunton is sixteen, de la Mare's play is produced by the pupils of his sister's school in Toronto. Staunton falls deeply in love with the girl playing the main role, a first love that has a profound effect on the rest of his life.[33]Symposium by Muriel Spark quotes de la Mare's poem \"Fare Well\": \"Look thy last on all things lovely / Every hour.\"[citation needed].","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benjamin Britten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Britten"},{"link_name":"Levy-Dew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levy-Dew"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Theodore Chanler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Chanler"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"References in music","text":"Benjamin Britten set several of de la Mare's verses to music: de la Mare's version of the traditional song \"Levy-Dew\" in 1934, and five others, which were then collected in Tit for Tat.[34]Theodore Chanler used texts from de la Mare's story \"'Benighted'\" for his song cycle 8 Epitaphs.[35]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-intellectual_20-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-intellectual_20-1"},{"link_name":"reason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason"}],"text":"^ a b In the lecture \"Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination\" de la Mare uses the term \"imagination\" for both the intellectual and the visionary. To simplify and clarify his language de la Mare generally used the more conventional \"reason\" and \"imagination\" when discussing the same idea elsewhere.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Pringle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pringle"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1558622063","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1558622063"},{"link_name":"Bleiler, Everett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_F._Bleiler"},{"link_name":"Wagenknecht, Edward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Wagenknecht"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0313279608","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313279608"},{"link_name":"\"Water John De La Mare\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9e48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR148"},{"link_name":"The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Bibliography_of_English_Literature"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-08535-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08535-7"}],"text":"Adrian, Jack, \"De la Mare, Walter\", in David Pringle (ed), St. James Guide to Horror, Ghost and Gothic Writers. London: St. James Press, 1998. ISBN 1558622063\nBlackmore, Leigh (2017). S. T. Joshi (ed.). \"In Pursuit of the Transcendent: The Weird Verse of Walter de la Mare\". Spectral Realms (6).\nBleiler, Everett (1948). The Checklist of Fantastic Literature. Chicago: Shasta Publishers. pp. 96–97.\nMcCrosson, Doris Ross (1966). Walter de la Mare. Twayne.\nWagenknecht, Edward, \"Walter de la Mare\", in Seven Masters of Supernatural Fiction. New York: Greenwood, 1991. ISBN 0313279608.\nWhistler, Theresa (1993). Imagination of the Heart:The Life of Walter de la Mare.\nWillison, I. R., ed. (1972). \"Water John De La Mare\". The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Volume 4: 1900–1950. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–262. ISBN 0-521-08535-7.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"De la Mare with W. B. Yeats and others (photo by Lady Ottoline Morrell)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/William_Butler_Yeats%2C_Walter_de_la_Mare_and_others_by_Lady_Ottoline_Morrell.jpg/220px-William_Butler_Yeats%2C_Walter_de_la_Mare_and_others_by_Lady_Ottoline_Morrell.jpg"}] | [{"title":"The Queen's Book of the Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Queen%27s_Book_of_the_Red_Cross"}] | [{"reference":"Reid-Walsh, Jacqueline (1988). The Burning-Glass: A Developmental Study of Walter de la Mare's Poetry (PDF) (PhD). Montreal: McGill University. pp. 51–56.","urls":[{"url":"http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/thesisfile75903.pdf","url_text":"The Burning-Glass: A Developmental Study of Walter de la Mare's Poetry"}]},{"reference":"\"Jannette, daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare, dancing at Ciro's Club, London\". alamy.com. 1928. Retrieved 20 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.alamy.com/jannette-daughter-of-poet-and-author-walter-de-la-mare-dancing-at-ciros-club-london-1928-image501464669.html","url_text":"\"Jannette, daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare, dancing at Ciro's Club, London\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stealing Cakes\". Getty Images. 7 September 1929. Retrieved 20 July 2023. Julian de la Mare and Jane Baddeley (daughter of Angela Baddeley) fight for the last of the cakes at the wedding of Janette de la Mare and Donald John Ringwood in Taplow. Janette is the daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/3361811","url_text":"\"Stealing Cakes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Baddeley","url_text":"Angela Baddeley"}]},{"reference":"Joan Aiken (1976). Geoff Fox; Graham Hammond; Terry Jones; Frederic Smith; Kenneth Sterck (eds.). Writers, Critics, and Children. New York: Agathon Press. pp. 24. ISBN 0-87586-054-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/writerscriticsch00foxg","url_text":"Writers, Critics, and Children"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/writerscriticsch00foxg/page/24","url_text":"24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87586-054-0","url_text":"0-87586-054-0"}]},{"reference":"de la Mare, Walter (1919). Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. Retrieved 29 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/rupertbrookethei00delauoft","url_text":"Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination"}]},{"reference":"Various contributors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on His 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 5.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 19.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 15.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chandran, K. Narayana (Spring 1997). \"Phantoms of the Mind: T.S. Eliot's 'To Walter De la Mare'\". Papers on Language & Literature. 33 (2). Retrieved 28 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-19430719/phantoms-of-the-mind-t-s-eliot-s-to-walter-de-la","url_text":"\"Phantoms of the Mind: T.S. Eliot's 'To Walter De la Mare'\""}]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 106.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 110.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 114.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Various authors (1944). Tribute to Walter de la Mare on his 75th Birthday. Faber and Faber. p. 171.","urls":[]},{"reference":"William Barry Urquhart (1975). Jungian Psychology in Robertson Davies' Fifth Business and The Manticore: The Hero and His Quest. Thesis (M.A.)--University of New Brunswick.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uTFMnQEACAAJ","url_text":"Jungian Psychology in Robertson Davies' Fifth Business and The Manticore: The Hero and His Quest"}]},{"reference":"\"Eight Epitaphs\". Song of America. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://songofamerica.net/song/eight-epitaphs/","url_text":"\"Eight Epitaphs\""}]},{"reference":"de la Mare, Walter (1950). Inward Companion. London: Faber and Faber. Retrieved 15 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://fadedpage.com/showbook.php?pid=20120109","url_text":"Inward Companion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faber_and_Faber","url_text":"Faber and Faber"}]},{"reference":"de la Mare, Walter (1929). \"The Snowdrop\". Poetry Nook. Drawings by Claudia Guercio. London: Faber and Faber. Retrieved 14 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://poetrynook.com/poem/snowdrop-3","url_text":"\"The Snowdrop\""}]},{"reference":"Blackmore, Leigh (2017). S. T. Joshi (ed.). \"In Pursuit of the Transcendent: The Weird Verse of Walter de la Mare\". Spectral Realms (6).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bleiler, Everett (1948). The Checklist of Fantastic Literature. Chicago: Shasta Publishers. pp. 96–97.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_F._Bleiler","url_text":"Bleiler, Everett"}]},{"reference":"Willison, I. R., ed. (1972). \"Water John De La Mare\". The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Volume 4: 1900–1950. Cambridge University Press. pp. 256–262. ISBN 0-521-08535-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9e48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR148","url_text":"\"Water John De La Mare\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Bibliography_of_English_Literature","url_text":"The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-08535-7","url_text":"0-521-08535-7"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22","external_links_name":"\"Walter de la Mare\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Walter+de+la+Mare%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/thesisfile75903.pdf","external_links_name":"The Burning-Glass: A Developmental Study of Walter de la Mare's Poetry"},{"Link":"http://www.ed.ac.uk/news/events/tait-black/winners/fiction","external_links_name":"\"Fiction winners\""},{"Link":"http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/livingarchive/title.php?id=110","external_links_name":"Winning Year: 1947"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090608044455/http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/livingarchive/title.php?id=110","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=32771&back=","external_links_name":"Mare, Walter John de la (1873–1956)"},{"Link":"http://www.beckenhamheritagegroup.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/Walter-de-la-Mare.pdf=","external_links_name":"Beckenham period"},{"Link":"http://www.norwoodsociety.co.uk/book-reviews/179-walter-de-la-mare-poet-of-anerley-and-south-east-london.html","external_links_name":"Walter de la Mare – Poet of Anerley and South East London"},{"Link":"https://www.londonremembers.com/subjects/walter-de-la-mare?memorial_id=1589","external_links_name":"Walter de la Mare"},{"Link":"https://www.alamy.com/jannette-daughter-of-poet-and-author-walter-de-la-mare-dancing-at-ciros-club-london-1928-image501464669.html","external_links_name":"\"Jannette, daughter of poet and author Walter de la Mare, dancing at Ciro's Club, London\""},{"Link":"https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/3361811","external_links_name":"\"Stealing Cakes\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2006/jun/10/booksforchildrenandteenagers.featuresreviews","external_links_name":"A kind of magic"},{"Link":"http://www.hplovecraft.com/writings/texts/essays/shil.aspx","external_links_name":"essays at hplovecraft.com"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nE6cFX-iE0sC","external_links_name":"The Return, Walter de la Mare, at books.google.co.uk"},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/1n3quw/i_am_richard_adams_author_of_watership_down/ccf3r28","external_links_name":"Reddit AMA, 25 September 2013."},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/writerscriticsch00foxg","external_links_name":"Writers, Critics, and Children"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/writerscriticsch00foxg/page/24","external_links_name":"24"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/rupertbrookethei00delauoft","external_links_name":"Rupert Brooke and the Intellectual Imagination"},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Remembrance_of_Things_Past","external_links_name":"Remembrance of Things Past"},{"Link":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collected_poems,_1901-1918/The_Ghost_(Motley,_1919)","external_links_name":"The Ghost (anthologized in Collected poems, 1901-1918 and Motley)"},{"Link":"https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-19430719/phantoms-of-the-mind-t-s-eliot-s-to-walter-de-la","external_links_name":"\"Phantoms of the Mind: T.S. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elixir_(character) | Elixir (character) | ["1 Publication history","2 Powers and abilities","3 Other versions","3.1 New X-Men: Too Much Information","3.2 House of M","4 In popular culture","5 References","6 External links"] | Character from the Marvel universe
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Comics character
ElixirElixir Art by Paco MedinaPublication informationPublisherMarvel ComicsFirst appearanceNew Mutants vol. 2 #5 (Nov. 2003)Created byNunzio DeFilippisChristina WeirKeron GrantIn-story informationAlter egoJoshua "Josh" FoleySpeciesHuman MutantTeam affiliationsNew Mutants training squadNew X-MenReaversXavier InstituteX-ForceX-Men-In-Training The FiveAbilities
Biokinesis
Healing
Resurrection/immortality
Life-force manipulation
Genetic detection
Death touch
Elixir (Joshua "Josh" Foley) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as a student at the Xavier Institute.
Publication history
He first appeared in New Mutants vol. 2 #5 and was created by Nunzio DeFilippis, Christina Weir, and Keron Grant.
Powers and abilities
Elixir is an Omega-level mutant, capable of controlling the biological structure of any organic matter including his own body. He must be in proximity to whomever he uses his power on. Besides healing, he is capable of boosting and restoring mutant abilities, causing painful boils and welts to appear, manipulating the life-forces of others, creating tumors, curing the Legacy Virus, causing death, and cleansing the body of drugs. Later, after his powers were expanded radically, he could even cure the M-Pox.
The Stepford Cuckoos telepathically copied and transferred the Beast's knowledge of anatomy, biology, and genetics into Josh's mind, allowing him the knowledge to heal virtually any malady.
Because of his control over his own biology, Elixir has proven to be very difficult to treat medically. He usually passes out after pushing his powers too far and remains in a coma for some time. Elixir is also virtually immortal as although he can be killed, his powers grant him the ability to resurrect himself, as well as the ability to be reborn into a new body. He can even regenerate on a cellular level.
Since his rebirth, Elixir's powers evolved to the point of bring people back from the dead as seen as when he was able to affect the 16 million deceased mutants on Genosha at once, and although it quickly drained him out of energy and he passed out, Monet and Magneto speculated, that Elixir was fully capable of resurrecting them all but at the cost of his sanity.
He is also able to detect abnormalities in living beings: he detected techo-organic cells in Angel's body, detected Emplate in Monet's body and even sensed the effect of magical inversion on Sabretooth. When Josh started to cure the M-Pox he felt that the disease was afraid of him.
Other versions
New X-Men: Too Much Information
When David learns of a mental block within his head that prevents him from keeping the information he absorbs permanently, he asks for Emma Frost's aid in removing it. Working with Dani Moonstar, they show David a possible future outcome because of the mental blocks' removal. After leaving the Xavier Institute, David promises to help Josh find the full potential of his powers. Months later after establishing his own business, Josh is used to create a cure to both cancer and AIDS. Although successful, it comes at the cost of his life.
House of M
In the House of M reality, Josh was an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., serving alongside Agent Kevin Ford (Wither) as interrogator. Foley and Ford were in charge of "persuading" Cameron Hodge, a member of the Human Liberation Front, to reveal the location of his terrorist cell. Josh uses his power to "speed up the body's biological functions," and combined with Agent Ford's power, they are able to create a net effect that causes a part of the terrorist to die and then regenerate, which Foley describes as "quite painful". Before Ford and Foley begin torturing Hodge, Agent Noriko Ashida (Surge) interrupts them, prompting Ford and Foley to attack her. She incapacitates them both but Foley manages to use his power to rupture her blood vessels and cause her lungs to fill with blood.
In popular culture
Elixir is referenced in the MC chris song, "Nrrrd Grrrl": "She's more like a wallflower, Like the one that Stryker sniped, I'm like Elixir when I'm with her, 'Cause I think I like her type."
References
^ DeFalco, Tom; Sanderson, Peter; Brevoort, Tom; Teitelbaum, Michael; Wallace, Daniel; Darling, Andrew; Forbeck, Matt; Cowsill, Alan; Bray, Adam (2019). The Marvel Encyclopedia. DK Publishing. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4654-7890-0.
^ New Mutants vol. 2 #12
^ New Mutants vol. 2 #10
^ X-Force: Necrosha.
^ X-Force vol. 3 #10
^ X-Force vol. 3 #3
^ New X-Men vol. 2 #38
^ New X-Men vol. 2 #28
^ New X-Men: Academy X #10
^ Ward, Chris. "Nrrrd Grrrl." Lyrics. mc chris is dead. mc chris LLC, 2008.
External links
Elixir at Marvel.com
Elixir at Marvel Wiki
Elixir at Comic Vine
vteNew Mutants
Chris Claremont
Bob McLeod
Original members
Cannonball
Karma
Mirage
Sunspot
Wolfsbane
Later recruits
Bird-Brain
Blink
Boom-Boom
Chamber
Cypher
Domino
Feral
Magik
Magma
Mondo
Rictor
Rusty Collins
Shatterstar
Skids
Warlock
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Portals: Speculative fiction New York (state) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American comic books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_comic_book"},{"link_name":"Marvel Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel_Comics"},{"link_name":"Xavier Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Mansion"}],"text":"Comics characterElixir (Joshua \"Josh\" Foley) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as a student at the Xavier Institute.","title":"Elixir (character)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Mutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mutants"},{"link_name":"Nunzio DeFilippis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunzio_DeFilippis"},{"link_name":"Christina Weir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Weir"},{"link_name":"Keron Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keron_Grant"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"He first appeared in New Mutants vol. 2 #5 and was created by Nunzio DeFilippis, Christina Weir, and Keron Grant.[1]","title":"Publication history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Omega-level mutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-level_mutant"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NM12-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NM10-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Stepford Cuckoos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepford_Cuckoos"},{"link_name":"Beast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beast_(comics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Monet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_(Marvel_Comics)"}],"text":"Elixir is an Omega-level mutant, capable of controlling the biological structure of any organic matter including his own body.[2] He must be in proximity to whomever he uses his power on. Besides healing, he is capable of boosting and restoring mutant abilities,[3] causing painful boils and welts to appear, manipulating the life-forces of others, creating tumors,[4] curing the Legacy Virus,[5] causing death, and cleansing the body of drugs.[6] Later, after his powers were expanded radically, he could even cure the M-Pox. \nThe Stepford Cuckoos telepathically copied and transferred the Beast's knowledge of anatomy, biology, and genetics into Josh's mind, allowing him the knowledge to heal virtually any malady.[7]Because of his control over his own biology, Elixir has proven to be very difficult to treat medically.[8] He usually passes out after pushing his powers too far and remains in a coma for some time. Elixir is also virtually immortal as although he can be killed, his powers grant him the ability to resurrect himself, as well as the ability to be reborn into a new body. He can even regenerate on a cellular level.Since his rebirth, Elixir's powers evolved to the point of bring people back from the dead as seen as when he was able to affect the 16 million deceased mutants on Genosha at once, and although it quickly drained him out of energy and he passed out, Monet and Magneto speculated, that Elixir was fully capable of resurrecting them all but at the cost of his sanity.He is also able to detect abnormalities in living beings: he detected techo-organic cells in Angel's body, detected Emplate in Monet's body and even sensed the effect of magical inversion on Sabretooth. When Josh started to cure the M-Pox he felt that the disease was afraid of him.","title":"Powers and abilities"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"New X-Men: Too Much Information","text":"When David learns of a mental block within his head that prevents him from keeping the information he absorbs permanently, he asks for Emma Frost's aid in removing it. Working with Dani Moonstar, they show David a possible future outcome because of the mental blocks' removal. After leaving the Xavier Institute, David promises to help Josh find the full potential of his powers. Months later after establishing his own business, Josh is used to create a cure to both cancer and AIDS. Although successful, it comes at the cost of his life.[9]","title":"Other versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"House of M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_M"},{"link_name":"S.H.I.E.L.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D."},{"link_name":"Wither","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wither_(comics)"},{"link_name":"Cameron Hodge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Hodge"},{"link_name":"regenerate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Surge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surge_(Marvel_Comics)"}],"sub_title":"House of M","text":"In the House of M reality, Josh was an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., serving alongside Agent Kevin Ford (Wither) as interrogator. Foley and Ford were in charge of \"persuading\" Cameron Hodge, a member of the Human Liberation Front, to reveal the location of his terrorist cell. Josh uses his power to \"speed up the body's biological functions,\" and combined with Agent Ford's power, they are able to create a net effect that causes a part of the terrorist to die and then regenerate, which Foley describes as \"quite painful\". Before Ford and Foley begin torturing Hodge, Agent Noriko Ashida (Surge) interrupts them, prompting Ford and Foley to attack her. She incapacitates them both but Foley manages to use his power to rupture her blood vessels and cause her lungs to fill with blood.","title":"Other versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MC chris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MC_chris"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Elixir is referenced in the MC chris song, \"Nrrrd Grrrl\": \"She's more like a wallflower, Like the one that Stryker sniped, I'm like Elixir when I'm with her, 'Cause I think I like her type.\"[10]","title":"In popular culture"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"DeFalco, Tom; Sanderson, Peter; Brevoort, Tom; Teitelbaum, Michael; Wallace, Daniel; Darling, Andrew; Forbeck, Matt; Cowsill, Alan; Bray, Adam (2019). The Marvel Encyclopedia. DK Publishing. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-4654-7890-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4654-7890-0","url_text":"978-1-4654-7890-0"}]},{"reference":"X-Force: Necrosha.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Elixir%22+character","external_links_name":"\"Elixir\" character"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Elixir%22+character+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Elixir%22+character&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Elixir%22+character+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Elixir%22+character","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Elixir%22+character&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Elixir%22+character","external_links_name":"\"Elixir\" character"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Elixir%22+character+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Elixir%22+character&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Elixir%22+character+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Elixir%22+character","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Elixir%22+character&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://marvel.com/universe/Elixir","external_links_name":"Elixir"},{"Link":"https://marvel.fandom.com/wiki/Joshua_Foley_(Earth-616)","external_links_name":"Elixir"},{"Link":"https://comicvine.gamespot.com/elixir/4005-4552/","external_links_name":"Elixir"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Madrasah_Education_Board | Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board | ["1 Background","2 See also","3 References"] | Government agency
Bangladesh Madrasah Education Boardবাংলাদেশ মাদ্রাসা শিক্ষা বোর্ডAlia Madrasah Education BoardSeal of Bangladesh Madrasah Education BoardBoard overviewFormed1979; 45 years ago (1979)JurisdictionGovernment of BangladeshHeadquarters2 Orphanage Road, Baksibazar, DhakaBoard executivesProf. Muhammad
Shah Alamgir, ChairmanM. Siddiqur Rahman, RegistrarParent departmentMinistry of EducationWebsitebmeb.gov.bd
Islam in Bangladesh
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vte
Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ মাদ্রাসা শিক্ষা বোর্ড) or Alia Madrasah Education Board started its activity independently in 1979. With the passage of time in Bangladeshi madrasah education several amendments have come to pass. In 1978 humanities and science faculties were included at the Alim (عالِم) level. In 1980 Fazil (فاضل) degrees were granted the same standard of education as Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) degrees but this was changed in later years with Dakhil (داخل) level having the equivalency of Secondary School Certificate (SSC) since 1985, and Alim being considered as the HSC equivalent since 1987.
Humanities, science, business and technical education has been included with madrasah education. Meanwhile, a law has been passed for Fazil and Kamil (کامل) levels to be considered equivalent with bachelor's and master's degrees in general education.
Background
Alia Madrasah was established in Calcutta in 1780 by the East India Company through Headteacher Majduddin and this later formed the Madrasah Education Board of Bengal. Madrasah education was then started formally. Late A. K. Fazlul Huq the prime minister declared in a prize giving ceremony is Kolkata Alia Madrasah in 1939, "I want the spread of Madrasah Education should be modernized and an Islamic Arabic University should be established".
To materialize this declaration of sher-E-Bangla a committee named Moula Box was formed. This committee advises on the development of madrasah education. In 1947 after the independence of Pakistan many commissions were formed for the development of madrasah education. Among them in 1949 the "West Bengal Educational System Reconstruction Committee" was formed and in 1963-64 the name of Arabic University was mentioned.
In 1971, after the independence of Bangladesh, steps were taken for the modernization of madrasah education. Bengali, mathematics, English, social science, general science were made compulsory. In 1978 the Madrasah Education Board was formed under Ordinance for the Modernization of Madrasah Education. The board has faced difficulties in recruiting teachers for science related classes. In 2017 Bangladesh government removed references to Jihad from books of Madrasah Education Board.
See also
Qawmi
Education in Bangladesh
Al-Haiatul Ulya Lil-Jamiatil Qawmia Bangladesh
Bangladesh Qawmi Madrasah Education Board
Islam in Bangladesh
Religious education
Charity school
List of Islamic seminaries
References
^ "Education Board Bangladesh". www.educationboard.gov.bd. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
^ "Historical Study of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh - Assignment Point". Retrieved 28 December 2020.
^ Islam, Mohammad Saiful (2012). "Modernization of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh: A New Approach for Future Development".
^ "Madrasah Education System in Bangladesh". 23 April 2018.
^ "You are being redirected..." www.islamic-relief.org. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
^ "Alia Madrasa: an education system on its death bed". The Daily Star. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
^ "Bangladesh to remove Jihad from madrasa textbooks". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
vteSchool Education Boards in Bangladesh
Barisal
Chattogram
Cumilla
Dhaka
Dinajpur
Jessore
Mymensingh
Rajshahi
Sylhet
Madrasah
Technical | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bengali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"madrasah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasah"},{"link_name":"humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"Higher Secondary School Certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Secondary_School_Certificate"},{"link_name":"Secondary School Certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_School_Certificate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"self-published source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"technical education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_education"}],"text":"Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ মাদ্রাসা শিক্ষা বোর্ড) or Alia Madrasah Education Board started its activity independently in 1979.[1][2] With the passage of time in Bangladeshi madrasah education several amendments have come to pass. In 1978 humanities and science faculties were included at the Alim (عالِم) level. In 1980 Fazil (فاضل) degrees were granted the same standard of education as Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) degrees but this was changed in later years with Dakhil (داخل) level having the equivalency of Secondary School Certificate (SSC) since 1985, and Alim being considered as the HSC equivalent since 1987.[3][4][self-published source?][5]Humanities, science, business and technical education has been included with madrasah education. Meanwhile, a law has been passed for Fazil and Kamil (کامل) levels to be considered equivalent with bachelor's and master's degrees in general education.","title":"Bangladesh Madrasah Education Board"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alia Madrasah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alia_Madrasah_Education_Board"},{"link_name":"Calcutta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcutta"},{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Majduddin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majduddin"},{"link_name":"Madrasah Education Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasah_Education_Board"},{"link_name":"Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal"},{"link_name":"A. K. Fazlul Huq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._K._Fazlul_Huq"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"Islamic Arabic University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Arabic_University"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"1947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Bengali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"general science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_science"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Alia Madrasah was established in Calcutta in 1780 by the East India Company through Headteacher Majduddin and this later formed the Madrasah Education Board of Bengal. Madrasah education was then started formally. Late A. K. Fazlul Huq the prime minister declared in a prize giving ceremony is Kolkata Alia Madrasah in 1939, \"I want the spread of Madrasah Education should be modernized and an Islamic Arabic University should be established\".[citation needed]To materialize this declaration of sher-E-Bangla a committee named Moula Box was formed. This committee advises on the development of madrasah education. In 1947 after the independence of Pakistan many commissions were formed for the development of madrasah education. Among them in 1949 the \"West Bengal Educational System Reconstruction Committee\" was formed and in 1963-64 the name of Arabic University was mentioned.[citation needed]In 1971, after the independence of Bangladesh, steps were taken for the modernization of madrasah education. Bengali, mathematics, English, social science, general science were made compulsory. In 1978 the Madrasah Education Board was formed under Ordinance for the Modernization of Madrasah Education. The board has faced difficulties in recruiting teachers for science related classes.[6] In 2017 Bangladesh government removed references to Jihad from books of Madrasah Education Board.[7]","title":"Background"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bayt_al_Mukarram.jpg/200px-Bayt_al_Mukarram.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Qawmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qawmi"},{"title":"Education in Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Bangladesh"},{"title":"Al-Haiatul Ulya Lil-Jamiatil Qawmia Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Haiatul_Ulya_Lil-Jamiatil_Qawmia_Bangladesh"},{"title":"Bangladesh Qawmi Madrasah Education Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Qawmi_Madrasah_Education_Board"},{"title":"Islam in Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Bangladesh"},{"title":"Religious education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_education"},{"title":"Charity school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_school"},{"title":"List of Islamic seminaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Islamic_seminaries"}] | [{"reference":"\"Education Board Bangladesh\". www.educationboard.gov.bd. Retrieved 28 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.educationboard.gov.bd/madrasah/","url_text":"\"Education Board Bangladesh\""}]},{"reference":"\"Historical Study of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh - Assignment Point\". Retrieved 28 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.assignmentpoint.com/arts/modern-civilization/historical-study-of-madrasah-education-in-bangladesh.html","url_text":"\"Historical Study of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh - Assignment Point\""}]},{"reference":"Islam, Mohammad Saiful (2012). \"Modernization of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh: A New Approach for Future Development\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/34074419","url_text":"\"Modernization of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh: A New Approach for Future Development\""}]},{"reference":"\"Madrasah Education System in Bangladesh\". 23 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/Rashediubat0/madrasah-education-system-in-bangladesh","url_text":"\"Madrasah Education System in Bangladesh\""}]},{"reference":"\"You are being redirected...\" www.islamic-relief.org. Retrieved 28 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.islamic-relief.org/improving-madrasah-education/","url_text":"\"You are being redirected...\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alia Madrasa: an education system on its death bed\". The Daily Star. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/alia-madrasa-1482232","url_text":"\"Alia Madrasa: an education system on its death bed\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bangladesh to remove Jihad from madrasa textbooks\". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 18 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2017/10/25/lessons-on-jihad-to-be-removed-from-madrasah-textbooks/","url_text":"\"Bangladesh to remove Jihad from madrasa textbooks\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://bmeb.gov.bd/","external_links_name":"bmeb.gov.bd"},{"Link":"http://www.educationboard.gov.bd/madrasah/","external_links_name":"\"Education Board Bangladesh\""},{"Link":"https://www.assignmentpoint.com/arts/modern-civilization/historical-study-of-madrasah-education-in-bangladesh.html","external_links_name":"\"Historical Study of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh - Assignment Point\""},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/34074419","external_links_name":"\"Modernization of Madrasah Education in Bangladesh: A New Approach for Future Development\""},{"Link":"https://www.slideshare.net/Rashediubat0/madrasah-education-system-in-bangladesh","external_links_name":"\"Madrasah Education System in Bangladesh\""},{"Link":"https://www.islamic-relief.org/improving-madrasah-education/","external_links_name":"\"You are being redirected...\""},{"Link":"http://www.thedailystar.net/star-weekend/alia-madrasa-1482232","external_links_name":"\"Alia Madrasa: an education system on its death bed\""},{"Link":"http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2017/10/25/lessons-on-jihad-to-be-removed-from-madrasah-textbooks/","external_links_name":"\"Bangladesh to remove Jihad from madrasa textbooks\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Neter | John Neter | ["1 Bibliography","2 References","3 External links"] | American statistician (1923–2022)
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John Neter (February 8, 1923 – December 6, 2022) was a German-born American statistician, University professor, and widely published author.
Growing up in Germany, he was a classmate of Henry Kissinger.
He spent much of his career teaching statistics at University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia.
In 1965 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.
He served as President of the American Statistical Association in 1985.
Bibliography
Michael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, William Li, Applied Linear Statistical Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 2004)
Michael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, William Li, Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, May 2004)
John Neter, Student Solutions Manual for Use With Applied Linear Regression Models (3rd) and Applied Linear Statistical Model (4th), (McGraw-Hill College, December 1996)
John Neter, Michael H. Kutner, William Wasserman, Christopher J. Nachtscheim, Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 1996)
Michael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, Solutions Manual for Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 2003)
John Neter, G.A. Whitmore, William Wasserman, Applied Statistics, (Prentice Hall, February 1992)
John Neter, Michael H. Kutner, William Wasserman, Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Designs, (McGraw-Hill, July 1990)
John Neter, James Loebbecke, Behavior of Major Statistical Estimators in Sampling Accounting Populations, (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, June 1975)
References
^ "John Neter Obituary". Hudson Funeral Home and Cremation Services.
^ Kutner, Mike; Neter, Ron; Neter, David (June 2023). "Obituary — John Neter" (PDF). AMSTAT News. No. 552. American Statistical Association. pp. 28–29. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
^ View/Search Fellows of the ASA Archived 2016-06-16 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 2016-08-20.
^ "About ASA". www.amstat.org.
External links
Biography portal
The Neter-Wasserman-Kutner Models Data
Alpha Iota Delta Biography of fellow member John Neter
vtePresidents of the American Statistical Association1839–1925
Richard Fletcher (1839–1845)
George C. Shattuck (1846–1851)
Edward Jarvis (1852–1882)
Francis Amasa Walker (1883–1896)
Carroll D. Wright (1897–1909)
S. N. D. North (1910)
Frederick Ludwig Hoffman (1911)
Walter Francis Willcox (1912)
John Koren (1914)
Edward Dana Durand (1915)
Charles P. Neill (1916)
Allyn Abbott Young (1917)
Wesley Clair Mitchell (1918)
Joseph Adna Hill (1919)
George E. Roberts (1920)
Carroll W. Doten (1921)
William S. Rossiter (1922)
Warren M. Persons (1923)
Louis Israel Dublin (1924)
Robert E. Chaddock (1925)
1926–1950
Leonard Porter Ayres (1926)
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Irving Fisher (1932)
Stuart A. Rice (1933)
Frederick C. Mills (1934)
Willford I. King (1935)
Joseph S. Davis (1936)
Warren Randolph Burgess (1937)
Robert H. Coats (1938)
Raymond Pearl (1939)
F. Leslie Hayford (1940)
Winfield W. Riefler (1941)
Alfred J. Lotka (1942)
Emanuel Goldenweiser (1943)
Helen M. Walker (1944)
Walter A. Shewhart (1945)
Isador Lubin (1946)
Willard Thorp (1947)
George W. Snedecor (1948)
Simon Kuznets (1949)
Samuel S. Wilks (1950)
1951–1975
Lowell Reed (1951)
Aryness Joy Wickens (1952)
William Gemmell Cochran (1953)
Herbert Marshall (1954)
Ralph J. Watkins (1955)
Gertrude Mary Cox (1956)
William R. Leonard (1957)
Walter E. Hoadley (1958)
Rensis Likert (1959)
Morris H. Hansen (1960)
Martin R. Gainsbrugh (1961)
Philip Hauser (1962)
Raymond T. Bowman (1963)
Albert H. Bowker (1964)
W. Allen Wallis (1965)
Frederick F. Stephan (1966)
Frederick Mosteller (1967)
Geoffrey H. Moore (1968)
A. Ross Eckler (1969)
T. A. Bancroft (1970)
Churchill Eisenhart (1971)
William H. Shaw (1972)
Clifford G. Hildreth (1973)
Jerome Cornfield (1974)
Lester Frankel (1975)
1976–2000
Franklin A. Graybill (1976)
Leslie Kish (1977)
George E. P. Box (1978)
Herman Otto Hartley (1979)
Margaret E. Martin (1980)
Ralph A. Bradley (1981)
William Kruskal (1982)
Richard Loree Anderson (1983)
I. Richard Savage (1984)
John Neter (1985)
Donald Marquardt (1986)
Barbara A. Bailar (1987)
Robert V. Hogg (1988)
Janet L. Norwood (1989)
Vincent Barabba (1990)
Arnold Zellner (1991)
Katherine Wallman (1992)
J. Stuart Hunter (1993)
Ronald L. Iman (1994)
Mitchell H. Gail (1995)
Lynne Billard (1996)
Jon R. Kettenring (1997)
David S. Moore (1998)
Jonas H. Ellenberg (1999)
W. Michael O'Fallon (2000)
2001–
Richard L. Scheaffer (2001)
Miron L. Straf (2002)
Robert L. Mason (2003)
Bradley Efron (2004)
Fritz Scheuren (2005)
Sallie Ann Keller (2006)
Mary Ellen Bock (2007)
Peter A. Lachenbruch (2008)
Sally C. Morton (2009)
Sastry G. Pantula (2010)
Nancy Geller (2011)
Robert N. Rodriguez (2012)
Marie Davidian (2013)
Nathaniel Schenker (2014)
David R. Morganstein (2015)
Jessica Utts (2016)
Barry D. Nussbaum (2017)
Lisa Morrissey LaVange (2018)
Karen Kafadar (2019)
Wendy L. Martinez (2020)
Robert Santos (2021)
Kathy Ensor (2022)
Dionne Price (2023)
Madhumita Ghosh Dastidar (2024)
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Henry Kissinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Kissinger"},{"link_name":"University of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the American Statistical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_American_Statistical_Association"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"President of the American Statistical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_American_Statistical_Association"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"John Neter (February 8, 1923 – December 6, 2022) was a German-born American statistician, University professor, and widely published author.[1][2]Growing up in Germany, he was a classmate of Henry Kissinger.He spent much of his career teaching statistics at University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia.In 1965 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.[3]\nHe served as President of the American Statistical Association in 1985.[4]","title":"John Neter"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Michael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, William Li, Applied Linear Statistical Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 2004)\nMichael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, William Li, Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, May 2004)\nJohn Neter, Student Solutions Manual for Use With Applied Linear Regression Models (3rd) and Applied Linear Statistical Model (4th), (McGraw-Hill College, December 1996)\nJohn Neter, Michael H. Kutner, William Wasserman, Christopher J. Nachtscheim, Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 1996)\nMichael H. Kutner, John Neter, Christopher J. Nachtsheim, Solutions Manual for Applied Linear Regression Models, (McGraw-Hill College, January 2003)\nJohn Neter, G.A. Whitmore, William Wasserman, Applied Statistics, (Prentice Hall, February 1992)\nJohn Neter, Michael H. Kutner, William Wasserman, Applied Linear Statistical Models: Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Experimental Designs, (McGraw-Hill, July 1990)\nJohn Neter, James Loebbecke, Behavior of Major Statistical Estimators in Sampling Accounting Populations, (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, June 1975)","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"John Neter Obituary\". Hudson Funeral Home and Cremation Services.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hudsonfuneralhome.com/obituaries/john-neter","url_text":"\"John Neter Obituary\""}]},{"reference":"Kutner, Mike; Neter, Ron; Neter, David (June 2023). \"Obituary — John Neter\" (PDF). AMSTAT News. No. 552. American Statistical Association. pp. 28–29. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell_(American_soldier) | Oliver Cromwell (American soldier) | ["1 War service","2 Death","3 Legacy","4 References"] | Oliver CromwellBorn(1752-05-24)May 24, 1752Black Horse, Province of New Jersey (now Columbus, New Jersey)DiedJanuary 1853 (aged 100)Burlington, New Jersey, USAllegianceUnited StatesService/branchContinental ArmyYears of service1777–1783RankPrivateUnit2nd New Jersey RegimentBattles
Trenton
Princeton
Short Hills
Brandywine
Monmouth
Yorktown
AwardsBadge of Military Merit
Oliver Cromwell (May 24, 1752 – January 1853) was an African-American soldier, who served in the American Revolutionary War. He was born a free black man in Black Horse (now the Columbus section of Mansfield Township, Burlington County, New Jersey), on the farm of tavernkeeper John Hutchin and was raised as a farmer.
War service
Private Cromwell served in several companies of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment between 1777 and 1783, seeing action at the battles of Trenton (1776), Princeton (1777), Short Hills (1777), Brandywine (1777), Monmouth (1778), and at the final siege of Yorktown (1781).
After Yorktown, Cromwell left the army. Commander-in-Chief George Washington personally signed Cromwell's discharge papers and also awarding him with Badge of Merit not to be confused with the Badge of Military Merit.
Some years after retirement, Cromwell applied for a veteran's pension. Although he was unable to read or write, local lawyers, judges, and politicians came to his aid, and he was granted a pension of $96 a year. He purchased a 100-acre farm outside Burlington, fathered 15 children, then spent his later years at his home at 114 East Union Street in Burlington.
Death
Cromwell died in January 1853. He left behind several children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, but there was no one to raise a marker over the grave of the private. He lived to be 100 years old, outliving 14 of his children and 1 of his grandchildren, and is buried in the cemetery of the Broad Street Methodist Church. His descendants live in the city to this day. On May 4, 2022, the Daughters of the American Revolution unveiled a plaque on his home honoring his service.
Legacy
It is possible that Cromwell is depicted in the famous Washington Crossing the Delaware portrait, although this is unlikely.
References
^ "African American Patriots of the Revolutionary War". fold3.com. 2013. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
^ "Black soldier who crossed Delaware with Washington will be honored in New Jersey". www.courierpostonline.com.
^ Kaufmann, Sue (June 16, 2012). "Oliver Cromwell in Burlington – fighting the patriot cause". Hidden New Jersey. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
^ Davis, Burke (1976). Black Heroes of the American Revolution.
^ Image of signed discharge available at: Rees, John (February 25, 2021). "Nineteenth-Century Remembrances of Black Revolutionary Veterans: New Jersey Soldier Oliver Cromwell". Journal of the American Revolution. Retrieved February 25, 2021.
^ a b "Oliver Cromwell". Burlington County Department of Cultural Affairs and Tourism. 2013. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
^ Comegno, Carol. "Black Revolutionary War soldier, who crossed the Delaware with Washington, honored in NJ". Courier-Post. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Revolutionary War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War"},{"link_name":"free black man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_negro"},{"link_name":"Columbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Mansfield Township, Burlington County, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansfield_Township,_Burlington_County,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Oliver Cromwell (May 24, 1752 – January 1853) was an African-American soldier, who served in the American Revolutionary War. 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Commander-in-Chief George Washington personally signed Cromwell's discharge papers and also awarding him with Badge of Merit not to be confused with the Badge of Military Merit.[4][5]Some years after retirement, Cromwell applied for a veteran's pension. Although he was unable to read or write, local lawyers, judges, and politicians came to his aid, and he was granted a pension of $96 a year. He purchased a 100-acre farm outside Burlington, fathered 15 children, then spent his later years at his home at 114 East Union Street in Burlington.[6]","title":"War service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BNJ-6"},{"link_name":"Daughters of the American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Cromwell died in January 1853. He left behind several children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, but there was no one to raise a marker over the grave of the private. He lived to be 100 years old, outliving 14 of his children and 1 of his grandchildren, and is buried in the cemetery of the Broad Street Methodist Church. His descendants live in the city to this day.[6] On May 4, 2022, the Daughters of the American Revolution unveiled a plaque on his home honoring his service.[7]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington Crossing the Delaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_(1851_painting)"}],"text":"It is possible that Cromwell is depicted in the famous Washington Crossing the Delaware portrait, although this is unlikely.","title":"Legacy"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"African American Patriots of the Revolutionary War\". fold3.com. 2013. Retrieved February 22, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fold3.com/page/747_african_american_patriots_of_the/","url_text":"\"African American Patriots of the Revolutionary War\""}]},{"reference":"\"Black soldier who crossed Delaware with Washington will be honored in New Jersey\". www.courierpostonline.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.courierpostonline.com/in-depth/life/2022/02/09/oliver-cromwell-nj-revolutionary-war-soldier-honored-black-history-month/6646926001/","url_text":"\"Black soldier who crossed Delaware with Washington will be honored in New Jersey\""}]},{"reference":"Kaufmann, Sue (June 16, 2012). \"Oliver Cromwell in Burlington – fighting the patriot cause\". Hidden New Jersey. Retrieved February 22, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hiddennj.com/2012/06/oliver-cromwell-in-burlington-fighting.html","url_text":"\"Oliver Cromwell in Burlington – fighting the patriot cause\""}]},{"reference":"Davis, Burke (1976). Black Heroes of the American Revolution.","urls":[{"url":"http://library.jaelocker.com/cgi-bin/koha/opac-MARCdetail.pl?biblionumber=3420","url_text":"Black Heroes of the American Revolution"}]},{"reference":"Rees, John (February 25, 2021). \"Nineteenth-Century Remembrances of Black Revolutionary Veterans: New Jersey Soldier Oliver Cromwell\". Journal of the American Revolution. Retrieved February 25, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://allthingsliberty.com/2021/02/nineteenth-century-remembrances-of-black-revolutionary-veterans-new-jersey-soldier-oliver-cromwell/","url_text":"\"Nineteenth-Century Remembrances of Black Revolutionary Veterans: New Jersey Soldier Oliver Cromwell\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oliver Cromwell\". Burlington County Department of Cultural Affairs and Tourism. 2013. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved February 22, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130129032716/http://www.co.burlington.nj.us/pages/pages.aspx?cid=504","url_text":"\"Oliver Cromwell\""},{"url":"http://www.co.burlington.nj.us/pages/pages.aspx?cid=504","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Comegno, Carol. \"Black Revolutionary War soldier, who crossed the Delaware with Washington, honored in NJ\". Courier-Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.courierpostonline.com/story/news/2022/05/04/oliver-cromwell-african-americans-revolutionary-war-nj/7414565001/","url_text":"\"Black Revolutionary War soldier, who crossed the Delaware with Washington, honored in NJ\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.fold3.com/page/747_african_american_patriots_of_the/","external_links_name":"\"African American Patriots of the Revolutionary War\""},{"Link":"https://www.courierpostonline.com/in-depth/life/2022/02/09/oliver-cromwell-nj-revolutionary-war-soldier-honored-black-history-month/6646926001/","external_links_name":"\"Black soldier who crossed Delaware with Washington will be honored in New Jersey\""},{"Link":"http://www.hiddennj.com/2012/06/oliver-cromwell-in-burlington-fighting.html","external_links_name":"\"Oliver Cromwell in Burlington – fighting the patriot cause\""},{"Link":"http://library.jaelocker.com/cgi-bin/koha/opac-MARCdetail.pl?biblionumber=3420","external_links_name":"Black Heroes of the American Revolution"},{"Link":"https://allthingsliberty.com/2021/02/nineteenth-century-remembrances-of-black-revolutionary-veterans-new-jersey-soldier-oliver-cromwell/","external_links_name":"\"Nineteenth-Century Remembrances of Black Revolutionary Veterans: New Jersey Soldier Oliver Cromwell\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130129032716/http://www.co.burlington.nj.us/pages/pages.aspx?cid=504","external_links_name":"\"Oliver Cromwell\""},{"Link":"http://www.co.burlington.nj.us/pages/pages.aspx?cid=504","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.courierpostonline.com/story/news/2022/05/04/oliver-cromwell-african-americans-revolutionary-war-nj/7414565001/","external_links_name":"\"Black Revolutionary War soldier, who crossed the Delaware with Washington, honored in NJ\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asselkhan_Turlybekova | Asselkhan Turlybekova | ["1 Career","2 International goals","3 References","4 External links"] | Kazakhstani footballer
The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guideline for sports and athletics. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.Find sources: "Asselkhan Turlybekova" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Asselkhan TurlybekovaPersonal informationDate of birth
(1998-12-18) 18 December 1998 (age 25)Height
1.61 m (5 ft 3 in)Position(s)
MidfielderTeam informationCurrent team
OkzhetpesNumber
25Senior career*Years
Team
Apps
(Gls)
Okzhetpes
International career‡
Kazakhstan
*Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 19:40, 30 August 2019 (UTC)‡ National team caps and goals, correct as of 19:40, 30 August 2019 (UTC)
Asselkhan Turlybekova (Russian: Асельхан Турлыбекова; born 18 December 1998) is a Kazakhstani footballer who plays as a midfielder for Women's Championship club FC Okzhetpes and the Kazakhstan women's national team.
Career
Turlybekova has been capped for the Kazakhstan national team, appearing for the team during the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup qualifying cycle.
International goals
No.
Date
Venue
Opponent
Score
Result
Competition
1.
15 June 2021
Vazgen Sargsyan Republican Stadium, Yerevan, Armenia
Armenia
3–0
3–0
Friendly
2.
28 June 2022
Pärnu Rannastaadion, Pärnu, Estonia
Estonia
1–0
2–4
2023 FIFA Women's World Cup qualification
References
^ "Asselkhan Turlybekova". kff.kz. Retrieved 22 September 2021.
^ "Women World Cup Qualifiers Europe 2017/2018 » Teams (Kazakhstan)". WorldFootball.net. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
External links
Asselkhan Turlybekova – UEFA competition record (archive)
Asselkhan Turlybekova at WorldFootball.net
Asselkhan Turlybekova at Soccerway
This biographical article related to women's association football in Kazakhstan is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"footballer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"midfielder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midfielder"},{"link_name":"Women's Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstani_women%27s_football_championship"},{"link_name":"FC Okzhetpes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC_Okzhetpes_(women)"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstan women's national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan_women%27s_national_football_team"}],"text":"Asselkhan Turlybekova (Russian: Асельхан Турлыбекова; born 18 December 1998) is a Kazakhstani footballer who plays as a midfielder for Women's Championship club FC Okzhetpes and the Kazakhstan women's national team.","title":"Asselkhan Turlybekova"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kazakhstan national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan_women%27s_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"2019 FIFA Women's World Cup qualifying cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_FIFA_Women%27s_World_Cup_qualification_(UEFA)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Turlybekova has been capped for the Kazakhstan national team, appearing for the team during the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup qualifying cycle.[2]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"International goals"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Asselkhan Turlybekova\". kff.kz. Retrieved 22 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://kff.kz/en/leagues/w-national/players/55","url_text":"\"Asselkhan Turlybekova\""}]},{"reference":"\"Women World Cup Qualifiers Europe 2017/2018 » Teams (Kazakhstan)\". WorldFootball.net. Retrieved 29 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldfootball.net/team_performance/kasachstan-frauen-team/frauen-wm-quali-europa-2017-2018/","url_text":"\"Women World Cup Qualifiers Europe 2017/2018 » Teams (Kazakhstan)\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22","external_links_name":"\"Asselkhan Turlybekova\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Asselkhan+Turlybekova%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://kff.kz/en/leagues/w-national/players/55","external_links_name":"\"Asselkhan Turlybekova\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldfootball.net/team_performance/kasachstan-frauen-team/frauen-wm-quali-europa-2017-2018/","external_links_name":"\"Women World Cup Qualifiers Europe 2017/2018 » Teams (Kazakhstan)\""},{"Link":"https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/clubs/players/250078969/","external_links_name":"Asselkhan Turlybekova"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/2020/https://www.uefa.com/teamsandplayers/players/player=250078969/profile/index.html","external_links_name":"archive"},{"Link":"https://www.worldfootball.net/player_summary/asselkhan-turlybekova/#wac_660x40_top","external_links_name":"Asselkhan Turlybekova"},{"Link":"https://int.soccerway.com/players/asselkhan-turlybekova/385115/","external_links_name":"Asselkhan Turlybekova"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asselkhan_Turlybekova&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourhout | Torhout | ["1 People associated with Torhout","2 Festivities","3 Sports","4 Sights","5 References","6 External links"] | Coordinates: 51°03′N 03°06′E / 51.050°N 3.100°E / 51.050; 3.100City and municipality in Flemish Community, BelgiumTorhoutCity and municipalityTown Hall
FlagCoat of armsLocation of Torhout
TorhoutLocation in Belgium
Location of Torhout in West Flanders
Coordinates: 51°03′N 03°06′E / 51.050°N 3.100°E / 51.050; 3.100Country BelgiumCommunityFlemish CommunityRegionFlemish RegionProvinceWest FlandersArrondissementBrugesGovernment • MayorKristof Audenaert (CD&V) • Governing party/iesCD&V, VooruitArea • Total45.32 km2 (17.50 sq mi)Population (2018-01-01) • Total20,530 • Density450/km2 (1,200/sq mi)Postal codes8820NIS code31033Area codes050Websitewww.torhout.be
Torhout (Dutch pronunciation: ; French: Thourout; West Flemish: Toeroet) is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of West Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Torhout proper, the villages of Wijnendale and Sint-Henricus, and the hamlet of De Driekoningen. On 29 February 2024 Torhout had a total population of 24,891. The total area is 45.23 km2 which gives a population density of 445 inhabitants per km2.
People associated with Torhout
Rimbert, saint
Josse van Huerter, first settler, and captain-major of the island of Faial in the Portuguese Azores.
Karel Van Wijnendaele (Founder of Tour of Flanders (Tour of Flanders))
Benny Vansteelant (Multiple World Champion Duathlon) and Joerie Vansteelant
Luk Descheemaeker, winner at the 2nd Holocaust cartoon contest in Tehran, 2016.
Hilde Crevits, Vice Minister-President of the Flemish Government and Flemish minister of Economy, Innovation, Work, Social economy and Agriculture; and former mayor of Torhout (2016-2018)
Brahim Attaeb, R&B singer and presenter
Festivities
Torhout-Werchter was until 1999 one of the largest annual pop festivals in Europe. Efforts were made to have a world music festival in Torhout after Torhout Werchter became Rock Werchter, held in Werchter only.
Sports
The main club of the city is Torhout 1992 KM.
Sights
Aertrycke castle
Church: Sint Pietersbandenkerk
Watertower in Berg op Zoom
References
^ "Wettelijke Bevolking per gemeente op 1 januari 2018". Statbel. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
External links
Media related to Torhout at Wikimedia Commons
Official website - Information available in Dutch and limited information available in French, English and German
Places adjacent to Torhout
Ichtegem
Zedelgem
Oostkamp
Kortemark
Torhout
Lichtervelde
Hooglede
vteMunicipalities in the Province of West Flanders, Flanders, BelgiumBruges
Beernem
Blankenberge
Bruges/Brugge
Damme
Jabbeke
Knokke-Heist
Oostkamp
Torhout
Zedelgem
Zuienkerke
Diksmuide
Diksmuide
Houthulst
Koekelare
Kortemark
Lo-Reninge
Kortrijk
Anzegem
Avelgem
Deerlijk
Harelbeke
Kortrijk
Kuurne
Lendelede
Menen
Spiere-Helkijn
Waregem
Wevelgem
Zwevegem
Ostend
Bredene
De Haan
Gistel
Ichtegem
Middelkerke
Oostende/Ostend
Oudenburg
Roeselare
Hooglede
Ingelmunster
Izegem
Ledegem
Lichtervelde
Moorslede
Roeselare
Staden
Tielt
Ardooie
Dentergem
Meulebeke
Oostrozebeke
Pittem
Ruiselede
Tielt
Wielsbeke
Wingene
Veurne
Alveringem
De Panne
Koksijde
Nieuwpoort
Veurne
Ypres
Heuvelland
Ieper/Ypres
Langemark-Poelkapelle
Mesen
Poperinge
Vleteren
Wervik
Zonnebeke
Bold indicates cities
Italic indicates Municipalities with language facilities
Authority control databases International
FAST
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Geographic
MusicBrainz area
This West Flanders location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ˈtɔrɦʌu̯t]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"West Flemish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Flemish_language"},{"link_name":"city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_status_in_Belgium"},{"link_name":"municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"Belgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"West Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Flanders"},{"link_name":"Wijnendale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wijnendale"},{"link_name":"Sint-Henricus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sint-Henricus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"De Driekoningen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Driekoningen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"population density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density"}],"text":"City and municipality in Flemish Community, BelgiumTorhout (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈtɔrɦʌu̯t]; French: Thourout; West Flemish: Toeroet) is a city and municipality located in the Belgian province of West Flanders. 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The total area is 45.23 km2 which gives a population density of 445 inhabitants per km2.","title":"Torhout"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rimbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimbert"},{"link_name":"Josse van Huerter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josse_van_Huerter"},{"link_name":"Faial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faial_Island"},{"link_name":"Azores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores"},{"link_name":"Karel Van Wijnendaele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_Van_Wijnendaele"},{"link_name":"Tour of Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"Benny Vansteelant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Vansteelant"},{"link_name":"Duathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duathlon"},{"link_name":"Joerie Vansteelant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joerie_Vansteelant&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Holocaust cartoon contest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Holocaust_Cartoon_Competition#Winners_2"},{"link_name":"Hilde Crevits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilde_Crevits"},{"link_name":"Brahim Attaeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahim_Attaeb"},{"link_name":"R&B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%26B"}],"text":"Rimbert, saint\nJosse van Huerter, first settler, and captain-major of the island of Faial in the Portuguese Azores.\nKarel Van Wijnendaele (Founder of Tour of Flanders (Tour of Flanders))\nBenny Vansteelant (Multiple World Champion Duathlon) and Joerie Vansteelant\nLuk Descheemaeker, winner at the 2nd Holocaust cartoon contest in Tehran, 2016.\nHilde Crevits, Vice Minister-President of the Flemish Government and Flemish minister of Economy, Innovation, Work, Social economy and Agriculture; and former mayor of Torhout (2016-2018)\nBrahim Attaeb, R&B singer and presenter","title":"People associated with Torhout"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Torhout-Werchter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Werchter"},{"link_name":"world music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_music"}],"text":"Torhout-Werchter was until 1999 one of the largest annual pop festivals in Europe. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Suburbs_District_Cricket_Club | Western Suburbs District Cricket Club | ["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"] | This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Western Suburbs District Cricket Club" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Cricket team
Western SuburbsPersonnelCaptain Joshua ClarkeCoach Chad PorterTeam informationColours Founded1895Home groundPratten ParkCapacity5,000
Western Suburbs District Cricket Club is a cricket club based in the Western Suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. They are also known as the Western Suburbs and play in the Sydney Grade Cricket competition. They were founded in 1895 as Burwood. The Western Suburbs District Cricket Club (also known as The Magpies) have produced International Cricketers such as Michael Clarke, Mitchell Starc and Bob Simpson.
See also
Cricket portal
References
External links
Official website
vteSydney Grade CricketClubs
Bankstown
Blacktown
Campbelltown-Camden
Eastern Suburbs
Fairfield-Liverpool
Gordon
Hawkesbury
Manly Warringah
Mosman
UTS North Sydney
Northern District
Parramatta
Penrith
Randwick Petersham
St George
Sutherland
Sydney
Sydney University
University of NSW
Western Suburbs
Former Clubs
Paddington
East Sydney
Glebe
Newtown
Petersham
Marrickville
Grounds
Bankstown Oval
Chatswood Oval
Coogee Oval
Don Dawson Oval
Drummoyne Oval
Glenn McGrath Oval
Howell Oval
Hurstville Oval
Joe McAleer Oval
Manly Oval
Mark Taylor Oval
North Sydney Oval
Old Kings Oval
Pratten Park
Raby Sports Complex
Waverley Oval
Other
Sydney Shires Cricket
Authority control databases
VIAF | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Western Suburbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Suburbs,_Sydney"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Sydney Grade Cricket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Grade_Cricket"},{"link_name":"Michael Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Clarke_(cricketer)"},{"link_name":"Mitchell Starc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Starc"},{"link_name":"Bob Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Simpson_(cricketer)"}],"text":"Cricket teamWestern Suburbs District Cricket Club is a cricket club based in the Western Suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. They are also known as the Western Suburbs and play in the Sydney Grade Cricket competition. They were founded in 1895 as Burwood. The Western Suburbs District Cricket Club (also known as The Magpies) have produced International Cricketers such as Michael Clarke, Mitchell Starc and Bob Simpson.","title":"Western Suburbs District Cricket Club"}] | [] | [{"title":"Cricket portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Cricket"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22","external_links_name":"\"Western Suburbs District Cricket Club\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Western+Suburbs+District+Cricket+Club%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.westscricket.com.au/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/136556474","external_links_name":"VIAF"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clivill%C3%A9s_%26_Cole | Clivillés and Cole | ["1 Career","1.1 Beginnings","1.2 Production and songwriting work","1.3 \"A Deeper Love\"","1.4 Other projects","2 Discography","2.1 Compilations","2.2 Singles","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"] | American music production duo
Robert Clivillés (born July 30, 1964) and David Cole (1962–1995), known collectively as Clivillés and Cole, were American record producers, songwriters, and remixers active from the late 1980s who achieved success in the 1990s.
Career
Beginnings
David Cole and Robert Clivillés both performed in club Better Days (Clivillés as DJ and Cole as keyboardist) in the late 1980s. They become firm friends. In the late 1980s, Clivillés and Cole were active in the groups 2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman, and a Dominican and The 28th Street Crew. At the time they were the driving force of the short-lived Brat Pack. The duo were also responsible for the formation of pop group Seduction, for whom they wrote and produced a string of Top-10 hits. They contributed to the career of former The Weather Girls vocalist Martha Wash, who at the same time was one of the lead vocalists for the dance act Black Box. In 1990, Clivillés and Cole released a single featuring later C+C Music Factory rapper Freedom Williams, called "Get Dumb! (Free Your Body)", as The Crew. The duo's biggest success, however, was the group C+C Music Factory, which became a worldwide sensation in 1991.
Production and songwriting work
Mariah Carey worked extensively with Clivillés + Cole, hiring the duo to produce songs for her albums and remix her singles. Clivillés + Cole produced and co-wrote the album versions and remixes of her hit singles "Emotions" and "Make It Happen". Additionally, they produced the album tracks "You're So Cold" and "To Be Around You" (all from the album Emotions). They also produced the remixes of her hit "Anytime You Need a Friend", the originals "Now That I Know" and "I've Been Thinking About You" (from the album Music Box) and the original and remixes to "Joy to the World" (from the album Merry Christmas). The single "One Sweet Day" was written in memory of David Cole after his death in 1995.
Among the hits remixed by the duo Clivillés & Cole were Natalie Cole's cover of "Pink Cadillac", Taylor Dayne's "Can't Get Enough of Your Love", Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam's "Let the Beat Hit 'Em", The Cover Girls' "My Heart Skips a Beat" and "All That Glitters Isn't Gold", Pajama Party's "Hide and Seek", Sandée's "Notice Me", and Michael Jackson's "Black or White". They left their mark on the progressive synth-pop scene with a complete reworking of The Communards' "There's More to Love Than Boy Meets Girl." The group Seduction was one of Clivilles + Cole's most successful side projects.
In the summer of 1991, Clivillés + Cole produced several tracks for a New Kids on the Block remix album titled No More Games: The Remix Album.
In 1992, Clivillés + Cole produced Whitney Houston's top 10 single "I'm Every Woman", originally by Chaka Khan.
In 1994, the duo produced a radio version of Jim Carrey's performance of "Cuban Pete" from the movie The Mask.
"A Deeper Love"
In 1991, as Clivillés + Cole, the duo released an LP-single A-side featuring a cover of U2's "Pride (In the Name of Love)", but it was the B-side, "A Deeper Love", featuring vocals by Deborah Cooper (a longtime Clivillés and Cole vocalist) and Paul Pesco, that proved to be a hit, peaking at No. 15 in the UK. Deborah Cooper performed "Deeper Love" various times, including on Saturday Night Live with Clivillés and Cole's C+C Music Factory. Both sides charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the spring of 1992: "A Deeper Love" peaked at #44, while "Pride (In the Name of Love)" reached #54. The video for these songs was actually one long featurette, beginning with "Deeper Love" and then continuing into "Pride (In the Name of Love)" halfway through the video. The video was labelled "Pride (A Deeper Love)". Some networks preferred to show the videos separately while others played the whole length. In 1992 as Clivillés + Cole, an album was released called Greatest Remixes Vol. 1, featuring remixes by the duo of their own songs along with other artists' songs.
In 1994, Aretha Franklin covered "A Deeper Love" from the film Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit. Franklin actually hired Clivillés + Cole to produce the album version as well as the remixes. Thus, the song was a hit for the duo twice in two different incarnations within a 3-year time span.
Other projects
In 1992, as Clivillés + Cole, an album was released, titled Greatest Remixes Vol. 1, featuring remixes by the duo of their own songs along with other artists' songs.
Also in 1992, the duo assembled the R&B/dance group The S.O.U.L. S.Y.S.T.E.M.; only one song by this group was ever released, titled "It's Gonna Be a Lovely Day", which featured on the #1 soundtrack album "The Bodyguard". An uptempo vocal club remix of the song was released as a promo single by Arista Records.
Clivillés and Cole released a new single under the moniker The 28th Street Crew called O in 1994. That same year, the duo produced a song for El General titled "Las Chicas", which borrowed heavily from the song "Boriqua Anthem" off the C+C Music Factory album Anything Goes!.
Since David Cole's death, Robert Clivillés has continued to produce on his own, including work for the group MVP, an album release in 1996 on Columbia under the moniker Robi Rob's Club World, and various other releases under different names.
Discography
Compilations
Year
Album details
Peak chart positions
AUS
1992
Greatest Remixes Vol. 1
Compilation
Release date: 1992
Label: Columbia
43
Singles
Year
Single
Peak positions
Album
UK
IRE
NED
BEL(FLA)
GER
SWI
AUS
NZ
US
1992
"Pride (In the Name of Love)"
15
5
54
—
—
27
12
15
54
Greatest Remixes Vol. 1
"A Deeper Love"
15
—
6
22
35
—
85
—
44
Notes
^ In addition, C+C vocalist Deborah Cooper is a frequent background vocalist on Mariah Carey's singles, albums, and tours internationally with her as a live background vocalist.
^ Among the tracks, the hit title remixed by Clivillés + Cole, titled "Games," hit #14 on the UK Singles Chart. The album peaked at #10 on the US Billboard 200 album chart, selling more than 500,000 albums and was certified Gold by the RIAA.
^ The single included a C+C club mix.
^ The single was later released as the lead single of her Greatest Hits (1980–1994) collection.
References
^ Flick, Larry (February 4, 1995). "C+C Music Factory's David Cole Dies at 32". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. p. 9.
^ "C+C Music Factory's David Cole Succumbs". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. February 13, 1995. p. 18.
^ Kurutz, Steve. "Biography". AllMusic. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
^ a b Tantum, Bruce (November 2010). "Nightclubbing: New York City's Better Days". Red Bull Music Academy. Archived from the original on April 25, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2020.
^ "C+C Music Factory/Full Biography". MTV. Archived from the original on June 25, 2011.
^ "Greatest Remixes, Vol. 1 - C+C Music Factory, Clivillés & Cole - Credits". AllMusic. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
^ Murray, Gordon (May 1, 2015). "Flosstradamus Flies to No. 1 on Top Dance/Electronic Albums". Billboard.
^ Bush, John. "Robi-Rob's Clubworld - Biography". AllMusic.
^ Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988–2010 (PDF ed.). Mt Martha, Victoria, Australia: Moonlight Publishing. p. 60.
^ "CLIVILLES & COLE - full Official Chart History". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
^ Australian (ARIA Chart) singles peaks:
"Pride (In the Name of Love)": "australian-charts.com > Clivillés & Cole - Pride (In the Name of Love) (song)". Hung Medien. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
"A Deeper Love": Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988-2010. Mt. Martha, VIC, Australia: Moonlight Publishing.
^ "C+C Music Factory Top Songs / Chart Singles Discography". Music VF. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
External links
Clivillés and Cole discography at Discogs
vteC+C Music Factory
Robert Clivillés
David Cole
Vocalists
Freedom Williams
Martha Wash
Zelma Davis
Deborah Cooper
Trilogy
Paul Pesco
Q-Unique
Albums
Gonna Make You Sweat
Anything Goes!
C+C Music Factory
Singles
"Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)"
"Here We Go (Let's Rock & Roll)"
"Things That Make You Go Hmmm..."
"Just a Touch of Love"
"Keep It Comin' (Dance Till You Can't Dance No More)"
"Do You Wanna Get Funky"
Associated acts
2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman and a Dominican
The 28th Street Crew
The Brat Pack
The S.O.U.L. S.Y.S.T.E.M.
MVP
Related articles
Clivillés and Cole
"Rock This Party (Everybody Dance Now)"
Power Factory Featuring C+C Music Factory
Make My Video
Greatest Remixes Vol. 1 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Clivillés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Clivill%C3%A9s"},{"link_name":"David Cole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cole_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"record producers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_producer"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Robert Clivillés (born July 30, 1964) and David Cole (1962–1995),[1][2] known collectively as Clivillés and Cole, were American record producers, songwriters, and remixers active from the late 1980s who achieved success in the 1990s.[3]","title":"Clivillés and Cole"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-redbullmusicacademyCBDac-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-redbullmusicacademyCBDac-4"},{"link_name":"2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman, and a Dominican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Puerto_Ricans,_a_Blackman,_and_a_Dominican"},{"link_name":"The 28th Street Crew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_28th_Street_Crew"},{"link_name":"Brat Pack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brat_Pack_(band)"},{"link_name":"Seduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seduction_(group)"},{"link_name":"The Weather Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weather_Girls"},{"link_name":"Martha Wash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Wash"},{"link_name":"Black Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Box_(band)"},{"link_name":"Freedom Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_Williams"},{"link_name":"C+C Music Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2BC_Music_Factory"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-startingC&C-5"}],"sub_title":"Beginnings","text":"David Cole and Robert Clivillés both performed in club Better Days (Clivillés as DJ and Cole as keyboardist) in the late 1980s.[4] They become firm friends.[4] In the late 1980s, Clivillés and Cole were active in the groups 2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman, and a Dominican and The 28th Street Crew. At the time they were the driving force of the short-lived Brat Pack. The duo were also responsible for the formation of pop group Seduction, for whom they wrote and produced a string of Top-10 hits. They contributed to the career of former The Weather Girls vocalist Martha Wash, who at the same time was one of the lead vocalists for the dance act Black Box. In 1990, Clivillés and Cole released a single featuring later C+C Music Factory rapper Freedom Williams, called \"Get Dumb! (Free Your Body)\", as The Crew. The duo's biggest success, however, was the group C+C Music Factory, which became a worldwide sensation in 1991.[5]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mariah Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariah_Carey"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Emotions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_(Mariah_Carey_song)"},{"link_name":"Make It Happen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_It_Happen_(Mariah_Carey_song)"},{"link_name":"Emotions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_(Mariah_Carey_album)"},{"link_name":"Anytime You Need a Friend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anytime_You_Need_a_Friend"},{"link_name":"Music Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Box_(Mariah_Carey_album)"},{"link_name":"Joy to the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy_to_the_World"},{"link_name":"Merry Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merry_Christmas_(Mariah_Carey_album)"},{"link_name":"One Sweet Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Sweet_Day"},{"link_name":"Natalie Cole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Cole"},{"link_name":"Pink Cadillac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Cadillac_(song)"},{"link_name":"Taylor Dayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Dayne"},{"link_name":"Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Lisa_and_Cult_Jam"},{"link_name":"The Cover Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cover_Girls"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Black or White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_or_White"},{"link_name":"The Communards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Communards"},{"link_name":"Seduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seduction_(band)"},{"link_name":"New Kids on the Block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kids_on_the_Block"},{"link_name":"No More Games: The Remix Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_More_Games/The_Remix_Album"},{"link_name":"[nb 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Whitney Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston"},{"link_name":"I'm Every Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Every_Woman"},{"link_name":"Chaka Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaka_Khan"},{"link_name":"Jim Carrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Carrey"},{"link_name":"The Mask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mask_(1994_film)"},{"link_name":"[nb 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Production and songwriting work","text":"Mariah Carey worked extensively with Clivillés + Cole,[nb 1] hiring the duo to produce songs for her albums and remix her singles. Clivillés + Cole produced and co-wrote the album versions and remixes of her hit singles \"Emotions\" and \"Make It Happen\". Additionally, they produced the album tracks \"You're So Cold\" and \"To Be Around You\" (all from the album Emotions). They also produced the remixes of her hit \"Anytime You Need a Friend\", the originals \"Now That I Know\" and \"I've Been Thinking About You\" (from the album Music Box) and the original and remixes to \"Joy to the World\" (from the album Merry Christmas). The single \"One Sweet Day\" was written in memory of David Cole after his death in 1995.Among the hits remixed by the duo Clivillés & Cole were Natalie Cole's cover of \"Pink Cadillac\", Taylor Dayne's \"Can't Get Enough of Your Love\", Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam's \"Let the Beat Hit 'Em\", The Cover Girls' \"My Heart Skips a Beat\" and \"All That Glitters Isn't Gold\", Pajama Party's \"Hide and Seek\", Sandée's \"Notice Me\", and Michael Jackson's \"Black or White\". They left their mark on the progressive synth-pop scene with a complete reworking of The Communards' \"There's More to Love Than Boy Meets Girl.\" The group Seduction was one of Clivilles + Cole's most successful side projects.In the summer of 1991, Clivillés + Cole produced several tracks for a New Kids on the Block remix album titled No More Games: The Remix Album.[nb 2]In 1992, Clivillés + Cole produced Whitney Houston's top 10 single \"I'm Every Woman\", originally by Chaka Khan.In 1994, the duo produced a radio version of Jim Carrey's performance of \"Cuban Pete\" from the movie The Mask.[nb 3]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-side_and_B-side"},{"link_name":"U2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U2"},{"link_name":"Pride (In the Name of Love)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_(In_the_Name_of_Love)"},{"link_name":"A Deeper Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Deeper_Love"},{"link_name":"Deborah Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Paul Pesco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Pesco"},{"link_name":"Saturday Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"C+C Music Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2BC_Music_Factory"},{"link_name":"Billboard Hot 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Hot_100"},{"link_name":"Greatest Remixes Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Remixes_Vol._1"},{"link_name":"Aretha Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretha_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Act_2:_Back_in_the_Habit"},{"link_name":"[nb 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"\"A Deeper Love\"","text":"In 1991, as Clivillés + Cole, the duo released an LP-single A-side featuring a cover of U2's \"Pride (In the Name of Love)\", but it was the B-side, \"A Deeper Love\", featuring vocals by Deborah Cooper (a longtime Clivillés and Cole vocalist) and Paul Pesco, that proved to be a hit, peaking at No. 15 in the UK. Deborah Cooper performed \"Deeper Love\" various times, including on Saturday Night Live with Clivillés and Cole's C+C Music Factory. Both sides charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the spring of 1992: \"A Deeper Love\" peaked at #44, while \"Pride (In the Name of Love)\" reached #54. The video for these songs was actually one long featurette, beginning with \"Deeper Love\" and then continuing into \"Pride (In the Name of Love)\" halfway through the video. The video was labelled \"Pride (A Deeper Love)\". Some networks preferred to show the videos separately while others played the whole length. In 1992 as Clivillés + Cole, an album was released called Greatest Remixes Vol. 1, featuring remixes by the duo of their own songs along with other artists' songs.In 1994, Aretha Franklin covered \"A Deeper Love\" from the film Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit.[nb 4] Franklin actually hired Clivillés + Cole to produce the album version as well as the remixes. Thus, the song was a hit for the duo twice in two different incarnations within a 3-year time span.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greatest Remixes Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Remixes_Vol._1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"The S.O.U.L. S.Y.S.T.E.M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_S.O.U.L._S.Y.S.T.E.M."},{"link_name":"Arista Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arista_Records"},{"link_name":"The 28th Street Crew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_28th_Street_Crew"},{"link_name":"El General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_General"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes!_(C%2BC_Music_Factory_album)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"MVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVP_(group)"},{"link_name":"Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Other projects","text":"In 1992, as Clivillés + Cole, an album was released, titled Greatest Remixes Vol. 1, featuring remixes by the duo of their own songs along with other artists' songs.[6]Also in 1992, the duo assembled the R&B/dance group The S.O.U.L. S.Y.S.T.E.M.; only one song by this group was ever released, titled \"It's Gonna Be a Lovely Day\", which featured on the #1 soundtrack album \"The Bodyguard\". An uptempo vocal club remix of the song was released as a promo single by Arista Records.Clivillés and Cole released a new single under the moniker The 28th Street Crew called O in 1994. That same year, the duo produced a song for El General titled \"Las Chicas\", which borrowed heavily from the song \"Boriqua Anthem\" off the C+C Music Factory album Anything Goes!.[citation needed]Since David Cole's death, Robert Clivillés has continued to produce on his own, including work for the group MVP, an album release in 1996 on Columbia under the moniker Robi Rob's Club World, and various other releases under different names.[7][8]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Compilations","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Singles","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Deborah Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Cooper"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_(New_Kids_on_the_Block_song)"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"RIAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIAA"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Greatest Hits (1980–1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_(1980%E2%80%931994)"}],"text":"^ In addition, C+C vocalist Deborah Cooper is a frequent background vocalist on Mariah Carey's singles, albums, and tours internationally with her as a live background vocalist.\n\n^ Among the tracks, the hit title remixed by Clivillés + Cole, titled \"Games,\" hit #14 on the UK Singles Chart. The album peaked at #10 on the US Billboard 200 album chart, selling more than 500,000 albums and was certified Gold by the RIAA.\n\n^ The single included a C+C club mix.\n\n^ The single was later released as the lead single of her Greatest Hits (1980–1994) collection.","title":"Notes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Flick, Larry (February 4, 1995). \"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Dies at 32\". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. p. 9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sAsEAAAAMBAJ&dq=Clivill%E9s+and+Cole&pg=PA9","url_text":"\"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Dies at 32\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Billboard"}]},{"reference":"\"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Succumbs\". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. February 13, 1995. p. 18.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jDkDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Clivill%E9s+and+Cole&pg=PA18","url_text":"\"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Succumbs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(magazine)","url_text":"Jet"}]},{"reference":"Kurutz, Steve. \"Biography\". AllMusic. Retrieved March 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/clivill%C3%A9s-cole-mn0000149568/biography","url_text":"\"Biography\""}]},{"reference":"Tantum, Bruce (November 2010). \"Nightclubbing: New York City's Better Days\". Red Bull Music Academy. Archived from the original on April 25, 2015. Retrieved January 20, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150425132803/http://www.redbullmusicacademy.com/magazine/nightclubbing-better-days","url_text":"\"Nightclubbing: New York City's Better Days\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Bull_Music_Academy","url_text":"Red Bull Music Academy"},{"url":"http://www.redbullmusicacademy.com/magazine/nightclubbing-better-days","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"C+C Music Factory/Full Biography\". MTV. Archived from the original on June 25, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110625125918/http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/c_c_music_factory/artist.jhtml","url_text":"\"C+C Music Factory/Full Biography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV","url_text":"MTV"},{"url":"http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/c_c_music_factory/artist.jhtml#biographyEnd","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Greatest Remixes, Vol. 1 - C+C Music Factory, Clivillés & Cole - Credits\". AllMusic. Retrieved March 23, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/greatest-remixes-vol-1-mw0000677137/credits","url_text":"\"Greatest Remixes, Vol. 1 - C+C Music Factory, Clivillés & Cole - Credits\""}]},{"reference":"Murray, Gordon (May 1, 2015). \"Flosstradamus Flies to No. 1 on Top Dance/Electronic Albums\". Billboard.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6553510/flosstradamus-no-1-top-dance-electronic-albums","url_text":"\"Flosstradamus Flies to No. 1 on Top Dance/Electronic Albums\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Billboard"}]},{"reference":"Bush, John. \"Robi-Rob's Clubworld - Biography\". AllMusic.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/robi-robs-clubworld-mn0000834513","url_text":"\"Robi-Rob's Clubworld - Biography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"}]},{"reference":"Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988–2010 (PDF ed.). Mt Martha, Victoria, Australia: Moonlight Publishing. p. 60.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"CLIVILLES & COLE - full Official Chart History\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/27329/clivilles-and-cole/","url_text":"\"CLIVILLES & COLE - full Official Chart History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"australian-charts.com > Clivillés & Cole - Pride (In the Name of Love) (song)\". Hung Medien. Retrieved October 14, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://australian-charts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Clivill%E9s+%26+Cole&titel=Pride+%28In+The+Name+Of+Love%29&cat=s","url_text":"\"australian-charts.com > Clivillés & Cole - Pride (In the Name of Love) (song)\""}]},{"reference":"Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988-2010. Mt. Martha, VIC, Australia: Moonlight Publishing.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"C+C Music Factory Top Songs / Chart Singles Discography\". Music VF. Retrieved March 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.musicvf.com/songs.php?page=artist&artist=C%2BC+Music+Factory&tab=songchartstab","url_text":"\"C+C Music Factory Top Songs / Chart Singles Discography\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sAsEAAAAMBAJ&dq=Clivill%E9s+and+Cole&pg=PA9","external_links_name":"\"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Dies at 32\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jDkDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Clivill%E9s+and+Cole&pg=PA18","external_links_name":"\"C+C Music Factory's David Cole Succumbs\""},{"Link":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/clivill%C3%A9s-cole-mn0000149568/biography","external_links_name":"\"Biography\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150425132803/http://www.redbullmusicacademy.com/magazine/nightclubbing-better-days","external_links_name":"\"Nightclubbing: New York City's Better Days\""},{"Link":"http://www.redbullmusicacademy.com/magazine/nightclubbing-better-days","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110625125918/http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/c_c_music_factory/artist.jhtml","external_links_name":"\"C+C Music Factory/Full Biography\""},{"Link":"http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/c_c_music_factory/artist.jhtml#biographyEnd","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/greatest-remixes-vol-1-mw0000677137/credits","external_links_name":"\"Greatest Remixes, Vol. 1 - C+C Music Factory, Clivillés & Cole - Credits\""},{"Link":"http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6553510/flosstradamus-no-1-top-dance-electronic-albums","external_links_name":"\"Flosstradamus Flies to No. 1 on Top Dance/Electronic Albums\""},{"Link":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/robi-robs-clubworld-mn0000834513","external_links_name":"\"Robi-Rob's Clubworld - Biography\""},{"Link":"https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/27329/clivilles-and-cole/","external_links_name":"\"CLIVILLES & COLE - full Official Chart History\""},{"Link":"http://australian-charts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Clivill%E9s+%26+Cole&titel=Pride+%28In+The+Name+Of+Love%29&cat=s","external_links_name":"\"australian-charts.com > Clivillés & Cole - Pride (In the Name of Love) (song)\""},{"Link":"https://www.musicvf.com/songs.php?page=artist&artist=C%2BC+Music+Factory&tab=songchartstab","external_links_name":"\"C+C Music Factory Top Songs / Chart Singles Discography\""},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/artist/31332-Clivill%C3%A9s-Cole","external_links_name":"Clivillés and Cole"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Subroc | DJ Subroc | ["1 Biography","2 Career","3 Death","4 Legacy","5 References","6 External links"] | American hip-hop musician (1973–1993)
DJ SubrocBornDingilizwe Dumile(1973-08-03)August 3, 1973East Meadow, New York, U.S.DiedApril 23, 1993(1993-04-23) (aged 19)NY 878, Nassau County, New York, U.S.Occupation(s)DJ, rapper, producerYears active1988–1993RelativesMF DOOM (brother)Musical careerGenresHip hopLabelsElektra (1990–1993)
Musical artist
Dingilizwe Dumile (August 3, 1973 – April 23, 1993), known professionally as DJ Subroc, was an American hip-hop artist and a member of KMD and Constipated Monkeys.
Biography
Dumile was born on August 3, 1973, at Nassau County Medical Center in Long Island, and was raised primarily in Long Beach, NY.
Career
Dumile's first group, KMD was formed by him and his brother Zev Love X, who would later be known as MF DOOM, along with Jade 1, who would later be known as Rodan, but who was eventually replaced by Onyx the Birthstone Kid. Their first release was the LP Mr. Hood, released by Elektra Records, in 1991.
KMD also did further production for artists like 3rd Bass, MF Grimm, Megalon (aka Tommy Gunn), and Kurious Jorge.
Death
DJ Subroc died on April 23, 1993, after being hit by a motorist while attempting to cross the Nassau Expressway. His death brought production of the KMD album Black Bastards to a halt and marked the end of KMD, although Black Bastards was later released.
Legacy
MF DOOM dedicated his 2004 track "Kon Karne" to his late brother with the lyric, "I dedicate this mix to Subroc, the hip-hop Hendrix". DOOM also speaks on his time with his brother on the Operation Doomsday track "?" A Tribe Called Quest shouted out DJ Subroc in their song "8 Million Stories", and the Kurious track "Leave Ya' with This" from the album A Constipated Monkey is also dedicated to him.
References
^ Morris, David (February 2, 2006). "To Hell and Back: An Interview with Cage". Pop Matters. Retrieved January 5, 2021.
^ Brian Coleman. "Check The Technique: KMD's "Black Bastards" and the Birth of MF Doom".
^ "Subroc". Discogs. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
^ Danley, Ryan (4 January 2021). "DEATH OF A SUPER VILLAIN: MF DOOM'S ORIGIN STORY AND LEGACY". Hard Noise. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
External links
Review of Black Bastards
DJ Subroc's Myspace
Subroc's Discogs Page
Authority control databases: Artists
MusicBrainz
This biographical article related to hip hop music in the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hip-hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_music"},{"link_name":"KMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMD"}],"text":"Dingilizwe Dumile (August 3, 1973 – April 23, 1993), known professionally as DJ Subroc, was an American hip-hop artist and a member of KMD and Constipated Monkeys.","title":"DJ Subroc"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Long Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island"},{"link_name":"Long Beach, NY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medium.com-2"}],"text":"Dumile was born on August 3, 1973, at Nassau County Medical Center in Long Island, and was raised primarily in Long Beach, NY.[2]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"KMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KMD"},{"link_name":"MF DOOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MF_DOOM"},{"link_name":"Onyx the Birthstone Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onyx_the_Birthstone_Kid"},{"link_name":"Mr. Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Hood"},{"link_name":"Elektra Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra_Records"},{"link_name":"3rd Bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Bass"},{"link_name":"MF Grimm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MF_Grimm"},{"link_name":"Kurious Jorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurious_Jorge"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"Dumile's first group, KMD was formed by him and his brother Zev Love X, who would later be known as MF DOOM, along with Jade 1, who would later be known as Rodan, but who was eventually replaced by Onyx the Birthstone Kid. Their first release was the LP Mr. Hood, released by Elektra Records, in 1991.KMD also did further production for artists like 3rd Bass, MF Grimm, Megalon (aka Tommy Gunn), and Kurious Jorge.[3]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nassau Expressway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Route_878"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Black Bastards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Bastards"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"DJ Subroc died on April 23, 1993, after being hit by a motorist while attempting to cross the Nassau Expressway.[4] His death brought production of the KMD album Black Bastards to a halt and marked the end of KMD, although Black Bastards was later released.[citation needed]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hendrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix"},{"link_name":"A Tribe Called Quest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tribe_Called_Quest"},{"link_name":"Kurious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurious"},{"link_name":"A Constipated Monkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Constipated_Monkey"}],"text":"MF DOOM dedicated his 2004 track \"Kon Karne\" to his late brother with the lyric, \"I dedicate this mix to Subroc, the hip-hop Hendrix\". DOOM also speaks on his time with his brother on the Operation Doomsday track \"?\" A Tribe Called Quest shouted out DJ Subroc in their song \"8 Million Stories\", and the Kurious track \"Leave Ya' with This\" from the album A Constipated Monkey is also dedicated to him.","title":"Legacy"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Morris, David (February 2, 2006). \"To Hell and Back: An Interview with Cage\". Pop Matters. Retrieved January 5, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.popmatters.com/cage-060203-2496107863.html","url_text":"\"To Hell and Back: An Interview with Cage\""}]},{"reference":"Brian Coleman. \"Check The Technique: KMD's \"Black Bastards\" and the Birth of MF Doom\".","urls":[{"url":"https://medium.com/cuepoint/check-the-technique-kmds-black-bastards-and-the-birth-of-mf-doom-1849f4c0a6f4","url_text":"\"Check The Technique: KMD's \"Black Bastards\" and the Birth of MF Doom\""}]},{"reference":"\"Subroc\". Discogs. Retrieved 2 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.discogs.com/artist/150588-Subroc","url_text":"\"Subroc\""}]},{"reference":"Danley, Ryan (4 January 2021). \"DEATH OF A SUPER VILLAIN: MF DOOM'S ORIGIN STORY AND LEGACY\". Hard Noise. Retrieved 30 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://noise.thehardtimes.net/2021/01/04/death-of-a-super-villain-mf-dooms-origin-story-and-legacy/","url_text":"\"DEATH OF A SUPER VILLAIN: MF DOOM'S ORIGIN STORY AND LEGACY\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.popmatters.com/cage-060203-2496107863.html","external_links_name":"\"To Hell and Back: An Interview with Cage\""},{"Link":"https://medium.com/cuepoint/check-the-technique-kmds-black-bastards-and-the-birth-of-mf-doom-1849f4c0a6f4","external_links_name":"\"Check The Technique: KMD's \"Black Bastards\" and the Birth of MF Doom\""},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/artist/150588-Subroc","external_links_name":"\"Subroc\""},{"Link":"https://noise.thehardtimes.net/2021/01/04/death-of-a-super-villain-mf-dooms-origin-story-and-legacy/","external_links_name":"\"DEATH OF A SUPER VILLAIN: MF DOOM'S ORIGIN STORY AND LEGACY\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061017183226/http://www.othermusic.com/july19update.html","external_links_name":"Review of Black Bastards"},{"Link":"https://www.myspace.com/djsubrockmd","external_links_name":"DJ Subroc's Myspace"},{"Link":"http://www.discogs.com/artist/Subroc","external_links_name":"Subroc's Discogs Page"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/artist/e0da41fc-0678-49c5-8579-13ac8603d284","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DJ_Subroc&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidston_Gold_Mine | Kidston Gold Mine | ["1 See also","2 References"] | Coordinates: 18°52′36″S 144°8′17″E / 18.87667°S 144.13806°E / -18.87667; 144.13806
Kidston Gold MineLocationKidston Gold MineLocationKidston, EinasleighStateQueenslandCountryAustraliaCoordinates18°52′36″S 144°8′17″E / 18.87667°S 144.13806°E / -18.87667; 144.13806ProductionProductsGoldHistoryDiscovered1907Opened1907 (1907)Active1907–1947, 1985–2001Closed2001 (2001)
Kidston Gold Mine is a former open cut gold mine in northern Queensland, Australia.
Gold was first discovered around 1907 at what was initially known as Oak's Rush and renamed to Kidston a few months later as a gold rush started. The gold was initially alluvial gold found in gullies leading to the Copperfield River. The township was established soon after. As the easily-won alluvial gold began to run out, miners started to pursue gold in the quartz reefs. The first stamper battery commenced operation in May 1909 and a second commenced in April 1910.
Kidston Dam was built on Butcher's Creel in 1915 by the government to provide a reliable water supply to the town and mining operations. The government battery commenced operations in May 1922 using more modern equipment than the private batteries. It operated intermittently up until 1942, rarely at full capacity. It ceased operation for the remainder of World War II, and recommenced operation in 1947, but its last operation was in 1950 following the cessation of mining in the area. Open cut mining had commenced from 1921. Kidston Gold Mines applied to restart modern open cut mining in 1979. Mining continued from 1985 until it was again closed in 2001.
What remains of the town is heritage-listed as the Kidston State Battery & Township.
The Kidston Solar Project has been built on the flat surface on top of the tailings heap.
See also
Queensland portal
List of mines in Australia
Mining in Australia
References
^ a b c "Kidston State Battery & Township". Queensland Heritage Register. Department of Environment and Science. 20 January 2016. 600506. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
^ "Kidston Gold Mine". Drive North West. 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
^ "History of Kidston Township". Genex Power. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
^ "50MW Kidston Solar Project". Genex Power. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
This article about a building or structure in Queensland is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gold mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_mine"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Kidston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidston,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Copperfield River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copperfield_River&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"alluvial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial"},{"link_name":"stamper battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_mill"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heritage-1"},{"link_name":"Kidston Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidston_Dam"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heritage-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"heritage-listed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage-listed"},{"link_name":"Kidston State Battery & Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidston_State_Battery_%26_Township"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heritage-1"},{"link_name":"Kidston Solar Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidston_Solar_Project"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Kidston Gold Mine is a former open cut gold mine in northern Queensland, Australia.Gold was first discovered around 1907 at what was initially known as Oak's Rush and renamed to Kidston a few months later as a gold rush started. The gold was initially alluvial gold found in gullies leading to the Copperfield River. The township was established soon after. As the easily-won alluvial gold began to run out, miners started to pursue gold in the quartz reefs. The first stamper battery commenced operation in May 1909 and a second commenced in April 1910.[1]Kidston Dam was built on Butcher's Creel in 1915 by the government to provide a reliable water supply to the town and mining operations. The government battery commenced operations in May 1922 using more modern equipment than the private batteries. It operated intermittently up until 1942, rarely at full capacity. It ceased operation for the remainder of World War II, and recommenced operation in 1947, but its last operation was in 1950 following the cessation of mining in the area.[1] Open cut mining had commenced from 1921. Kidston Gold Mines applied to restart modern open cut mining in 1979.[2] Mining continued from 1985 until it was again closed in 2001.[3]What remains of the town is heritage-listed as the Kidston State Battery & Township.[1]The Kidston Solar Project has been built on the flat surface on top of the tailings heap.[4]","title":"Kidston Gold Mine"}] | [] | [{"title":"Queensland portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Queensland"},{"title":"List of mines in Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Australia"},{"title":"Mining in Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_Australia"}] | [{"reference":"\"Kidston State Battery & Township\". Queensland Heritage Register. Department of Environment and Science. 20 January 2016. 600506. 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Retrieved 18 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.genexpower.com.au/50mw-kidston-solar-project.html","url_text":"\"50MW Kidston Solar Project\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genex_Power","url_text":"Genex Power"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kidston_Gold_Mine¶ms=18_52_36_S_144_8_17_E_type:landmark_region:AU-QLD","external_links_name":"18°52′36″S 144°8′17″E / 18.87667°S 144.13806°E / -18.87667; 144.13806"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kidston_Gold_Mine¶ms=18_52_36_S_144_8_17_E_type:landmark_region:AU-QLD","external_links_name":"18°52′36″S 144°8′17″E / 18.87667°S 144.13806°E / -18.87667; 144.13806"},{"Link":"https://apps.des.qld.gov.au/heritage-register/detail/?id=600506#","external_links_name":"\"Kidston State Battery & Township\""},{"Link":"https://drivenorthwestqld.com.au/things-to-do/kidston-gold-mine/","external_links_name":"\"Kidston Gold Mine\""},{"Link":"https://www.genexpower.com.au/about-kidston.html","external_links_name":"\"History of Kidston Township\""},{"Link":"https://www.genexpower.com.au/50mw-kidston-solar-project.html","external_links_name":"\"50MW Kidston Solar Project\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kidston_Gold_Mine&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_Minnesota | 1902 United States House of Representatives elections | ["1 Election summaries","2 Special elections","3 Election dates","4 Alabama","5 Arizona Territory","6 Arkansas","7 California","8 Colorado","9 Connecticut","10 Delaware","11 Florida","12 Georgia","13 Hawaii Territory","14 Idaho","15 Illinois","16 Indiana","17 Iowa","18 Kansas","19 Kentucky","20 Louisiana","21 Maine","22 Maryland","23 Massachusetts","24 Michigan","25 Minnesota","26 Mississippi","27 Missouri","28 Montana","29 Nebraska","30 Nevada","31 New Hampshire","32 New Jersey","33 New Mexico Territory","34 New York","35 North Carolina","36 North Dakota","37 Ohio","38 Oklahoma Territory","39 Oregon","40 Pennsylvania","41 Rhode Island","42 South Carolina","43 South Dakota","44 Tennessee","45 Texas","46 Utah","47 Vermont","48 Virginia","49 Washington","50 West Virginia","51 Wisconsin","52 Wyoming","53 Non-voting delegates","54 See also","55 Notes","56 References","57 Bibliography","58 External links"] | House elections for the 58th U.S. Congress
1902 United States House of Representatives elections
← 1900
June 2, September 12, September 18, and November 4, 1902
1904 →
All 386 seats in the United States House of Representatives194 seats needed for a majority
Majority party
Minority party
Leader
Joseph Cannon
John Sharp Williams
Party
Republican
Democratic
Leader since
March 4, 1903
March 4, 1903
Leader's seat
Illinois 18th
Mississippi 8th
Last election
200 seats
151 seats
Seats before
198 seats
152 seats
Seats won
206
176
Seat change
6
25
Popular vote
5,470,468
4,942,208
Percentage
49.81%
45.00%
Swing
0.84%
0.55%
Third party
Fourth party
Party
Independent
Populist
Last election
0 seats
5 seats
Seats before
0 seats
5 seats
Seats won
4
0
Seat change
4
5
Popular vote
61,629
151,192
Percentage
0.56%
1.38%
Swing
0.23%
0.97%
Speaker before election
David Henderson
Republican
Elected Speaker
Joseph Cannon
Republican
The 1902 United States House of Representatives elections were held for the most part on November 4, 1902, with Oregon, Maine, and Vermont holding theirs early in either June or September. They occurred in the middle of President Theodore Roosevelt's first term, about a year after the assassination of President William McKinley in September 1901. Elections were held for 386 seats of the United States House of Representatives, representing 45 states, to serve in the 58th United States Congress.
Due to the increased size of the House and the reapportionment that resulted from the 1900 U.S. census, the Republican Party and the Democratic Party both gained seats simultaneously, which has not occurred in any elections since. The Democrats increased their share of the House, but not by enough to regain control.
With a stable economy and no cornerstone issue, Democratic gains can mostly be linked to the effects of redistricting. Many of the new seats were in areas with high numbers of immigrants (mostly Eastern and Southern European industrial workers, and Northern European farmers), with new immigrants tending to vote Democrat. The Populist Party disappeared from the House, with its supporters almost unanimously switching to the Democratic Party.
This election marked the third and most recent time in American history where the incumbent president's party gained House seats in a midterm election while still losing seats in the Senate, the first two being in 1814 and 1822.
Election summaries
29 new seats were added in reapportionment following the 1900 census. No states lost seats, 16 had no change in apportionment, 14 gained 1 seat, 3 gained 2 seats, and 3 gained 3 seats. Two of the states that gained representation elected the new seat at-large.
↓
176
3
207
Democratic
IR
Republican
State
Type
Total seats
Democratic
Republican
Seats
Change
Seats
Change
Seats
Change
Alabama
Districts
9
9
0
Arkansas
Districts
7
1
7
1
0
California
Districts
8
1
3
3
5
2
Colorado
District+at-large
3
1
0
3
2
Connecticut
District+at-large
5
1
0
5
1
Delaware
At-large
1
1
1
0
1
Florida
Districts
3
1
3
1
0
Georgia
Districts
11
11
0
Idaho
At-large
1
0
1
1
Illinois
Districts
25
3
8
3
17
6
Indiana
Districts
13
4
9
Iowa
Districts
11
1
1
10
1
Kansas
District+at-large
8
0
1
8
1
Kentucky
Districts
11
10
1
1
1
Louisiana
Districts
7
1
7
1
0
Maine
Districts
4
0
4
Maryland
Districts
6
2
2
4
2
Massachusetts
Districts
14
1
4
1
10
Michigan
Districts
12
1
1
11
1
Minnesota
Districts
9
2
1
1
8
1
Mississippi
Districts
8
1
8
1
0
Missouri
Districts
16
1
15
3
1
2
Montana
At-large
1
0
1
1
Nebraska
Districts
6
1
1
5
3
Nevada
At-large
1
1
0
New Hampshire
Districts
2
0
2
New Jersey
Districts
10
2
3
1
7
1
New York
Districts
37
3
17
4
20
1
North Carolina
Districts
10
1
10
3
0
2
North Dakota
At-large
2
1
0
2
1
Ohio
Districts
21
4
17
Oregon
Districts
2
0
2
Pennsylvania
District
32
2
3
1
29
3
Rhode Island
Districts
2
1
1
1
1
South Carolina
Districts
7
7
0
South Dakota
At-large
2
0
2
Tennessee
Districts
10
8
2
Texas
Districts
16
3
16
3
0
Utah
At-large
1
0
1
Vermont
Districts
2
0
2
Virginia
Districts
10
9
1
1
1
Washington
At-large
3
1
0
3
1
West Virginia
Districts
5
1
0
5
1
Wisconsin
Districts
11
1
1
1
10
Wyoming
At-large
1
0
1
Total
386
29
17645.6%
25
21054.4%
9
Popular vote
Democratic
45.00%
Independent
0.56%
Populist
1.38%
Republican
49.81%
Others
3.25%
House seats
Democratic
45.60%
Independent
1.04%
Republican
53.37%
The previous election had 5 Populists, but the party completely disappeared from the U.S. House in the 1902 elections.
House seats by party holding plurality in state 80+% to 100% Democratic 80+% to 100% Republican 60+% to 80% Democratic 60+% to 80% Republican Up to 60% Democratic Up to 60% Republican
Net gain in party representation 6+ Democratic gain 6+ Republican gain 3-5 Democratic gain 3-5 Republican gain 1-2 Democratic gain 1-2 Republican gain no net change
Special elections
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
New York 7
Nicholas Muller
Democratic
1876 (retired)1882 (retired)1898
Incumbent resigned November 2, 1901.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Montague Lessler (Republican) 49.87%
▌Perry Belmont (Democratic) 47.31%
▌John G. Bennett (Independent) 1.25%
▌Fritz Linsinger (Ind. Democratic) 0.88%
▌Isaac Ward (Social Democratic) 0.69%
Pennsylvania 17
Rufus King Polk
Democratic
1898
Incumbent died March 5, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Democratic hold.
▌Y Alexander Billmeyer (Democratic) 54.69%
▌William K. Lord (Republican) 45.31%
Kentucky 3
John S. Rhea
Democratic
1896
Election successfully contested.New member seated March 25, 1902.Republican gain.
▌Y J. McKenzie Moss (Republican) 49.84%
▌John S. Rhea (Democratic) 49.79%
▌H. S. Glenn (Populist) 0.38%
Massachusetts 6
William Henry Moody
Republican
1894
Incumbent resigned May 1, 1902 to become U.S. Secretary of the Navy.New member elected November 4, 1902.Republican hold.
▌Y Augustus P. Gardner (Republican) 52.14%
▌Samuel Roads Jr. (Democratic) 38.02%
▌George E. Littlefield (Socialist) 8.73%
▌Willard O. Wylie (Prohibition) 1.10%
▌Others 0.01%
Missouri 12
James Joseph Butler
Democratic
1901
Seat declared vacant.Incumbent re-elected November 4, 1902 to finish his term.Special election later successfully contested by George C. R. Wagoner.
▌Y James Joseph Butler (Democratic)
▌George C. R. Wagoner (Republican)
New York 10
Amos J. Cummings
Democratic
1886
Incumbent died May 2, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Democratic hold.Winner not elected to full term; see below.
▌Y Edward Swann (Democratic) 65.62%
▌Henry Birsell (Republican) 34.38%
Virginia 6
Nicholas Muller
Democratic
1894
Incumbent died May 4, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Democratic hold.Winner also elected to full term; see below.
▌Y Carter Glass (Democratic) 95.5%
▌James S. Cowden (Ind. Republican) 4.5%
New Jersey 4
Joshua S. Salmon
Democratic
1898
Incumbent died May 6, 1902.New member elected June 18, 1902.Democratic hold.
▌Y De Witt C. Flanagan (Democratic)
Unopposed
Texas 3
Reese C. De Graffenreid
Democratic
1896
Incumbent died August 29, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Democratic hold.
▌Y Gordon J. Russell (Democratic)
Unopposed
New York 26
George W. Ray
Republican
1882
Incumbent resigned September 11, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Republican hold.
▌Y John W. Dwight (Republican) 62.33%
▌Charles D. Pratt (Democratic) 37.67%
Texas 4
John L. Sheppard
Democratic
1898
Incumbent died October 11, 1902.New member elected November 15, 1902.Democratic hold.
▌Y Morris Sheppard (Democratic) 86.29%
▌Frank Lee (Republican) 13.71%
Connecticut 3
Charles Addison Russell
Republican
1886
Incumbent died October 23, 1902.New member elected November 4, 1902.Republican hold.
▌Y Frank B. Brandegee (Republican) 94.36%
Scattering 5.64%
Election dates
All the states held their elections November 4, 1902, except for 3 states, with 8 seats among them:
June 2: Oregon
September 2: Vermont
September 8: Maine
Alabama
See also: List of United States representatives from Alabama
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Arizona Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below.
Arkansas
See also: List of United States representatives from Arkansas
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
California
Main article: 1902 United States House of Representatives elections in California
See also: List of United States representatives from California
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
California 1
Samuel D. WoodsRedistricted from the 2nd district
Republican
1900
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y James Gillett (Republican) 50.5%
▌Thomas S. Ford (Democratic) 46.7%
▌M. E. Shore (Socialist) 1.9%
▌W. O. Clark (Prohibition) 0.9%
California 2
Frank CoombsRedistricted from the 1st district
Republican
1900
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Democratic gain.
▌Y Theodore A. Bell (Democratic) 49.2%
▌Frank Coombs (Republican) 48.3%
▌G. H. Rogers (Socialist) 1.7%
▌W. P. Fassett (Prohibition) 0.8%
California 3
Victor H. Metcalf
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Victor H. Metcalf (Republican) 66.2%
▌Calvin B. White (Democratic) 27.7%
▌M. W. Wilkins (Socialist) 5%
▌T. H. Montgomery (Prohibition) 1.1%
California 4
Julius Kahn
Republican
1898
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Democratic gain.
▌Y Edward J. Livernash (Democratic) 49.2%
▌Julius Kahn (Republican) 48.7%
▌William Costley (Socialist) 1.9%
▌Joseph Rowell (Prohibition) 0.2%
California 5
Eugene F. Loud
Republican
1890
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Democratic gain.
▌Y William J. Wynn (Democratic) 56.5%
▌Eugene F. Loud (Republican) 41.2%
▌Joseph Lawrence (Socialist) 1.5%
▌Frank W. Caton (Prohibition) 0.7%
California 6
James C. NeedhamRedistricted from the 7th district
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y James C. Needham (Republican) 53.5%
▌Gaston N. Ashe (Democratic) 42.5%
▌J. L. Cobb (Socialist) 2.5%
▌L. C. Jolley (Prohibition) 1.4%
California 7
James McLachlanRedistricted from the 6th district
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y James McLachlan (Republican) 64.8%
▌Carl A. Johnson (Democratic) 27%
▌George H. Hewes (Socialist) 4.2%
▌Frederick F. Wheeler (Prohibition) 4%
California 8
None (New district)
New district.Republican gain.
▌Y Milton J. Daniels (Republican) 51.9%
▌William E. Smythe (Democratic) 40.8%
▌Noble A. Richardson (Socialist) 5.4%
▌Ellsworth Leonardson (Prohibition) 2%
Colorado
See also: List of United States representatives from Colorado
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Connecticut
See also: List of United States representatives from Connecticut
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Delaware
See also: List of United States representatives from Delaware
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Florida
Main article: 1902 United States House of Representatives elections in Florida
See also: List of United States representatives from Florida
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Florida 1
Stephen M. Sparkman
Democratic
1894
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Stephen M. Sparkman (Democratic)
Unopposed
Florida 2
Robert Wyche Davis
Democratic
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Robert Wyche Davis (Democratic)
Unopposed
Florida 3
None (New district)
New district.Democratic gain.
▌Y William B. Lamar (Democratic)
Unopposed
Georgia
See also: List of United States representatives from Georgia and 1902 United States Senate election in Georgia
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Hawaii Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below.
Idaho
See also: List of United States representatives from Idaho and 1902 United States Senate election in Idaho
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Idaho at-large
Thomas L. Glenn
Populist
1900
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Burton L. French (Republican) 54.30%
▌J. H. Hutchinson (Democratic) 41.72%
▌John A. Davis (Socialist) 2.91%
▌Herbert A. Lee (Prohibition) 1.07%
Illinois
See also: List of United States representatives from Illinois
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Indiana
See also: List of United States representatives from Indiana
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Iowa
See also: List of United States representatives from Iowa, 1902 United States Senate election in Iowa, and 1902 United States Senate special election in Iowa
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Kansas
See also: List of United States representatives from Kansas
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Kentucky
See also: List of United States representatives from Kentucky and 1902 United States Senate election in Kentucky
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Louisiana
See also: List of United States representatives from Louisiana
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Maine
See also: List of United States representatives from Maine
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Maryland
Main article: 1902 United States House of Representatives elections in Maryland
See also: List of United States representatives from Maryland and 1902 United States Senate election in Maryland
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Maryland 1
William H. Jackson
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y William H. Jackson (Republican) 50.6%
▌James E. Ellegood (Democratic) 45.5%
▌R. J. McAllen (Prohibition) 3.9%
Maryland 2
Albert Blakeney
Republican
1900
Incumbent retired.New member elected. Democratic gain.
▌Y J. Frederick C. Talbott (Democratic) 50.8%
▌William Tyler Page (Republican) 46.2%
▌Henry N. Hanna (Prohibition) 3.0%
Maryland 3
Frank C. Wachter
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Frank C. Wachter (Republican) 48.8%
▌Lee S. Meyer (Democratic) 48.2%
▌B. F. Lewis (Prohibition) 1.4%
▌F. Mareck (Socialist) 1.6%
Maryland 4
Charles R. Schirm
Republican
1900
Incumbent lost re-election. New member elected. Democratic gain.
▌Y James W. Denny (Democratic) 50.0%
▌Charles R. Schirm (Republican) 48.1%
▌Andrew J. Church (Prohibition) 1.9%
Maryland 5
Sydney Emanuel Mudd I
Republican
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Sydney Emanuel Mudd I (Republican) 56.9%
▌Benjamin H. Camalier (Democratic) 41.3%
▌Samuel R. Neave (Prohibition) 1.8%
Maryland 6
George A. Pearre
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected
▌Y George A. Pearre (Republican) 53.0%
▌C. F. Kenneweg (Democratic) 42.8%
▌J. A. Hopkins (Prohibition) 3.1%
Massachusetts
See also: List of United States representatives from Massachusetts
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Massachusetts 1
George P. Lawrence
Republican
1897 (special)
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y George P. Lawrence (Republican) 54.0%
▌Henry M. Fern (Democratic) 38.1%
▌Theodore Koehler (Socialist) 4.8%
▌John Bascom (Prohibition) 3.1%
Massachusetts 2
Frederick H. Gillett
Republican
1892
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Frederick H. Gillett (Republican) 58.0%
▌Arthur F. Nutting (Democratic) 28.9%
▌George H. Wrenn (Socialist) 11.5%
▌Lucius E. Parsons (Prohibition) 1.6%
Massachusetts 3
John R. Thayer
Democratic
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y John R. Thayer (Democratic) 49.1%
▌Rufus B. Dodge Jr. (Republican) 46.4%
▌Howard A. Gibbs (Socialist) 3.4%
▌George H. Bemis (Prohibition) 1.1%
Massachusetts 4
Charles Q. Tirrell
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Charles Q. Tirrell (Republican) 53.4%
▌Marcus A. Coolidge (Democratic) 36.0%
▌John F. Mullen (Socialist) 9.3%
▌Herbert S. Morley (Prohibition) 1.3%
Massachusetts 5
William S. Knox
Republican
1894
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Butler Ames (Republican) 48.4%
▌John T. Sparks (Democratic) 45.3%
▌James A. Wilkenson (Socialist) 4.2%
▌William S. Searle (Prohibition) 1.2%
▌Joseph Youngjohns (Socialist Labor) 0.9%
Massachusetts 6
Vacant
Incumbent resigned May 1, 1902 to become U.S. Secretary of the Navy.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Augustus Peabody Gardner (Republican) 51.4%
▌Samuel Roads Jr. (Democratic) 39.0%
▌George E. Littlefield (Socialist) 8.5%
▌Willard O. Wylie (Prohibition) 1.1%
Massachusetts 7
Ernest W. Roberts
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Ernest W. Roberts (Republican) 54.3%
▌Arthur Lyman (Democratic) 31.2%
▌William B. Turner (Socialist) 9.7%
▌Frank B. Jordan (Socialist Labor) 2.8%
▌George M. Butterick (Prohibition) 2.0%
Massachusetts 8
Samuel W. McCall
Republican
1892
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Samuel W. McCall (Republican) 57.6%
▌Grenville MacFarland (Democratic) 33.9%
▌Charles W. White (Socialist) 6.2%
▌Charles A. Johnson (Socialist Labor) 2.3%
Massachusetts 9
Joseph A. Conry
Democratic
1900
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Citizens Democratic gain.
▌Y John A. Keliher (Citizens Democratic) 38.1%
▌Joseph A. Conry (Democratic) 37.2%
▌Charles T. Witt (Republican) 18.8%
▌James J. McVey (Socialist) 5.8%
Massachusetts 10
Henry F. Naphen
Democratic
1898
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y William S. McNary (Democratic) 54.1%
▌William W. Towle (Republican) 35.1%
▌John W. Sherman (Socialist) 10.8%
Massachusetts 11
None (New district)
New district.Democratic gain.
▌Y John Andrew Sullivan (Democratic) 49.4%
▌Eugene Foss (Republican) 43.8%
▌George G. Cutting (Socialist) 6.8%
Massachusetts 12
Samuel L. Powers
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Samuel L. Powers (Republican) 52.6%
▌Frederic Jessup Stimson (Democratic) 36.6%
▌J. Frank Hayward (Socialist) 9.5%
▌Napoleon B. Johnson (Prohibition) 1.4%
Massachusetts 13
William S. Greene
Republican
1898 (special)
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y William S. Greene (Republican) 67.9%
▌Charles T. Luce (Democratic) 26.2%
▌Elijah Humphries (Prohibition) 5.9%
Massachusetts 14
William C. Lovering
Republican
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y William C. Lovering (Republican) 57.3%
▌Charles A. Gilday (Democratic) 21.7%
▌Isaac W. Skinner (Socialist) 17.1%
▌Charles B. Gaffney (Prohibition) 2.0%
▌Jeremiah Devine (Socialist Labor) 1.8%
Michigan
See also: List of United States representatives from Michigan
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Minnesota
See also: List of United States representatives from Minnesota
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Mississippi
See also: List of United States representatives from Mississippi
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Mississippi 1
Ezekiel S. Candler Jr.
Democratic
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Ezekiel S. Candler Jr. (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 2
Thomas Spight
Democratic
1898 (special)
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Thomas Spight (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 3
Pat Henry
Democratic
1900
Incumbent lost renomination.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y Benjamin G. Humphreys II (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 4
Andrew F. Fox
Democratic
1896
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y Wilson S. Hill (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 5
None (New district)
New district.Democratic gain.
▌Y Adam M. Byrd (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 6
None (New district)
New district.Democratic gain.
▌Y Eaton J. Bowers (Democratic) 100%
Mississippi 7
Charles E. Hooker
Democratic
1900
Incumbent retired.Democratic loss.
▌Y Frank A. McLain (Democratic) 100%
Frank A. McLainRedistricted from the 6th district.
Democratic
1898 (special)
Incumbent re-elected.
Mississippi 8
John S. WilliamsRedistricted from the 5th district.
Democratic
1892
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y John S. Williams (Democratic) 100%
Missouri
See also: List of United States representatives from Missouri
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Montana
See also: List of United States representatives from Montana
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Montana at-large
Caldwell Edwards
Populist
1900
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Joseph M. Dixon (Republican) 46.18%
▌John M. Evans (Democratic) 36.68%
▌Martin Dee (Labor) 11.26%
▌George B. Sproule (Socialist) 5.87%
Nebraska
See also: List of United States representatives from Nebraska
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Nebraska 1
Elmer Burkett
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Elmer Burkett (Republican) 56.86%
▌Howard H. Hanks (Democratic) 39.90%
▌Thomas B. Fraser (Prohibition) 1.99%
▌Christ Christensen (Socialist) 1.25%
Nebraska 2
David H. Mercer
Republican
1892
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Democratic gain.
▌Y Gilbert Hitchcock (Democratic) 50.87%
▌David H. Mercer (Republican) 43.94%
▌Bernard McCaffery (Socialist) 5.19%
Nebraska 3
John S. Robinson
Democratic
1898
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y John McCarthy (Republican) 50.04%
▌John S. Robinson (Democratic) 48.32%
▌Isaiah Lightner (Prohibition) 1.65%
Nebraska 4
William L. Stark
Populist
1896
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Edmund H. Hinshaw (Republican) 52.38%
▌William L. Stark (Populist) 45.61%
▌Benjamin F. Farley (Prohibition) 2.01%
Nebraska 5
Ashton C. Shallenberger
Democratic
1900
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y George W. Norris (Republican) 49.48%
▌Ashton C. Shallenberger (Democratic) 48.88%
▌John D. Stoddard (Prohibition) 1.64%
Nebraska 6
William Neville
Populist
1899 (special)
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Moses Kinkaid (Republican) 52.48%
▌Patrick H. Barry (Democratic) 43.99%
▌C. F. Swander (Prohibition) 2.07%
▌J. C. Wisely (Socialist) 1.46%
Nevada
See also: List of United States representatives from Nevada and 1902 United States Senate election in Nevada
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
New Hampshire
See also: List of United States representatives from New Hampshire
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
New Jersey
See also: List of United States representatives from New Jersey and 1902 United States Senate special election in New Jersey
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
New Mexico Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below.
New York
See also: List of United States representatives from New York
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
North Carolina
See also: List of United States representatives from North Carolina
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
North Dakota
See also: List of United States representatives from North Dakota
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
North Dakota at-large2 seats on a general ticket
Thomas F. Marshall
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Thomas F. Marshall (Republican) 34.29%
▌Y Burleigh F. Spalding (Republican) 34.16%
▌Lars A. Ueland (Democratic) 15.35%
▌Verner E. Lovell (Democratic) 14.96%
▌Royal F. King (Socialist) 1.24%
None (New seat)
New seat.Republican gain.
Ohio
See also: List of United States representatives from Ohio and 1902 United States Senate election in Ohio
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Oklahoma Territory
See Non-voting delegates, below.
Oregon
See also: List of United States representatives from Oregon
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Oregon 1
Thomas H. Tongue
Republican
1896
Incumbent re-elected, but died before next term began.
▌Y Thomas H. Tongue (Republican) 52.89%
▌J. K. Weatherford (Democratic) 36.43%
▌Benjamin Franklin Ramp (Socialist) 5.78%
▌Hiram Gould (Prohibition) 4.90%
Oregon 2
Malcolm A. Moody
Republican
1898
Incumbent lost renomination.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y John N. Williamson (Republican) 53.53%
▌W. F. Butcher (Democratic) 35.69%
▌Diedrich T. Gerdes (Socialist) 6.30%
▌F. R. Spaulding (Prohibition) 4.48%
Pennsylvania
See also: List of United States representatives from Pennsylvania
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Rhode Island
See also: List of United States representatives from Rhode Island
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
South Carolina
Main article: 1902 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina
See also: List of United States representatives from South Carolina
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
South Carolina 1
William Elliott
Democratic
18861896
Incumbent retired to run for U.S. senator.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y George Swinton Legaré (Democratic) 95.5%
▌Aaron P. Prioleau (Republican) 4.5%
South Carolina 2
W. Jasper Talbert
Democratic
1892
Incumbent retired to run for Governor of South Carolina.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y George W. Croft (Democratic) 94.9%
▌W. S. Dixon (Republican) 5.0%
Others 0.1%
South Carolina 3
Asbury Latimer
Democratic
1892
Incumbent retired to run for U.S. senator.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y Wyatt Aiken (Democratic) 98.9%
▌John Scott (Republican) 1.1%
South Carolina 4
Joseph T. Johnson
Democratic
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Joseph T. Johnson (Democratic) 98.7%
▌L. W. C. Blalock (Republican) 1.3%
South Carolina 5
David E. Finley
Democratic
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y David E. Finley (Democratic) 99.3%
▌C. P. T. White (Republican) 0.7%
South Carolina 6
Robert B. Scarborough
Democratic
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Robert B. Scarborough (Democratic)
Unopposed
South Carolina 7
Asbury F. Lever
Democratic
1901 (special)
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Asbury F. Lever (Democratic) 96.2%
▌Alexander D. Dantzler (Republican) 3.8%
South Dakota
See also: List of United States representatives from South Dakota
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
South Dakota at-large(2 seats elected on a general ticket)
Charles H. Burke
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Eben Martin (Republican) 32.62%
▌Y Charles H. Burke (Republican) 32.52%
▌John R. Wilson (Democratic) 14.21%
▌F. C. Robinson (Democratic) 14.01%
▌Freeman Knowles (Socialist) 1.84%
▌Walter Price (Socialist) 1.71%
▌J. W. Kelley (Prohibition) 1.56%
▌W. W. Smith (Prohibition) 1.52%
Eben Martin
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
Tennessee
See also: List of United States representatives from Tennessee
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Tennessee 1
Walter P. Brownlow
Republican
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Walter P. Brownlow (Republican) 61.19%
▌Cyrus H. Lyle (Democratic) 38.81%
Tennessee 2
Henry R. Gibson
Republican
1894
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Henry R. Gibson (Republican) 55.45%
▌Harvey H. Hannah (Democratic) 44.55%
Tennessee 3
John A. Moon
Democratic
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y John A. Moon (Democratic) 97.63%
▌Frank Janeway (Ind. Republican) 2.37%
Tennessee 4
Charles E. Snodgrass
Democratic
1898
Incumbent lost renomination.New member elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y Morgan C. Fitzpatrick (Democratic) 64.89%
▌G. H. West (Republican) 35.11%
Tennessee 5
James D. Richardson
Democratic
1884
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y James D. Richardson (Democratic) 76.82%
▌J. W. Parker (Republican) 23.19%
Tennessee 6
John W. Gaines
Democratic
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y John W. Gaines (Democratic) 82.31%
▌A. M. Tillman (Republican) 17.69%
Tennessee 7
Lemuel P. Padgett
Democratic
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Lemuel P. Padgett (Democratic) 75.30%
▌E. L. Gregory (Republican) 24.70%
Tennessee 8
Thetus W. Sims
Democratic
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Thetus W. Sims (Democratic) 52.77%
▌F. M. Davis (Republican) 47.23%
Tennessee 9
Rice A. Pierce
Democratic
1896
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Rice A. Pierce (Democratic) 82.56%
▌A. D. Kellar (Republican) 17.44%
Tennessee 10
Malcolm R. Patterson
Democratic
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Malcolm R. Patterson (Democratic) 83.18%
▌Thomas C. Phelan (Republican) 15.86%
▌L. B. Eaton (Republican) 0.96%
Texas
See also: List of United States representatives from Texas
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Utah
See also: List of United States representatives from Utah
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Vermont
See also: List of United States representatives from Vermont and 1902 United States Senate election in Vermont
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Virginia
See also: List of United States representatives from Virginia
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2021)
Washington
See also: List of United States representatives from Washington
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Washington at-large(3 seats elected on a general ticket)
Wesley L. Jones
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Francis W. Cushman (Republican) 19.96%
▌Y Wesley L. Jones (Republican) 19.87%
▌Y William E. Humphrey (Republican) 19.61%
▌George F. Cotterill (Democratic) 11.54%
▌Frank B. Cole (Democratic) 11.00%
▌Oscar Raymond Holcomb (Democratic) 10.80%
Others
▌David D. Burgess (Socialist) 1.56%
▌J. H. Scurlock (Socialist) 1.55%
▌George W. Scott (Socialist) 1.50%
▌O. L. Fowler (Prohibition) 0.60%
▌W. J. McKean (Prohibition) 0.60%
▌Ambrose H. Sherwood (Prohibition) 0.59%
▌William McCormick (Socialist Labor) 0.28%
▌Jense C. Martin (Socialist Labor) 0.27%
Francis W. Cushman
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
None (new seat)
New seat.Republican gain.
West Virginia
See also: List of United States representatives from West Virginia
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
West Virginia 1
Blackburn B. Dovener
Republican
1894
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Blackburn B. Dovener (Republican) 52.05%
▌Owen S. McKinney (Democratic) 44.12%
▌G. W. Kinney (Prohibition) 3.83%
West Virginia 2
Alston G. Dayton
Republican
1894
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Alston G. Dayton (Republican) 51.01%
▌John T. McGraw (Democratic) 47.45%
▌R. M. Stricker (Prohibition) 1.54%
West Virginia 3
Joseph H. Gaines
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Joseph H. Gaines (Republican) 52.96%
▌James H. Miller (Democratic) 45.65%
▌Squire Halstead (Prohibition) 1.39%
West Virginia 4
None (New district)
New district.Republican gain.
▌Y Harry C. Woodyard (Republican) 52.01%
▌W. N. Chancellor (Democratic) 46.06%
▌George R. Brown (Prohibition) 1.93%
West Virginia 5
James A. HughesRedistricted from the 4th district
Republican
1900
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y James A. Hughes (Republican) 53.29%
▌David E. Johnston (Democratic) 46.56%
▌J. L. McGilliard (Prohibition) 0.15%
Wisconsin
See also: List of United States representatives from Wisconsin
Wisconsin elected eleven members of congress on Election Day, November 4, 1902. This was Wisconsin's first election with eleven congressional seats, up from ten in the previous term.
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Wisconsin 1
Henry Allen Cooper
Republican
1892
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Henry Allen Cooper (Republican) 60.7%
▌Lewis C. Baker (Democratic) 36.0%
▌Thomas W. North (Prohibition) 3.3%
Wisconsin 2
Herman B. Dahle
Republican
1898
Incumbent lost renomination.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Henry Cullen Adams (Republican) 52.8%
▌John J. Wood (Democratic) 43.6%
▌Charles F. Cronk (Prohibition) 3.6%
Wisconsin 3
Joseph W. Babcock
Republican
1892
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Joseph W. Babcock (Republican) 60.8%
▌Jackson Silbaugh (Democratic) 35.0%
▌Edward Owens (Prohibition) 4.2%
Wisconsin 4
Theobald Otjen
Republican
1894
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Theobald Otjen (Republican) 44.1%
▌John F. Donovan (Democratic) 39.3%
▌Herman W. Bisborins (Social Dem.) 15.1%
▌Lyle B. Walker (Prohibition) 1.1%
▌Frank R. Wilke (Socialist Labor) 0.4%
Wisconsin 5
Samuel S. Barney
Republican
1894
Incumbent retired.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y William H. Stafford (Republican) 45.8%
▌Henry Smith (Democratic) 33.6%
▌Henry C. Berger (Social Dem.) 18.5%
▌Winfield D. Cox (Prohibition) 1.4%
▌Charles M. Minkley (Socialist Labor) 0.6%
Wisconsin 6
James H. Davidson
Republican
1896
Incumbent redistricted to 8th district.New member elected.Democratic gain.
▌Y Charles H. Weisse (Democratic) 52.2%
▌William Froehlich (Republican) 42.3%
▌John P. Wilson (Social Dem.) 4.0%
▌George C. Hill (Prohibition) 1.5%
Wisconsin 7
John J. Esch
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y John J. Esch (Republican) 64.5%
▌William Cernahan (Democratic) 32.3%
▌Frank R. Sebenthal (Prohibition) 3.2%
Wisconsin 8
Edward S. Minor
Republican
1894
Incumbent redistricted to 9th district.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y James H. Davidson (Republican) 57.8%
▌Thomas H. Patterson (Democratic) 37.4%
▌Joseph Matthews (Prohibition) 2.4%
▌Charles C. Fraim (Social Dem.) 2.4%
Wisconsin 9
Webster E. Brown
Republican
1900
Incumbent redistricted to 10th district.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Edward S. Minor (Republican) 57.1%
▌Edward Decker (Democratic) 41.1%
▌Thomas W. Lomas (Prohibition) 1.9%
Wisconsin 10
John J. Jenkins
Republican
1894
Incumbent redistricted to 11th district.New member elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Webster E. Brown (Republican) 55.6%
▌Burt Williams (Democratic) 42.5%
▌William D. Badger (Prohibition) 1.9%
Wisconsin 11
None (new seat)
New seat.Republican gain.
▌Y John J. Jenkins (Republican) 67.4%
▌Joseph A. Rene (Democratic) 28.8%
▌Moses Y. Cliff (Prohibition) 3.8%
Wyoming
Main article: 1902 United States House of Representatives election in Wyoming
See also: List of United States representatives from Wyoming
District
Incumbent
This race
Member
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Wyoming at-large
Frank W. Mondell
Republican
1898
Incumbent re-elected.
▌Y Frank W. Mondell (Republican) 64.00%
▌Charles P. Clemmons (Democratic) 36.00%
Non-voting delegates
See also: Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives
District
Incumbent
This race
Delegate
Party
First elected
Results
Candidates
Arizona Territory at-large
Marcus A. Smith
Democratic
1900
Incumbent retired.New delegate elected.Democratic hold.
▌Y John F. Wilson (Democratic) 49.27%
▌Joseph E. Morrison (Republican) 47.00%
▌(FNU) Neissl (Socialist) 2.60%
▌O. Gibson (Prohibition) 1.14%
Hawaii Territory at-large
Robert Wilcox
Home Rule
1900
Incumbent lost re-election.New member elected.Republican gain.
▌Y Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole (Republican) 58.52%
▌Robert Wilcox (Home Rule) 41.48%
New Mexico Territory at-large
Oklahoma Territory at-large
Dennis T. Flynn
Republican
18921894 (lost)1898
Incumbent retired.New delegate elected.Republican hold.
▌Y Bird S. McGuire (Republican) 50.22%
▌William M. Cross (Democratic) 49.78%
See also
1902 United States elections
1902–03 United States Senate elections
57th United States Congress
58th United States Congress
Notes
^ Regulars only, not including specials
^ Includes five vacancies.
^ Includes 6 vacancies.
^ a b c d Includes 3 Independent Republicans.
^ Includes 1 "Anti-Machine" candidate.
^ a b Additional seat elected at-large due to Colorado delaying redistricting.
^ a b c Election of 1900 saw the election of 1 Populist.
^ There was one member of the Silver Republican Party faction elected in 1900, John F. Shafroth. Shafroth attempted to get elected as a Democrat in 1902, but his election was contested and overturned.
^ a b c Elections held early.
^ Election of 1900 saw the election of 2 Populists in Nebraska.
^ At-large seats eliminated in redistricting.
References
^ a b "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present". Office of the Historian, United States House of Representatives. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
^ a b Martis, pp. 156–157.
^ Apportionment Act of 1901
^ "ID At Large". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
^ "MS - District 01". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 02". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 03". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 04". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 05". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 06". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 07". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MS - District 08". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ "MT At-Large". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 01 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 02 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 03 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 04 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 05 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - NE - District 06 Race - Nov 4, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
^ "ND At Large". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
^ "OR - District 01 Race - Jun 02, 1902". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
^ "OR - District 02 Race - Jun 02, 1902". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
^ "SD At Large". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
^ "TN - District 01". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 02". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 03". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 04". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 05". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 06". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 07". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 08". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 09". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "TN - District 10". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - WA At-Large Race - Nov 04, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2023-01-14.
^ "WV District 01". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ "WV District 02". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ "WV District 03". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ "WV District 04". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ "WV District 05". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ "Wisconsin U.S. House Election Results" (PDF). Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2012. Retrieved March 8, 2022 – via Wayback Machine.
^ Erickson, Halford, ed. (1903). "Biographical Sketches". The Blue Book of the State of Wisconsin 1903 (Report). Wisconsin Bureau of Labor Statistics. pp. 1073–1076. Retrieved June 8, 2024.
^ "WY At-Large". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
^ "Our Campaigns - AZ Territorial Delegate". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2023-01-01.
^ "Our Campaigns - HI Delegate At-Large - Nov 04, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2023-01-01.
^ "Our Campaigns - OK Territorial Delegate Race - Nov 04, 1902". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2020-06-25.
Bibliography
Republican Congressional Committee, The Republican Campaign Textbook 1902 (1902).
Dubin, Michael J. (March 1, 1998). United States Congressional Elections, 1788-1997: The Official Results of the Elections of the 1st Through 105th Congresses. McFarland and Company. ISBN 978-0786402830.
Martis, Kenneth C. (January 1, 1989). The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789-1989. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0029201701.
Moore, John L., ed. (1994). Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U.S. Elections (Third ed.). Congressional Quarterly Inc. ISBN 978-0871879967.
"Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present". Office of the Historian, House of United States House of Representatives. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
Secretary of State (1903). Maryland Manual 1902. Baltimore: Wm. J. C. Dulany Co. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
External links
Office of the Historian (Office of Art & Archives, Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives)
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Wyoming | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Theodore Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"William McKinley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McKinley"},{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"58th United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/58th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"reapportionment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment"},{"link_name":"1900 U.S. census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900_U.S._census"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Populist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Populist_Party"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"1814","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1814_and_1815_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections"},{"link_name":"1822","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1822_and_1823_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections"}],"text":"The 1902 United States House of Representatives elections were held for the most part on November 4, 1902, with Oregon, Maine, and Vermont holding theirs early in either June or September. They occurred in the middle of President Theodore Roosevelt's first term, about a year after the assassination of President William McKinley in September 1901. Elections were held for 386 seats of the United States House of Representatives, representing 45 states, to serve in the 58th United States Congress.Due to the increased size of the House and the reapportionment that resulted from the 1900 U.S. census, the Republican Party and the Democratic Party both gained seats simultaneously, which has not occurred in any elections since. The Democrats increased their share of the House, but not by enough to regain control.With a stable economy and no cornerstone issue, Democratic gains can mostly be linked to the effects of redistricting. Many of the new seats were in areas with high numbers of immigrants (mostly Eastern and Southern European industrial workers, and Northern European farmers), with new immigrants tending to vote Democrat. The Populist Party disappeared from the House, with its supporters almost unanimously switching to the Democratic Party.[citation needed]This election marked the third and most recent time in American history where the incumbent president's party gained House seats in a midterm election while still losing seats in the Senate, the first two being in 1814 and 1822.","title":"1902 United States House of Representatives elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reapportionment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment#Reapportionment"},{"link_name":"1900 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Populists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States)"}],"text":"29 new seats were added in reapportionment following the 1900 census.[3] No states lost seats, 16 had no change in apportionment, 14 gained 1 seat, 3 gained 2 seats, and 3 gained 3 seats. Two of the states that gained representation elected the new seat at-large.The previous election had 5 Populists, but the party completely disappeared from the U.S. House in the 1902 elections.","title":"Election summaries"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Oregon"},{"link_name":"Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Vermont"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Maine"}],"text":"All the states held their elections November 4, 1902, except for 3 states, with 8 seats among them:June 2: Oregon\nSeptember 2: Vermont\nSeptember 8: Maine","title":"Election dates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Alabama"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Alabama","title":"Alabama"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-voting delegates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Non-voting_delegates"}],"text":"See Non-voting delegates, below.","title":"Arizona Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Arkansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Arkansas"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Arkansas","title":"Arkansas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_California"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from California","title":"California"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Colorado"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Colorado","title":"Colorado"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Connecticut"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Connecticut","title":"Connecticut"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Delaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Delaware"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Delaware","title":"Delaware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Florida"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Florida","title":"Florida"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Georgia"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Georgia"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Georgia and 1902 United States Senate election in Georgia","title":"Georgia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-voting delegates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Non-voting_delegates"}],"text":"See Non-voting delegates, below.","title":"Hawaii Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Idaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Idaho"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Idaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Idaho"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Idaho and 1902 United States Senate election in Idaho","title":"Idaho"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Illinois"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Illinois","title":"Illinois"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Indiana"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Indiana","title":"Indiana"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Iowa"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Iowa"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate special election in Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Iowa"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Iowa, 1902 United States Senate election in Iowa, and 1902 United States Senate special election in Iowa","title":"Iowa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Kansas"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Kansas","title":"Kansas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Kentucky"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Kentucky and 1902 United States Senate election in Kentucky","title":"Kentucky"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Louisiana"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Louisiana","title":"Louisiana"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Maine"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Maine","title":"Maine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Maryland"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Maryland"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Maryland and 1902 United States Senate election in Maryland","title":"Maryland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Massachusetts"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Massachusetts","title":"Massachusetts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Michigan"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Michigan","title":"Michigan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Minnesota"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Minnesota","title":"Minnesota"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Mississippi"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Mississippi","title":"Mississippi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Missouri"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Missouri","title":"Missouri"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Montana"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Montana","title":"Montana"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Nebraska"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Nebraska","title":"Nebraska"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Nevada"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Nevada"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Nevada and 1902 United States Senate election in Nevada","title":"Nevada"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_New_Hampshire"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from New Hampshire","title":"New Hampshire"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate special election in New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_New_Jersey"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from New Jersey and 1902 United States Senate special election in New Jersey","title":"New Jersey"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-voting delegates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Non-voting_delegates"}],"text":"See Non-voting delegates, below.","title":"New Mexico Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_New_York"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from New York","title":"New York"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_North_Carolina"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from North Carolina","title":"North Carolina"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from North Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_North_Dakota"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from North Dakota","title":"North Dakota"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Ohio"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Ohio"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Ohio and 1902 United States Senate election in Ohio","title":"Ohio"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-voting delegates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Non-voting_delegates"}],"text":"See Non-voting delegates, below.","title":"Oklahoma Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Oregon"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Oregon","title":"Oregon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Pennsylvania"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Pennsylvania","title":"Pennsylvania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Rhode_Island"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Rhode Island","title":"Rhode Island"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_South_Carolina"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from South Carolina","title":"South Carolina"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from South Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_South_Dakota"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from South Dakota","title":"South Dakota"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Tennessee"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Tennessee","title":"Tennessee"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Texas"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Texas","title":"Texas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Utah"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Utah","title":"Utah"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Vermont"},{"link_name":"1902 United States Senate election in Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_Senate_election_in_Vermont"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Vermont and 1902 United States Senate election in Vermont","title":"Vermont"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Virginia"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Virginia","title":"Virginia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Washington"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Washington","title":"Washington"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from West Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_West_Virginia"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from West Virginia","title":"West Virginia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wi-umn-51"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1903wibb-52"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from WisconsinWisconsin elected eleven members of congress on Election Day, November 4, 1902.[40][41] This was Wisconsin's first election with eleven congressional seats, up from ten in the previous term.","title":"Wisconsin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of United States representatives from Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Wyoming"}],"text":"See also: List of United States representatives from Wyoming","title":"Wyoming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-voting_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives"}],"text":"See also: Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives","title":"Non-voting delegates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3IR_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3IR_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3IR_6-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3IR_6-3"},{"link_name":"Independent Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Republican_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1AM_7-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-als_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-als_9-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1p_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1p_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1p_10-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CO-1900_11-0"},{"link_name":"Silver Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Republican_Party"},{"link_name":"John F. Shafroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Shafroth"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-early_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-early_12-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-early_12-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-als2_14-0"}],"text":"^ Regulars only, not including specials\n\n^ Includes five vacancies.\n\n^ Includes 6 vacancies.\n\n^ a b c d Includes 3 Independent Republicans.\n\n^ Includes 1 \"Anti-Machine\" candidate.\n\n^ a b Additional seat elected at-large due to Colorado delaying redistricting.\n\n^ a b c Election of 1900 saw the election of 1 Populist.\n\n^ There was one member of the Silver Republican Party faction elected in 1900, John F. Shafroth. Shafroth attempted to get elected as a Democrat in 1902, but his election was contested and overturned.\n\n^ a b c Elections held early.\n\n^ Election of 1900 saw the election of 2 Populists in Nebraska.\n\n^ At-large seats eliminated in redistricting.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Republican Campaign Textbook 1902","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=TLoJAAAAIAAJ&dq=Republican+Campaign+Textbook&pg=PA1"},{"link_name":"United States Congressional Elections, 1788-1997: The Official Results of the Elections of the 1st Through 105th Congresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9ElyQgAACAAJ&q=United+States+Congressional+Elections,+1788-1997:+The+Official+Results"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0786402830","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786402830"},{"link_name":"The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789-1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=q0hyQgAACAAJ&q=The+Historical+Atlas+of+Political+Parties+in+the+United+States+Congress,+1789-1989"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0029201701","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0029201701"},{"link_name":"Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U.S. Elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=sKERAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0871879967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0871879967"},{"link_name":"\"Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/"},{"link_name":"Maryland Manual 1902","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//aomol.msa.maryland.gov/000001/000114/html/index.html"}],"text":"Republican Congressional Committee, The Republican Campaign Textbook 1902 (1902).\nDubin, Michael J. (March 1, 1998). United States Congressional Elections, 1788-1997: The Official Results of the Elections of the 1st Through 105th Congresses. McFarland and Company. ISBN 978-0786402830.\nMartis, Kenneth C. (January 1, 1989). The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789-1989. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0029201701.\nMoore, John L., ed. (1994). Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U.S. Elections (Third ed.). Congressional Quarterly Inc. ISBN 978-0871879967.\n\"Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present\". Office of the Historian, House of United States House of Representatives. Retrieved January 21, 2015.\nSecretary of State (1903). Maryland Manual 1902. Baltimore: Wm. J. C. Dulany Co. Retrieved 23 June 2020.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":" House seats by party holding plurality in state 80+% to 100% Democratic 80+% to 100% Republican 60+% to 80% Democratic 60+% to 80% Republican Up to 60% Democratic Up to 60% Republican ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/58_us_house_membership.png/350px-58_us_house_membership.png"},{"image_text":" Net gain in party representation 6+ Democratic gain 6+ Republican gain 3-5 Democratic gain 3-5 Republican gain 1-2 Democratic gain 1-2 Republican gain no net change ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/58_us_house_changes.png/350px-58_us_house_changes.png"}] | [{"title":"1902 United States elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902_United_States_elections"},{"title":"1902–03 United States Senate elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902%E2%80%9303_United_States_Senate_elections"},{"title":"57th United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/57th_United_States_Congress"},{"title":"58th United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/58th_United_States_Congress"}] | [{"reference":"\"Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present\". Office of the Historian, United States House of Representatives. Retrieved May 18, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/","url_text":"\"Party Divisions of the House of Representatives* 1789–Present\""}]},{"reference":"\"ID At Large\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 4 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=286611","url_text":"\"ID At Large\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 01\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483095","url_text":"\"MS - District 01\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 02\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483165","url_text":"\"MS - District 02\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 03\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483199","url_text":"\"MS - District 03\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 04\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483234","url_text":"\"MS - District 04\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 05\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483266","url_text":"\"MS - District 05\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 06\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483293","url_text":"\"MS - District 06\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 07\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=483315","url_text":"\"MS - District 07\""}]},{"reference":"\"MS - District 08\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 16 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=482941","url_text":"\"MS - District 08\""}]},{"reference":"\"MT At-Large\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 5 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=442045","url_text":"\"MT At-Large\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 01 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=457714","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 01 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 02 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=458251","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 02 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 03 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=459478","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 03 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 04 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=459724","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 04 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 05 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=460016","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 05 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 06 Race - Nov 4, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=460044","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - NE - District 06 Race - Nov 4, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"ND At Large\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 6 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=278286","url_text":"\"ND At Large\""}]},{"reference":"\"OR - District 01 Race - Jun 02, 1902\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=453673","url_text":"\"OR - District 01 Race - Jun 02, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"OR - District 02 Race - Jun 02, 1902\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=453927","url_text":"\"OR - District 02 Race - Jun 02, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"SD At Large\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 9 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=277551","url_text":"\"SD At Large\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 01\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=310750","url_text":"\"TN - District 01\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 02\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624239","url_text":"\"TN - District 02\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 03\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624240","url_text":"\"TN - District 03\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 04\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624241","url_text":"\"TN - District 04\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 05\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624242","url_text":"\"TN - District 05\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 06\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624243","url_text":"\"TN - District 06\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 07\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624244","url_text":"\"TN - District 07\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 08\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624245","url_text":"\"TN - District 08\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 09\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 2 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=624496","url_text":"\"TN - District 09\""}]},{"reference":"\"TN - District 10\". Our Campaigns. 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Retrieved 21 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=373062","url_text":"\"WV District 04\""}]},{"reference":"\"WV District 05\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 21 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=373063","url_text":"\"WV District 05\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wisconsin U.S. House Election Results\" (PDF). Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2012. Retrieved March 8, 2022 – via Wayback Machine.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120405132933/http://www.hhh.umn.edu/centers/cspg/research/election_data_archive/pdf/WI_US_House_Election_Results.pdf","url_text":"\"Wisconsin U.S. House Election Results\""},{"url":"http://www.hhh.umn.edu/centers/cspg/research/election_data_archive/pdf/WI_US_House_Election_Results.pdf","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine","url_text":"Wayback Machine"}]},{"reference":"Erickson, Halford, ed. (1903). \"Biographical Sketches\". The Blue Book of the State of Wisconsin 1903 (Report). Wisconsin Bureau of Labor Statistics. pp. 1073–1076. Retrieved June 8, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/LZTYQPKCIOZKX8H","url_text":"The Blue Book of the State of Wisconsin 1903"}]},{"reference":"\"WY At-Large\". Our Campaigns. Retrieved 12 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=253656","url_text":"\"WY At-Large\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - AZ Territorial Delegate\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2023-01-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=300432","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - AZ Territorial Delegate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - HI Delegate At-Large - Nov 04, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2023-01-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=95499","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - HI Delegate At-Large - Nov 04, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Campaigns - OK Territorial Delegate Race - Nov 04, 1902\". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 2020-06-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=299874","url_text":"\"Our Campaigns - OK Territorial Delegate Race - Nov 04, 1902\""}]},{"reference":"Dubin, Michael J. (March 1, 1998). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Home | Sally Home | ["1 Life and career","2 Personal life","3 Television appearances","4 References"] | British actress
Mary Sally Home (27 September 1930 – 3 March 1992), born in Southsea, was a British actress whose career encompassed stage, television and radio.
Life and career
Her stage roles included Carla in Robert Muller's Night Conspirators, alongside Peter Wyngarde, both on television and the subsequent stage play in the West End and on tour. In 1965 she appeared in Anouilh's The Cavern (La grotte) in London, alongside Alec McCowen, Griffith Jones, Geoffrey Bayldon, and Siobhan McKenna, and in 1971 in Noël Coward's Tonight at 8.30 with Millicent Martin.
On the radio she played Claire Nash in the BBC Radio 2 soap opera Waggoners' Walk NW.
Home took a variety of parts in television productions from the 1960s, mainly straight drama but also comedy. In a 1969 BBC TV adaptation of Dickens' Dombey and Son she took the dual roles, of the haughty and tragic Edith Dombey (Granger) and of her cousin the vengeful Alice Marwood.
Personal life
Home met George Baker when they appeared together in the television series Rupert of Hentzau in 1964 and they married ten years later; they had one daughter. Home died 1992 aged 61 in Devizes St Mary, Wiltshire, England.
Television appearances
1960 Aren't We All? (Hon. Mrs W Tatham) BBC TV
1960 The Fanatics (Gwen Freeman) BBC TV
1961 The Weasel
1962 Charley was my darling (Barbara Willow) BBC
1963 The Teachers (Kathie Elliot) Associated-Rediffusion
1963 Julius Caesar (Portia) BBC (Shakespeare)
1964 Rupert of Hentzau (Helga von Tarlenheim) BBC (sequel to The Prisoner of Zenda)
1964 A Danger to Others (Julie Lamotte) Rediffusion
1967 Witch Hunt (Maggie Lowther) BBC2 series
1967 The Moon and Sixpence (Amy Strickland) BBC
1969 Dombey and Son (Edith Dombey (Granger)/Alice Marwood) BBC TV serialisation of Dickens novel
1972 New Scotland Yard (Angela Kingdom) LWT series 2 episode 7 'Papa Charlie'
1972 The Fenn Street Gang (staff nurse) LWT series 1 episode 20 'Who's Minding the Shop?'; series 2 episode 7 'The Lady with the Lamp'; LWT series 2 episode 14 'Dypsomania on Sea'
1973 New Scotland Yard (Angela Kingdom) LWT series 3 episode 11 'Monopoly'
1974 Death or Glory Boy (Lady Otley) Yorkshire TV – episode 'Early Breakfast'
1975 Nightingale's Boys (Brenda Cartwright) Granada series 'A.J.'
1975 Sam and the River (Mrs Redmond) BBC
1977 Marie Curie (Henriette Perrin) BBC TV series
1977 Wings (Hon Evelyn Gaylion) BBC TV series series 1 episode 9 'New Deal'; series 2 episode 4 'Transfer'
1979 BBC Television Shakespeare: Henry VIII (Patience) BBC
1980 Holding the Fort (Lt. Col. Featherstonehaugh) LWT situation comedy - episode 'Jumping the Gun'
1983 Fräulein Elsa (cast) BBC play
1984 Data Protection, The Law and You (cast) Video Arts
1987 Suspicion (Mrs Barham) HTV (based on Hitchcock)
1991 Deptford Graffiti (Mrs G.) Channel 4
References
^ Profile, imdb; accessed 20 February 2020.
^ Synopsis and posters for Night Conspirators accessed 24 February 2020.
^ George Baker: the man who might have been James Bond accessed 24 February 2020.
^ Independent obituary for George Baker accessed 23 February 2020.
^ Sally Home entry at the BFI archive accessed 24 February 2020 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Southsea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southsea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Mary Sally Home (27 September 1930 – 3 March 1992), born in Southsea, was a British actress whose career encompassed stage, television and radio.[1]","title":"Sally Home"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Muller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Muller_(screenwriter)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Anouilh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Anouilh"},{"link_name":"Alec McCowen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_McCowen"},{"link_name":"Griffith Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffith_Jones_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Bayldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Bayldon"},{"link_name":"Siobhan McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siobhan_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Noël Coward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward"},{"link_name":"Tonight at 8.30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonight_at_8.30"},{"link_name":"Millicent Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millicent_Martin"},{"link_name":"Waggoners' Walk NW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggoners%27_Walk"},{"link_name":"Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Dombey and Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dombey_and_Son_(1969_TV_series)"}],"text":"Her stage roles included Carla in Robert Muller's Night Conspirators, alongside Peter Wyngarde, both on television and the subsequent stage play in the West End and on tour.[2] In 1965 she appeared in Anouilh's The Cavern (La grotte) in London, alongside Alec McCowen, Griffith Jones, Geoffrey Bayldon, and Siobhan McKenna, and in 1971 in Noël Coward's Tonight at 8.30 with Millicent Martin.On the radio she played Claire Nash in the BBC Radio 2 soap opera Waggoners' Walk NW.Home took a variety of parts in television productions from the 1960s, mainly straight drama but also comedy. In a 1969 BBC TV adaptation of Dickens' Dombey and Son she took the dual roles, of the haughty and tragic Edith Dombey (Granger) and of her cousin the vengeful Alice Marwood.","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Baker_(British_actor)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Home met George Baker when they appeared together in the television series Rupert of Hentzau in 1964[3] and they married ten years later; they had one daughter. Home died 1992 aged 61 in Devizes St Mary, Wiltshire, England.[4]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)"},{"link_name":"Rupert of Hentzau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_of_Hentzau_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Witch Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch_Hunt_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Moon and Sixpence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moon_and_Sixpence"},{"link_name":"New Scotland Yard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scotland_Yard_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Fenn Street Gang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fenn_Street_Gang"},{"link_name":"New Scotland Yard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scotland_Yard_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Nightingale's Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightingale%27s_Boys"},{"link_name":"Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Television_Shakespeare#The_Famous_History_of_the_Life_of_King_Henry_the_Eight"},{"link_name":"Holding the Fort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holding_the_Fort"},{"link_name":"Video Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Arts"},{"link_name":"Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspicion_(1941_film)"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4_Television"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"1960\tAren't We All? (Hon. Mrs W Tatham) BBC TV\n1960\tThe Fanatics (Gwen Freeman) BBC TV\n1961\tThe Weasel\n1962\tCharley was my darling (Barbara Willow) BBC\n1963\tThe Teachers (Kathie Elliot) Associated-Rediffusion\n1963\tJulius Caesar (Portia) BBC (Shakespeare)\n1964\tRupert of Hentzau (Helga von Tarlenheim) BBC (sequel to The Prisoner of Zenda)\n1964\tA Danger to Others (Julie Lamotte) Rediffusion\n1967\tWitch Hunt (Maggie Lowther) BBC2 series\n1967\tThe Moon and Sixpence (Amy Strickland) BBC\n1969\tDombey and Son (Edith Dombey (Granger)/Alice Marwood) BBC TV serialisation of Dickens novel\n1972\tNew Scotland Yard (Angela Kingdom) LWT series 2 episode 7 'Papa Charlie'\n1972\tThe Fenn Street Gang (staff nurse) LWT series 1 episode 20 'Who's Minding the Shop?'; series 2 episode 7 'The Lady with the Lamp'; LWT series 2 episode 14 'Dypsomania on Sea'\n1973\tNew Scotland Yard (Angela Kingdom) LWT series 3 episode 11 'Monopoly'\n1974\tDeath or Glory Boy (Lady Otley) Yorkshire TV – episode 'Early Breakfast'\n1975\tNightingale's Boys (Brenda Cartwright) Granada series 'A.J.'\n1975 \tSam and the River (Mrs Redmond) BBC\n1977\tMarie Curie (Henriette Perrin) BBC TV series\n1977\tWings (Hon Evelyn Gaylion) BBC TV series series 1 episode 9 'New Deal'; series 2 episode 4 'Transfer'\n1979\tBBC Television Shakespeare: Henry VIII (Patience) BBC\n1980\tHolding the Fort (Lt. Col. Featherstonehaugh) LWT situation comedy - episode 'Jumping the Gun'\n1983\tFräulein Elsa (cast) BBC play\n1984\tData Protection, The Law and You (cast) Video Arts\n1987\tSuspicion (Mrs Barham) HTV (based on Hitchcock)\n1991\tDeptford Graffiti (Mrs G.) Channel 4\n[5]","title":"Television appearances"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0392938/bio","external_links_name":"Profile"},{"Link":"https://peterwyngarde.wordpress.com/2016/06/27/review-night-conspirators/","external_links_name":"Synopsis and posters for Night Conspirators"},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/8815701/George-Baker-the-man-who-might-have-been-James-Bond.html","external_links_name":"George Baker: the man who might have been James Bond"},{"Link":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/george-baker-actor-whose-career-climaxed-in-his-portrayal-of-the-shakespeare-quoting-dci-wexford-2368541.html","external_links_name":"Independent obituary for George Baker"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200226225957/https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba110ddb0","external_links_name":"Sally Home entry at the BFI archive"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagli-El | Yagli-El | ["1 References"] | King
Yagli-El (Yaglī-ʼel - the god has shown himself or the god revealed) was a king from Dilmun who was ruling around 1700 BC. Yagli-El is known from four cuneiform inscriptions that were placed on steatite vessels. Three of these vessels were found in a big tomb on Bahrain. It is most likely that this tomb was his burial place. All inscriptions bear the same text: Palace of Yagli-El, the servant on Inzak of Akkarum. In one of the inscriptions also Yagli-El's father Riʼmum is mentioned, who was then his predecessor.
The inscriptions do not call Yagli-El king, but the big size of the burial place leaves little doubt about it. A king (lugal) of Dilmun is mentioned in cuneiform texts. The name Yagli-El is Amoritic showing that Amorites lived on Bahrain. The style of the cuneiform signs dates this king around 1700 BC.
References
^ Gianni Marchesiː Inscriptions from the Royal Mounds of A'alo (Bahrain) and related Texts, inː Steffen Terp Laursenː The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, Aarhus 2017, ISBN 978-87-93423-16-9, pp. 426
^ Marchesi, inː Terp Laursenː The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, p. 425
^ Marchesi, inː Terp Laursenː The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, p. 429
^ Marchesi, inː Terp Laursenː The Royal Mounds of A'ali in Bahrain, p. 430 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Dilmun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilmun"},{"link_name":"cuneiform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform"},{"link_name":"steatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatite"},{"link_name":"Bahrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain"},{"link_name":"Inzak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inzak"},{"link_name":"Akkarum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarum"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Amoritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorites"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Yagli-El (Yaglī-ʼel - the god has shown himself or the god revealed)[1] was a king from Dilmun who was ruling around 1700 BC. Yagli-El is known from four cuneiform inscriptions that were placed on steatite vessels. Three of these vessels were found in a big tomb on Bahrain. It is most likely that this tomb was his burial place. All inscriptions bear the same text: Palace of Yagli-El, the servant on Inzak of Akkarum. In one of the inscriptions also Yagli-El's father Riʼmum is mentioned, who was then his predecessor.[2]The inscriptions do not call Yagli-El king, but the big size of the burial place leaves little doubt about it. A king (lugal) of Dilmun is mentioned in cuneiform texts.[3] The name Yagli-El is Amoritic showing that Amorites lived on Bahrain.[4] The style of the cuneiform signs dates this king around 1700 BC.","title":"Yagli-El"}] | [] | null | [] | [] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEGA_of_America | Sega | ["1 History","1.1 1940–1982: Origins and arcade success","1.2 1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence","1.3 1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success","1.4 1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success","1.5 1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles","1.6 2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development","1.7 2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion","1.8 2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive","1.9 2020–present: Recent history","2 Corporate structure","2.1 Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation","2.2 Research and development","3 Legacy","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | Japanese video game company
"Sega Games" redirects here. For a list of video games published by Sega, see Lists of Sega games. For other uses, see Sega (disambiguation).
Sega CorporationSega's headquarters in Shinagawa, TokyoTrade nameSegaNative name株式会社セガRomanized nameKabushiki-gaisha SegaFormerlyNihon Goraku Bussan (1960-1965)Sega Enterprises, Ltd. (1965-2000)Sega Corporation (2000-2015)Sega Games Co., Ltd. (2015-2020)Company typeSubsidiaryIndustryVideo gamesPredecessorService Games of JapanFoundedJune 3, 1960; 64 years ago (June 3, 1960)FoundersMartin BromleyRichard StewartHeadquartersShinagawa, Tokyo, JapanArea servedWorldwideKey peopleHaruki Satomi (chairman and CEO)Yukio Sugino (vice president and COO)Shuji Utsumi (president, COO and CEO, Sega of America and Sega Europe)ProductsGamesVideo game consolesMobile gamesFranchisesRevenue ¥247.7 billion (2020)Operating income ¥14.8 billion (2020)Number of employees3,155 (March 31, 2024)ParentSega Sammy HoldingsDivisionsList of development studiosSubsidiariesAtlusSega Sapporo StudioSega FaveTMS EntertainmentMarza Animation PlanetPlay HeartSega XDWebsitesega.co.jpFootnotes / references
Sega Corporation is a Japanese multinational video game company and subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It produces several multi-million-selling game franchises for arcades and consoles, including Sonic the Hedgehog, Angry Birds, Puyo Puyo, Super Monkey Ball, Total War, Virtua Fighter, and Yakuza. From 1983 until 2001, Sega also developed its own consoles.
Sega was founded by American businessmen Martin Bromley and Richard Stewart as Nihon Goraku Bussan on June 3, 1960. Shortly after, the company acquired the assets of its predecessor, Service Games of Japan. In 1965, it became known as Sega Enterprises, Ltd., after acquiring Rosen Enterprises, an importer of coin-operated games. Sega developed its first coin-operated game, Periscope, in 1966. Sega was sold to Gulf and Western Industries in 1969. Following a downturn in the arcade business in the early 1980s, Sega began to develop video game consoles, starting with the SG-1000 and Master System, but struggled against competitors such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 1984, Sega executives David Rosen and Hayao Nakayama led a management buyout, with backing from CSK Corporation.
In 1988, Sega released the Mega Drive (known as the Genesis in North America). The Mega Drive struggled against competition in Japan, but the Genesis found success overseas after the release of Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991 and briefly outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, in the US. Later in the decade, Sega suffered several commercial failures such as the 32X, Saturn, and Dreamcast. In 2001, Sega stopped manufacturing consoles to become a third-party developer and publisher, and was acquired by Sammy Corporation in 2004. Sega Holdings Co. Ltd. was established in 2015; Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd., and its arcade, entertainment, and toy divisions separated into other companies. In 2020, Sega Games and Sega Interactive merged to become Sega Corporation.
Sega's international branches, Sega of America and Sega Europe are headquartered in Irvine, California, and London. Its development studios include their internal research and development divisions (which utilize the Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio, Sega AM2 and Sonic Team brands for several core franchise entries), Sega Sapporo Studio which mainly provides support for the Tokyo-based development teams as well as handling partial game development, & Atlus (including their R&D divisions, such as P-Studio and Studio Zero respectively) and six development studios in the UK and Europe: Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Sports Interactive, Sega Hardlight, Two Point Studios and Rovio Entertainment (including Ruby Games). Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers and its mascot, Sonic, is internationally recognized. Its name and branding are used for owned and/or affiliated companies that operate amusement arcades and produce other entertainment products, including Sega Fave; however, these are largely separate ventures. Sega is recognized for its video game consoles, creativity and innovations. In more recent years, it has been criticized for its business decisions and the quality of its creative output.
Being the entertainment contents division of Sega Sammy Holdings, forming one half of the Sega Sammy Group, Sega also owns a toy and amusement machine company, Sega Fave, which compromises their arcade development & manufacturing divisions that were previously under Sega and two animation studios: TMS Entertainment, which animates, produces, and/or distributes anime such as Lupin the 3rd, Case Closed and Anpanman & Marza Animation Planet, which specializes in CG animation.
History
Main article: History of Sega
1940–1982: Origins and arcade success
The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.
In May 1940, American businessmen Martin Bromley, Irving Bromberg and James Humpert formed Standard Games in Honolulu, Hawaii. Their aim was to provide coin-operated amusement machines, including slot machines, to military bases as the increase in personnel with the onset of World War II would create demand for entertainment. After the war, the founders sold Standard Games in 1945, and in 1946 established Service Games, named for the military focus. After the US government outlawed slot machines in its territories in 1952, Bromley sent employees Richard Stewart and Ray LeMaire to Tokyo to establish Service Games of Japan to provide coin-operated slot machines to US bases in Japan. A year later, all five men established Service Games Panama to control the entities of Service Games worldwide. The company expanded over the next seven years to include distribution in South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam. The name Sega, an abbreviation of Service Games, was first used in 1954 on a slot machine, the Diamond Star.
Due to notoriety arising from investigations by the US government into criminal business practices, Service Games of Japan was dissolved on May 31, 1960. On June 3, Bromley established two companies to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and Nihon Kikai Seizō. The two new companies purchased all of Service Games of Japan's assets. Kikai Seizō, doing business as Sega, Inc., focused on manufacturing slot machines. Goraku Bussan, doing business under Stewart as Utamatic, Inc., served as a distributor and operator of coin-operated machines, particularly jukeboxes. The companies merged in 1964, retaining the Nihon Goraku Bussan name.
Around the same time, David Rosen, an American officer in the United States Air Force stationed in Japan, launched a photo booth business in Tokyo in 1954. This company became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957 began importing coin-operated games into Japan. In 1965, Nihon Goraku Bussan acquired Rosen Enterprises to form Sega Enterprises, Ltd. Rosen was installed as the CEO and managing director, while Stewart was named president and LeMaire was the director of planning. Shortly afterward, Sega stopped leasing to military bases and moved its focus from slot machines to coin-operated amusement machines. Its imports included Rock-Ola jukeboxes, pinball games by Williams, and gun games by Midway Manufacturing.
Former logo used until 1975.
Because Sega imported second-hand machines, which required frequent maintenance, it began constructing replacement guns and flippers for its imported games. According to former Sega director Akira Nagai, this led to the company developing its own games. The first arcade electro-mechanical game (EM game) Sega manufactured was the submarine simulator Periscope, released worldwide in the late 1960s. It featured light and sound effects considered innovative and was successful in Japan. It was then exported to malls and department stores in Europe and the United States and helped standardize the 25-cent-per-play cost for arcade games in the US. Sega was surprised by the success, and for the next two years, the company produced and exported between eight and ten games per year. The worldwide success of Periscope led to a "technological renaissance" in the arcade industry, which was reinvigorated by a wave of "audio-visual" EM novelty games that followed in the wake of Periscope during the late 1960s to early 1970s. However, rampant piracy led Sega to cease exporting its games around 1970.
In 1969, Sega was sold to the American conglomerate Gulf and Western Industries, although Rosen remained CEO. In 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, Ltd., a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. Sega released Pong-Tron, its first video-based game, in 1973. Despite late competition from Taito's hit arcade game Space Invaders in 1978, Sega prospered from the arcade video game boom of the late 1970s, with revenues climbing to over US$100 million by 1979. During this period, Sega acquired Gremlin Industries, which manufactured microprocessor-based arcade games, and Esco Boueki, a coin-op distributor founded and owned by Hayao Nakayama. Nakayama was placed in a management role of Sega's Japanese operations. In the early 1980s, Sega was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States, as company revenues rose to $214 million. 1979 saw the release of Head On, which introduced the "eat-the-dots" gameplay Namco later used in Pac-Man. In 1981, Sega licensed Frogger, its most successful game until then. In 1982, Sega introduced the first game with isometric graphics, Zaxxon.
1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence
Further information: SG-1000 and Master System
Sega's first video game console, the SG-1000
Following a downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982, Gulf and Western sold its North American arcade game manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing in September 1983. Gulf and Western retained Sega's North American R&D operation and its Japanese subsidiary, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. With its arcade business in decline, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. president Nakayama advocated for the company to use its hardware expertise to move into the home consumer market in Japan. This led to Sega's development of a computer, the SC-3000. Learning that Nintendo was developing a games-only console, the Famicom, Sega developed its first home video game system, the SG-1000, alongside the SC-3000. Rebranded versions of the SG-1000 were released in several other markets worldwide. The SG-1000 sold 160,000 units in 1983, which far exceeded Sega's projection of 50,000 in the first year but was outpaced by the Famicom. This was in part because Nintendo expanded its game library by courting third-party developers, whereas Sega was hesitant to collaborate with companies with which it was competing in the arcades.
In November 1983, Rosen announced his intention to step down as president of Sega Enterprises, Inc. on January 1, 1984. Jeffrey Rochlis was announced as the new president and CEO of Sega. Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, and the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn, Gulf and Western began to sell off its secondary businesses. Nakayama and Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation, a prominent Japanese software company. Sega's Japanese assets were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Nakayama. Isao Okawa, head of CSK, became chairman, while Nakayama was installed as CEO of Sega Enterprises, Ltd.
The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987
In 1985, Sega began working on the Mark III, a redesigned SG-1000. For North America, Sega rebranded the Mark III as the Master System, with a futuristic design intended to appeal to Western tastes. The Mark III was released in Japan in October 1985. Despite featuring more powerful hardware than the Famicom in some ways, it was unsuccessful at launch. As Nintendo required third-party developers not to publish their Famicom games on other consoles, Sega developed its own games and obtained the rights to port games from other developers. To help market the console in North America, Sega planned to sell the Master System as a toy, similar to how Nintendo had done with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sega partnered with Tonka, an American toy company, to make use of Tonka's expertise in the toy industry. Ineffective marketing by Tonka handicapped sales of the Master System. By early 1992, production had ceased in North America. The Master System sold between 1.5 million and 2 million units in the region. This was less market share in North America than both Nintendo and Atari, which controlled 80 percent and 12 percent of the market. The Master System was eventually a success in Europe, where its sales were comparable to the NES. As late as 1993, the Master System's active installed user base in Europe was 6.25 million units. The Master System has had continued success in Brazil. New versions continue to be released by Sega's partner in the region, Tectoy. By 2016, the Master System had sold 8 million units in Brazil.
During 1984, Sega opened its European division of arcade distribution, Sega Europe. It re-entered the North American arcade market in 1985 with the establishment of Sega Enterprises USA at the end of a deal with Bally. The release of Hang-On in 1985 would prove successful in the region, becoming so popular that Sega struggled to keep up with demand for the game. UFO Catcher was introduced in 1985 and as of 2005 was Japan's most commonly installed claw crane game. In 1986, Sega of America was established to manage the company's consumer products in North America, beginning with marketing the Master System. During Sega's partnership with Tonka, Sega of America relinquished marketing and distribution of the console and focused on customer support and some localization of games. Out Run, released in 1986, became Sega's best selling arcade cabinet of the 1980s. Former Sega director Akira Nagai said Hang-On and Out Run helped to pull the arcade game market out of the 1982 downturn and created new genres of video games.
1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success
Further information: Sega Genesis
The Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.
With the arcade game market once again growing, Sega was one of the most recognized game brands at the end of the 1980s. In the arcades, the company focused on releasing games to appeal to diverse tastes, including racing games and side-scrollers. Sega released the Master System's successor, the Mega Drive, in Japan on October 29, 1988. The launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier. Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep! helped establish a following, with the latter launching a new publication dedicated to the console, but Sega shipped only 400,000 units in the first year.
The Mega Drive struggled to compete against the Famicom and lagged behind Nintendo's Super Famicom and the TurboGrafx-16, made by NEC, in Japanese sales throughout the 16-bit era. For the North American launch, where the console was renamed Genesis, Sega had no sales and marketing organization. After Atari declined an offer to market the console in the region, Sega launched it through its own Sega of America subsidiary. The Genesis was launched in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, and in the rest of North America later that year. The European version of the Mega Drive was released in September 1990.
Former Atari executive and new Sega of America president Michael Katz developed a two-part strategy to build sales in North America. The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo and emphasize the more arcade-like experience available on the Genesis, with slogans including "Genesis does what Nintendon't". Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time, the second part involved creating a library of games which used the names and likenesses of celebrities, such as Michael Jackson's Moonwalker and Joe Montana Football. Nonetheless, Sega had difficulty overcoming Nintendo's ubiquity in homes. Sega of America sold only 500,000 Genesis units in its first year, half of Nakayama's goal.
Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.
After the launch of the Genesis, Sega sought a new flagship line of releases to compete with Nintendo's Mario series. Its new character, Sonic the Hedgehog, went on to feature in one of the best-selling video game franchises in history. Sonic the Hedgehog began with a tech demo created by Yuji Naka involving a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a winding tube; this was fleshed out with Naoto Ohshima's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo; his shoes were inspired by Michael Jackson's boots, and his personality by Bill Clinton's "can-do" attitude.
Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as CEO of Sega of America in mid-1990, and Katz departed soon after. Kalinske knew little about the video game market, but surrounded himself with industry-savvy advisors. A believer in the razor-and-blades business model, he developed a four-point plan: cut the price of the Genesis, create a US team to develop games targeted at the American market, expand the aggressive advertising campaigns, and replace the bundled game Altered Beast with Sonic the Hedgehog. The Japanese board of directors disapproved, but it was approved by Nakayama, who told Kalinske, "I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas, so go ahead and do it."
In large part due to the popularity of Sonic the Hedgehog, the Genesis outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season. By January 1992, Sega controlled 65 percent of the 16-bit console market. Sega outsold Nintendo for four consecutive Christmas seasons due to the Genesis' head start, lower price, and a larger library compared to the SNES at release. Nintendo's dollar share of the US 16-bit market dropped from 60% at the end of 1992 to 37% at the end of 1993, Sega claimed 55% of all 16-bit hardware sales during 1994, and the SNES outsold the Genesis from 1995 through 1997.
Game Gear, released in 1990
In 1990, Sega launched the Game Gear, a handheld console, to compete against Nintendo's Game Boy. The Game Gear was designed as a portable version of the Master System and featured a full-color screen, in contrast to the monochrome Game Boy screen. Due to its short battery life, lack of original games, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear did not surpass the Game Boy, having sold approximately 11 million units. Sega launched the Mega-CD in Japan on December 1, 1991, initially retailing at JP¥49,800. The add-on uses CD-ROM technology. Further features include a second, faster processor, vastly expanded system memory, a graphics chip that performed scaling and rotation similar to the company's arcade games, and another sound chip. In North America, it was renamed the Sega CD and launched on October 15, 1992, with a retail price of US$299. It was released in Europe as the Mega-CD in 1993. The Mega-CD sold only 100,000 units during its first year in Japan, falling well below expectations.
Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993
Throughout the early 1990s, Sega largely continued its success in arcades around the world. In 1992 and 1993, the new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased in-house development studio Sega AM2's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter (the first 3D fighting game), which, though expensive, played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics. In addition, complex simulator equipment like the rotational R360 kept Sega competing with machines by rival arcade companies, including Taito. New official region-specific distributors and manufacturers, including the UK's Deith Leisure, allowed Sega to sell its machines outside of Japan with ease. Sega's domestic operations division also opened hundreds of family-oriented suburban Sega World amusement arcades in Japan during this period, as well as large over-18s "GiGO" facilities in the high-profile urban areas of Roppongi and Ikebukuro. In 1993, this success was mirrored in overseas territories with the openings of several large branded entertainment centers, such as Sega VirtuaLand in Luxor Las Vegas. In 1994, Sega generated a revenue of ¥354.032 billion or $3,464,000,000 (equivalent to $7,121,000,000 in 2023).
In 1993, the American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games, such as Night Trap for the Sega CD and the Genesis version of Midway's Mortal Kombat. This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an "edgy" company with "attitude", and this reinforced that image. To handle this, Sega instituted the United States' first video game ratings system, the Videogame Rating Council (VRC), for all its systems. Ratings ranged from the family-friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA-13, and the adults-only rating of MA-17. Executive vice president of Nintendo of America Howard Lincoln was quick to point out in the United States congressional hearings in 1993 that Night Trap was not rated at all. Senator Joe Lieberman called for another hearing in February 1994 to check progress toward a rating system for video game violence. After the hearings, Sega proposed the universal adoption of the VRC; after objections by Nintendo and others, Sega took a role in forming the Entertainment Software Rating Board.
1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success
Further information: Sega Saturn and 32X
Sega began work on the Genesis' successor, the Sega Saturn, more than two years before showcasing it at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994. According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama became concerned about the 1994 release of the Atari Jaguar, and that the Saturn would not be available until the next year. As a result, Nakayama decided to have a second console release to market by the end of 1994. Sega began to develop the 32X, a Genesis add-on which would serve as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era. The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but would play Genesis games. Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price. After the holiday season, interest in the 32X rapidly declined.
The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.
Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994. Virtua Fighter, a port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan. Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day, and it was more popular than the PlayStation, made by Sony, in Japan. In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the US on "Saturn-day" (Saturday) September 2, 1995. Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation. At the first Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske revealed the release price and that Sega had shipped 30,000 Saturns to Toys "R" Us, Babbage's, Electronics Boutique, and Software Etc. for immediate release. A by-product of the surprise launch was the provocation of retailers not included in Sega's rollout; KB Toys in particular decided to no longer stock its products in response.
The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995. Within two days of the PlayStation's American launch on September 9, 1995, the PlayStation sold more units than the Saturn. Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over twenty percent of the US video game market. The console's high price point, surprise launch, and difficulty handling polygonal graphics were factors in its lack of success. Sega also underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis; 16-bit sales accounted for 64 percent of the market in 1995. Despite capturing 43 percent of the US market dollar share and selling more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, Kalinske estimated that, if prepared for demand, another 300,000 could have been sold.
Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America in July 1996, while Kalinske left Sega after September 30 of that year. A former Honda executive, Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993. The company also announced that Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions at Sega of America, though both remained with Sega. Bernie Stolar, a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America, became Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations. Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, believing its hardware was poorly designed.
While Stolar had said "the Saturn is not our future" at E3 1997, he continued to emphasize the quality of its games, and later reflected that "we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer." At Sony, Stolar had opposed the localization of certain Japanese PlayStation games that he felt would not represent the system well in North America. He advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, generally blocking 2D arcade games and role-playing games from release, although he later sought to distance himself from this stance. Other changes included a softer image in Sega's advertising, including removing the "Sega!" scream, and holding press events for the education industry.
Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999
Sega partnered with GE to develop the Sega Model 2 arcade system board, building on 3D technology in the arcade industry at the time. This led to several successful arcade games, including Daytona USA, launched in a limited capacity in late 1993 and worldwide in 1994. Other popular games included Virtua Cop, Sega Rally Championship, and Virtua Fighter 2. Virtua Fighter and Virtua Fighter 2 became Sega's best-selling arcade games of all time, surpassing their previous record holder Out Run. There was also a technological arms race between Sega and Namco during this period, driving the growth of 3D gaming.
Beginning in 1994, Sega launched a series of indoor theme parks in Japan under a concept dubbed "Amusement Theme Park", including Joypolis parks sited in urban Tokyo locations such as Yokohama and Odaiba. A rapid overseas rollout was planned, with at least 100 locations across the world proposed to be opened by 2000, however only two, Sega World London and Sega World Sydney, would ultimately materialise in September 1996 and March 1997, respectively. Following on from difficulties faced in setting up theme parks in the United States, Sega established the GameWorks chain of urban entertainment centers in a joint venture with DreamWorks SKG and Universal Studios during March 1997.
In 1995, Sega partnered with Atlus to launch Print Club (purikura), an arcade photo sticker machine that produces selfie photos. Atlus and Sega introduced Purikura in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, karaoke establishments and bowling alleys. Purikura became a popular form of entertainment among youths across East Asia, laying the foundations for modern selfie culture. By 1997, about 47,000 Purikura machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated ¥25 billion (£173 million) or $283,000,000 (equivalent to $537,000,000 in 2023) from Purikura sales that year. Various other similar Purikura machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997.
Sega also made forays in the PC market with the 1995 establishment of SegaSoft, which was tasked with creating original Saturn and PC games. From 1994 to 1999, Sega also participated in the arcade pinball market when it took over Data East's pinball division, renaming it Sega Pinball.
In January 1997, Sega announced its intentions to merge with the Japanese toy maker Bandai. The merger, planned as a $1 billion stock swap whereby Sega would wholly acquire Bandai, was set to form a company known as Sega Bandai, Ltd. Though it was to be finalized in October of that year, it was called off in May after growing opposition from Bandai's mid-level executives. Bandai instead agreed to a business alliance with Sega. As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as Sega president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri. Nakayama's resignation may have in part been due to the failure of the merger, as well as Sega's 1997 performance. Stolar became CEO and president of Sega of America.
After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in the US during 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games fell sharply in much of the west. The PlayStation outsold the Saturn three-to-one in the US in 1997, and the latter failed to gain a foothold in Europe and Australia, where the Nintendo 64 would not release until March 1997. After several years of declining profits, Sega had a slight increase in the fiscal year ended March 1997, partly driven by increasing arcade revenue, while outperforming Nintendo during the mid-term period. However, in the fiscal year ending March 1998, Sega suffered its first financial loss since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as both a parent company and a corporation as a whole. Shortly before the announcement of the losses, Sega discontinued the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor, the Dreamcast, releasing remaining games in low quantities.
The decision to discontinue the Saturn effectively left the North American home console market without Sega games for over a year, with most of its activity in the country coming from arcade divisions. The Saturn lasted longer in some Europe territories and particularly Japan, with it notably outperforming the Nintendo 64 in the latter. Nonetheless, Irimajiri confirmed in an interview with Japanese newspaper Daily Yomiuri that Saturn development would stop at the end of 1998 and games would continue to be produced until mid-1999. With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units, the Saturn is retrospectively considered a commercial failure in much of the world. While Sega had success with the Model 3 arcade board and titles like Virtua Fighter 3, Sega's arcade divisions struggled in the West during the late 1990s. On the other hand, Sega's arcade divisions were more successful in Asia, with Sega's overall arcade revenues increasing year-on-year throughout the late 1990s, but it was not enough to offset the significant declining revenues of Sega's home consumer divisions.
1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles
Further information: Dreamcast
The Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.
Despite a 75 percent drop in half-year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast, Sega felt confident about its new system. The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre-orders. Sega announced that Sonic Adventure, the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, would be a Dreamcast launch game. It was promoted with a large-scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall. Due to a high failure rate in the manufacturing process, Sega could not ship enough consoles for the Dreamcast's Japanese launch. As more than half of its limited stock had been pre-ordered, Sega stopped pre-orders in Japan. Before the launch, Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea (NAOMI) arcade system board, which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3. NAOMI shared technology with the Dreamcast, allowing nearly identical ports of arcade games.
The Dreamcast launched in Japan on November 27, 1998. The entire stock of 150,000 consoles sold out by the end of the day. Irimajiri estimated that another 200,000 to 300,000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply. He hoped to sell more than a million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999, but less than 900,000 were sold. The low sales undermined Sega's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers. Sega suffered a further ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce. Before the Western launch, Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast in Japan by JP¥9,100, effectively making it unprofitable but increasing sales.
On August 11, 1999, Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired. Peter Moore, whom Stolar had hired as a Sega of America executive only six months before, was placed in charge of the North American launch. The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9, 1999, with 18 games. Sega set a record by selling more than 225,132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours, earning $98.4 million in what Moore called "the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history". Within two weeks, US Dreamcast sales exceeded 500,000. By Christmas, Sega held 31 percent of the US video game market by revenue. On November 4, Sega announced it had sold more than a million Dreamcast units. Nevertheless, the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega's manufacturing plants, which produced defective GD-ROMs where data was not properly recorded onto the disc. Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14, 1999. While Sega sold 500,000 units in Europe by Christmas 1999, sales there slowed, and by October 2000 Sega had sold only about a million units.
Though the Dreamcast was successful, Sony's PlayStation still held 60 percent of the overall market share in North America at the end of 1999. On March 2, 1999, in what one report called a "highly publicized, vaporware-like announcement", Sony revealed the first details of the PlayStation 2. The same year, Nintendo announced that its next console would meet or exceed anything on the market, and Microsoft began development of its own console, the Xbox. Sega's initial momentum proved fleeting as US Dreamcast sales—which exceeded 1.5 million by the end of 1999—began to decline as early as January 2000. Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega's ¥42.88 billion ($404 million) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000. This followed a similar loss of ¥42.881 billion the previous year and marked Sega's third consecutive annual loss. Sega's overall sales for the term increased 27.4 percent, and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded its expectations. However, this coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan. At the same time, worsening conditions reduced the profitability of Sega's Japanese arcade business, prompting the closure of 246 locations.
Moore became the president and chief operating officer of Sega of America on 8 May 2000. He said the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the US by the end of 2000 to remain viable, but Sega fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold. Moreover, Sega's attempts to spur Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses. In March 2001, Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥51.7 billion ($417.5 million). While the PlayStation 2's October 26 US launch was marred by shortages, this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected, as many disappointed consumers continued to wait or purchased a PSone. Eventually, Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market, while Sega held only 15 percent.
2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development
CSK chairman Isao Okawa replaced Irimajiri as president of Sega on May 22, 2000. Okawa had long advocated that Sega abandon the console business. Others shared this view; Sega co-founder David Rosen had "always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware", and Stolar had suggested Sega should have sold the company to Microsoft. In a September 2000 meeting with Sega's Japanese executives and heads of its first-party game studios, Moore and Sega of America executive Charles Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business. In response, the studio heads walked out. Sega announced an official company name change from Sega Enterprises, Ltd. to Sega Corporation effective November 1, 2000. Sega stated in a release that this was to display its commitment to its "network entertainment business".
On January 23, 2001, Japanese newspaper Nihon Keizai Shinbun reported that Sega would cease production of the Dreamcast and develop software for other platforms. After an initial denial, Sega released a press release confirming it was considering producing software for the PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance as part of its "new management policy". On January 31, 2001, Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a "platform-agnostic" third-party developer. Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to eliminate its unsold inventory, estimated at 930,000 units as of April 2001. This was followed by further reductions to clear the remaining inventory. The final manufactured Dreamcast was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega's first-party game studios, plus the heads of sports game developer Visual Concepts and audio studio Wave Master, and given away with all 55 first-party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro.
Okawa, who had loaned Sega $500 million in 1999, died on March 16, 2001. Shortly before his death, he forgave Sega's debts to him and returned his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock, helping the company survive the third-party transition. He held failed talks with Microsoft about a sale or merger with their Xbox division. According to former Microsoft executive Joachim Kempin, Microsoft founder, Bill Gates, decided against acquiring Sega because "he didn't think that Sega had enough muscle to eventually stop Sony". A business alliance with Microsoft was announced whereby Sega would develop 11 games for the Xbox. As part of the restructuring, nearly one third of Sega's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001. 2002 was Sega's fifth consecutive fiscal year of net losses.
After Okawa's death, Hideki Sato, a 30-year Sega veteran who had worked on Sega's consoles, became the company president. Following poor sales in 2002, Sega cut its profit forecast for 2003 by 90 percent, and explored opportunities for mergers. In 2003, Sega began talks with Sammy Corporation–a pachinko and pachislot manufacturing company–and Namco. The president of Sammy, Hajime Satomi, had been mentored by Okawa and was previously asked to be CEO of Sega. On February 13, Sega announced that it would merge with Sammy; however, as late as April 17, Sega was still in talks with Namco, which was attempting to overturn the merger. Sega's consideration of Namco's offer upset Sammy executives. The day after Sega announced it no longer planned to merge with Sammy, Namco withdrew its offer.
In 2003, Sato and COO Tetsu Kamaya stepped down. Sato was replaced by Hisao Oguchi, the head of the Sega studio Hitmaker. Moore left Sega in January 2003 following a meeting in which he was frustrated by Japanese executives refusing to adapt to industry changes, such as the demand for mature games such as Grand Theft Auto III. Hideaki Irie, who had worked at Agetec and ASCII, became the new president and COO of Sega of America in October 2003.
2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion
Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.
In August 2003, Sammy bought 22.4 percent of Sega's shares from CSK, making Sammy into Sega's largest shareholder. In the same year, Hajime Satomi said Sega's activity would focus on its profitable arcade business as opposed to loss-incurring home software development. In 2004, Sega Sammy Holdings, an entertainment conglomerate, was created; Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the new holding company, both companies operating independently while the executive departments merged. According to the first Sega Sammy Annual Report, the merger went ahead as both companies were facing difficulties. Satomi said Sega had been operating at a loss for nearly ten years, while Sammy feared stagnation and over-reliance of its highly profitable pachislot and pachinko machine business and wanted to diversify. Sammy acquired the remaining percentages of Sega, completing a takeover. The stock swap deal valued Sega between $1.45 billion and $1.8 billion. Sega Sammy Holdings was structured into four parts: Consumer Business (video games), Amusement Machine Business (arcade games), Amusement Center Business (Sega's theme parks and arcades) and Pachislot and Pachinko Business (Sammy's pachinko and pachislot business).
According to an industry survey, as of 2005, sales of arcade machines were up for the previous four years in Japan, while down for nine straight years overseas. In response to the decline of the global arcade industry in the late 1990s, Sega created several novel concepts tailored to the Japanese market. Derby Owners Club was an arcade machine with memory cards for data storage, designed to take over half an hour to complete and costing JP¥500 to play. Testing of Derby Owners Club in a Chicago arcade showed that it had become the most popular machine at the location, with a 92% replay rate. While the eight-player Japanese version of the game was released in 1999, the game was reduced to a smaller four-player version due to size issues and released in North America in 2003. The cabinet was too expensive and the game did not entice casual users which are essential to the western arcade market. While the Japanese market retained core players, western arcades had become more focused on casual players, and Sega Amusements Europe, the entity created to officially distribute and manufacture Sega's machines on the continent after the consolidation of its regional divisions, subsequently decided to develop more games locally that were better suited to western tastes.
In 2005, the GameWorks chain of arcades came under the sole ownership of Sega, which previously was shared with Vivendi Universal, and remained under their ownership until 2011. In 2009, Sega Republic, an indoor theme park, opened in Dubai. Sega gradually reduced its arcade centers from 450 in 2005 to around 200 in 2015. Arcade machine sales incurred higher profits than the company's console, mobile and PC games on a year-to-year basis until the fiscal year of 2014.
In order to drive growth in western markets, Sega announced new leadership for Sega of America and Sega Europe in 2005. Simon Jeffery became president and COO of Sega of America, and Mike Hayes president and COO for Sega Europe. In 2009, Hayes became president of the combined outfit of both Sega of America and Sega Europe, due to Jeffery leaving. Sega sold Visual Concepts to Take-Two Interactive, and purchased UK-based developer Creative Assembly, known for its Total War series. In the same year, Sega Racing Studio was also formed by former Codemasters employees. In 2006, Sega Europe purchased Sports Interactive, known for its Football Manager series. In the console and handheld business, Sega found success in the Japanese market with the Yakuza, Phantasy Star Portable and Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA series. Sega began providing the 3D imaging for Hatsune Miku holographic concerts in 2010. Sega also distributes games from smaller Japanese game developers and sells localizations of Western games in Japan. In 2013, Index Corporation was purchased by Sega Sammy after going bankrupt. The year before, Sega signed a deal to distribute Atlus titles in Japan. After the buyout, Sega implemented a corporate spin-off with Index. The latter's game assets were rebranded as Atlus, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sega.
In the mobile market, Sega released its first app on the iTunes Store with a version of Super Monkey Ball in 2008. Due in part to the decline of packaged game sales worldwide in the 2010s, Sega began layoffs and closed five offices based in Europe and Australia on July 1, 2012. This was to focus on the digital game market, such as PC and mobile devices. In 2012, Sega also began acquiring studios for mobile development, studios such as Hardlight, Three Rings Design, and Demiurge Studios becoming fully owned subsidiaries. 19 older mobile games were pulled due to quality concerns in May 2015.
To streamline operations, Sega established operational firms for each of its businesses in the 2010s. In 2012, Sega established Sega Networks as a subsidiary company for its mobile games. The same year, Sega Entertainment was established for Sega's amusement facility business. In January 2015, Sega of America announced its relocation from San Francisco to Atlus USA's headquarters in Irvine, California, which was completed later that year. From 2005 to 2015, Sega's operating income generally saw improvements compared to Sega's past financial problems, but was not profitable every year.
Sega operating income 2005–2015, Japanese yen in millions
Business year
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Amusement Machine Sales
7,423
12,176
11,682
7,152
6,890
7,094
7,317
7,415
1,902
−1,264
−2,356
Amusement Center Operations
5,472
9,244
132
−9,807
−7,520
−1,338
342
355
1,194
60
−946
Consumer Business
−8,809
9,244
1,748
−5,989
−941
6,332
1,969
−15,182
−732
2,089
4,033
2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive
In April 2015, Sega Corporation was reorganized into Sega Group, one of three groups of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was established, with four business sectors under its control. Haruki Satomi, son of Hajime Satomi, took office as president and CEO of the company in April 2015. Sega Games Co., Ltd. became the legal name of Sega Corporation and continued to manage home video games, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd. was founded to take control of the arcade division. Sega Networks merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. in 2015. At the Tokyo Game Show in September 2016, Sega announced that it had acquired the intellectual property and development rights to all games developed and published by Technosoft. Effective from January 2017, 85.1% of the shares in Sega's theme park business became owned by China Animations Character Co., renaming the former Sega Live Creation to CA Sega Joypolis.
Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Sega Sammy Holdings announced in April 2017 that it would relocate its head office functions and domestic subsidiaries located in the Tokyo metropolitan area to Shinagawa-ku by January 2018. This was to consolidate scattered head office functions including Sega Sammy Holdings, Sammy Corporation, Sega Holdings, Sega Games, Atlus, Sammy Network, and Dartslive. Sega's previous headquarters in Ōta was sold in 2019.
In June 2017, Chris Bergstresser replaced Jurgen Post as president and COO of Sega Europe. In June 2018, Gary Dale, formerly of Rockstar Games and Take-Two Interactive, replaced Chris Bergstresser as president and COO of Sega Europe. A few months later, Ian Curran, a former executive at THQ and Acclaim Entertainment, replaced John Cheng as president and COO of Sega of America in August 2018. In October 2018, Sega reported favorable western sales results from games such as Yakuza 6 and Persona 5, due to the localization work of Atlus USA.
Despite a 35-percent increase in the sale of console games and success in its PC game business, profits fell 70 percent for the 2018 fiscal year in comparison to the previous year, mainly due to the digital games market which includes mobile games as well as Phantasy Star Online 2. In response, Sega announced that for its digital games it would focus on releases for its existing intellectual property and also focus on growth areas such as packaged games in the overseas market. Sega blamed the loss on market miscalculations and having too many games under development. Projects in development at Sega included a new game in the Yakuza series, the Sonic the Hedgehog film, and the Sega Genesis Mini, which was released in September 2019. In May 2019, Sega acquired Two Point Studios, known for Two Point Hospital.
On April 1, 2020, Sega Interactive merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. The company was again renamed Sega Corporation, while Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was renamed Sega Group Corporation. According to a company statement, the move was made to allow greater research and development flexibility. Also in April 2020, Sega sold Demiurge Studios to Demiurge co-founder Albert Reed. Demiurge said it would continue to support the mobile games it developed under Sega.
2020–present: Recent history
As part of its 60th anniversary, Sega announced the Game Gear Micro microconsole for release on October 6, 2020, in Japan. Sega also announced its Fog Gaming platform, which uses the unused processing power of arcade machines in Japanese arcades overnight to help power cloud gaming applications.
Sega made a number of restructuring moves in the early 2020s. During the latter half of 2020, many of the financial gains Sega made in the earlier part of the year dissolved due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its Sega Entertainment division, which ran its arcades. That November, Sega Sammy sold 85.1% of its shares in the division to Genda Inc., though the Sega branding and coin-operated machines continued to be used in arcades. Arcade game development was unaffected by the sale. By January 2022, Sega sold the remaining portion of this division to Genda. Sega Group Corporation was formally dissolved by its parent company in 2021.
Contrasting its losses brought forth by amusement operations in 2020, sales and critical reception of Sega's home console games improved; Metacritic named Sega the best publisher of the year in 2020. Of its 28 releases that year, 95% had "good" Metacritic scores (above 75/100), including two with "great" scores (above 90/100 for Persona 5 Royal and Yakuza 0), with an average Metacritic score of 81.6 for all 2020 Sega releases. In 2023, Sega acquired the Finnish video game developer Rovio Entertainment, best known for the Angry Birds series, for US$776 million.
On April 24, 2023, 144 Sega of America employees announced plans to file a new union election under the new labor union, Allied Employees Guild Improving Sega (AEGIS), which is allied with the Communication Workers of America via CWA Local 9510. AEGIS represents workers from departments including marketing, quality assurance, development and localization, making it the first of its kind in the game industry in the United States. On July 10, 2023, it was announced that workers had voted 91–26 to form the union. AEGIS is undergoing certification with the National Labor Relations Board before going into bargaining.
In May 2023, Sega announced that 121 employees at Relic Entertainment had been made redundant to focus on cored franchises. That same year, Sega cancelled their upcoming shooter Hyenas and began restructuring its British and European operations. At The Game Awards 2023, Sega announced an initiative to revive many of its dormant franchises, beginning with new Crazy Taxi, Golden Axe, Jet Set Radio, Shinobi and Streets of Rage games. The Washington Post characterized the announcement as a return to Sega's 1990s "bohemian" and "countercultural" spirit. The co-CEO, Shuji Utsumi, said Sega wanted to "show edginess and a rebellious mindset", and that the industry was now large enough to sustain its less conventional games. In November 2023, AEGIS filed an unfair labor practice after Sega proposed a plan to phase out temporary employees by February 2024, which would affect around 80 employees.
In January 2024, Jurgen Post rejoined Sega Europe to become COO of its western studios and also serve as managing director. That month, Shuji Utsumi became the president, COO and CEO of Sega of America and Europe. Utsumi had previously helped found Sony Computer Entertainment, where he helped launch the original PlayStation, before moving to Sega and assisting with the North American Dreamcast launch. After a period with Disney Interactive, he co-founded Q Entertainment before returning to Sega in 2020. On January 9, Sega Sammy Holdings announced that Sega's amusement machine business would be demerged and transferred to Sega Toys, which will be renamed Sega Fave Corporation. The changes will take effect by April. On February 29, Sega appointed Justin Scarpone as an executive vice president of a group to expand Sega's presence in film and television.
In January 2024, Sega announced that it would lay off 61 workers at its Irvine, California location. AEGIS had been negotiating with Sega of America since November to reduce the total redundancies. On March 27, 2024, AEGIS announced that its workers had ratified a contract with Sega of America, focusing on key issues. The following day, Sega laid off 240 workers from its British and European operations, including Sega Europe, Creative Assembly, and Hardlight, and sold Relic Entertainment to an external investor.
Corporate structure
Since 2004, Sega has been a subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega's global headquarters are in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. Sega also has offices in Irvine, California (as Sega of America), in London (as Sega Europe), in Seoul, South Korea (as Sega Publishing Korea), and in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taipei. In other regions, Sega has contracted distributors for its games and consoles, such as Tectoy in Brazil. Sega has had offices in France, Germany, Spain, and Australia; those markets have since contracted distributors.
Relations between the regional offices have not always been smooth. Some conflict in the 1990s may have been caused by Sega president Nakayama and his admiration for Sega of America; according to Kalinske, "There were some guys in the executive suites who really didn't like that Nakayama in particular appeared to favor the US executives. A lot of the Japanese executives were maybe a little jealous, and I think some of that played into the decisions that were made." By contrast, author Steven L. Kent said Nakayama bullied American executives and that Nakayama believed the Japanese executives made the best decisions. Kent also said Sega of America CEOs Kalinske, Stolar, and Moore dreaded meeting with Sega of Japan executives.
Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation
A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022
After the formation of Sega Group in 2015 and the founding of Sega Holdings, the former Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd. Under this structure, Sega Games was responsible for the home video game market and consumer development, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd., comprised Sega's arcade game business. The two were consolidated in 2020, renamed as Sega Corporation, and Sega Group Corporation was formally absorbed into Sega Corporation in 2021. The company includes Sega Networks, which handles game development for smartphones. Sega Corporation develops and publishes games for major video game consoles and has not expressed interest in developing consoles again. According to former Sega Europe CEO Mike Brogan, "There is no future in selling hardware. In any market, through competition, the hardware eventually becomes a commodity ... If a company has to sell hardware then it should only be to leverage software, even if that means taking a hit on the hardware."
Sega Fave Corporation, originally known as Yonezawa Toys and acquired by Sega in 1991, has created toys for children's franchises such as Oshare Majo: Love and Berry, Mushiking: King of the Beetles, Lilpri, Bakugan, Jewelpet, Rilu Rilu Fairilu, Dinosaur King, and Hero Bank. Products released in the West include the home planetarium Homestar and the robot dog iDog. The Homestar was released in 2005 and has been improved several times. Its newest model, Flux, was released in 2019. The series is developed by the Japanese inventor and entrepreneur Takayuki Ohira. As a recognized specialist for professional planetariums, he has received numerous innovation prizes and supplies large planetariums internationally with his company Megastar. Sega Toys also inherited the Sega Pico handheld system and produced Pico software. The company also develops and sells arcade games that were previously held under Sega until 2024.
Since the late 1960s, Sega has been affiliated with operations of bowling alleys and arcades through its former Sega Entertainment Co., Ltd. subsidiary in Japan, as well as a number of other smaller regional subsidiaries in other countries. Initiatives to expand operations in other territories, such as the US, UK, France, Spain, and Taiwan, have been more short-lived, and following the 85.1% majority acquisition of Sega Entertainment's shares in November 2020 to mitigate losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, Sega's arcades in Japan since have been run under Genda Incorporated's Genda GiGO Entertainment division. Its DartsLive subsidiary creates electronic darts games, while Sega Logistics Service distributes and repairs arcade games.
In 2015, Sega and Japanese advertising agency Hakuhodo formed a joint venture, Stories LLC, to create entertainment for film and TV. Stories LLC has exclusive licensing rights to adapt Sega properties into film and television, and has partnered with producers to develop series based on properties including Shinobi, Golden Axe, Virtua Fighter, The House of the Dead, and Crazy Taxi.
Research and development
See also: Sega development studios
Sega produces games through its research and development teams. The Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, maintained through Sega's Sonic Team division, is one of the best-selling franchises in video games. Sega has also acquired third-party studios including Atlus, Play Heart, Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Hardlight, Relic Entertainment, Sports Interactive, Two Point Studios. and Rovio Entertainment.
Sega's software research and development teams began with one development division operating under Sega's longtime head of R&D, Hisashi Suzuki. As the market increased for home video game consoles, Sega expanded with three Consumer Development (CS) divisions. After October 1983, arcade development expanded to three teams: Sega DD No. 1, 2, and 3. Some time after the release of Power Drift, Sega restructured its teams again as the Sega Amusement Machine Research and Development Teams, or AM teams. Each arcade division was segregated, and a rivalry existed between the arcade and consumer development divisions.
In what has been called "a brief moment of remarkable creativity", in 2000, Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers. The studios were United Game Artists, Smilebit, Hitmaker, Sega Rosso, WOW Entertainment, Overworks, Amusement Vision, Sega-AM2, and Sonic Team. Sega's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process. After taking over as company president in 2003, Hisao Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios. Prior to the acquisition by Sammy, Sega began the process of re-integrating its subsidiaries into the main company. Toshihiro Nagoshi, formerly the head of Amusement Vision, recalls this period as "in many ways a labour of love" from Sega, teaching the creatives the experience of managing a business.
Sega still operates first-party studios as departments of its research and development division. Sonic Team exists as Sega's CS2 research and development department, while Sega's CS3 or Online department has developed games such as Phantasy Star Online 2, and Sega's AM2 department has more recently worked on projects such as smartphone game Soul Reverse Zero. Toshihiro Nagoshi remained involved with research and development as Sega's chief creative officer or creative director while working on the Yakuza series until 2021. Other studios include Ignited Artists and Play Heart.
Legacy
A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017
Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, having developed more than 500 games, 70 franchises, and 20 arcade system boards since 1981. It has been recognized by Guinness World Records for this achievement. Of Sega's arcade division, Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said, "It's boisterous, broad and with a neat sense of showmanship running through its range. On top of that, it has something that's often evaded its console-dwelling cousin: success."
The Sega Genesis is often ranked among the best consoles in history. In 2014, USgamer's Jeremy Parish credited it for galvanizing the market by breaking Nintendo's near-monopoly, helping create modern sports game franchises, and popularizing television games in the UK. Kalinske felt Sega had innovated by developing games for an older demographic and pioneering the "street date" concept with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2. Sega of America's marketing campaign for the Genesis influenced marketing for later consoles.
Despite its commercial failure, the Saturn is well regarded for its library, though it has been criticized for a lack of high-profile franchise releases. Edge wrote that "hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers, Guardian Heroes, Dragon Force, and Panzer Dragoon Saga." Sega's management was criticized for its handling of the Saturn. According to Greg Sewart of 1Up.com, "the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time".
The Dreamcast is remembered for being ahead of its time, with several concepts that became standard in consoles, such as motion controls and online functionality. Its demise has been connected with transitions in the video game industry. In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, Duncan Harris wrote that the Dreamcast's end "signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright, attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games." Parish contrasted the Dreamcast's diverse library with the "suffocating sense of conservatism" that pervaded the industry in the following decade.
In Eurogamer, Damien McFerran wrote that Sega's decisions in the late 1990s were "a tragic spectacle of overconfidence and woefully misguided business practice". Travis Fahs of IGN noted that since the Sammy takeover Sega had developed fewer games and outsourced to more western studios, and that its arcade operations had been significantly reduced. Nonetheless, he wrote: "Sega was one of the most active, creative, and productive developers the industry has ever known, and nothing that can happen to their name since will change that." In 2015, Sega president Haruki Satomi told Famitsu that, in the previous ten years, Sega had "betrayed" the trust of older fans and that he hoped to re-establish the Sega brand. During the promotion of the Sega Genesis Mini, Sega executive manager Hiroyuki Miyazaki reflected on Sega's history, saying, "I feel like Sega has never been the champion, at the top of all the video game companies, but I feel like a lot of people love Sega because of the underdog image." Former Sega management cited the absence of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy games on their home consoles as a reason for the console division's struggles, especially in Japan. In his 2018 book The Sega Arcade Revolution, Horowitz connected Sega's decline in the arcades after 1995 with broader industry changes. He argued that its most serious problems came from the loss of its creative talent, particularly Yuji Naka and Yu Suzuki, after the Sammy takeover, but concluded that "as of this writing, Sega is in its best financial shape of the past two decades. The company has endured."
See also
Video games portal
List of Sega video game franchises
Lists of Sega games
Sega, S.A. SONIC
Sega Technical Institute
Notes
^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega
^ Japanese: 日本娯楽物産株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon goraku bussan kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Amusement Products Stock Company
^ Japanese: 日本機械製造株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon kikai seizō kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Machine Manufacturers Co., Ltd.
^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ・エンタープライゼズ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega Entapuraizezu
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^ "SEGA Acquires New Studio, Invests in Two More". IGN. February 19, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
^ "Most prolific producer of arcade machines". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on December 25, 2014. Retrieved May 7, 2015.
^ Robinson, Martin (February 16, 2014). "Sega's arcade redemption". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved February 25, 2019.
^ "Top 25 Videogame Consoles of All Time". IGN. September 4, 2009. Archived from the original on June 23, 2018. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ Sztein, Andrew (March 28, 2008). "The Top Ten Consoles of All Time". GamingExcellence. Archived from the original on May 5, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
^ Buffa, Chris (March 5, 2008). "Top 10 Greatest Consoles". GameDaily. Archived from the original on March 9, 2008. Retrieved October 24, 2010.
^ Parish, Jeremy (August 14, 2014). "Sega Genesis 25th Anniversary: The Rise and Fall of an All-Time Great". USgamer. Archived from the original on May 27, 2015. Retrieved November 16, 2015.
^ Grubb, Jeff (August 14, 2014). "Sega Genesis genius Tom Kalinske on its 25 year legacy: Battling Nintendo, launching Sonic, and birthing the 'street date'". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 16, 2015.
^ "Pssstt! Wanna Buy a Game System?". Next Generation. No. 14. February 1996. pp. 68–79.
^ a b Sewart, Greg (August 5, 2005). "Sega Saturn: The Pleasure And The Pain". 1Up.com. Archived from the original on March 17, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2016.
^ Parish, Jeremy (November 18, 2014). "The Lost Child of a House Divided: A Sega Saturn Retrospective". USgamer. Archived from the original on December 15, 2014. Retrieved December 17, 2014.
^ "How Consoles Die". Edge. September 17, 2008. p. 3. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
^ "Dreamcast is number 8". IGN. Archived from the original on August 30, 2011. Retrieved September 7, 2011.
^ Whitehead, Dan (January 2, 2009). "Dreamcast: A Forensic Retrospective". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on October 15, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
^ "The ten best consoles: our countdown of the greatest gameboxes of the last 20 years". Edge. September 20, 2013. Archived from the original on November 28, 2014. Retrieved March 5, 2015.
^ Redsell, Adam (May 20, 2012). "SEGA: A Soothsayer of the Games Industry". IGN. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
^ Mott, Tony (2013). 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. Universe Publishing. p. 434. ISBN 978-0-7893-2090-2.
^ Parish, Jeremy (September 13, 2014). "What if Dreamcast Had Won?". USgamer. Archived from the original on December 15, 2014. Retrieved January 20, 2015.
^ Hayashi, Katsuhiko (July 20, 2015). "セガゲームス始動！ 代表取締役社長CEO・里見治紀氏に訊く、新会社設立の意図と将来像" . Famitsu (in Japanese). Archived from the original on March 4, 2020. Retrieved June 30, 2018.
^ Williams, Mike (June 21, 2019). "Sega on Bringing the Old Team Back Together to Create the Genesis Mini". USGamer. Archived from the original on June 21, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
^ "ビデオゲームの語り部たち 第11部：鈴木久司氏が魂を注いだセガのアーケードゲーム黄金時代". 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Retrieved September 25, 2022.
^ "『Beep21』創刊3号・特別企画 小口久雄氏インタビュー｜Beep21｜note". note（ノート） (in Japanese). August 10, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
^ Horowitz 2018, p. 282
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vteSegaA subsidiary of Sega Sammy HoldingsProducts
Software
Video game franchises
List of games
Hardware
Consoles
Development studiosJapan
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Sega AM2
Sonic Team
Sega Saporro Studio
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Sega Net Link
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ALL.Net
Sega Forever
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Index Corporation
Relic Entertainment
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Sega Ozisoft
Sega Entertainment
Sega World
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SegaWorld London
SIMS Co., Ltd.
Sonic! Software Planning
Visual Concepts
Technosoft
Three Rings Design
Defunct
Amusement Vision
Hitmaker
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Sega WOW
WOW Entertainment
Overworks
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Related
Gremlin Industries
Gulf and Western Industries
Sega Technical Institute
SCSK Corporation
Sega v. Accolade
Category
Sega Corporation
vteSega Sammy HoldingsExecutive
Hajime Satomi (chairman)
Sega CorporationvteSegaA subsidiary of Sega Sammy HoldingsProducts
Software
Video game franchises
List of games
Hardware
Consoles
Development studiosJapan
Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio
Sega AM2
Sonic Team
Sega Saporro Studio
Sega AM1
Atlus
Europe
Amplitude Studios
Creative Assembly
Sofia
Hardlight
Rovio Entertainment
Ruby Games
Sports Interactive
Two Point Studios
Sega FaveProducts
Arcade systems
Arcade games
Sega Logistics Services
DartsliveTMS Entertainment
Telecom Animation Film
TMS JINNI'S
TMS Music
Toms Photo
Other assets
Play Heart
Sega XD
Marza Animation Planet
Online gaming services
Sega Meganet
Sega Channel
Sega Net Link
Dreamcast services
ALL.Net
Sega Forever
Former assets
Career Soft
GameWorks
Demiurge Studios
Index Corporation
Relic Entertainment
Sega Studios San Francisco
Sega Studios Australia
Sega Sports R&D
Sega Ozisoft
Sega Entertainment
Sega World
Sega World Sydney
SegaWorld London
SIMS Co., Ltd.
Sonic! Software Planning
Visual Concepts
Technosoft
Three Rings Design
Defunct
Amusement Vision
Hitmaker
Sega Rosso
Sega WOW
WOW Entertainment
Overworks
Smilebit
Orbi
Related
Gremlin Industries
Gulf and Western Industries
Sega Technical Institute
SCSK Corporation
Sega v. Accolade
Category
Sammy Corporation
Sammy Networks
Attic Arcade
Sammy Facility Services
Sammy Digital Security
Taiyo Elec
Rodeo
m2r
GINZA (90%)
ENGI (40%)
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Wave Master
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Former subsidiaries
ASCII Corporation
CA Sega Joypolis
Demiurge Studios
Joypolis
Index Corporation
Relic Entertainment
Sammy Studios
Sega Ozisoft
SIMS Co., Ltd.
Sonic! Software Planning
Visual Concepts
Defunct
Amusement Vision
Career Soft
Sega AM3
Sega Racing Studio
SegaSoft
Sega Studios San Francisco
Sega Sports R&D
Smilebit
Technosoft
Three Rings Design
vteVideo game franchises owned by SegaSega
Alex Kidd
Angry Birds
Bayonetta
Company of Heroes
Crazy Taxi
Eastside Hockey Manager
Ecco the Dolphin
Football Manager
Golden Axe
Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA
The House of the Dead
Initial D
Like a Dragon
Panzer Dragoon
Phantasy Star
Puyo Puyo
Sakura Wars
Sega Ages
Sega Rally
Sega Worldwide Soccer
Shenmue
Shining
Shinobi
Sonic the Hedgehog
Streets of Rage
Super Monkey Ball
Thunder Force
Total War
Valkyria Chronicles
Virtua Fighter
Virtua Striker
Virtua Tennis
Virtual On
Wonder Boy
World Series Baseball
Atlus
Dept. Heaven
Etrian Odyssey
Growlanser
Megami Tensei
Devil Children
Devil Summoner
Last Bible
Majin Tensei
Persona
Power Instinct
Trauma Center
vteSonic the Hedgehog
List of games
Music
Features
Printed media
Unofficial media
Main seriesConsole
Sonic the Hedgehog (1991)
2
CD
3
& Knuckles
3D Blast
Adventure
Adventure 2
Heroes
Sonic the Hedgehog (2006)
Unleashed
4: Episode I
Colors
Generations
Shadow Generations
4: Episode II
Lost World
Mania
Forces
Frontiers
Superstars
Handheld
Sonic the Hedgehog
2
Chaos
Triple Trouble
Blast
Pocket Adventure
Advance
Advance 2
Advance 3
Rush
Rush Adventure
Spin-offsPlatformersSonic Boom
Rise of Lyric
Shattered Crystal
Fire & Ice
Mobile
Jump
Dash
Jump Fever
Runners
Runners Adventure
Dream Team
Other
SegaSonic the Hedgehog
Knuckles' Chaotix
Tails Adventure
Shadow the Hedgehog
Secret Rings
Black Knight
Speed Simulator
Racing
Drift
Drift 2
R
Riders
Rivals
Rivals 2
Riders: Zero Gravity
All-Stars Racing
Free Riders
All-Stars Racing Transformed
Team Sonic Racing
Mario & Sonic
Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games
Olympic Winter Games
London 2012
Sochi 2014 Winter
Rio 2016
Tokyo 2020
Other
Educational games
Spinball
Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine
Labyrinth
Tails' Skypatrol
Fighters
Shuffle
Pinball Party
Battle
Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood
The Murder
Unreleased games
X-treme
Extreme
Compilations
Jam
Mega Collection
Gems Collection
Ultimate Genesis Collection
Classic Collection
Origins
Characters
Sonic the Hedgehog
Doctor Eggman
Tails
Knuckles the Echidna
Shadow the Hedgehog
Chao
RelatedVideo games
Flicky
Puyo Puyo
Nights into Dreams
Fighters Megamix
Super Monkey Ball
Sega Superstars
Tennis
Super Smash Bros.
Lego Dimensions
Sega Heroes
Fall Guys
Angry Birds
Other
Green Hill Zone
Sonic Team
Yuji Naka
Naoto Ohshima
Hirokazu Yasuhara
Takashi Iizuka
Retro Engine
vteAtlusSeries
Dept. Heaven
Etrian Odyssey
Growlanser
Megami Tensei
Devil Children
Devil Summoner
Last Bible
Majin Tensei
Persona
Power Instinct
Snowboard Kids
Trauma Center
Other games
13 Sentinels: Aegis Rim
Abyss Odyssey
Amazing Tater
Armored Police Metal Jack
BlaZeon
Cannon Dancer
Catherine (Erica Anderson)
DonPachi
DoDonPachi
Dragon's Crown
Amazon
Sorceress
Dungeon Explorer
ESP Ra.De.
Friday the 13th
GP-1
GP-1: Part II
Gunbird
Guwange
Heaven's Gate
Hellnight
Hoshigami
Imadoki no Vampire: Bloody Bride
Jaws
The Karate Kid
Kartia: The Word of Fate
Kat's Run
Kwirk
Maken X
Metaphor: ReFantazio
My Disney Kitchen
Naname De Magic!
Nijiiro Dodge Ball
Odin Sphere
Oh My God!
Peak Performance
Princess Crown
Pro Kishi Jinsei Simulation: Shōgi no Hanamichi
Purikura Daisakusen
Radiant Historia
River City Ransom EX
Rockin' Kats
Run Saber
Sengoku Blade
Somer Assault
Spud's Adventure
Stella Deus
Strikers 1945
Tesla Effect
Thousand Arms
Tokyo Mono Hara Shi
Unicorn Overlord
Wacky Races
Widget
Wizardry: Tale of the Forsaken Land
People
Katsura Hashino
Kazuma Kaneko
Shoji Meguro
Toshihiro Nagoshi
Kouji Okada
Shigenori Soejima
Related companies
Atlus USA
ACE Team
Aquaplus
Quest
Sting Entertainment
Sega
iXIT Corporation
Takara
Category
vteTMS Entertainment television series1960s
Big X (1964–1965)
Obake no Q-Tarō (1965–1967)
Perman (1967–1968)
Kyojin no Hoshi (1968–1971)
Kaibutsu-kun (1968–1969)
Moomin (1969–1970)
Attack No. 1 (1969–1971)
1970s
Shin Obake no Q-Tarō (1971–1972)
Tensai Bakabon (1971–1972)
Lupin III (1971–1972)
Dokonjō Gaeru (1972–1974)
Jungle Kurobe (1973)
Kōya no Shōnen Isamu (1973–1974)
Karate Baka Ichidai (1973–1974)
Ace o Nerae! (1973–1974)
First Human Giatrus (1974–1976)
Gamba no Bouken (1975)
Ganso Tensai Bakabon (1975–1977)
Hyōga Senshi Guyslugger (1977)
Shin Kyojin no Hoshi (1977–1978)
Ie Naki Ko (1977–1978)
Shin Lupin III (1977–1980)
Treasure Island (1978–1979)
Shin Ace o Nerae! (1978–1979)
Shin Kyojin no Hoshi II (1979)
The Rose of Versailles (1979–1980)
1980s
New Tetsujin 28-go (1980–1981)
Ashita no Joe 2 (1980–1981)
Ohayō! Spank (1981–1982)
Shin Dokonjō Gaeru (1981–1982)
Rokushin Gattai God Mars (1981–1982)
Jarinko Chie (1981–1983)
Uchu Densetsu Ulysses 31 (1981–1982)
Acrobunch (1982)
Space Cobra (1982–1983)
Perman (1983–1985)
Lady Georgie (1983–1984)
Chō Jikū Seiki Orguss (1983–1984)
Cat's Eye (1983–1984)
Lupin III Part III (1984–1985)
God Mazinger (1984)
Mighty Orbots (1984)
Cat's Eye (1984–1985)
Meitantei Holmes (1984–1985)
Onegai! Samia-don (1985–1986)
Robotan (1986)
Galaxy High School (1986)
Bug-tte Honey (1986–1987)
Soreike! Anpanman (1988–present)
Ohayō! Spank (1989–1991)
Bye Bye, Lady Liberty (1989)
Lupin III television specials (1989–present)
1990s
Mischievous Twins: The Tales of St. Clare's (1991)
Kinkyū Hasshin Saver Kids (1991–1992)
Reporter Blues (1991–1996)
Jarinko Chie: Chie-chan Funsenki (1991–1992)
Tetsujin 28-go FX (1992–1993)
My Patrasche (1992–1993)
Ohayō! Spank (1994–1995)
Soccer Fever (1994–1995)
Red Baron (1994–1995)
Magic Knight Rayearth (1994–1995)
Virtua Fighter (1995–1996)
Kaito Saint Tail (1995–1996)
Detective Conan (1996–present)
B't X (1996)
B't X Neo (1997)
Devil Lady (1998–1999)
Monster Rancher (1999–2001)
Gozonji! Gekko Kamen-kun (1999–2000)
Cybersix (1999)
Karakurizōshi Ayatsuri Sakon (1999–2000)
2000s
Hamtaro (2000–2006)
Shin Megami Tensei: DeviChil (2000–2001)
Project ARMS (2001)
Project ARMS: The 2nd Chapter (2001–2002)
Patapata Hikōsen no Bōken (2002)
Tenshi Na Konamaiki (2002–2003)
Episode 0: The First Contact (2002)
Sonic X (2003–2004)
Rumiko Takahashi Anthology (2003)
Requiem from the Darkness (2003)
Mermaid's Forest (2003)
PoPoLoCrois (2003–2004)
Uninhabited Planet Survive! (2003–2004)
Aishiteruze Baby (2004)
Futakoi (2004)
Gallery Fake (2005)
Buzzer Beater (2005)
Glass no Kamen (2005–2006)
The Snow Queen (2005–2006)
Tide-Line Blue (2005)
Fighting Beauty Wulong (2005–2006)
Mushiking: The King of Beetles (2005–2006)
Angel Heart (2005–2006)
Fighting Beauty Wulong Rebirth (2006)
Trotting Hamtaro Hai! (2006–2008)
Muteki Kanban Musume (2006)
D.Gray-man (2006–2008)
Kenichi: The Mightiest Disciple (2006–2007)
Pururun! Shizuku-chan (2006–2007)
Bakugan Battle Brawlers (2007–2008)
Buzzer Beater II (2007)
Pururun! Shizuku-chan Aha (2007–2008)
Moyasimon: Tales of Agriculture (2007)
Noramimi (2008)
Itazura na Kiss (2008)
CHIKO, Heiress of the Phantom Thief (2008)
Telepathy Shōjo Ran Jiken Note (2008)
Bakugan Battle Brawlers: New Vestroia (2009–2010)
Kupū~!! Mamegoma! (2009)
Genji Monogatari Sennenki (2009)
Lupin the 3rd vs. Detective Conan (2009)
2010s
Bakugan: Gundalian Invaders (2010–2011)
Lilpri (2010–2011)
Magic Kaito (2010–2012)
Cardfight!! Vanguard (2011–2014)
Bakugan: Mechtanium Surge (2011–2012)
Trotting Hamtaro Dechu! (2011–2013)
Battle Girls: Time Paradox (2011)
Brave 10 (2012)
Lupin the Third: The Woman Called Fujiko Mine (2012)
Zetman (2012)
Moyasimon Returns (2012)
Kamisama Kiss (2012)
Bakumatsu Gijinden Roman (2013)
Yowamushi Pedal (2013–2014)
The Pilot's Love Song (2014)
Z/X Ignition (2014)
Hero Bank (2014–2015)
Sengoku Basara: End of Judgement (2014)
Gugure! Kokkuri-san (2014)
Yowamushi Pedal Grande Road (2014–2015)
Hi-sCoool! SeHa Girls (2014)
Cardfight!! Vanguard G (2014–2016)
Kamisama Kiss◎ (2015)
Jewelpet: Magical Change (2015)
My Monster Secret (2015)
Lupin the 3rd Part IV: The Italian Adventure (2015–2016)
Phantasy Star Online 2: The Animation (2016)
Bakuon!! (2016)
Kamiwaza Wanda (2016–2017)
ReLIFE (2016)
Orange (2016)
D.Gray-man Hallow (2016)
Sweetness and Lightning (2016)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master (2016–2017)
Trickster (2016–2017)
All Out!! (2016–2017)
Case Closed Episode One: The Great Detective Turned Small (2016)
Chain Chronicle ~Light of Haecceitas~ (2017)
Yowamushi Pedal: New Generation (2017)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master 2nd (2017)
Nana Maru San Batsu (2017)
Yowamushi Pedal: Glory Line (2018)
Lupin the 3rd Part V: Misadventures in France (2018)
Megalobox (2018)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master 3rd (2018)
The Thousand Musketeers (2018)
Tsukumogami Kashimasu (2018)
Between the Sky and Sea (2018)
Bakugan: Battle Planet (2018–2020)
Meiji Tokyo Renka (2019)
Fruits Basket (2019–2021)
Hachigatsu no Cinderella Nine (2019)
Dr. Stone (2019)
2020s
Bakugan: Armored Alliance (2020–2021)
Tower of God (2020)
Rent-A-Girlfriend (2020–present)
Dr. Stone: Stone Wars (2021)
Bakugan: Geogan Rising (2021)
Burning Kabaddi (2021)
Don't Toy with Me, Miss Nagatoro (2021)
Megalobox 2: Nomad (2021)
Seirei Gensouki: Spirit Chronicles (2021–present)
Lupin the 3rd Part 6 (2021–2022)
Detective Conan: Police Academy Arc (2021–present)
Bakugan: Evolutions (2022)
Shenmue: The Animation (2022)
Insect Land (2022)
Case Closed: Zero's Tea Time (2022)
Case Closed: The Culprit Hanzawa (2022)
Yowamushi Pedal: Limit Break (2022–present)
Bakugan: Legends (2023)
Dr. Stone: New World (2023)
Four Knights of the Apocalypse (2023)
Rinkai! (2024)
Astro Note (2024)
Blue Box (2024)
Sakamoto Days (2025)
Rick and Morty: The Anime (TBA)
Category
vteMarza Animation PlanetFeature films
Space Pirate Captain Harlock
Resident Evil: Vendetta
Lupin III: The First
Sonic the Hedgehog
Video game franchises
Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA
Phantasy Star
Sega All-Stars
Sonic the Hedgehog
Super Monkey Ball
Standalone video games
Kingdom Conquest
Nights: Journey of Dreams
Oshare Majo: Love and Berry
Resonance of Fate
Samba de Amigo
Sengoku Taisen
Virtua Fighter 5
Virtua Tennis 4
Related
Sega Sammy Holdings
Sega
TMS Entertainment
vteElectronics industry in JapanCompaniesCurrent
Aiwa
Alaxala Networks
Alinco
Alps
Alpine
Anritsu
AOR
Audio-Technica
Bandai Namco
Brother
Canon
Casio
CatEye
Citizen Watch
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D+M Group
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Daikin
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ESP Guitars
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Business Innovation
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Japan Display
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JVC
Kenwood
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KO PROPO
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Mabuchi Motor
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Maspro
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Micron Memory Japan
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Mutoh
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Mobile Communications
Nichia
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Nihon Dempa Kogyo
Nikon
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Nitto Denko
NKK Switches
Oki
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Omron
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Integra Home Theater
Orion Electric
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Technics
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Pixela
Plextor
Renesas Electronics
Ricoh
Pentax
Riso Kagaku
Rohm
Roland
Rubycon
Sansui
Sanwa Electronic
SCREEN
Sega Sammy
Sega
Seiko Group
Pulsar
Seiko
Epson
Orient Watch
Seiko Instruments
Sharp
Shimadzu
Shindengen Electric Manufacturing
Sigma
Sony
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Square Enix
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Stanley Electric
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TEAC
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Topcon
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Defunct
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Electronic Industries Association
INCJ
Japan Electronic Industries Development Association
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Category
Portals: Video games Companies Tokyo Japan
Authority control databases International
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2
National
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Australia
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2
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consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_video_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Service Games of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sega"},{"link_name":"coin-operated games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Periscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periscope_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"Gulf and Western Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_and_Western_Industries"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"David Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rosen_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Hayao Nakayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Nakayama"},{"link_name":"management buyout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_buyout"},{"link_name":"CSK Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSK"},{"link_name":"Mega Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(1991_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Super Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"commercial failures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commercial_failures_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"third-party developer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_developer"},{"link_name":"Sammy Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Irvine, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California"},{"link_name":"Its development studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_development_studios"},{"link_name":"Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryu_Ga_Gotoku_Studio"},{"link_name":"Sega AM2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM2"},{"link_name":"Sonic Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Team"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Atlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus"},{"link_name":"Amplitude Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_Studios"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Sports Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Sega Hardlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardlight"},{"link_name":"Two Point Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Studios"},{"link_name":"Rovio Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovio_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Sonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(character)"},{"link_name":"amusement arcades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_arcade"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"TMS Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMS_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Lupin the 3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupin_the_3rd"},{"link_name":"Case Closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Closed"},{"link_name":"Anpanman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpanman"},{"link_name":"Marza Animation Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marza_Animation_Planet"}],"text":"Japanese video game company\"Sega Games\" redirects here. For a list of video games published by Sega, see Lists of Sega games. For other uses, see Sega (disambiguation).Sega Corporation[a] is a Japanese multinational video game company and subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It produces several multi-million-selling game franchises for arcades and consoles, including Sonic the Hedgehog, Angry Birds, Puyo Puyo, Super Monkey Ball, Total War, Virtua Fighter, and Yakuza. From 1983 until 2001, Sega also developed its own consoles.Sega was founded by American businessmen Martin Bromley and Richard Stewart as Nihon Goraku Bussan[b] on June 3, 1960. Shortly after, the company acquired the assets of its predecessor, Service Games of Japan. In 1965, it became known as Sega Enterprises, Ltd., after acquiring Rosen Enterprises, an importer of coin-operated games. Sega developed its first coin-operated game, Periscope, in 1966. Sega was sold to Gulf and Western Industries in 1969. Following a downturn in the arcade business in the early 1980s, Sega began to develop video game consoles, starting with the SG-1000 and Master System, but struggled against competitors such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 1984, Sega executives David Rosen and Hayao Nakayama led a management buyout, with backing from CSK Corporation.In 1988, Sega released the Mega Drive (known as the Genesis in North America). The Mega Drive struggled against competition in Japan, but the Genesis found success overseas after the release of Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991 and briefly outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, in the US. Later in the decade, Sega suffered several commercial failures such as the 32X, Saturn, and Dreamcast. In 2001, Sega stopped manufacturing consoles to become a third-party developer and publisher, and was acquired by Sammy Corporation in 2004. Sega Holdings Co. Ltd. was established in 2015; Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd., and its arcade, entertainment, and toy divisions separated into other companies. In 2020, Sega Games and Sega Interactive merged to become Sega Corporation.Sega's international branches, Sega of America and Sega Europe are headquartered in Irvine, California, and London. Its development studios include their internal research and development divisions (which utilize the Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio, Sega AM2 and Sonic Team brands for several core franchise entries), Sega Sapporo Studio which mainly provides support for the Tokyo-based development teams as well as handling partial game development,[4] & Atlus (including their R&D divisions, such as P-Studio and Studio Zero respectively) and six development studios in the UK and Europe: Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Sports Interactive, Sega Hardlight, Two Point Studios and Rovio Entertainment (including Ruby Games). Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers and its mascot, Sonic, is internationally recognized. Its name and branding are used for owned and/or affiliated companies that operate amusement arcades and produce other entertainment products, including Sega Fave; however, these are largely separate ventures. Sega is recognized for its video game consoles, creativity and innovations. In more recent years, it has been criticized for its business decisions and the quality of its creative output.Being the entertainment contents division of Sega Sammy Holdings, forming one half of the Sega Sammy Group,[5] Sega also owns a toy and amusement machine company, Sega Fave, which compromises their arcade development & manufacturing divisions that were previously under Sega and two animation studios: TMS Entertainment, which animates, produces, and/or distributes anime such as Lupin the 3rd, Case Closed and Anpanman & Marza Animation Planet, which specializes in CG animation.","title":"Sega"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG"},{"link_name":"Honolulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honolulu"},{"link_name":"coin-operated amusement machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"slot machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slot_machine"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"its territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent4-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"jukeboxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukebox"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"David Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rosen_(business)"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"photo booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_booth"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Rock-Ola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-Ola"},{"link_name":"pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"link_name":"Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMS_Industries"},{"link_name":"gun games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_gun_shooter"},{"link_name":"Midway Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midway_Games"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_1960s_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"link_name":"electro-mechanical game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-mechanical_game"},{"link_name":"Periscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periscope_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-22"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p14%E2%80%9316-23"},{"link_name":"Gulf and Western Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_and_Western_Industries"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p14%E2%80%9316-23"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"Space Invaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Invaders"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"link_name":"arcade video game boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"Gremlin Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gremlin_Industries"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Hayao Nakayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Nakayama"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Head On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_On_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"Pac-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Frogger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogger"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"isometric graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_graphics_in_video_games_and_pixel_art"},{"link_name":"Zaxxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaxxon"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"1940–1982: Origins and arcade success","text":"The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.In May 1940, American businessmen Martin Bromley, Irving Bromberg and James Humpert formed Standard Games in Honolulu, Hawaii. Their aim was to provide coin-operated amusement machines, including slot machines, to military bases as the increase in personnel with the onset of World War II would create demand for entertainment. After the war, the founders sold Standard Games in 1945, and in 1946 established Service Games, named for the military focus.[6] After the US government outlawed slot machines in its territories in 1952, Bromley sent employees Richard Stewart and Ray LeMaire to Tokyo to establish Service Games of Japan to provide coin-operated slot machines to US bases in Japan.[7][8][9] A year later, all five men established Service Games Panama to control the entities of Service Games worldwide. The company expanded over the next seven years to include distribution in South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam.[10] The name Sega, an abbreviation of Service Games,[11] was first used in 1954 on a slot machine, the Diamond Star.[10]Due to notoriety arising from investigations by the US government into criminal business practices, Service Games of Japan was dissolved on May 31, 1960.[10] On June 3,[12] Bromley established two companies to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and Nihon Kikai Seizō.[c] The two new companies purchased all of Service Games of Japan's assets. Kikai Seizō, doing business as Sega, Inc., focused on manufacturing slot machines. Goraku Bussan, doing business under Stewart as Utamatic, Inc., served as a distributor and operator of coin-operated machines, particularly jukeboxes.[10][13][14] The companies merged in 1964, retaining the Nihon Goraku Bussan name.[10]Around the same time, David Rosen, an American officer in the United States Air Force stationed in Japan, launched a photo booth business in Tokyo in 1954.[7] This company became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957 began importing coin-operated games into Japan. In 1965, Nihon Goraku Bussan acquired Rosen Enterprises to form Sega Enterprises, Ltd.[d] Rosen was installed as the CEO and managing director, while Stewart was named president and LeMaire was the director of planning. Shortly afterward, Sega stopped leasing to military bases and moved its focus from slot machines to coin-operated amusement machines.[15] Its imports included Rock-Ola jukeboxes, pinball games by Williams, and gun games by Midway Manufacturing.[16]Former logo used until 1975.Because Sega imported second-hand machines, which required frequent maintenance, it began constructing replacement guns and flippers for its imported games. According to former Sega director Akira Nagai, this led to the company developing its own games.[16] The first arcade electro-mechanical game (EM game) Sega manufactured was the submarine simulator Periscope, released worldwide in the late 1960s. It featured light and sound effects considered innovative and was successful in Japan. It was then exported to malls and department stores in Europe and the United States and helped standardize the 25-cent-per-play cost for arcade games in the US. Sega was surprised by the success, and for the next two years, the company produced and exported between eight and ten games per year.[17] The worldwide success of Periscope led to a \"technological renaissance\" in the arcade industry, which was reinvigorated by a wave of \"audio-visual\" EM novelty games that followed in the wake of Periscope during the late 1960s to early 1970s.[18] However, rampant piracy led Sega to cease exporting its games around 1970.[19]In 1969, Sega was sold to the American conglomerate Gulf and Western Industries, although Rosen remained CEO. In 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, Ltd., a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. Sega released Pong-Tron, its first video-based game, in 1973.[19] Despite late competition from Taito's hit arcade game Space Invaders in 1978,[16] Sega prospered from the arcade video game boom of the late 1970s, with revenues climbing to over US$100 million by 1979. During this period, Sega acquired Gremlin Industries, which manufactured microprocessor-based arcade games,[20] and Esco Boueki, a coin-op distributor founded and owned by Hayao Nakayama. Nakayama was placed in a management role of Sega's Japanese operations.[21] In the early 1980s, Sega was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States, as company revenues rose to $214 million.[22] 1979 saw the release of Head On, which introduced the \"eat-the-dots\" gameplay Namco later used in Pac-Man.[23] In 1981, Sega licensed Frogger, its most successful game until then.[24] In 1982, Sega introduced the first game with isometric graphics, Zaxxon.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Bally Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bally_Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herald-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"R&D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wired1-33"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"games-only console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Famicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wired-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku_Plunkett_2017-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"third-party developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_developer"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosen_Departs_Sega-38"},{"link_name":"Charles Bluhdorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bluhdorn"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herald2-39"},{"link_name":"management buyout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_buyout"},{"link_name":"CSK Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSK"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001343-40"},{"link_name":"Isao Okawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isao_Okawa"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001494-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku1000-43"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edge2-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MK3-46"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"Tonka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonka"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2016_6%E2%80%9315-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usgamer_next_gen-48"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-startribune-49"},{"link_name":"Atari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTdismiss-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digest_60-51"},{"link_name":"installed user base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_base"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digest_60-51"},{"link_name":"Tectoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectoy"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MDB-53"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Hang-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang-On"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"claw crane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claw_crane"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_Annual_Report_2005-56"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2016_6%E2%80%9315-47"},{"link_name":"Out Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Run"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thorpe_2016-58"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"}],"sub_title":"1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence","text":"Further information: SG-1000 and Master SystemSega's first video game console, the SG-1000Following a downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982, Gulf and Western sold its North American arcade game manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing in September 1983.[26][27][28] Gulf and Western retained Sega's North American R&D operation and its Japanese subsidiary, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. With its arcade business in decline, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. president Nakayama advocated for the company to use its hardware expertise to move into the home consumer market in Japan.[29] This led to Sega's development of a computer, the SC-3000. Learning that Nintendo was developing a games-only console, the Famicom, Sega developed its first home video game system, the SG-1000, alongside the SC-3000.[30] Rebranded versions of the SG-1000 were released in several other markets worldwide.[30][31][32][33] The SG-1000 sold 160,000 units in 1983, which far exceeded Sega's projection of 50,000 in the first year but was outpaced by the Famicom.[30] This was in part because Nintendo expanded its game library by courting third-party developers, whereas Sega was hesitant to collaborate with companies with which it was competing in the arcades.[30]In November 1983, Rosen announced his intention to step down as president of Sega Enterprises, Inc. on January 1, 1984. Jeffrey Rochlis was announced as the new president and CEO of Sega.[34] Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, and the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn, Gulf and Western began to sell off its secondary businesses.[35] Nakayama and Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation, a prominent Japanese software company.[36] Sega's Japanese assets were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Nakayama. Isao Okawa, head of CSK, became chairman,[21] while Nakayama was installed as CEO of Sega Enterprises, Ltd.[37]The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987In 1985, Sega began working on the Mark III,[38] a redesigned SG-1000.[39] For North America, Sega rebranded the Mark III as the Master System,[40] with a futuristic design intended to appeal to Western tastes.[41] The Mark III was released in Japan in October 1985.[42] Despite featuring more powerful hardware than the Famicom in some ways, it was unsuccessful at launch. As Nintendo required third-party developers not to publish their Famicom games on other consoles, Sega developed its own games and obtained the rights to port games from other developers.[38] To help market the console in North America, Sega planned to sell the Master System as a toy, similar to how Nintendo had done with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sega partnered with Tonka, an American toy company, to make use of Tonka's expertise in the toy industry.[43] Ineffective marketing by Tonka handicapped sales of the Master System.[44] By early 1992, production had ceased in North America. The Master System sold between 1.5 million and 2 million units in the region.[45] This was less market share in North America than both Nintendo and Atari, which controlled 80 percent and 12 percent of the market.[46] The Master System was eventually a success in Europe, where its sales were comparable to the NES.[47] As late as 1993, the Master System's active installed user base in Europe was 6.25 million units.[47] The Master System has had continued success in Brazil. New versions continue to be released by Sega's partner in the region, Tectoy.[48] By 2016, the Master System had sold 8 million units in Brazil.[49]During 1984, Sega opened its European division of arcade distribution, Sega Europe.[50] It re-entered the North American arcade market in 1985 with the establishment of Sega Enterprises USA at the end of a deal with Bally. The release of Hang-On in 1985 would prove successful in the region, becoming so popular that Sega struggled to keep up with demand for the game.[51] UFO Catcher was introduced in 1985 and as of 2005 was Japan's most commonly installed claw crane game.[52] In 1986, Sega of America was established to manage the company's consumer products in North America, beginning with marketing the Master System.[53] During Sega's partnership with Tonka, Sega of America relinquished marketing and distribution of the console and focused on customer support and some localization of games.[43] Out Run, released in 1986, became Sega's best selling arcade cabinet of the 1980s.[54] Former Sega director Akira Nagai said Hang-On and Out Run helped to pull the arcade game market out of the 1982 downturn and created new genres of video games.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega 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Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"monochrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochromatic"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGNGG-83"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon2016165-84"},{"link_name":"Mega-CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_CD"},{"link_name":"JP¥","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_yen"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"link_name":"CD-ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p449%E2%80%93461-86"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Takami-87"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p449%E2%80%93461-86"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtua_formula.jpg"},{"link_name":"Virtua Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Formula"},{"link_name":"Luxor Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Sega Model 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_1#Sega_Model_1"},{"link_name":"Sega AM2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM2"},{"link_name":"Virtua Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Racing"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"fighting game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_VF-90"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"R360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R360"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Sega World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_World"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EN-JOINT-94"},{"link_name":"Roppongi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roppongi"},{"link_name":"Ikebukuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikebukuro"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Luxor Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"Night Trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Trap"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_(1992_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"Videogame Rating Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videogame_Rating_Council"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"Howard Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"United States congressional hearings in 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_congressional_hearings_on_video_games"},{"link_name":"Joe Lieberman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Lieberman"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Software Rating Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Software_Rating_Board"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"}],"sub_title":"1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success","text":"Further information: Sega GenesisThe Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.With the arcade game market once again growing, Sega was one of the most recognized game brands at the end of the 1980s. In the arcades, the company focused on releasing games to appeal to diverse tastes, including racing games and side-scrollers.[55] Sega released the Master System's successor, the Mega Drive, in Japan on October 29, 1988. The launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier. Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep! helped establish a following, with the latter launching a new publication dedicated to the console, but Sega shipped only 400,000 units in the first year.[56]The Mega Drive struggled to compete against the Famicom[57] and lagged behind Nintendo's Super Famicom and the TurboGrafx-16, made by NEC, in Japanese sales throughout the 16-bit era.[58] For the North American launch, where the console was renamed Genesis, Sega had no sales and marketing organization. After Atari declined an offer to market the console in the region, Sega launched it through its own Sega of America subsidiary. The Genesis was launched in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, and in the rest of North America later that year.[59] The European version of the Mega Drive was released in September 1990.[60]Former Atari executive and new Sega of America president Michael Katz developed a two-part strategy to build sales in North America. The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo and emphasize the more arcade-like experience available on the Genesis,[59] with slogans including \"Genesis does what Nintendon't\".[56] Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time, the second part involved creating a library of games which used the names and likenesses of celebrities, such as Michael Jackson's Moonwalker and Joe Montana Football.[7][61] Nonetheless, Sega had difficulty overcoming Nintendo's ubiquity in homes.[62] Sega of America sold only 500,000 Genesis units in its first year, half of Nakayama's goal.[56]Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.[63]After the launch of the Genesis, Sega sought a new flagship line of releases to compete with Nintendo's Mario series.[64] Its new character, Sonic the Hedgehog, went on to feature in one of the best-selling video game franchises in history.[65][66] Sonic the Hedgehog began with a tech demo created by Yuji Naka involving a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a winding tube; this was fleshed out with Naoto Ohshima's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara.[67] Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo; his shoes were inspired by Michael Jackson's boots, and his personality by Bill Clinton's \"can-do\" attitude.[68][69][70]Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as CEO of Sega of America in mid-1990, and Katz departed soon after. Kalinske knew little about the video game market, but surrounded himself with industry-savvy advisors. A believer in the razor-and-blades business model, he developed a four-point plan: cut the price of the Genesis, create a US team to develop games targeted at the American market, expand the aggressive advertising campaigns, and replace the bundled game Altered Beast with Sonic the Hedgehog. The Japanese board of directors disapproved,[62] but it was approved by Nakayama, who told Kalinske, \"I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas, so go ahead and do it.\"[56]In large part due to the popularity of Sonic the Hedgehog,[62] the Genesis outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season. By January 1992, Sega controlled 65 percent of the 16-bit console market.[71] Sega outsold Nintendo for four consecutive Christmas seasons[72] due to the Genesis' head start, lower price, and a larger library compared to the SNES at release.[73] Nintendo's dollar share of the US 16-bit market dropped from 60% at the end of 1992 to 37% at the end of 1993,[74] Sega claimed 55% of all 16-bit hardware sales during 1994,[75] and the SNES outsold the Genesis from 1995 through 1997.[76][77][78]Game Gear, released in 1990In 1990, Sega launched the Game Gear, a handheld console, to compete against Nintendo's Game Boy. The Game Gear was designed as a portable version of the Master System and featured a full-color screen, in contrast to the monochrome Game Boy screen.[79] Due to its short battery life, lack of original games, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear did not surpass the Game Boy, having sold approximately 11 million units.[80] Sega launched the Mega-CD in Japan on December 1, 1991, initially retailing at JP¥49,800.[81] The add-on uses CD-ROM technology. Further features include a second, faster processor, vastly expanded system memory, a graphics chip that performed scaling and rotation similar to the company's arcade games, and another sound chip.[82][83] In North America, it was renamed the Sega CD and launched on October 15, 1992, with a retail price of US$299.[82] It was released in Europe as the Mega-CD in 1993.[81] The Mega-CD sold only 100,000 units during its first year in Japan, falling well below expectations.[81]Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993Throughout the early 1990s, Sega largely continued its success in arcades around the world. In 1992 and 1993, the new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased in-house development studio Sega AM2's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter (the first 3D fighting game), which, though expensive, played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics.[84][85][86][87] In addition, complex simulator equipment like the rotational R360 kept Sega competing with machines by rival arcade companies, including Taito.[88] New official region-specific distributors and manufacturers, including the UK's Deith Leisure, allowed Sega to sell its machines outside of Japan with ease.[89] Sega's domestic operations division also opened hundreds of family-oriented suburban Sega World amusement arcades in Japan during this period,[90] as well as large over-18s \"GiGO\" facilities in the high-profile urban areas of Roppongi and Ikebukuro.[91] In 1993, this success was mirrored in overseas territories with the openings of several large branded entertainment centers, such as Sega VirtuaLand in Luxor Las Vegas.[92][93] In 1994, Sega generated a revenue of ¥354.032 billion or $3,464,000,000 (equivalent to $7,121,000,000 in 2023).[94]In 1993, the American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games, such as Night Trap for the Sega CD and the Genesis version of Midway's Mortal Kombat.[95][96] This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an \"edgy\" company with \"attitude\", and this reinforced that image.[57] To handle this, Sega instituted the United States' first video game ratings system, the Videogame Rating Council (VRC), for all its systems. Ratings ranged from the family-friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA-13, and the adults-only rating of MA-17.[96] Executive vice president of Nintendo of America Howard Lincoln was quick to point out in the United States congressional hearings in 1993 that Night Trap was not rated at all. Senator Joe Lieberman called for another hearing in February 1994 to check progress toward a rating system for video game violence.[96] After the hearings, Sega proposed the universal adoption of the VRC; after objections by Nintendo and others, Sega took a role in forming the Entertainment Software Rating Board.[96]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"Sega Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Atari Jaguar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"32-bit 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Toys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KB_Toys"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001516-112"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionSaturn2-114"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_PlayStation-115"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001519%E2%80%93520-116"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finn2-117"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001531-119"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Innovation_and_competition-120"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1995_market_share2-121"},{"link_name":"Shoichiro Irimajiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoichiro_Irimajiri"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalinske_out-123"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001559-125"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001535-127"},{"link_name":"Bernie Stolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernie_Stolar"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newsflash-128"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalinske_out-123"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"localization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_localization"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001506-130"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001533-132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tokyo_Joypolis_entrance.jpg"},{"link_name":"GE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"Sega Model 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_2"},{"link_name":"Daytona USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytona_USA_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Virtua Cop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Cop"},{"link_name":"Sega Rally Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Rally_Championship"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_2"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAH-134"},{"link_name":"arms race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_race"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RG127-135"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP-136"},{"link_name":"Joypolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joypolis"},{"link_name":"Yokohama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama"},{"link_name":"Odaiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odaiba"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VR_Focus-137"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"Sega World London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SegaWorld_London"},{"link_name":"Sega World Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_World_Sydney"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"GameWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameWorks"},{"link_name":"DreamWorks SKG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DreamWorks_SKG"},{"link_name":"Universal Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen30-140"},{"link_name":"Atlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus"},{"link_name":"Print Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_Club"},{"link_name":"purikura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purikura"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"selfie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfie"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pan-142"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-143"},{"link_name":"karaoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaoke"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edwards-144"},{"link_name":"East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pan-142"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-143"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"SegaSoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SegaSoft"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"link_name":"Data East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_East"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CPB-148"},{"link_name":"Bandai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai"},{"link_name":"stock swap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_swap"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku_Plunkett_2011-149"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Sega_to_Acquire_Bandai-150"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finn2-117"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"parent company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent_company"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001559-125"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"commercial failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commercial_failures_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brandweek-159"},{"link_name":"Model 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_3"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_3"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p211%E2%80%93212-160"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"}],"sub_title":"1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success","text":"Further information: Sega Saturn and 32XSega began work on the Genesis' successor, the Sega Saturn, more than two years before showcasing it at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994.[97] According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama became concerned about the 1994 release of the Atari Jaguar, and that the Saturn would not be available until the next year. As a result, Nakayama decided to have a second console release to market by the end of 1994. Sega began to develop the 32X, a Genesis add-on which would serve as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era.[98] The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but would play Genesis games.[37] Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price.[99][100] After the holiday season, interest in the 32X rapidly declined.[98][101]The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994.[102] Virtua Fighter, a port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan.[103][104][105] Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day,[7][105][106] and it was more popular than the PlayStation, made by Sony, in Japan.[105][107] In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the US on \"Saturn-day\" (Saturday) September 2, 1995.[108][109] Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation.[106] At the first Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske revealed the release price and that Sega had shipped 30,000 Saturns to Toys \"R\" Us, Babbage's, Electronics Boutique, and Software Etc. for immediate release.[108] A by-product of the surprise launch was the provocation of retailers not included in Sega's rollout; KB Toys in particular decided to no longer stock its products in response.[108]The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995.[110] Within two days of the PlayStation's American launch on September 9, 1995, the PlayStation sold more units than the Saturn.[111][112] Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over twenty percent of the US video game market.[113] The console's high price point, surprise launch, and difficulty handling polygonal graphics were factors in its lack of success.[114] Sega also underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis; 16-bit sales accounted for 64 percent of the market in 1995.[115][116] Despite capturing 43 percent of the US market dollar share and selling more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, Kalinske estimated that, if prepared for demand, another 300,000 could have been sold.[117]Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America in July 1996, while Kalinske left Sega after September 30 of that year.[118][119] A former Honda executive,[120][121] Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993.[118][122] The company also announced that Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions at Sega of America, though both remained with Sega.[118][123] Bernie Stolar, a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America,[124][125] became Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations.[118][119] Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, believing its hardware was poorly designed.[7]While Stolar had said \"the Saturn is not our future\" at E3 1997, he continued to emphasize the quality of its games,[7] and later reflected that \"we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer.\"[125] At Sony, Stolar had opposed the localization of certain Japanese PlayStation games that he felt would not represent the system well in North America. He advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, generally blocking 2D arcade games and role-playing games from release, although he later sought to distance himself from this stance.[7][126][127] Other changes included a softer image in Sega's advertising, including removing the \"Sega!\" scream, and holding press events for the education industry.[128]Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999Sega partnered with GE to develop the Sega Model 2 arcade system board, building on 3D technology in the arcade industry at the time. This led to several successful arcade games, including Daytona USA, launched in a limited capacity in late 1993 and worldwide in 1994. Other popular games included Virtua Cop, Sega Rally Championship, and Virtua Fighter 2.[129] Virtua Fighter and Virtua Fighter 2 became Sega's best-selling arcade games of all time, surpassing their previous record holder Out Run.[130] There was also a technological arms race between Sega and Namco during this period, driving the growth of 3D gaming.[131]Beginning in 1994, Sega launched a series of indoor theme parks in Japan under a concept dubbed \"Amusement Theme Park\",[132] including Joypolis parks sited in urban Tokyo locations such as Yokohama and Odaiba.[133] A rapid overseas rollout was planned, with at least 100 locations across the world proposed to be opened by 2000,[21] however only two, Sega World London and Sega World Sydney, would ultimately materialise in September 1996 and March 1997, respectively.[134][135] Following on from difficulties faced in setting up theme parks in the United States, Sega established the GameWorks chain of urban entertainment centers in a joint venture with DreamWorks SKG and Universal Studios during March 1997.[136]In 1995, Sega partnered with Atlus to launch Print Club (purikura),[137] an arcade photo sticker machine that produces selfie photos.[138][139] Atlus and Sega introduced Purikura in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, karaoke establishments and bowling alleys.[140] Purikura became a popular form of entertainment among youths across East Asia, laying the foundations for modern selfie culture.[138][139] By 1997, about 47,000 Purikura machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated ¥25 billion (£173 million) or $283,000,000 (equivalent to $537,000,000 in 2023) from Purikura sales that year. Various other similar Purikura machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997.[141]Sega also made forays in the PC market with the 1995 establishment of SegaSoft, which was tasked with creating original Saturn and PC games.[142][143] From 1994 to 1999, Sega also participated in the arcade pinball market when it took over Data East's pinball division, renaming it Sega Pinball.[144]In January 1997, Sega announced its intentions to merge with the Japanese toy maker Bandai. The merger, planned as a $1 billion stock swap whereby Sega would wholly acquire Bandai, was set to form a company known as Sega Bandai, Ltd.[145][146] Though it was to be finalized in October of that year, it was called off in May after growing opposition from Bandai's mid-level executives. Bandai instead agreed to a business alliance with Sega.[147] As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as Sega president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri.[120] Nakayama's resignation may have in part been due to the failure of the merger, as well as Sega's 1997 performance.[148] Stolar became CEO and president of Sega of America.[125][149]After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in the US during 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games fell sharply in much of the west.[125] The PlayStation outsold the Saturn three-to-one in the US in 1997, and the latter failed to gain a foothold in Europe and Australia, where the Nintendo 64 would not release until March 1997.[113] After several years of declining profits,[94] Sega had a slight increase in the fiscal year ended March 1997, partly driven by increasing arcade revenue,[94] while outperforming Nintendo during the mid-term period.[150] However, in the fiscal year ending March 1998, Sega suffered its first financial loss since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as both a parent company and a corporation as a whole.[151] Shortly before the announcement of the losses, Sega discontinued the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor, the Dreamcast, releasing remaining games in low quantities.[120][125]The decision to discontinue the Saturn effectively left the North American home console market without Sega games for over a year, with most of its activity in the country coming from arcade divisions.[152] The Saturn lasted longer in some Europe territories and particularly Japan, with it notably outperforming the Nintendo 64 in the latter.[121] Nonetheless, Irimajiri confirmed in an interview with Japanese newspaper Daily Yomiuri that Saturn development would stop at the end of 1998 and games would continue to be produced until mid-1999.[153] With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units,[154] the Saturn is retrospectively considered a commercial failure in much of the world.[155] While Sega had success with the Model 3 arcade board and titles like Virtua Fighter 3, Sega's arcade divisions struggled in the West during the late 1990s.[156] On the other hand, Sega's arcade divisions were more successful in Asia, with Sega's overall arcade revenues increasing year-on-year throughout the late 1990s, but it was not enough to offset the significant declining revenues of Sega's home consumer divisions.[94]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dreamcast-Console-Set.png"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"Sonic Adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Adventure"},{"link_name":"launch game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_International_Forum"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G4_GM-165"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"New Arcade Operation Machine Idea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_NAOMI"},{"link_name":"arcade system board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board"},{"link_name":"Sega Model 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_3"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unified-168"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"installed base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_base"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564-169"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Kennedy_2009-172"},{"link_name":"Peter Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Moore_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Kennedy_2009-172"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564%E2%80%93565-174"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Timeline-175"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564-169"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"GD-ROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GD-ROM"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"recorded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamarena-183"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"vaporware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporware"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001560%E2%80%93561-185"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563,_574-187"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001566-191"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001582-193"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001581,_588-195"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"PSone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSOne"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001585%E2%80%93588-199"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"}],"sub_title":"1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles","text":"Further information: DreamcastThe Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.Despite a 75 percent drop in half-year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast, Sega felt confident about its new system. The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre-orders.[157] Sega announced that Sonic Adventure, the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, would be a Dreamcast launch game. It was promoted with a large-scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall.[158][159][160] Due to a high failure rate in the manufacturing process, Sega could not ship enough consoles for the Dreamcast's Japanese launch.[157][161] As more than half of its limited stock had been pre-ordered, Sega stopped pre-orders in Japan.[162] Before the launch, Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea (NAOMI) arcade system board, which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3.[163] NAOMI shared technology with the Dreamcast, allowing nearly identical ports of arcade games.[152][164]The Dreamcast launched in Japan on November 27, 1998. The entire stock of 150,000 consoles sold out by the end of the day.[162] Irimajiri estimated that another 200,000 to 300,000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply.[162] He hoped to sell more than a million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999, but less than 900,000 were sold. The low sales undermined Sega's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers.[165] Sega suffered a further ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce.[166][167] Before the Western launch, Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast in Japan by JP¥9,100, effectively making it unprofitable but increasing sales.[157]On August 11, 1999, Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired.[168] Peter Moore, whom Stolar had hired as a Sega of America executive only six months before,[169] was placed in charge of the North American launch.[168][170][171][172] The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9, 1999,[152][165][173] with 18 games.[173][174][175] Sega set a record by selling more than 225,132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours, earning $98.4 million in what Moore called \"the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history\".[169] Within two weeks, US Dreamcast sales exceeded 500,000.[169] By Christmas, Sega held 31 percent of the US video game market by revenue.[176] On November 4, Sega announced it had sold more than a million Dreamcast units.[177] Nevertheless, the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega's manufacturing plants, which produced defective GD-ROMs where data was not properly recorded onto the disc.[178] Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14, 1999.[177] While Sega sold 500,000 units in Europe by Christmas 1999,[157] sales there slowed, and by October 2000 Sega had sold only about a million units.[179]Though the Dreamcast was successful, Sony's PlayStation still held 60 percent of the overall market share in North America at the end of 1999.[177] On March 2, 1999, in what one report called a \"highly publicized, vaporware-like announcement\",[180] Sony revealed the first details of the PlayStation 2.[181][182] The same year, Nintendo announced that its next console would meet or exceed anything on the market, and Microsoft began development of its own console, the Xbox.[183][184][185] Sega's initial momentum proved fleeting as US Dreamcast sales—which exceeded 1.5 million by the end of 1999[186]—began to decline as early as January 2000.[187] Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega's ¥42.88 billion ($404 million) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000. This followed a similar loss of ¥42.881 billion the previous year and marked Sega's third consecutive annual loss.[166][188] Sega's overall sales for the term increased 27.4 percent, and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded its expectations. However, this coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan.[166] At the same time, worsening conditions reduced the profitability of Sega's Japanese arcade business, prompting the closure of 246 locations.[166][189]Moore became the president and chief operating officer of Sega of America on 8 May 2000.[190] He said the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the US by the end of 2000 to remain viable, but Sega fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold.[176][191] Moreover, Sega's attempts to spur Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses.[192] In March 2001, Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥51.7 billion ($417.5 million).[193] While the PlayStation 2's October 26 US launch was marred by shortages, this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected, as many disappointed consumers continued to wait or purchased a PSone.[176][194][195] Eventually, Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market, while Sega held only 15 percent.[157]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Annual_Income(Loss)_1993-2004.svg"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report_2002-200"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report_2004-201"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001581%E2%80%93582-202"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001577,_582-203"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosen-204"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_name_change-205"},{"link_name":"Nihon Keizai Shinbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Keizai_Shinbun"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_sega_sinks-206"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_gba_ps2-207"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001588%E2%80%93589-208"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pulls_plug-211"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"Visual Concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Concepts"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_okawa-215"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001582,_589-216"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_ms_sega-218"},{"link_name":"Joachim Kempin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Kempin"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taipei_loss-222"},{"link_name":"Sammy Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"pachinko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachinko"},{"link_name":"pachislot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachislot"},{"link_name":"Hajime Satomi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajime_Satomi"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p.253%E2%80%937-224"},{"link_name":"COO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_operating_officer"},{"link_name":"Hitmaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM3"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fahey-225"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft Auto III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_III"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Agetec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agetec"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_Media_Works"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"}],"sub_title":"2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development","text":"[94][166][196][197]CSK chairman Isao Okawa replaced Irimajiri as president of Sega on May 22, 2000.[198] Okawa had long advocated that Sega abandon the console business.[199] Others shared this view; Sega co-founder David Rosen had \"always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware\", and Stolar had suggested Sega should have sold the company to Microsoft.[7][200] In a September 2000 meeting with Sega's Japanese executives and heads of its first-party game studios, Moore and Sega of America executive Charles Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business. In response, the studio heads walked out.[169] Sega announced an official company name change from Sega Enterprises, Ltd. to Sega Corporation effective November 1, 2000. Sega stated in a release that this was to display its commitment to its \"network entertainment business\".[201]On January 23, 2001, Japanese newspaper Nihon Keizai Shinbun reported that Sega would cease production of the Dreamcast and develop software for other platforms.[202] After an initial denial, Sega released a press release confirming it was considering producing software for the PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance as part of its \"new management policy\".[203] On January 31, 2001, Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a \"platform-agnostic\" third-party developer.[204][205] Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to eliminate its unsold inventory, estimated at 930,000 units as of April 2001.[206][207] This was followed by further reductions to clear the remaining inventory.[208][209] The final manufactured Dreamcast was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega's first-party game studios, plus the heads of sports game developer Visual Concepts and audio studio Wave Master, and given away with all 55 first-party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro.[210]Okawa, who had loaned Sega $500 million in 1999, died on March 16, 2001. Shortly before his death, he forgave Sega's debts to him and returned his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock, helping the company survive the third-party transition.[211][212][213] He held failed talks with Microsoft about a sale or merger with their Xbox division.[214] According to former Microsoft executive Joachim Kempin, Microsoft founder, Bill Gates, decided against acquiring Sega because \"he didn't think that Sega had enough muscle to eventually stop Sony\".[215] A business alliance with Microsoft was announced whereby Sega would develop 11 games for the Xbox.[216] As part of the restructuring, nearly one third of Sega's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001.[217] 2002 was Sega's fifth consecutive fiscal year of net losses.[218]After Okawa's death, Hideki Sato, a 30-year Sega veteran who had worked on Sega's consoles, became the company president. Following poor sales in 2002, Sega cut its profit forecast for 2003 by 90 percent, and explored opportunities for mergers. In 2003, Sega began talks with Sammy Corporation–a pachinko and pachislot manufacturing company–and Namco. The president of Sammy, Hajime Satomi, had been mentored by Okawa and was previously asked to be CEO of Sega.[219] On February 13, Sega announced that it would merge with Sammy; however, as late as April 17, Sega was still in talks with Namco, which was attempting to overturn the merger. Sega's consideration of Namco's offer upset Sammy executives. The day after Sega announced it no longer planned to merge with Sammy, Namco withdrew its offer.[220]In 2003, Sato and COO Tetsu Kamaya stepped down. Sato was replaced by Hisao Oguchi, the head of the Sega studio Hitmaker.[221] Moore left Sega in January 2003 following a meeting in which he was frustrated by Japanese executives refusing to adapt to industry changes, such as the demand for mature games such as Grand Theft Auto III.[222] Hideaki Irie, who had worked at Agetec and ASCII, became the new president and COO of Sega of America in October 2003.[223]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Sega Sammy Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Sammy Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_sammy_merge-228"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_segasammy-230"},{"link_name":"Sega Sammy Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_Annual_Report_2005-56"},{"link_name":"takeover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeover"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_sammy_annual_report_2007-235"},{"link_name":"Derby Owners Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derby_Owners_Club"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-238"},{"link_name":"GameWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameWorks"},{"link_name":"Vivendi Universal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivendi_Universal"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-239"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-240"},{"link_name":"Sega Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Republic"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-241"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired_layoffs-242"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segasammy_pres-243"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_finance-244"},{"link_name":"Simon Jeffery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Jeffery"},{"link_name":"Mike Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Hayes_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-245"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-246"},{"link_name":"Take-Two Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-Two_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Total War series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_War_(video_game_series)"},{"link_name":"Sega Racing Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Racing_Studio"},{"link_name":"Codemasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codemasters"},{"link_name":"Sports Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Football Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Manager"},{"link_name":"Yakuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_(series)"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Portable"},{"link_name":"Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatsune_Miku:_Project_DIVA"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-247"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-248"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-249"},{"link_name":"holographic concerts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired_miku_concert-250"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_product_info-251"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_localization-252"},{"link_name":"Index Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg-atlussega-253"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254"},{"link_name":"corporate spin-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_spin-off"},{"link_name":"Atlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_index_split-255"},{"link_name":"iTunes Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"Super Monkey Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Monkey_Ball"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-256"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra_focus-257"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_eu_au-258"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcmag_layoffs-259"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yahoo_axe-260"},{"link_name":"Hardlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardlight"},{"link_name":"Three Rings Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rings_Design"},{"link_name":"Demiurge Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge_Studios"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-poly-segademiurge-261"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pocketgamer_Cowley_2017-263"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SEGA_Mobile_Game_Closures-264"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega-games_about-266"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_restructure-267"},{"link_name":"Atlus USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus_USA"},{"link_name":"Irvine, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-268"},{"link_name":"operating income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnings_before_interest_and_taxes"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segasammy1-269"}],"sub_title":"2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion","text":"Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.In August 2003, Sammy bought 22.4 percent of Sega's shares from CSK, making Sammy into Sega's largest shareholder.[224][225] In the same year, Hajime Satomi said Sega's activity would focus on its profitable arcade business as opposed to loss-incurring home software development.[226] In 2004, Sega Sammy Holdings, an entertainment conglomerate, was created; Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the new holding company, both companies operating independently while the executive departments merged. According to the first Sega Sammy Annual Report, the merger went ahead as both companies were facing difficulties. Satomi said Sega had been operating at a loss for nearly ten years,[227] while Sammy feared stagnation and over-reliance of its highly profitable pachislot and pachinko machine business and wanted to diversify.[52] Sammy acquired the remaining percentages of Sega, completing a takeover.[228] The stock swap deal valued Sega between $1.45 billion and $1.8 billion.[227][229] Sega Sammy Holdings was structured into four parts: Consumer Business (video games), Amusement Machine Business (arcade games), Amusement Center Business (Sega's theme parks and arcades) and Pachislot and Pachinko Business (Sammy's pachinko and pachislot business).[230]According to an industry survey, as of 2005, sales of arcade machines were up for the previous four years in Japan, while down for nine straight years overseas.[231] In response to the decline of the global arcade industry in the late 1990s, Sega created several novel concepts tailored to the Japanese market. Derby Owners Club was an arcade machine with memory cards for data storage, designed to take over half an hour to complete and costing JP¥500 to play. Testing of Derby Owners Club in a Chicago arcade showed that it had become the most popular machine at the location, with a 92% replay rate. While the eight-player Japanese version of the game was released in 1999, the game was reduced to a smaller four-player version due to size issues and released in North America in 2003.[232] The cabinet was too expensive and the game did not entice casual users which are essential to the western arcade market.[233] While the Japanese market retained core players, western arcades had become more focused on casual players, and Sega Amusements Europe, the entity created to officially distribute and manufacture Sega's machines on the continent after the consolidation of its regional divisions, subsequently decided to develop more games locally that were better suited to western tastes.[234]In 2005, the GameWorks chain of arcades came under the sole ownership of Sega, which previously was shared with Vivendi Universal,[235] and remained under their ownership until 2011.[236] In 2009, Sega Republic, an indoor theme park, opened in Dubai.[237] Sega gradually reduced its arcade centers from 450 in 2005 to around 200 in 2015.[238][239] Arcade machine sales incurred higher profits than the company's console, mobile and PC games on a year-to-year basis until the fiscal year of 2014.[240]In order to drive growth in western markets, Sega announced new leadership for Sega of America and Sega Europe in 2005. Simon Jeffery became president and COO of Sega of America, and Mike Hayes president and COO for Sega Europe.[241] In 2009, Hayes became president of the combined outfit of both Sega of America and Sega Europe, due to Jeffery leaving.[242] Sega sold Visual Concepts to Take-Two Interactive, and purchased UK-based developer Creative Assembly, known for its Total War series. In the same year, Sega Racing Studio was also formed by former Codemasters employees. In 2006, Sega Europe purchased Sports Interactive, known for its Football Manager series. In the console and handheld business, Sega found success in the Japanese market with the Yakuza, Phantasy Star Portable and Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA series.[243][244][245] Sega began providing the 3D imaging for Hatsune Miku holographic concerts in 2010.[246] Sega also distributes games from smaller Japanese game developers and sells localizations of Western games in Japan.[247][248] In 2013, Index Corporation was purchased by Sega Sammy after going bankrupt.[249] The year before, Sega signed a deal to distribute Atlus titles in Japan.[250] After the buyout, Sega implemented a corporate spin-off with Index. The latter's game assets were rebranded as Atlus, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sega.[251]In the mobile market, Sega released its first app on the iTunes Store with a version of Super Monkey Ball in 2008.[252] Due in part to the decline of packaged game sales worldwide in the 2010s,[253] Sega began layoffs and closed five offices based in Europe and Australia on July 1, 2012.[254] This was to focus on the digital game market, such as PC and mobile devices.[255][256] In 2012, Sega also began acquiring studios for mobile development, studios such as Hardlight, Three Rings Design, and Demiurge Studios becoming fully owned subsidiaries.[257][258][259] 19 older mobile games were pulled due to quality concerns in May 2015.[260][261]To streamline operations, Sega established operational firms for each of its businesses in the 2010s. In 2012, Sega established Sega Networks as a subsidiary company for its mobile games.[262] The same year, Sega Entertainment was established for Sega's amusement facility business.[263] In January 2015, Sega of America announced its relocation from San Francisco to Atlus USA's headquarters in Irvine, California, which was completed later that year.[264] From 2005 to 2015, Sega's operating income generally saw improvements compared to Sega's past financial problems, but was not profitable every year.[265]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Famitsu_interview_Haruki_Satomi-270"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-271"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History_of_SEGA_SAMMY_group-273"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega-games_about-266"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Game Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Game_Show"},{"link_name":"Technosoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosoft"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"},{"link_name":"CA Sega Joypolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CA_Sega_Joypolis"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-275"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tokyo metropolitan area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Shinagawa-ku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinagawa-ku"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-276"},{"link_name":"Ōta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cta,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-277"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-278"},{"link_name":"Rockstar Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockstar_Games"},{"link_name":"Take-Two Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-Two_Interactive"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-279"},{"link_name":"THQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THQ"},{"link_name":"Acclaim Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclaim_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-280"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_6:_The_Song_of_Life"},{"link_name":"Persona 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_5"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-281"},{"link_name":"fiscal year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_year"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Online 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Online_2"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(film)"},{"link_name":"Sega Genesis Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis_Mini"},{"link_name":"[278]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-282"},{"link_name":"[279]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-283"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-284"},{"link_name":"Two Point Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Studios"},{"link_name":"Two Point Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamesindustry_Sinclair_2019-285"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_Wales_2019-286"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-287"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Notice_of_mergers-288"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-289"}],"sub_title":"2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive","text":"In April 2015, Sega Corporation was reorganized into Sega Group, one of three groups of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was established, with four business sectors under its control. Haruki Satomi, son of Hajime Satomi, took office as president and CEO of the company in April 2015.[266][267] Sega Games Co., Ltd. became the legal name of Sega Corporation and continued to manage home video games, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd. was founded to take control of the arcade division.[268][269] Sega Networks merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. in 2015.[262] At the Tokyo Game Show in September 2016, Sega announced that it had acquired the intellectual property and development rights to all games developed and published by Technosoft.[270] Effective from January 2017, 85.1% of the shares in Sega's theme park business became owned by China Animations Character Co., renaming the former Sega Live Creation to CA Sega Joypolis.[271]Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, JapanSega Sammy Holdings announced in April 2017 that it would relocate its head office functions and domestic subsidiaries located in the Tokyo metropolitan area to Shinagawa-ku by January 2018. This was to consolidate scattered head office functions including Sega Sammy Holdings, Sammy Corporation, Sega Holdings, Sega Games, Atlus, Sammy Network, and Dartslive.[272] Sega's previous headquarters in Ōta was sold in 2019.[273]In June 2017, Chris Bergstresser replaced Jurgen Post as president and COO of Sega Europe.[274] In June 2018, Gary Dale, formerly of Rockstar Games and Take-Two Interactive, replaced Chris Bergstresser as president and COO of Sega Europe.[275] A few months later, Ian Curran, a former executive at THQ and Acclaim Entertainment, replaced John Cheng as president and COO of Sega of America in August 2018.[276] In October 2018, Sega reported favorable western sales results from games such as Yakuza 6 and Persona 5, due to the localization work of Atlus USA.[277]Despite a 35-percent increase in the sale of console games and success in its PC game business, profits fell 70 percent for the 2018 fiscal year in comparison to the previous year, mainly due to the digital games market which includes mobile games as well as Phantasy Star Online 2. In response, Sega announced that for its digital games it would focus on releases for its existing intellectual property and also focus on growth areas such as packaged games in the overseas market. Sega blamed the loss on market miscalculations and having too many games under development. Projects in development at Sega included a new game in the Yakuza series, the Sonic the Hedgehog film, and the Sega Genesis Mini,[278][279] which was released in September 2019.[280] In May 2019, Sega acquired Two Point Studios, known for Two Point Hospital.[281][282]On April 1, 2020, Sega Interactive merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. The company was again renamed Sega Corporation, while Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was renamed Sega Group Corporation.[283] According to a company statement, the move was made to allow greater research and development flexibility.[284] Also in April 2020, Sega sold Demiurge Studios to Demiurge co-founder Albert Reed. Demiurge said it would continue to support the mobile games it developed under Sega.[285]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game Gear Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear_Micro"},{"link_name":"microconsole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microconsole"},{"link_name":"cloud gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_60th_announces-290"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-291"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-292"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-293"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-294"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"in 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-295"},{"link_name":"Persona 5 Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_5_Royal"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_0"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-296"},{"link_name":"[293]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-297"},{"link_name":"Rovio Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovio_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Angry Birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angry_Birds"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-298"},{"link_name":"Communication Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Workers_of_America"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board"},{"link_name":"[295]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-299"},{"link_name":"[296]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-300"},{"link_name":"Relic Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[297]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-301"},{"link_name":"[298]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-302"},{"link_name":"The Game Awards 2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2023"},{"link_name":"Crazy Taxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Taxi"},{"link_name":"Golden Axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Axe"},{"link_name":"Jet Set Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Set_Radio"},{"link_name":"Shinobi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinobi_(series)"},{"link_name":"Streets of Rage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets_of_Rage"},{"link_name":"[299]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-303"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-304"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-304"},{"link_name":"unfair labor practice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice"},{"link_name":"[301]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-305"},{"link_name":"[302]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-306"},{"link_name":"Sony Computer Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Disney Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Q Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[303]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-307"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"[304]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-308"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-309"},{"link_name":"[306]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-310"},{"link_name":"[307]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-311"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Hardlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardlight"},{"link_name":"[308]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-312"},{"link_name":"[309]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-313"}],"sub_title":"2020–present: Recent history","text":"As part of its 60th anniversary, Sega announced the Game Gear Micro microconsole for release on October 6, 2020, in Japan. Sega also announced its Fog Gaming platform, which uses the unused processing power of arcade machines in Japanese arcades overnight to help power cloud gaming applications.[286]Sega made a number of restructuring moves in the early 2020s. During the latter half of 2020, many of the financial gains Sega made in the earlier part of the year dissolved due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its Sega Entertainment division, which ran its arcades.[287] That November, Sega Sammy sold 85.1% of its shares in the division to Genda Inc., though the Sega branding and coin-operated machines continued to be used in arcades. Arcade game development was unaffected by the sale.[288] By January 2022, Sega sold the remaining portion of this division to Genda.[289] Sega Group Corporation was formally dissolved by its parent company in 2021.[290]Contrasting its losses brought forth by amusement operations in 2020, sales and critical reception of Sega's home console games improved; Metacritic named Sega the best publisher of the year in 2020.[291] Of its 28 releases that year, 95% had \"good\" Metacritic scores (above 75/100), including two with \"great\" scores (above 90/100 for Persona 5 Royal and Yakuza 0), with an average Metacritic score of 81.6 for all 2020 Sega releases.[292][293] In 2023, Sega acquired the Finnish video game developer Rovio Entertainment, best known for the Angry Birds series, for US$776 million.[294]On April 24, 2023, 144 Sega of America employees announced plans to file a new union election under the new labor union, Allied Employees Guild Improving Sega (AEGIS), which is allied with the Communication Workers of America via CWA Local 9510. AEGIS represents workers from departments including marketing, quality assurance, development and localization, making it the first of its kind in the game industry in the United States. On July 10, 2023, it was announced that workers had voted 91–26 to form the union. AEGIS is undergoing certification with the National Labor Relations Board before going into bargaining.[295][296]In May 2023, Sega announced that 121 employees at Relic Entertainment had been made redundant to focus on cored franchises.[297] That same year, Sega cancelled their upcoming shooter Hyenas and began restructuring its British and European operations.[298] At The Game Awards 2023, Sega announced an initiative to revive many of its dormant franchises, beginning with new Crazy Taxi, Golden Axe, Jet Set Radio, Shinobi and Streets of Rage games.[299] The Washington Post characterized the announcement as a return to Sega's 1990s \"bohemian\" and \"countercultural\" spirit.[300] The co-CEO, Shuji Utsumi, said Sega wanted to \"show edginess and a rebellious mindset\", and that the industry was now large enough to sustain its less conventional games.[300] In November 2023, AEGIS filed an unfair labor practice after Sega proposed a plan to phase out temporary employees by February 2024, which would affect around 80 employees.[301]In January 2024, Jurgen Post rejoined Sega Europe to become COO of its western studios and also serve as managing director.[302] That month, Shuji Utsumi became the president, COO and CEO of Sega of America and Europe. Utsumi had previously helped found Sony Computer Entertainment, where he helped launch the original PlayStation, before moving to Sega and assisting with the North American Dreamcast launch. After a period with Disney Interactive, he co-founded Q Entertainment before returning to Sega in 2020.[303] On January 9, Sega Sammy Holdings announced that Sega's amusement machine business would be demerged and transferred to Sega Toys, which will be renamed Sega Fave Corporation. The changes will take effect by April.[304] On February 29, Sega appointed Justin Scarpone as an executive vice president of a group to expand Sega's presence in film and television.[305]In January 2024, Sega announced that it would lay off 61 workers at its Irvine, California location. AEGIS had been negotiating with Sega of America since November to reduce the total redundancies.[306] On March 27, 2024, AEGIS announced that its workers had ratified a contract with Sega of America, focusing on key issues.[307] The following day, Sega laid off 240 workers from its British and European operations, including Sega Europe, Creative Assembly, and Hardlight, and sold Relic Entertainment to an external investor.[308][309]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"Shinagawa, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinagawa,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[310]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-314"},{"link_name":"[311]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-315"},{"link_name":"[312]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-316"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings-317"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_eu_au-258"},{"link_name":"[314]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-318"},{"link_name":"[315]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xtreme2-319"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"Steven L. Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_L._Kent"},{"link_name":"[316]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-320"}],"text":"Since 2004, Sega has been a subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings.[227] Sega's global headquarters are in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan.[310] Sega also has offices in Irvine, California (as Sega of America), in London (as Sega Europe),[311] in Seoul, South Korea (as Sega Publishing Korea),[312] and in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taipei.[313] In other regions, Sega has contracted distributors for its games and consoles, such as Tectoy in Brazil.[38] Sega has had offices in France, Germany, Spain, and Australia;[254] those markets have since contracted distributors.[314]Relations between the regional offices have not always been smooth.[315] Some conflict in the 1990s may have been caused by Sega president Nakayama and his admiration for Sega of America; according to Kalinske, \"There were some guys in the executive suites who really didn't like that Nakayama in particular appeared to favor the US executives. A lot of the Japanese executives were maybe a little jealous, and I think some of that played into the decisions that were made.\"[7] By contrast, author Steven L. Kent said Nakayama bullied American executives and that Nakayama believed the Japanese executives made the best decisions. Kent also said Sega of America CEOs Kalinske, Stolar, and Moore dreaded meeting with Sega of Japan executives.[316]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg"},{"link_name":"Akihabara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihabara"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History_of_SEGA_SAMMY_group-273"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Notice_of_mergers-288"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-294"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Famitsu_interview_Haruki_Satomi-270"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"Oshare Majo: Love and Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshare_Majo:_Love_and_Berry"},{"link_name":"Mushiking: King of the Beetles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushiking:_King_of_the_Beetles"},{"link_name":"Lilpri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilpri"},{"link_name":"Bakugan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakugan_Battle_Brawlers"},{"link_name":"Jewelpet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewelpet"},{"link_name":"Rilu Rilu Fairilu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rilu_Rilu_Fairilu"},{"link_name":"Dinosaur King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_King"},{"link_name":"Hero Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_Bank"},{"link_name":"Homestar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastar_(projector)"},{"link_name":"iDog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDog"},{"link_name":"Takayuki Ohira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takayuki_Ohira"},{"link_name":"Sega Pico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Pico"},{"link_name":"[317]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-321"},{"link_name":"bowling alleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowling_alley"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[318]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-322"},{"link_name":"[319]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-323"},{"link_name":"darts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darts"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings-317"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"Hakuhodo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakuhodo"},{"link_name":"[320]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-324"},{"link_name":"[321]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-325"},{"link_name":"[322]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-326"}],"sub_title":"Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation","text":"A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022After the formation of Sega Group in 2015 and the founding of Sega Holdings, the former Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd.[269] Under this structure, Sega Games was responsible for the home video game market and consumer development, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd., comprised Sega's arcade game business.[268] The two were consolidated in 2020, renamed as Sega Corporation,[284] and Sega Group Corporation was formally absorbed into Sega Corporation in 2021.[290] The company includes Sega Networks, which handles game development for smartphones.[266] Sega Corporation develops and publishes games for major video game consoles and has not expressed interest in developing consoles again. According to former Sega Europe CEO Mike Brogan, \"There is no future in selling hardware. In any market, through competition, the hardware eventually becomes a commodity ... If a company has to sell hardware then it should only be to leverage software, even if that means taking a hit on the hardware.\"[57]Sega Fave Corporation, originally known as Yonezawa Toys and acquired by Sega in 1991, has created toys for children's franchises such as Oshare Majo: Love and Berry, Mushiking: King of the Beetles, Lilpri, Bakugan, Jewelpet, Rilu Rilu Fairilu, Dinosaur King, and Hero Bank. Products released in the West include the home planetarium Homestar and the robot dog iDog. The Homestar was released in 2005 and has been improved several times. Its newest model, Flux, was released in 2019. The series is developed by the Japanese inventor and entrepreneur Takayuki Ohira. As a recognized specialist for professional planetariums, he has received numerous innovation prizes and supplies large planetariums internationally with his company Megastar. Sega Toys also inherited the Sega Pico handheld system and produced Pico software.[317] The company also develops and sells arcade games that were previously held under Sega until 2024.Since the late 1960s, Sega has been affiliated with operations of bowling alleys and arcades through its former Sega Entertainment Co., Ltd. subsidiary in Japan, as well as a number of other smaller regional subsidiaries in other countries.[268] Initiatives to expand operations in other territories, such as the US, UK, France, Spain, and Taiwan, have been more short-lived, and following the 85.1% majority acquisition of Sega Entertainment's shares in November 2020 to mitigate losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic,[318] Sega's arcades in Japan since have been run under Genda Incorporated's Genda GiGO Entertainment division.[319] Its DartsLive subsidiary creates electronic darts games,[313] while Sega Logistics Service distributes and repairs arcade games.[268]In 2015, Sega and Japanese advertising agency Hakuhodo formed a joint venture, Stories LLC, to create entertainment for film and TV. Stories LLC has exclusive licensing rights to adapt Sega properties into film and television,[320][321] and has partnered with producers to develop series based on properties including Shinobi, Golden Axe, Virtua Fighter, The House of the Dead, and Crazy Taxi.[322]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega development studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_development_studios"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog"},{"link_name":"Sonic Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Team"},{"link_name":"[323]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_sammy_annual_report_2014-327"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_index_split-255"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playheart-328"},{"link_name":"Amplitude Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_Studios"},{"link_name":"[325]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-329"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[326]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_creative_assembly-330"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pocketgamer_Cowley_2017-263"},{"link_name":"[327]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_relic_entertainment-331"},{"link_name":"[328]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_sports_int-332"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamesindustry_Sinclair_2019-285"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_Wales_2019-286"},{"link_name":"Power Drift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Drift"},{"link_name":"[329]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-333"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[330]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001577%E2%80%93578,_581-334"},{"link_name":"United Game Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Game_Artists"},{"link_name":"Smilebit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sports_R%26D"},{"link_name":"WOW Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM1"},{"link_name":"Amusement Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Vision"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[331]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega's_new_beginning-335"},{"link_name":"[332]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avant-Garde-336"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fahey-225"},{"link_name":"[333]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-337"},{"link_name":"[334]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-338"},{"link_name":"[335]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4gamer_Inemoto_2011-339"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Online 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Online_2"},{"link_name":"[336]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-340"},{"link_name":"[337]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-341"},{"link_name":"[338]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-342"},{"link_name":"[339]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-343"},{"link_name":"[340]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-344"},{"link_name":"[341]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-345"},{"link_name":"[342]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignartists-346"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playheart-328"}],"sub_title":"Research and development","text":"See also: Sega development studiosSega produces games through its research and development teams. The Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, maintained through Sega's Sonic Team division, is one of the best-selling franchises in video games.[323] Sega has also acquired third-party studios including Atlus,[251] Play Heart,[324] Amplitude Studios,[325] Creative Assembly,[326] Hardlight,[259] Relic Entertainment,[327] Sports Interactive,[328] Two Point Studios.[281][282] and Rovio Entertainment.Sega's software research and development teams began with one development division operating under Sega's longtime head of R&D, Hisashi Suzuki. As the market increased for home video game consoles, Sega expanded with three Consumer Development (CS) divisions. After October 1983, arcade development expanded to three teams: Sega DD No. 1, 2, and 3. Some time after the release of Power Drift, Sega restructured its teams again as the Sega Amusement Machine Research and Development Teams, or AM teams. Each arcade division was segregated, and a rivalry existed between the arcade and consumer development divisions.[329]In what has been called \"a brief moment of remarkable creativity\",[152] in 2000, Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers.[7][173][330] The studios were United Game Artists, Smilebit, Hitmaker, Sega Rosso, WOW Entertainment, Overworks, Amusement Vision, Sega-AM2, and Sonic Team.[152][331] Sega's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process.[332] After taking over as company president in 2003, Hisao Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios.[221] Prior to the acquisition by Sammy, Sega began the process of re-integrating its subsidiaries into the main company.[333] Toshihiro Nagoshi, formerly the head of Amusement Vision, recalls this period as \"in many ways a labour of love\" from Sega, teaching the creatives the experience of managing a business.[334]Sega still operates first-party studios as departments of its research and development division. Sonic Team exists as Sega's CS2 research and development department,[335] while Sega's CS3 or Online department has developed games such as Phantasy Star Online 2,[336][337] and Sega's AM2 department has more recently worked on projects such as smartphone game Soul Reverse Zero.[338] Toshihiro Nagoshi remained involved with research and development as Sega's chief creative officer or creative director while working on the Yakuza series until 2021.[339][340][341] Other studios include Ignited Artists[342] and Play Heart.[324]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"Finnish Museum of Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Museum_of_Games"},{"link_name":"Tampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampere"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Records"},{"link_name":"[343]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guinness_record-347"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[344]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-348"},{"link_name":"[345]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN-top-25-349"},{"link_name":"[346]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-350"},{"link_name":"[347]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-351"},{"link_name":"sports game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_game"},{"link_name":"[348]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-352"},{"link_name":"street date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_date"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_2"},{"link_name":"[349]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-353"},{"link_name":"[350]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-354"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionSaturn2-114"},{"link_name":"[351]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_Pleasure_and_Pain-355"},{"link_name":"[352]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parish-356"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Burning Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_Rangers"},{"link_name":"Guardian Heroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian_Heroes"},{"link_name":"Dragon Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Force"},{"link_name":"Panzer Dragoon Saga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer_Dragoon_Saga"},{"link_name":"[353]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-357"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionSaturn2-114"},{"link_name":"1Up.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1Up.com"},{"link_name":"[351]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_Pleasure_and_Pain-355"},{"link_name":"[354]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGNGreat-358"},{"link_name":"[355]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forensic-359"},{"link_name":"[356]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edge20-360"},{"link_name":"[357]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-361"},{"link_name":"1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1001_Video_Games_You_Must_Play_Before_You_Die"},{"link_name":"[358]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-362"},{"link_name":"[359]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-363"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[360]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-364"},{"link_name":"[361]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-365"},{"link_name":"Dragon Quest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Quest"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy"},{"link_name":"[362]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-366"},{"link_name":"[363]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-367"},{"link_name":"Yu Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[364]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-368"}],"text":"A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, having developed more than 500 games, 70 franchises, and 20 arcade system boards since 1981. It has been recognized by Guinness World Records for this achievement.[343] Of Sega's arcade division, Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said, \"It's boisterous, broad and with a neat sense of showmanship running through its range. On top of that, it has something that's often evaded its console-dwelling cousin: success.\"[344]The Sega Genesis is often ranked among the best consoles in history.[345][346][347] In 2014, USgamer's Jeremy Parish credited it for galvanizing the market by breaking Nintendo's near-monopoly, helping create modern sports game franchises, and popularizing television games in the UK.[348] Kalinske felt Sega had innovated by developing games for an older demographic and pioneering the \"street date\" concept with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2.[349] Sega of America's marketing campaign for the Genesis influenced marketing for later consoles.[350]Despite its commercial failure, the Saturn is well regarded for its library,[110][351][352] though it has been criticized for a lack of high-profile franchise releases.[7] Edge wrote that \"hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers, Guardian Heroes, Dragon Force, and Panzer Dragoon Saga.\"[353] Sega's management was criticized for its handling of the Saturn.[7][110] According to Greg Sewart of 1Up.com, \"the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time\".[351]The Dreamcast is remembered for being ahead of its time,[354][355][356] with several concepts that became standard in consoles, such as motion controls and online functionality.[357] Its demise has been connected with transitions in the video game industry. In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, Duncan Harris wrote that the Dreamcast's end \"signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright, attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games.\"[358] Parish contrasted the Dreamcast's diverse library with the \"suffocating sense of conservatism\" that pervaded the industry in the following decade.[359]In Eurogamer, Damien McFerran wrote that Sega's decisions in the late 1990s were \"a tragic spectacle of overconfidence and woefully misguided business practice\".[57] Travis Fahs of IGN noted that since the Sammy takeover Sega had developed fewer games and outsourced to more western studios, and that its arcade operations had been significantly reduced. Nonetheless, he wrote: \"Sega was one of the most active, creative, and productive developers the industry has ever known, and nothing that can happen to their name since will change that.\"[7] In 2015, Sega president Haruki Satomi told Famitsu that, in the previous ten years, Sega had \"betrayed\" the trust of older fans and that he hoped to re-establish the Sega brand.[360] During the promotion of the Sega Genesis Mini, Sega executive manager Hiroyuki Miyazaki reflected on Sega's history, saying, \"I feel like Sega has never been the champion, at the top of all the video game companies, but I feel like a lot of people love Sega because of the underdog image.\"[361] Former Sega management cited the absence of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy games on their home consoles as a reason for the console division's struggles, especially in Japan.[362][363] In his 2018 book The Sega Arcade Revolution, Horowitz connected Sega's decline in the arcades after 1995 with broader industry changes. He argued that its most serious problems came from the loss of its creative talent, particularly Yuji Naka and Yu Suzuki, after the Sammy takeover, but concluded that \"as of this writing, Sega is in its best financial shape of the past two decades. The company has endured.\"[364]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"Kabushiki gaisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabushiki_gaisha"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"}],"text":"^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega\n\n^ Japanese: 日本娯楽物産株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon goraku bussan kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Amusement Products Stock Company\n\n^ Japanese: 日本機械製造株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon kikai seizō kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Machine Manufacturers Co., Ltd.\n\n^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ・エンタープライゼズ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega Entapuraizezu","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG/220px-Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG"},{"image_text":"Former logo used until 1975.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sega_1960s_logo.svg/220px-Sega_1960s_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega's first video game console, the SG-1000","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.[63]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Sonic_1991.png/160px-Sonic_1991.png"},{"image_text":"Game Gear, released in 1990","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Game-Gear-Handheld_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Game-Gear-Handheld_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virtua_formula.jpg/220px-Virtua_formula.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Sega-Saturn-Console-Set-Mk1.jpg/220px-Sega-Saturn-Console-Set-Mk1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tokyo_Joypolis_entrance.jpg/220px-Tokyo_Joypolis_entrance.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Dreamcast-Console-Set.png/220px-Dreamcast-Console-Set.png"},{"image_text":"[94][166][196][197]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sega_Annual_Income%28Loss%29_1993-2004.svg/400px-Sega_Annual_Income%28Loss%29_1993-2004.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg/220px-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg/220px-Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg/220px-CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg"},{"image_text":"A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg/150px-Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg"},{}] | [{"title":"Video games portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Video_games"},{"title":"List of Sega video game franchises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_video_game_franchises"},{"title":"Lists of Sega games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Sega_games"},{"title":"Sega, S.A. SONIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega,_S.A._SONIC"},{"title":"Sega Technical Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Technical_Institute"}] | [{"reference":"\"Company Outline\". Sega. Retrieved June 16, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sega.co.jp/en/company/outline/index.html","url_text":"\"Company Outline\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sega Sammy Holdings Fiscal Year 2020 Full Results Appendix\" (PDF). Sega Sammy Holdings. May 13, 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2020. Retrieved May 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200515113342/https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/202003_4q_hosoku_20200513_final_e_.pdf","url_text":"\"Sega Sammy Holdings Fiscal Year 2020 Full Results Appendix\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings","url_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings"},{"url":"https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/202003_4q_hosoku_20200513_final_e_.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Notice of Changes of Directors and Executive Officers at SEGA SAMMY HOLDINGS INC. and its Major Subsidiaries\" (PDF). Sega Sammy Holdings. February 28, 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 3, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200603162255/https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/20200228_jinji_e_final.pdf","url_text":"\"Notice of Changes of Directors and Executive Officers at SEGA SAMMY HOLDINGS INC. and its Major Subsidiaries\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings","url_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings"},{"url":"https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/20200228_jinji_e_final.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SEGA officially opens Sega Sapporo Studio to handle game-development operations in Hokkaido, Japan\". Sega. January 11, 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sega.co.jp/en/release/220111_1.html","url_text":"\"SEGA officially opens Sega Sapporo Studio to handle game-development operations in Hokkaido, Japan\""}]},{"reference":"Ballestrasse, Michelle (February 1, 2021). \"Sega Is Splitting Into Separate Gaming & Pachinko Companies\". Screen Rant. Retrieved May 28, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://screenrant.com/sega-games-pachinko-slot-split-company-sammy-2021/","url_text":"\"Sega Is Splitting Into Separate Gaming & Pachinko Companies\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Alexander (2019). They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971–1982. CRC Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-429-75261-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-75261-2","url_text":"978-0-429-75261-2"}]},{"reference":"Fahs, Travis (April 21, 2009). \"IGN Presents the History of SEGA\". IGN. Archived from the original on August 24, 2012. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham | Grade II* listed buildings in Cheltenham | ["1 List of buildings","2 See also","3 Notes","4 External links"] | Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap
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There are over 20,000 Grade II* listed buildings in England. This page is a list of these buildings in the district of Cheltenham in Gloucestershire.
List of buildings
Name
Location
Type
Completed Date designated
Grid ref.Geo-coordinates
Entry number Image
Charlton Park (St Edwards School Main Building)
Charlton Kings
Country house
c.1720
22 April 1950
SO959382080551°53′09″N 2°03′38″W / 51.885788°N 2.060424°W / 51.885788; -2.060424 (Charlton Park (St Edwards School Main Building))
1386593
Charlton Park (St Edwards School Main Building)More images
Church of St Mary
Charlton Kings
Parish church
Norman; c.1190
22 April 1950
SO964502044151°52′57″N 2°03′11″W / 51.882519°N 2.052981°W / 51.882519; -2.052981 (Church of St Mary)
1386562
Church of St MaryMore images
Churchyard cross approximately 15 metres north-west of west door of Church of St Mary
Charlton Kings
Cross
15th century
24 April 1950
SO964262045851°52′58″N 2°03′12″W / 51.882672°N 2.05333°W / 51.882672; -2.05333 (Churchyard cross approximately 15 metres north-west of west door of Church of St Mary)
1386564
Churchyard cross approximately 15 metres north-west of west door of Church of St Mary
King's House
Charlton Kings
House
c.1603
22 April 1950
SO966082072451°53′06″N 2°03′02″W / 51.885065°N 2.050688°W / 51.885065; -2.050688 (King's House)
1386658
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South West Regency (administration) Block to St Edwards Middle School
Charlton Kings
Villa
c.1832
8 February 1983
SO965362146551°53′30″N 2°03′06″W / 51.891726°N 2.051742°W / 51.891726; -2.051742 (South West Regency (administration) Block to St Edwards Middle School)
1386540
Upload Photo
The Court House
Charlton Kings
House
1614
23 March 1982
SO960242054451°53′00″N 2°03′33″W / 51.883442°N 2.059171°W / 51.883442; -2.059171 (The Court House)
1386653
Upload Photo
Church of St Peter
Leckhampton
Church
12th-century origins
4 July 1960
SO942961940351°52′23″N 2°05′03″W / 51.873168°N 2.084257°W / 51.873168; -2.084257 (Church of St Peter)
1340121
Church of St PeterMore images
Leckhampton Court with wall and gate piers
Leckhampton
House
14th century
4 July 1960
SO944991933851°52′21″N 2°04′53″W / 51.872586°N 2.081307°W / 51.872586; -2.081307 (Leckhampton Court with wall and gate piers)
1091754
Leckhampton Court with wall and gate piersMore images
Church of St Mary
Prestbury
Anglican church
13th century
4 July 1960
SO969922399251°54′52″N 2°02′43″W / 51.914449°N 2.045139°W / 51.914449; -2.045139 (Church of St Mary)
1153687
Church of St MaryMore images
Francis Kemmet(t) Monument in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary circa 3 metres north of north aisle
Prestbury
Chest tomb
1716
25 February 1987
SO969872400451°54′52″N 2°02′43″W / 51.914557°N 2.045212°W / 51.914557; -2.045212 (Francis Kemmet(t) Monument in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary circa 3 metres north of north aisle)
1153742
Francis Kemmet(t) Monument in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary circa 3 metres north of north aisleMore images
Church of St Lawrence
Swindon Village
Anglican church
12th century
4 July 1960
SO934632488651°55′21″N 2°05′47″W / 51.922456°N 2.096462°W / 51.922456; -2.096462 (Church of St Lawrence)
1091887
Church of St LawrenceMore images
Alma House and walls and piers adjoining
Cheltenham
Villa
1838
12 March 1955
SO948462212051°53′51″N 2°04′35″W / 51.897602°N 2.07631°W / 51.897602; -2.07631 (Alma House and walls and piers adjoining)
1387813
Alma House and walls and piers adjoiningMore images
Bayshill House and Lingwood House
Cheltenham
Villa
c.1839–42
12 March 1955
SO944652218451°53′53″N 2°04′55″W / 51.898174°N 2.081848°W / 51.898174; -2.081848 (Bayshill House and Lingwood House)
1386735
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Bayshill Lodge (1, 2 and 3), ballroom mews arch to north-west, and Nos 1–19 Rotunda Terrace
Cheltenham
House
1844/1851
12 March 1955
SO943972189151°53′44″N 2°04′58″W / 51.895539°N 2.082831°W / 51.895539; -2.082831 (Bayshill Lodge (1, 2 and 3), ballroom mews arch to north-west, and Nos 1–19 Rotunda Terrace)
1387125
Bayshill Lodge (1, 2 and 3), ballroom mews arch to north-west, and Nos 1–19 Rotunda TerraceMore images
Brandon House
Cheltenham
Villa
1834–39
12 March 1955
SO943882108751°53′18″N 2°04′59″W / 51.88831°N 2.082948°W / 51.88831; -2.082948 (Brandon House)
1387401
Brandon House
Cheltenham College (main block to road with Dining Hall and Chapel)
Cheltenham
Public school
1843
12 March 1955
SO948612150151°53′31″N 2°04′34″W / 51.892037°N 2.076082°W / 51.892037; -2.076082 (Cheltenham College (main block to road with Dining Hall and Chapel))
1386726
Cheltenham College (main block to road with Dining Hall and Chapel)More images
Christ Church and adjacent Church Hall
Cheltenham
Church
1837–40
12 March 1955
SO939962228051°53′57″N 2°05′19″W / 51.899032°N 2.088665°W / 51.899032; -2.088665 (Christ Church and adjacent Church Hall)
1103838
Christ Church and adjacent Church HallMore images
Church of St Gregory
Cheltenham
Church
1859
5 May 1972
SO945702255851°54′06″N 2°04′49″W / 51.901537°N 2.080328°W / 51.901537; -2.080328 (Church of St Gregory)
1387870
Church of St GregoryMore images
Church of St Matthew
Cheltenham
Church
1877–79
14 December 1983
SO946982250351°54′04″N 2°04′42″W / 51.901044°N 2.078466°W / 51.901044; -2.078466 (Church of St Matthew)
1386868
Church of St MatthewMore images
Church of St Paul
Cheltenham
Church
1831
12 March 1955
SO947882316951°54′25″N 2°04′38″W / 51.907033°N 2.077169°W / 51.907033; -2.077169 (Church of St Paul)
1387184
Church of St PaulMore images
Church of St Peter
Cheltenham
Parish church
1847–48
12 March 1955
SO938552336151°54′31″N 2°05′27″W / 51.908749°N 2.090734°W / 51.908749; -2.090734 (Church of St Peter)
1388006
Church of St PeterMore images
Church of St Philip and St James with attached walls and gates
Cheltenham
Church
1879–82
14 December 1983
SO944422112051°53′19″N 2°04′56″W / 51.888607°N 2.082164°W / 51.888607; -2.082164 (Church of St Philip and St James with attached walls and gates)
1245772
Church of St Philip and St James with attached walls and gatesMore images
Church of St Stephen
Tivoli
Church
1873–74
14 December 1983
SO938852138051°53′27″N 2°05′25″W / 51.890939°N 2.090262°W / 51.890939; -2.090262 (Church of St Stephen)
1387915
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Church of the Holy Trinity
Cheltenham
Church
1820–23
12 March 1955
SO951782277251°54′12″N 2°04′17″W / 51.903467°N 2.071494°W / 51.903467; -2.071494 (Church of the Holy Trinity)
1387583
Church of the Holy TrinityMore images
Claremont Lodge
Cheltenham
Apartment
c.1800–10
12 March 1955
SO947532184551°53′42″N 2°04′40″W / 51.895129°N 2.077657°W / 51.895129; -2.077657 (Claremont Lodge)
1387123
Claremont Lodge
Clarence House and attached railings
Cheltenham
Villa
1830–34
12 March 1955
SO945662204651°53′49″N 2°04′49″W / 51.896934°N 2.080378°W / 51.896934; -2.080378 (Clarence House and attached railings)
1387687
Upload Photo
Evelyn Terrace, Lansdown Terrace, Evelyn Court, Regan House, attached railings and mews archway
Cheltenham
Apartment
c.1832
12 March 1955
SO941352201151°53′48″N 2°05′12″W / 51.896615°N 2.086641°W / 51.896615; -2.086641 (Evelyn Terrace, Lansdown Terrace, Evelyn Court, Regan House, attached railings and mews archway)
1103835
Evelyn Terrace, Lansdown Terrace, Evelyn Court, Regan House, attached railings and mews archway
Francis Close College: Old Practising School
Cheltenham
School
1854–58
5 May 1972
SO946242312851°54′24″N 2°04′46″W / 51.906663°N 2.079552°W / 51.906663; -2.079552 (Francis Close College: Old Practising School)
1387896
Francis Close College: Old Practising School
General Hospital (central block) and attached railings
Cheltenham
Hospital
1848
5 May 1972
SO951372151251°53′32″N 2°04′19″W / 51.892138°N 2.072072°W / 51.892138; -2.072072 (General Hospital (central block) and attached railings)
1387935
General Hospital (central block) and attached railingsMore images
George Hotel (nos 41–49) and attached railings to Nos 29–39 and 43–49
Cheltenham
House
c.1837–45
12 March 1955
SO944972229951°53′57″N 2°04′53″W / 51.899208°N 2.081384°W / 51.899208; -2.081384 (George Hotel (nos 41–49) and attached railings to Nos 29–39 and 43–49)
1387846
George Hotel (nos 41–49) and attached railings to Nos 29–39 and 43–49
Gloucester Lodge (No 129) Sherborne Lodge (No 131) gate piers and gates
Cheltenham
Villa
1833–34
12 March 1955
SO945842207051°53′50″N 2°04′48″W / 51.89715°N 2.080116°W / 51.89715; -2.080116 (Gloucester Lodge (No 129) Sherborne Lodge (No 131) gate piers and gates)
1387686
Gloucester Lodge (No 129) Sherborne Lodge (No 131) gate piers and gates
Lansdown Road (terrace) and attached area railings with wall at left
Cheltenham
Apartment
1825–35
5 May 1972
SO940652176251°53′40″N 2°05′16″W / 51.894375°N 2.087653°W / 51.894375; -2.087653 (Lansdown Road (terrace) and attached area railings with wall at left)
1245385
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Lansdown Place (terrace) and Montpellier Court and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
1825–35
5 May 1972
SO942052178551°53′41″N 2°05′08″W / 51.894584°N 2.085619°W / 51.894584; -2.085619 (Lansdown Place (terrace) and Montpellier Court and attached railings)
1245384
Upload Photo
Lypiatt Terrace and balustrades; area railings to Nos 3 and 6
Cheltenham
Terraced house
c.1847
5 May 1972
SO942282167751°53′37″N 2°05′07″W / 51.893613°N 2.085283°W / 51.893613; -2.085283 (Lypiatt Terrace and balustrades; area railings to Nos 3 and 6)
1245263
Upload Photo
Masonic Hall
Cheltenham
Freemasons hall
1818–23
12 March 1955
SO950522260251°54′07″N 2°04′24″W / 51.901937°N 2.073323°W / 51.901937; -2.073323 (Masonic Hall)
1387563
Masonic HallMore images
Montpellier Arcade and attached gates
Cheltenham
Apartment
1831–32
12 March 1955
SO945092197651°53′47″N 2°04′52″W / 51.896304°N 2.081205°W / 51.896304; -2.081205 (Montpellier Arcade and attached gates)
1245181
Montpellier Arcade and attached gatesMore images
No 81, Montpellier Crescent and attached railings
Cheltenham
House
c.1825
5 May 1972
SO946852165251°53′36″N 2°04′43″W / 51.893393°N 2.078642°W / 51.893393; -2.078642 (No 81, Montpellier Crescent and attached railings)
1387337
Upload Photo
Nos 1–13, Imperial Square with attached area railings throughout and pier to No 1
Cheltenham
Terrace
c.1834
12 March 1955
SO947942211851°53′51″N 2°04′37″W / 51.897583°N 2.077065°W / 51.897583; -2.077065 (Nos 1–13, Imperial Square with attached area railings throughout and pier to No 1)
1104370
Nos 1–13, Imperial Square with attached area railings throughout and pier to No 1More images
Nos 14–34, Imperial Square and attached railings
Cheltenham
Terrace
c.1834
12 March 1955
SO947642197751°53′47″N 2°04′39″W / 51.896315°N 2.077499°W / 51.896315; -2.077499 (Nos 14–34, Imperial Square and attached railings)
1104372
Upload Photo
Nos 1–18, Royal Crescent and attached area railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
c.1806–10
12 March 1955
SO946532238851°54′00″N 2°04′45″W / 51.90001°N 2.079119°W / 51.90001; -2.079119 (Nos 1–18, Royal Crescent and attached area railings)
1387817
Nos 1–18, Royal Crescent and attached area railingsMore images
Nos 1–23, Lansdown Parade and attached area railings
Cheltenham
Terrace
1838–41
12 March 1955
SO938492182851°53′42″N 2°05′27″W / 51.894966°N 2.090794°W / 51.894966; -2.090794 (Nos 1–23, Lansdown Parade and attached area railings)
1333176
Nos 1–23, Lansdown Parade and attached area railings
Nos 2–12, Lansdown Crescent and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
Completed by c.1850
12 March 1955
SO941862185651°53′43″N 2°05′09″W / 51.895222°N 2.085897°W / 51.895222; -2.085897 (Nos 2–12, Lansdown Crescent and attached railings)
1333172
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Nos 13 to 47, Lansdown Crescent and attached area railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
1831–38
12 March 1955
SO939892182951°53′42″N 2°05′20″W / 51.894977°N 2.088759°W / 51.894977; -2.088759 (Nos 13 to 47, Lansdown Crescent and attached area railings)
1333173
Nos 13 to 47, Lansdown Crescent and attached area railings
Nos 1–23, Montpellier Walk and Hanover House (National Westminster Bank)
Cheltenham
Apartment
c.1836–45
12 March 1955
SO944532191151°53′45″N 2°04′55″W / 51.895719°N 2.082018°W / 51.895719; -2.082018 (Nos 1–23, Montpellier Walk and Hanover House (National Westminster Bank))
1387359
Nos 1–23, Montpellier Walk and Hanover House (National Westminster Bank)
Nos 47 to 83, Promenade and attached railings with low walls and end piers to Nos 71 and 73
Cheltenham
House
19th century
12 March 1955
SO947372230551°53′57″N 2°04′40″W / 51.899264°N 2.077897°W / 51.899264; -2.077897 (Nos 47 to 83, Promenade and attached railings with low walls and end piers to Nos 71 and 73)
1387631
Nos 47 to 83, Promenade and attached railings with low walls and end piers to Nos 71 and 73More images
Numbers 99–119, Promenade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
By 1834
12 March 1955
SO946682219451°53′54″N 2°04′44″W / 51.898266°N 2.078898°W / 51.898266; -2.078898 (Numbers 99–119, Promenade and attached railings)
1387670
Numbers 99–119, Promenade and attached railingsMore images
Nos 121 and 123, Promenade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Villa
1834–40
12 March 1955
SO946172211551°53′51″N 2°04′47″W / 51.897555°N 2.079638°W / 51.897555; -2.079638 (Nos 121 and 123, Promenade and attached railings)
1387684
Nos 121 and 123, Promenade and attached railings
Nos 125 and 127, Promenade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Villa
1834–40
12 March 1955
SO946012209351°53′50″N 2°04′48″W / 51.897357°N 2.07987°W / 51.897357; -2.07987 (Nos 125 and 127, Promenade and attached railings)
1387685
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Nos 18–24, Priory Parade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartments
c.1820–30
12 March 1955
SO954572196851°53′46″N 2°04′03″W / 51.896241°N 2.067428°W / 51.896241; -2.067428 (Nos 18–24, Priory Parade and attached railings)
1104398
Nos 18–24, Priory Parade and attached railingsMore images
Oriel Terrace Nos 1–4 with mews arch and attached railings
Cheltenham
Terrace
1826
12 March 1955
SO949602202451°53′48″N 2°04′29″W / 51.89674°N 2.074651°W / 51.89674; -2.074651 (Oriel Terrace Nos 1–4 with mews arch and attached railings)
1387383
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Oxford Parade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
c.1780–1820
12 March 1955
SO954832194751°53′46″N 2°04′01″W / 51.896052°N 2.06705°W / 51.896052; -2.06705 (Oxford Parade and attached railings)
1104401
Oxford Parade and attached railings
Oxford Parade and attached railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
1816–17
12 March 1955
SO955212191451°53′45″N 2°03′59″W / 51.895756°N 2.066497°W / 51.895756; -2.066497 (Oxford Parade and attached railings)
1103817
Oxford Parade and attached railings
Parish Centre for St Philip and St James
Cheltenham
Parish hall
1830
12 March 1965
SO945812160851°53′35″N 2°04′49″W / 51.892996°N 2.080153°W / 51.892996; -2.080153 (Parish Centre for St Philip and St James)
1387994
Parish Centre for St Philip and St JamesMore images
Queens Hotel
Cheltenham
Hotel
1838
12 March 1955
SO945742198051°53′47″N 2°04′49″W / 51.896341°N 2.08026°W / 51.896341; -2.08026 (Queens Hotel)
1387698
Queens HotelMore images
Nos 1–6, St Margaret's Terrace and attached area railings
Cheltenham
Apartment
1820–25
12 March 1955
SO950352273451°54′11″N 2°04′25″W / 51.903124°N 2.073572°W / 51.903124; -2.073572 (Nos 1–6, St Margaret's Terrace and attached area railings)
1387881
Nos 1–6, St Margaret's Terrace and attached area railings
St Paul's College Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education
Cheltenham
Further education college
1849
12 March 1955
SO946262304451°54′21″N 2°04′46″W / 51.905907°N 2.079522°W / 51.905907; -2.079522 (St Paul's College Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education)
1387995
St Paul's College Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education
Synagogue
Cheltenham
Synagogue
1837–39
5 May 1972
SO945542241651°54′01″N 2°04′50″W / 51.90026°N 2.080558°W / 51.90026; -2.080558 (Synagogue)
1387877
SynagogueMore images
Trident House (No 27a) and attached railings to Nos 15–21 and 27
Cheltenham
Terrace
1837–40
12 March 1955
SO945872226951°53′56″N 2°04′48″W / 51.898939°N 2.080076°W / 51.898939; -2.080076 (Trident House (No 27a) and attached railings to Nos 15–21 and 27)
1387845
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Nos 1–2 Suffolk Square, No 1 Willoughby and attached area railings to Nos 2–12
Cheltenham
Apartments
1832–48
12 March 1955
SO945122165751°53′36″N 2°04′52″W / 51.893436°N 2.081156°W / 51.893436; -2.081156 (Nos 1–2 Suffolk Square, No 1 Willoughby and attached area railings to Nos 2–12)
1387971
Nos 1–2 Suffolk Square, No 1 Willoughby and attached area railings to Nos 2–12More images
See also
Grade II* listed buildings in Gloucestershire
Grade II* listed buildings in Cotswold (district)
Grade II* listed buildings in Forest of Dean
Grade II* listed buildings in Gloucester
Grade II* listed buildings in South Gloucestershire
Grade II* listed buildings in Stroud (district)
Grade II* listed buildings in Tewkesbury (borough)
Grade I listed buildings in Cheltenham
Notes
^ The date given is the date used by Historic England as significant for the initial building or that of an important part in the structure's description.
^ Sometimes known as OSGB36, the grid reference is based on the British national grid reference system used by the Ordnance Survey.
^ The "List Entry Number" is a unique number assigned to each listed building and scheduled monument by Historic England.
External links
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Buildings andstructures
Grade I listed buildings in Cheltenham
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153–159 Fairview Road
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Whaddon Road
Transport
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenStreetMap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.wmflabs.org/osm4wiki/cgi-bin/wiki/wiki-osm.pl?project=en&article=Grade_II%2A_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"},{"link_name":"KML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.wmflabs.org/kmlexport?article=Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"},{"link_name":"GPX (all coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=all&titles=Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"},{"link_name":"GPX (primary coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=primary&titles=Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"},{"link_name":"GPX (secondary coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=secondary&titles=Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"},{"link_name":"Grade II* listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_building"},{"link_name":"Cheltenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheltenham"}],"text":"Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap\n\nDownload coordinates as:\n\n\nKML\nGPX (all coordinates)\nGPX (primary coordinates)\nGPX (secondary coordinates)There are over 20,000 Grade II* listed buildings in England. This page is a list of these buildings in the district of Cheltenham in Gloucestershire.","title":"Grade II* listed buildings in Cheltenham"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EH_listed_building_header_note_1_1-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EH_listed_building_header_note_2_2-0"},{"link_name":"British national grid reference system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_national_grid_reference_system"},{"link_name":"Ordnance Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Survey"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EH_listed_building_header_note_3_3-0"}],"text":"^ The date given is the date used by Historic England as significant for the initial building or that of an important part in the structure's description.\n\n^ Sometimes known as OSGB36, the grid reference is based on the British national grid reference system used by the Ordnance Survey.\n\n^ The \"List Entry Number\" is a unique number assigned to each listed building and scheduled monument by Historic England.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Charlton Park (St Edwards School Main Building)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/St._Edward%27s_School.jpg/150px-St._Edward%27s_School.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Mary","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/CKStMarys.JPG/111px-CKStMarys.JPG"},{"image_text":"Churchyard cross approximately 15 metres north-west of west door of Church of St Mary","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Churchyard_Cross%2C_Charlton_Kings_Geograph-2188791-by-Philip-Halling.jpg/150px-Churchyard_Cross%2C_Charlton_Kings_Geograph-2188791-by-Philip-Halling.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Peter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Church_of_St_Peter_Leckhampton.jpg/150px-Church_of_St_Peter_Leckhampton.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leckhampton Court with wall and gate piers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Leckhampton_Court_Geograph-2534895-by-Michael-Dibb.jpg/150px-Leckhampton_Court_Geograph-2534895-by-Michael-Dibb.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Mary","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/StMarysChurchsouth.jpg/150px-StMarysChurchsouth.jpg"},{"image_text":"Francis Kemmet(t) Monument in the churchyard of the Church of St Mary circa 3 metres north of north aisle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Francis_Kemmet%28t%29_monument.jpg/150px-Francis_Kemmet%28t%29_monument.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Lawrence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/The_Norman_Church_of_St_Lawrence.JPG/150px-The_Norman_Church_of_St_Lawrence.JPG"},{"image_text":"Alma House and walls and piers adjoining","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Alma_House%2C_Cheltenham-geograph.org.uk-2857682.jpg/150px-Alma_House%2C_Cheltenham-geograph.org.uk-2857682.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bayshill Lodge (1, 2 and 3), ballroom mews arch to north-west, and Nos 1–19 Rotunda Terrace","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Mews_Arch%2C_Montpellier%2C_Cheltenham_Geograph-4075392-by-Chris-Allen.jpg/150px-Mews_Arch%2C_Montpellier%2C_Cheltenham_Geograph-4075392-by-Chris-Allen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brandon House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Brandon_House_%28geograph_4775078%29.jpg/150px-Brandon_House_%28geograph_4775078%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cheltenham College (main block to road with Dining Hall and Chapel)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Cheltenham_College_buildings%2C_Bath_Road_-_geograph.org.uk_-_636758.jpg/150px-Cheltenham_College_buildings%2C_Bath_Road_-_geograph.org.uk_-_636758.jpg"},{"image_text":"Christ Church and adjacent Church Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Christchurch%2C_Malvern_Road%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1133851.jpg/139px-Christchurch%2C_Malvern_Road%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1133851.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Gregory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/St_Gregory%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_888147.jpg/112px-St_Gregory%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_888147.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Matthew","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/St_Matthew%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-St_Matthew%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Paul","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/St_Paul%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham%2C_Gloucestershire.jpg/150px-St_Paul%27s_Church%2C_Cheltenham%2C_Gloucestershire.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Peter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/St._Peter%27s_church%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1187362.jpg/150px-St._Peter%27s_church%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1187362.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Philip and St James with attached walls and gates","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/St_Phillips_and_St_James%2C_Painswick_Road%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1127393.jpg/149px-St_Phillips_and_St_James%2C_Painswick_Road%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1127393.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of the Holy Trinity","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Trinity_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-Trinity_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Claremont Lodge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Claremont_Lodge%2C_Montpellier_Spa_road%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-Claremont_Lodge%2C_Montpellier_Spa_road%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Evelyn Terrace, Lansdown Terrace, Evelyn Court, Regan House, attached railings and mews archway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Evelyn_Court%2C_Lansdown_Terrace_%28geograph_5982099%29.jpg/150px-Evelyn_Court%2C_Lansdown_Terrace_%28geograph_5982099%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Francis Close College: Old Practising School","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/FCH_Old_Practising_School.jpg/150px-FCH_Old_Practising_School.jpg"},{"image_text":"General Hospital (central block) and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Cheltenham_General_Hospital.jpg/150px-Cheltenham_General_Hospital.jpg"},{"image_text":"George Hotel (nos 41–49) and attached railings to Nos 29–39 and 43–49","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/George_Hotel%2C_Cheltenham-geograph.org.uk-3510528.jpg/150px-George_Hotel%2C_Cheltenham-geograph.org.uk-3510528.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gloucester Lodge (No 129) Sherborne Lodge (No 131) gate piers and gates","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Sherborne_Lodge%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-Sherborne_Lodge%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Masonic Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Masonic_Hall%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-The_Masonic_Hall%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Montpellier Arcade and attached gates","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Montpellier_Arcade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/112px-Montpellier_Arcade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 1–13, Imperial Square with attached area railings throughout and pier to No 1","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Terraced_regency_style_houses_%28geograph_6242523%29.jpg/150px-Terraced_regency_style_houses_%28geograph_6242523%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 1–18, Royal Crescent and attached area railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Royal_Crescent_Cheltenham_Geograph-2842381-by-Roy-Hughes.jpg/150px-Royal_Crescent_Cheltenham_Geograph-2842381-by-Roy-Hughes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 1–23, Lansdown Parade and attached area railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Houses_on_Lansdown_Parade_%28geograph_5982887%29.jpg/150px-Houses_on_Lansdown_Parade_%28geograph_5982887%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 13 to 47, Lansdown Crescent and attached area railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lansdown_Crescent%2C_Cheltenham_%28geograph_5238750%29.jpg/150px-Lansdown_Crescent%2C_Cheltenham_%28geograph_5238750%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 1–23, Montpellier Walk and Hanover House (National Westminster Bank)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Montpellier_Walk%2C_Cheltenham_Geograph-3214529-by-Jaggery.jpg/150px-Montpellier_Walk%2C_Cheltenham_Geograph-3214529-by-Jaggery.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 47 to 83, Promenade and attached railings with low walls and end piers to Nos 71 and 73","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_226850.jpg/150px-Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_226850.jpg"},{"image_text":"Numbers 99–119, Promenade and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/99%E2%80%93119_Promenade%2C_Cheltenham_%2829849018958%29.jpg/150px-99%E2%80%93119_Promenade%2C_Cheltenham_%2829849018958%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 121 and 123, Promenade and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/121%E2%80%93123_Promenade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-121%E2%80%93123_Promenade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 18–24, Priory Parade and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/18%E2%80%9324_Priory_Parade%2C_Cheltenham_%2843719501001%29.jpg/150px-18%E2%80%9324_Priory_Parade%2C_Cheltenham_%2843719501001%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Oxford Parade and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Priory_Parade_%28geograph_5799154%29.jpg/150px-Priory_Parade_%28geograph_5799154%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Oxford Parade and attached railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Oxford_Parade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-Oxford_Parade%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"Parish Centre for St Philip and St James","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/St_James_Church%2C_Suffolk_Square%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1133824.jpg/150px-St_James_Church%2C_Suffolk_Square%2C_Cheltenham_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1133824.jpg"},{"image_text":"Queens Hotel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cheltenham.queens.hotel.arp.jpg/150px-Cheltenham.queens.hotel.arp.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nos 1–6, St Margaret's Terrace and attached area railings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/St_Margaret%27s_Terrace%2C_Cheltenham.jpg/150px-St_Margaret%27s_Terrace%2C_Cheltenham.jpg"},{"image_text":"St Paul's College Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher 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Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Forest_of_Dean"},{"title":"Grade II* listed buildings in Gloucester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Gloucester"},{"title":"Grade II* listed buildings in South Gloucestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_South_Gloucestershire"},{"title":"Grade II* listed buildings in Stroud (district)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Stroud_(district)"},{"title":"Grade II* listed buildings in Tewkesbury (borough)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II*_listed_buildings_in_Tewkesbury_(borough)"},{"title":"Grade I listed buildings in Cheltenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_I_listed_buildings_in_Cheltenham"}] | [] | 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(visual_art) | Realism (arts) | ["1 Visual arts","1.1 Resisting idealization","1.2 Illusionism","1.3 Depiction of ordinary subjects","1.4 Realist movement","2 Literature","3 Theatre","4 Cinema","5 Opera","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"] | Artistic style of representing subjects realistically
For other uses, see Realism (disambiguation).
Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet (1854) – a Realist painting by Gustave Courbet
Realism in the arts is generally the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding speculative and supernatural elements. The term is often used interchangeably with naturalism, although these terms are not synonymous. Naturalism, as an idea relating to visual representation in Western art, seeks to depict objects with the least possible amount of distortion and is tied to the development of linear perspective and illusionism in Renaissance Europe. Realism, while predicated upon naturalistic representation and a departure from the idealization of earlier academic art, often refers to a specific art historical movement that originated in France in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1848. With artists like Gustave Courbet capitalizing on the mundane, ugly or sordid, realism was motivated by the renewed interest in the common man and the rise of leftist politics. The realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century.
In 19th-century Europe, "Naturalism" or the "Naturalist school" was somewhat artificially erected as a term representing a breakaway sub-movement of realism, that attempted (not wholly successfully) to distinguish itself from its parent by its avoidance of politics and social issues, and liked to proclaim a quasi-scientific basis, playing on the sense of "naturalist" as a student of natural history, as the biological sciences were then generally known.
There have been various movements invoking realism in the other arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism and Italian neorealist cinema.
Visual arts
When used as an adjective, "realistic" (usually related to visual appearance) distinguishes itself from "realist" art that concerns subject matter. Similarly, the term "illusionistic" might be used when referring to the accurate rendering of visual appearances in a composition. In painting, naturalism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes and objects. It is also called mimesis or illusionism and became especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck and other artists in the 15th century. In the 19th century, Realism art movement painters such as Gustave Courbet were not especially noted for fully precise and careful depiction of visual appearances; in Courbet's time that was more often a characteristic of academic painting, which very often depicted with great skill and care scenes that were contrived and artificial, or imagined historical scenes.
Resisting idealization
Francisco Goya, Charles IV of Spain and His Family, 1800–01
Realism, or naturalism as a style depicting the unidealized version of the subject, can be used in depicting any type of subject without commitment to treating the typical or every day. Despite the general idealism of classical art, this too had classical precedents, which came in useful when defending such treatments in the Renaissance and Baroque. Demetrius of Alopece was a 4th-century BCE sculptor whose work (all now lost) was said to prefer realism over ideal beauty, and during the Ancient Roman Republic, politicians preferred a truthful depiction in portraits, though the early emperors favored Greek idealism. Goya's portraits of the Spanish royal family represent a sort of honest, unflattering portrayal of important people.
Eilif Peterssen, The Salmon Fisher, 1889
A recurring trend in Christian art was "realism" that emphasized the humanity of religious figures, above all Christ and his physical sufferings in his Passion. Following trends in devotional literature, this developed in the Late Middle Ages, where some painted wooden sculptures in particular strayed into the grotesque in portraying Christ covered in wounds and blood, with the intention of stimulating the viewer to meditate on the suffering that Christ had undergone on their behalf. These were especially found in Germany and Central Europe. After abating in the Renaissance, similar works re-appeared in the Baroque, especially in Spanish sculpture.
Renaissance theorists opened a debate, which was to last several centuries, as to the correct balance between drawing art from the observation of nature and from idealized forms, typically those found in classical models, or the work of other artists generally. Some admitted the importance of the natural, but many believed it should be idealized to various degrees to include only the beautiful. Leonardo da Vinci was one who championed the pure study of nature and wished to depict the whole range of individual varieties of forms in the human figure and other things. Leon Battista Alberti was an early idealizer, stressing the typical, with others such as Michelangelo supporting the selection of the most beautiful – he refused to make portraits for that reason.
Henri Biva, Matin à Villeneuve, c. 1905–06
In the 17th century, the debate continued. In Italy, it usually centered on the contrast between the relative "classical-idealism" of the Carracci and the "naturalist" style of the Caravaggisti, or followers of Caravaggio, who painted religious scenes as though set in the back streets of contemporary Italian cities and used "naturalist" as a self-description. Bellori, writing some decades after Caravaggio's early death and no supporter of his style, refers to "Those who glory in the name of naturalists" (naturalisti).
During the 19th century, naturalism developed as a broadly defined movement in European art, though it lacked the political underpinnings that motivated realist artists. The originator of the term was the French art critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary, who in 1863 announced that: "The naturalist school declares that art is the expression of life under all phases and on all levels, and that its sole aim is to reproduce nature by carrying it to its maximum power and intensity: it is truth balanced with science". Émile Zola adopted the term with a similar scientific emphasis for his aims in the novel. Many Naturalist paintings covered a similar range of subject matter as that of Impressionism, but using tighter, more traditional brushwork styles.
The term "continued to be used indiscriminately for various kinds of realism" for several decades, often as a catch-all term for art that was outside Impressionism and later movements of Modernism and also was not academic art. The later periods of the French Barbizon School and the Düsseldorf School of painting, with its students from many countries, and 20th-century American Regionalism are movements that are often also described as "naturalist", although the term is rarely used in British painting. Some recent art historians claimed either Courbet or the Impressionists for the label.
Late Gothic Pietà from Lubiąż in Lower Silesia, Poland, now in National Museum in Warsaw
Alexei Savrasov, The Rooks Have Returned, 1871
Jean-François Raffaëlli, Outskirts of Paris, 1880s
Pekka Halonen, Finnish Naturalist, Pioneers in Karelia, 1900
Illusionism
Lord Leighton's Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna of 1853–55 is at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not Realist in the sense of Courbet's work of the same period.
The development of increasingly accurate representations of the visual appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the accurate depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, the perspective and effects of distance, and the detailed effects of light and color. The art of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe achieved remarkably lifelike depictions of animals. Ancient Egyptian art developed conventions involving both stylization and idealization. Ancient Greek art is commonly recognized as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. No original works on panels or walls by the great Greek painters survive, but from literary accounts and the surviving corpus of derivative works (mostly Graeco-Roman works in mosaic), illusionism seems to be highly valued in painting. Pliny the Elder's famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend.
As well as accuracy in shape, light, and color, Roman paintings show an unscientific but effective knowledge of representing distant objects smaller than closer ones and representing regular geometric forms such as the roof and walls of a room with perspective. This progress in illusionistic effects in no way meant a rejection of idealism; statues of Greek gods and heroes attempt to represent with accuracy idealized and beautiful forms, though other works, such as heads of the famously ugly Socrates, were allowed to fall below these ideal standards of beauty. Roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects, called verism.
Bas-de-page of the Baptism of Christ, "Hand G" (Jan van Eyck?), Turin–Milan Hours. An illusionistic work for c. 1425, with the dove of the Holy Ghost in the sky.
The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, a change already well underway by the time Christianity began to affect the art of the elite. In the West, classical standards of illusionism did not begin to be reached again until the Late medieval and Early Renaissance periods and were helped first in the Netherlands in the early 15th century, and around the 1470s in Italy by the development of new techniques of oil painting which allowed very subtle and precise effects of light to be painted using several layers of paint and glaze. Scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy in the early 15th century and gradually spread across Europe, with accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm.
The accurate depiction of landscape in painting had also been developing in Early Netherlandish/Early Northern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance painting and was then brought to a very high level in 17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting, with very subtle techniques for depicting a range of weather conditions and degrees of natural light. After being another development of Early Netherlandish painting, 1600 European portraiture subjects were often idealized by smoothing features or giving them an artificial pose. Still life paintings and still life elements in other works played a considerable role in developing illusionistic painting, though in the Netherlandish tradition of flower painting they long lacked "realism", in that flowers from all seasons were typically used, either from the habit of assembling compositions from individual drawings or as a deliberate convention; the large displays of bouquets in vases were atypical of 17th-century habits; the flowers were displayed one at a time.
Depiction of ordinary subjects
Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months by Simon Bening, c. 1550
The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a long history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions or shown at a smaller scale. This was partly because art was expensive and usually commissioned for specific religious, political or personal reasons, which allowed only a relatively small amount of space or effort to be devoted to such scenes. Drolleries in the margins of medieval illuminated manuscripts sometimes contain small scenes of everyday life, and the development of perspective created large background areas in many scenes set outdoors. Medieval and Early Renaissance art usually showed non-sacred figures in contemporary dress by convention.
Early Netherlandish painting brought the painting of portraits as low down the social scale as the prosperous merchants of Flanders, and some of these, notably the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck (1434) and more often in religious scenes such as the Merode Altarpiece by Robert Campin and his workshop (circa 1427), include very detailed depictions of middle-class interiors full of lovingly depicted objects. However, these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance and symbolism that undercut any commitment to realism for its own sake. Cycles of the Labours of the Months in late medieval art, of which many examples survive from books of hours, concentrate on peasants laboring on different tasks through the seasons, often in a rich landscape background, and were significant both in developing landscape art and the depiction of everyday working-class people.
Annibale Carracci, The Butcher's Shop, early 1580s
In the 16th century, there was a fashion for the depiction in large paintings of scenes of people working, especially in food markets and kitchens; in many, the food is given as much prominence as the workers. Artists included Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beuckelaer in the Netherlands, working in an essentially Mannerist style, and in Italy the young Annibale Carracci in the 1580s, using an unpolished style, with Bartolomeo Passerotti somewhere between the two. Pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life. Such scenes acted as a prelude for the popularity of scenes of work in genre painting in the 17th century, which appeared all over Europe, with Dutch Golden Age painting sprouting several different subgenres of such scenes, the Bamboccianti (though mostly from the Low Countries) in Italy, and in Spain the genre of bodegones, and the introduction of unidealized peasants into history paintings by Jusepe de Ribera and Velázquez. The Le Nain brothers in France and many Flemish artists including Adriaen Brouwer and David Teniers the Elder and Younger painted peasants, but rarely townsfolk. In the 18th century, small paintings of working people remained popular, mostly drawing on the Dutch tradition and featuring women.
Much art depicting ordinary people, especially in the form of prints, was comic and moralistic, but the mere poverty of the subjects seems relatively rarely to have been part of the moral message. From the mid-19th century onwards, the difficulties of life for the poor were emphasized. Despite this trend coinciding with large-scale migration from the countryside to cities in most of Europe, painters still tended to paint poor rural people. Crowded city street scenes were popular with the Impressionists and related painters, especially ones showing Paris.
Medieval manuscript illuminators were often asked to illustrate technology, but after the Renaissance, such images continued in book illustrations and prints, with the exception of marine painting which largely disappeared in fine art until the early Industrial Revolution, scenes from which were painted by a few painters such as Joseph Wright of Derby and Philip James de Loutherbourg. Such subjects probably failed to sell very well, and there is a noticeable absence of industry, other than a few railway scenes, in painting until the later 19th century, when works began to be commissioned, typically by industrialists or for institutions in industrial cities, often on a large scale, and sometimes given a quasi-heroic treatment.
American realism, a movement of the early 20th century, is one of many modern movements to use realism in this sense.
Jean-Baptiste Greuze, The Laundress, 1761
William Bell Scott Iron and Coal, 1855–1860
Sir Luke Fildes, The Widower, 1876
Albert Edelfelt, The Luxembourg Gardens, 1887
Realist movement
Main article: Realism (art movement)
The Realist movement began in the mid-19th century as a reaction to Romanticism and History painting. In favor of depictions of 'real' life, the Realist painters used common laborers, and ordinary people in ordinary surroundings engaged in real activities as subjects for their works. Its chief exponents were Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. According to Ross Finocchio, formerly of the Department of European Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Realists used unprettified detail depicting the existence of ordinary contemporary life, coinciding with the contemporaneous naturalist literature of Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert.
The French Realist movement had equivalents in all other Western countries, developing somewhat later. In particular the Peredvizhniki or Wanderers group in Russia who formed in the 1860s and organized exhibitions from 1871 included many realists such as Ilya Repin, Vasily Perov and Ivan Shishkin, and had a great influence on Russian art. In Britain, artists such as Hubert von Herkomer and Luke Fildes had great success with realist paintings dealing with social issues.
Vasily Perov, The Drowned, 1867
Ilya Repin, Religious Procession in Kursk Province, 1880–1883
Aleksander Gierymski Feast of Trumpets, 1884
Hubert von Herkomer, Hard Times, 1885
Literature
Main article: Literary realism
Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality", Realism as a literary movement is based on "objective reality." It focuses on showing everyday activities and life, primarily among the middle- or lower-class society, without romantic idealization or dramatization. According to Kornelije Kvas, "the realistic figuration and re-figuration of reality form logical constructs that are similar to our usual notion of reality, without violating the principle of three types of laws – those of natural sciences, psychological and social ones". It may be regarded as a general attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in third-person objective reality without embellishment or interpretation and "in accordance with secular, empirical rules." As such, the approach inherently implies a belief that such reality is ontologically independent of humankind's conceptual schemes, linguistic practices and beliefs and thus can be known to the artist, who can in turn represent this 'reality' faithfully. As Ian Watt states, modern realism "begins from the position that truth can be discovered by the individual through the senses" and as such, "it has its origins in Descartes and Locke, and received its first full formulation by Thomas Reid in the middle of the eighteenth century."
While the preceding Romantic era was also a reaction against the values of the Industrial Revolution, realism was in its turn a reaction to Romanticism, and for this reason it is also commonly derogatorily referred as "traditional bourgeois realism". Some writers of Victorian literature produced works of realism. The rigidities, conventions, and other limitations of "bourgeois realism" prompted in their turn the revolt later labeled as modernism; starting around 1900, the driving motive of modernist literature was the criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and world view, which was countered with an anti-rationalist, anti-realist and anti-bourgeois program.
Theatre
Main article: Theatrical realism
A photograph taken during the 1922 performance of 'Uncle Vanya' at the Moscow Art Theatre
Theatrical realism is said to have first emerged in European drama in the 19th century as an offshoot of the Industrial Revolution and the age of science. Some also specifically cited the invention of photography as the basis of the realist theater while others view that the association between realism and drama is far older as demonstrated by the principles of dramatic forms such as the presentation of the physical world that closely matches reality.
The achievement of realism in the theatre was to direct attention to the social and psychological problems of ordinary life. In its dramas, people emerge as victims of forces larger than themselves, as individuals confronted with a rapidly accelerating world. These pioneering playwrights present their characters as ordinary, impotent, and unable to arrive at answers to their predicaments. This type of art represents what we see with our human eyes. Anton Chekov, for instance, used camera works to reproduce an uninflected slice of life. Scholars such as Thomas Postlewait noted that throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there were numerous joining of melodramatic and realistic forms and functions, which could be demonstrated in the way melodramatic elements existed in realistic forms and vice versa.
In the United States, realism in drama preceded fictional realism by about two decades as theater historians identified the first impetus toward realism during the late 1870s and early 1880s. Its development is also attributed to William Dean Howells and Henry James who served as the spokesmen for realism as well as articulator of its aesthetic principles.
The realistic approach to theater collapsed into nihilism and the absurd after World War II.
Cinema
See also: Neorealism (art), Poetic realism, and Socialist realism
Italian Neorealism was a cinematic movement incorporating elements of realism that developed in post-WWII Italy. Notable Neorealists included Vittorio De Sica, Luchino Visconti, and Roberto Rossellini. Realist films generally focus on social issues. There are two types of realism in film: seamless realism and aesthetic realism. Seamless realism tries to use narrative structures and film techniques to create a "reality effect" to maintain its authenticity. Aesthetic realism, which was first called for by French filmmakers in the 1930s and promoted by Andre Bazin in the 1950s, acknowledges that a "film cannot be fixed to mean what it shows", as there are multiple realisms; as such, these filmmakers use location shooting, natural light and non-professional actors to ensure the viewer can make up her/his own choice based on the film, rather than being manipulated into a "preferred reading". Siegfried Kracauer is also notable for arguing that realism is the most important function of cinema.
Aesthetically realist filmmakers use long shots, deep focus and eye-level 90-degree shots to reduce manipulation of what the viewer sees. Italian neorealism filmmakers from after WWII took the existing realist film approaches from France and Italy that emerged in the 1960s and used them to create a politically oriented cinema. French filmmakers made some politically oriented realist films in the 1960s, such as the cinéma vérité and documentary films of Jean Rouch while in the 1950s and 1960s, British, French and German new waves of filmmaking produced "slice-of-life" films (e.g., kitchen sink dramas in the UK).
Opera
Main article: Verismo
Verismo was a post-Romantic operatic tradition associated with Italian composers such as Pietro Mascagni, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Umberto Giordano, Francesco Cilea and Giacomo Puccini. They sought to bring the naturalism of influential late 19th-century writers such as Émile Zola, Gustave Flaubert and Henrik Ibsen into opera. This new style presented true-to-life drama that featured gritty and flawed lower-class protagonists while some described it as a heightened portrayal of a realistic event. Although an account considered Giuseppe Verdi's Luisa Miller and La traviata as the first stirrings of the verismo, some claimed that it began in 1890 with the first performance of Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana, peaked in the early 1900s. It was followed by Leoncavallo's Pagliacci, which dealt with the themes of infidelity, revenge, and violence.
Verismo also reached Britain where pioneers included the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900). Specifically, their play Iolanthe is considered a realistic representation of the nobility although it included fantastical elements.
See also
Aesthetic Realism
American realism
Ashcan School
Aspectism
Capitalist realism
Contemporary realism
Chanson réaliste (realist song), a style of music performed in France primarily from the 1880s until the end of World War II
Humanist photography
Street photography
Hyperrealism (visual arts)
Magic realism
Nouveau réalisme
Peredvizhniki
Photorealism
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Pseudorealism
Romantic realism
Social realism
Verism
Notes
^ Sarah Dillon and Amy Raffel (October 2014). "Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)". Art History Teaching Resources. AHTR. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ Stremmel, Kerstin, Realism, pp. 6–9, 2004, Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-2942-0, 978-3-8228-2942-4
^ Finocchio, Ross. "Nineteenth-Century French Realism". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online (October 2004)
^ Blunt, 30–32, and the whole short chapter on Leonardo
^ Blunt, 14–20
^ Blunt, 59–64
^ "Quelle che si gloriamo del nome de naturalisti", quoted in Raben, 134, note 31
^ a b c Needham
^ "NGA Realism movement". Nga.gov. January 6, 1941. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ "National Gallery glossary, Realism movement". Nationalgallery.org.uk. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ "Philosophy of Realism". Impressionist1877.tripod.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ "Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ Donna M. Campbell. "Realism in American Literature". Wsu.edu. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ "Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
^ Kvas, Kornelije (2020). The Boundaries of Realism in World Literature. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Lexington Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6.
^ in so far as such subjects are "explicable in terms of natural causation without resort to supernatural or divine intervention" Morris, 2003. p. 5
^ Watt, 1957, p. 12
^ a b John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book (1984).
^ "Victorian Literature". The Literature Network. Retrieved October 7, 2013.
^ Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.
^ Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383–417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed., (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58–81.
^ a b Hill, Philip (1992). Our Dramatic Heritage, Volume 6. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8386-3421-9.
^ Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-13-547861-5.
^ Downs, William; Wright, Lou Anne; Ramsey, Erik (2013). The Art of Theatre: A Concise Introduction, 3rd edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-111-34831-1.
^ Zarrilli, Phillip; McConachie, Bruce; Williams, Gary Jay; Sorgenfrei, Carol (2010). Theatre Histories: An Introduction, 2nd edition. Oxon: Routledge. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-415-46223-5.
^ Lane, David (2010). Contemporary British Drama. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7486-3821-5.
^ Simard, Rodney. Postmodern Drama: Contemporary Playwrights in America and Britain. New York: UP of America, 1984.
^ Worthen, W.B. (1992). Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-520-28687-0.
^ Saxon, Theresa (2011). American Theatre. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-7486-4520-6.
^ a b Murphy, Brenda (1987). American Realism and American Drama, 1880–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-32711-4.
^ a b c d e f Hayward, Susan. "Realism" in Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts (Third Edition). Routledge, 2006. pp. 334–35
^ Dudley Andrew, The Major Film Theories: An Introduction, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1976, Part II.
^ a b Paxman, Jon (2014). A Chronology Of Western Classical Music 1600–2000. London: Omnibus Press. pp. 425–26. ISBN 978-1-78323-121-8.
^ a b Wright, Adrian (2010). A Tanner's Worth of Tune: Rediscovering the Post-war British Musical. Suffolk, UK: The Boydell Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-84383-542-4.
^ Carner, Mosco (1993). Tosca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-521-22824-4.
^ "Verismo" in Stanley Sadie (ed.) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, London: Macmillan/New York: Grove, 1980, vol. 19 p. 670, ISBN 1-56159-174-2
References
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-19-881050-4
Morris, Pam (2003). Realism. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-22938-8.
Needham, Gerald, "Naturalism." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed February 23, 2013, subscriber link
Raben, Hans, "Bellori's Art: The Taste and Distaste of a Seventeenth-Century Art Critic in Rome", Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 32, No. 2/3 (2006), pp. 126–46, Stichting voor Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties, JSTOR
Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of California Press.
West, Shearer (1996). The Bullfinch Guide to Art. UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. ISBN 978-0-8212-2137-2.
Further reading
Buchanan, William (1982), The Realist Tradition, in Cencrastus No. 8, Spring 1982, pp. 17–20, ISSN 0264-0856
Dahlhaus, Carl (1985). Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by Mary Whittall. Cambridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26115-9. ISBN 978-0-521-27841-6 (pbk).
Dahlhaus, Carl (1989). Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.
Frisch, Walter (2005). German Modernism: Music and the Arts. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25148-9.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Realism.
Article on American literary realism at the Literary Movements site
Art term: Realism at tate.org.uk
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Realism (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonjour,_Monsieur_Courbet"},{"link_name":"Realist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)"},{"link_name":"Gustave Courbet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Courbet"},{"link_name":"the arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts"},{"link_name":"artificiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificiality"},{"link_name":"speculative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculative_fiction"},{"link_name":"supernatural elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_literature"},{"link_name":"linear perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_perspective"},{"link_name":"illusionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusionism"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"academic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_art"},{"link_name":"specific art historical movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)"},{"link_name":"French Revolution of 1848","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848"},{"link_name":"Gustave Courbet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Courbet"},{"link_name":"leftist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leftist"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"natural history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"},{"link_name":"biological sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_sciences"},{"link_name":"verismo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verismo_(music)"},{"link_name":"literary realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_realism"},{"link_name":"theatrical realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"Italian neorealist cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_neorealism"}],"text":"For other uses, see Realism (disambiguation).Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet (1854) – a Realist painting by Gustave CourbetRealism in the arts is generally the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding speculative and supernatural elements. The term is often used interchangeably with naturalism, although these terms are not synonymous. Naturalism, as an idea relating to visual representation in Western art, seeks to depict objects with the least possible amount of distortion and is tied to the development of linear perspective and illusionism in Renaissance Europe.[1] Realism, while predicated upon naturalistic representation and a departure from the idealization of earlier academic art, often refers to a specific art historical movement that originated in France in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1848. With artists like Gustave Courbet capitalizing on the mundane, ugly or sordid, realism was motivated by the renewed interest in the common man and the rise of leftist politics.[2] The realist painters rejected Romanticism, which had come to dominate French literature and art, with roots in the late 18th century.In 19th-century Europe, \"Naturalism\" or the \"Naturalist school\" was somewhat artificially erected as a term representing a breakaway sub-movement of realism, that attempted (not wholly successfully) to distinguish itself from its parent by its avoidance of politics and social issues, and liked to proclaim a quasi-scientific basis, playing on the sense of \"naturalist\" as a student of natural history, as the biological sciences were then generally known.There have been various movements invoking realism in the other arts, such as the opera style of verismo, literary realism, theatrical realism and Italian neorealist cinema.","title":"Realism (arts)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"mimesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesis"},{"link_name":"illusionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusionism_(art)"},{"link_name":"Early Netherlandish painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting"},{"link_name":"Robert Campin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Campin"},{"link_name":"Jan van Eyck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck"},{"link_name":"Realism art movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_art_movement"},{"link_name":"Gustave Courbet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Courbet"},{"link_name":"academic painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_painting"}],"text":"When used as an adjective, \"realistic\" (usually related to visual appearance) distinguishes itself from \"realist\" art that concerns subject matter. Similarly, the term \"illusionistic\" might be used when referring to the accurate rendering of visual appearances in a composition.[3][4] In painting, naturalism is the precise, detailed and accurate representation in art of the appearance of scenes and objects. It is also called mimesis or illusionism and became especially marked in European painting in the Early Netherlandish painting of Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck and other artists in the 15th century. In the 19th century, Realism art movement painters such as Gustave Courbet were not especially noted for fully precise and careful depiction of visual appearances; in Courbet's time that was more often a characteristic of academic painting, which very often depicted with great skill and care scenes that were contrived and artificial, or imagined historical scenes.","title":"Visual arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_familia_de_Carlos_IV,_por_Francisco_de_Goya.jpg"},{"link_name":"Francisco Goya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Goya"},{"link_name":"Charles IV of Spain and His Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain_and_His_Family"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"},{"link_name":"Demetrius of Alopece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_of_Alopece"},{"link_name":"Ancient Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Goya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goya"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eilif_Peterssen-Laksefiskeren_(1889).jpg"},{"link_name":"Eilif Peterssen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilif_Peterssen"},{"link_name":"Christian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_art"},{"link_name":"Passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"devotional literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devotional_literature"},{"link_name":"Late Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Leon Battista Alberti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henri_BIVA,_ca_1905-06,_Matin_%C3%A0_Villeneuve,_Salon_1906_postcard_-_original_painting,_oil_on_canvas,_151.1_x_125.1_cm,_private_collection.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Henri Biva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Biva"},{"link_name":"Matin à Villeneuve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matin_%C3%A0_Villeneuve"},{"link_name":"the Carracci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carracci"},{"link_name":"Caravaggisti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggisti"},{"link_name":"Caravaggio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio"},{"link_name":"Bellori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellori"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jules-Antoine Castagnary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules-Antoine_Castagnary"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Needham-9"},{"link_name":"Émile Zola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola"},{"link_name":"Impressionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Needham-9"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"academic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_art"},{"link_name":"Barbizon School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbizon_School"},{"link_name":"Düsseldorf School of painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_school_of_painting"},{"link_name":"Regionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regionalism_(art)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Needham-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieta_z_Lubiaza.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pietà","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet%C3%A0"},{"link_name":"Lubiąż","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubi%C4%85%C5%BC"},{"link_name":"Lower Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"National Museum in Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_National_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RooksBackOfSavrasov.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alexei Savrasov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Savrasov"},{"link_name":"The Rooks Have Returned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rooks_Have_Returned"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raffaelli_Pariser_Vorstadt.JPG"},{"link_name":"Jean-François Raffaëlli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Raffa%C3%ABlli"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pekka_Halonen_-_Tienraivaajia_Karjalassa.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pekka Halonen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pekka_Halonen"},{"link_name":"Karelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karelia"}],"sub_title":"Resisting idealization","text":"Francisco Goya, Charles IV of Spain and His Family, 1800–01Realism, or naturalism as a style depicting the unidealized version of the subject, can be used in depicting any type of subject without commitment to treating the typical or every day. Despite the general idealism of classical art, this too had classical precedents, which came in useful when defending such treatments in the Renaissance and Baroque. Demetrius of Alopece was a 4th-century BCE sculptor whose work (all now lost) was said to prefer realism over ideal beauty, and during the Ancient Roman Republic, politicians preferred a truthful depiction in portraits, though the early emperors favored Greek idealism. Goya's portraits of the Spanish royal family represent a sort of honest, unflattering portrayal of important people.Eilif Peterssen, The Salmon Fisher, 1889A recurring trend in Christian art was \"realism\" that emphasized the humanity of religious figures, above all Christ and his physical sufferings in his Passion. Following trends in devotional literature, this developed in the Late Middle Ages, where some painted wooden sculptures in particular strayed into the grotesque in portraying Christ covered in wounds and blood, with the intention of stimulating the viewer to meditate on the suffering that Christ had undergone on their behalf. These were especially found in Germany and Central Europe. After abating in the Renaissance, similar works re-appeared in the Baroque, especially in Spanish sculpture.Renaissance theorists opened a debate, which was to last several centuries, as to the correct balance between drawing art from the observation of nature and from idealized forms, typically those found in classical models, or the work of other artists generally. Some admitted the importance of the natural, but many believed it should be idealized to various degrees to include only the beautiful. Leonardo da Vinci was one who championed the pure study of nature and wished to depict the whole range of individual varieties of forms in the human figure and other things.[5] Leon Battista Alberti was an early idealizer, stressing the typical,[6] with others such as Michelangelo supporting the selection of the most beautiful – he refused to make portraits for that reason.[7]Henri Biva, Matin à Villeneuve, c. 1905–06In the 17th century, the debate continued. In Italy, it usually centered on the contrast between the relative \"classical-idealism\" of the Carracci and the \"naturalist\" style of the Caravaggisti, or followers of Caravaggio, who painted religious scenes as though set in the back streets of contemporary Italian cities and used \"naturalist\" as a self-description. Bellori, writing some decades after Caravaggio's early death and no supporter of his style, refers to \"Those who glory in the name of naturalists\" (naturalisti).[8]During the 19th century, naturalism developed as a broadly defined movement in European art, though it lacked the political underpinnings that motivated realist artists. The originator of the term was the French art critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary, who in 1863 announced that: \"The naturalist school declares that art is the expression of life under all phases and on all levels, and that its sole aim is to reproduce nature by carrying it to its maximum power and intensity: it is truth balanced with science\".[9] Émile Zola adopted the term with a similar scientific emphasis for his aims in the novel. Many Naturalist paintings covered a similar range of subject matter as that of Impressionism, but using tighter, more traditional brushwork styles.[9]The term \"continued to be used indiscriminately for various kinds of realism\" for several decades, often as a catch-all term for art that was outside Impressionism and later movements of Modernism and also was not academic art. The later periods of the French Barbizon School and the Düsseldorf School of painting, with its students from many countries, and 20th-century American Regionalism are movements that are often also described as \"naturalist\", although the term is rarely used in British painting. Some recent art historians claimed either Courbet or the Impressionists for the label.[9]Late Gothic Pietà from Lubiąż in Lower Silesia, Poland, now in National Museum in Warsaw\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAlexei Savrasov, The Rooks Have Returned, 1871\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJean-François Raffaëlli, Outskirts of Paris, 1880s\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPekka Halonen, Finnish Naturalist, Pioneers in Karelia, 1900","title":"Visual arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frederic_Leighton_-_Cimabue%27s_Madonna_Carried_in_Procession_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lord Leighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Leighton"},{"link_name":"Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimabue%27s_Celebrated_Madonna"},{"link_name":"perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_perspective"},{"link_name":"art of the Upper Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"Ancient Egyptian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_art"},{"link_name":"stylization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylization"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art"},{"link_name":"mosaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Zeuxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeuxis_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Roman portraiture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_portraiture"},{"link_name":"verism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eyckbaptism.png"},{"link_name":"Baptism of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Jan van Eyck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck"},{"link_name":"Turin–Milan Hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin-Milan_Hours"},{"link_name":"Holy Ghost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Ghost"},{"link_name":"Late Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity"},{"link_name":"Late medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_medieval"},{"link_name":"Early Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"oil painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_painting"},{"link_name":"idealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism_(art)"},{"link_name":"landscape in painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_painting"},{"link_name":"Dutch Golden Age painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting"},{"link_name":"Still life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life"},{"link_name":"bouquets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_bouquet"}],"sub_title":"Illusionism","text":"Lord Leighton's Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna of 1853–55 is at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not Realist in the sense of Courbet's work of the same period.The development of increasingly accurate representations of the visual appearances of things has a long history in art. It includes elements such as the accurate depiction of the anatomy of humans and animals, the perspective and effects of distance, and the detailed effects of light and color. The art of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe achieved remarkably lifelike depictions of animals. Ancient Egyptian art developed conventions involving both stylization and idealization. Ancient Greek art is commonly recognized as having made great progress in the representation of anatomy. No original works on panels or walls by the great Greek painters survive, but from literary accounts and the surviving corpus of derivative works (mostly Graeco-Roman works in mosaic), illusionism seems to be highly valued in painting. Pliny the Elder's famous story of birds pecking at grapes painted by Zeuxis in the 5th century BC may well be a legend.As well as accuracy in shape, light, and color, Roman paintings show an unscientific but effective knowledge of representing distant objects smaller than closer ones and representing regular geometric forms such as the roof and walls of a room with perspective. This progress in illusionistic effects in no way meant a rejection of idealism; statues of Greek gods and heroes attempt to represent with accuracy idealized and beautiful forms, though other works, such as heads of the famously ugly Socrates, were allowed to fall below these ideal standards of beauty. Roman portraiture, when not under too much Greek influence, shows a greater commitment to a truthful depiction of its subjects, called verism.Bas-de-page of the Baptism of Christ, \"Hand G\" (Jan van Eyck?), Turin–Milan Hours. An illusionistic work for c. 1425, with the dove of the Holy Ghost in the sky.The art of Late Antiquity famously rejected illusionism for expressive force, a change already well underway by the time Christianity began to affect the art of the elite. In the West, classical standards of illusionism did not begin to be reached again until the Late medieval and Early Renaissance periods and were helped first in the Netherlands in the early 15th century, and around the 1470s in Italy by the development of new techniques of oil painting which allowed very subtle and precise effects of light to be painted using several layers of paint and glaze. Scientific methods of representing perspective were developed in Italy in the early 15th century and gradually spread across Europe, with accuracy in anatomy rediscovered under the influence of classical art. As in classical times, idealism remained the norm.The accurate depiction of landscape in painting had also been developing in Early Netherlandish/Early Northern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance painting and was then brought to a very high level in 17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting, with very subtle techniques for depicting a range of weather conditions and degrees of natural light. After being another development of Early Netherlandish painting, 1600 European portraiture subjects were often idealized by smoothing features or giving them an artificial pose. Still life paintings and still life elements in other works played a considerable role in developing illusionistic painting, though in the Netherlandish tradition of flower painting they long lacked \"realism\", in that flowers from all seasons were typically used, either from the habit of assembling compositions from individual drawings or as a deliberate convention; the large displays of bouquets in vases were atypical of 17th-century habits; the flowers were displayed one at a time.","title":"Visual arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simon_Bening_(Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Labours of the Months","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labours_of_the_Months"},{"link_name":"Simon Bening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Bening"},{"link_name":"Drolleries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drolleries"},{"link_name":"illuminated manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscripts"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"Arnolfini Portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnolfini_Portrait"},{"link_name":"Merode Altarpiece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merode_Altarpiece"},{"link_name":"Robert Campin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Campin"},{"link_name":"Labours of the Months","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labours_of_the_Months"},{"link_name":"books of hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_hours"},{"link_name":"landscape art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Annibale_Carracci_-_Butcher%27s_Shop_-_WGA04409.jpg"},{"link_name":"Annibale Carracci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci"},{"link_name":"Pieter Aertsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Aertsen"},{"link_name":"Joachim Beuckelaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Beuckelaer"},{"link_name":"Annibale Carracci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci"},{"link_name":"Bartolomeo Passerotti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_Passerotti"},{"link_name":"Pieter Bruegel the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"genre painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_painting"},{"link_name":"Dutch Golden Age painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting"},{"link_name":"different subgenres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting#Scenes_of_everyday_life"},{"link_name":"Bamboccianti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboccianti"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"bodegones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodegones"},{"link_name":"history paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_paintings"},{"link_name":"Jusepe de Ribera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jusepe_de_Ribera"},{"link_name":"Velázquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%C3%A1zquez"},{"link_name":"Le Nain brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Nain_brothers"},{"link_name":"Adriaen Brouwer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaen_Brouwer"},{"link_name":"David Teniers the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Teniers_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Younger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Teniers_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"prints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_master_print"},{"link_name":"marine painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_painting"},{"link_name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Joseph Wright of Derby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby"},{"link_name":"Philip James de Loutherbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_James_de_Loutherbourg"},{"link_name":"American realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_realism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste_Greuze_(French_-_The_Laundress_(La_Blanchisseuse)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Greuze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Greuze"},{"link_name":"The Laundress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Laundress_(Greuze)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Bell_Scott_-_Iron_and_Coal.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Bell Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bell_Scott"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Luke_Fildes_-_The_widower_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Luke Fildes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Fildes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Edelfelt_-_The_Luxembourg_Gardens,_Paris.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Edelfelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt"},{"link_name":"Luxembourg Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg_Gardens"}],"sub_title":"Depiction of ordinary subjects","text":"Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months by Simon Bening, c. 1550The depiction of ordinary, everyday subjects in art also has a long history, though it was often squeezed into the edges of compositions or shown at a smaller scale. This was partly because art was expensive and usually commissioned for specific religious, political or personal reasons, which allowed only a relatively small amount of space or effort to be devoted to such scenes. Drolleries in the margins of medieval illuminated manuscripts sometimes contain small scenes of everyday life, and the development of perspective created large background areas in many scenes set outdoors. Medieval and Early Renaissance art usually showed non-sacred figures in contemporary dress by convention.Early Netherlandish painting brought the painting of portraits as low down the social scale as the prosperous merchants of Flanders, and some of these, notably the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck (1434) and more often in religious scenes such as the Merode Altarpiece by Robert Campin and his workshop (circa 1427), include very detailed depictions of middle-class interiors full of lovingly depicted objects. However, these objects are at least largely there because they carry layers of complex significance and symbolism that undercut any commitment to realism for its own sake. Cycles of the Labours of the Months in late medieval art, of which many examples survive from books of hours, concentrate on peasants laboring on different tasks through the seasons, often in a rich landscape background, and were significant both in developing landscape art and the depiction of everyday working-class people.Annibale Carracci, The Butcher's Shop, early 1580sIn the 16th century, there was a fashion for the depiction in large paintings of scenes of people working, especially in food markets and kitchens; in many, the food is given as much prominence as the workers. Artists included Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beuckelaer in the Netherlands, working in an essentially Mannerist style, and in Italy the young Annibale Carracci in the 1580s, using an unpolished style, with Bartolomeo Passerotti somewhere between the two. Pieter Bruegel the Elder pioneered large panoramic scenes of peasant life. Such scenes acted as a prelude for the popularity of scenes of work in genre painting in the 17th century, which appeared all over Europe, with Dutch Golden Age painting sprouting several different subgenres of such scenes, the Bamboccianti (though mostly from the Low Countries) in Italy, and in Spain the genre of bodegones, and the introduction of unidealized peasants into history paintings by Jusepe de Ribera and Velázquez. The Le Nain brothers in France and many Flemish artists including Adriaen Brouwer and David Teniers the Elder and Younger painted peasants, but rarely townsfolk. In the 18th century, small paintings of working people remained popular, mostly drawing on the Dutch tradition and featuring women.Much art depicting ordinary people, especially in the form of prints, was comic and moralistic, but the mere poverty of the subjects seems relatively rarely to have been part of the moral message. From the mid-19th century onwards, the difficulties of life for the poor were emphasized. Despite this trend coinciding with large-scale migration from the countryside to cities in most of Europe, painters still tended to paint poor rural people. Crowded city street scenes were popular with the Impressionists and related painters, especially ones showing Paris.Medieval manuscript illuminators were often asked to illustrate technology, but after the Renaissance, such images continued in book illustrations and prints, with the exception of marine painting which largely disappeared in fine art until the early Industrial Revolution, scenes from which were painted by a few painters such as Joseph Wright of Derby and Philip James de Loutherbourg. Such subjects probably failed to sell very well, and there is a noticeable absence of industry, other than a few railway scenes, in painting until the later 19th century, when works began to be commissioned, typically by industrialists or for institutions in industrial cities, often on a large scale, and sometimes given a quasi-heroic treatment.American realism, a movement of the early 20th century, is one of many modern movements to use realism in this sense.Jean-Baptiste Greuze, The Laundress, 1761\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWilliam Bell Scott Iron and Coal, 1855–1860\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSir Luke Fildes, The Widower, 1876\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAlbert Edelfelt, The Luxembourg Gardens, 1887","title":"Visual arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"History painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_painting"},{"link_name":"Gustave Courbet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Courbet"},{"link_name":"Jean-François Millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet"},{"link_name":"Honoré Daumier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Émile Zola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola"},{"link_name":"Honoré de Balzac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac"},{"link_name":"Gustave Flaubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Peredvizhniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peredvizhniki"},{"link_name":"Ilya Repin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Repin"},{"link_name":"Vasily Perov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Perov"},{"link_name":"Ivan Shishkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Shishkin"},{"link_name":"Hubert von Herkomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_von_Herkomer"},{"link_name":"Luke Fildes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke_Fildes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wassilij_Grigorjewitsch_Perow_002.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vasily Perov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Perov"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Procesi%C3%B3n_de_Pascua_en_la_regi%C3%B3n_de_Kursk,_por_Ili%C3%A1_Repin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ilya Repin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Repin"},{"link_name":"Religious Procession in Kursk Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Procession_in_Kursk_Province"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aleksander_Gierymski,_%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_Tr%C4%85bek_I.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aleksander Gierymski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksander_Gierymski"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hubert_von_Herkomer_-_Hard_Times.JPG"},{"link_name":"Hubert von Herkomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_von_Herkomer"}],"sub_title":"Realist movement","text":"The Realist movement began in the mid-19th century as a reaction to Romanticism and History painting. In favor of depictions of 'real' life, the Realist painters used common laborers, and ordinary people in ordinary surroundings engaged in real activities as subjects for their works. Its chief exponents were Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot.[10][11][12] According to Ross Finocchio, formerly of the Department of European Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Realists used unprettified detail depicting the existence of ordinary contemporary life, coinciding with the contemporaneous naturalist literature of Émile Zola, Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert.[13]The French Realist movement had equivalents in all other Western countries, developing somewhat later. In particular the Peredvizhniki or Wanderers group in Russia who formed in the 1860s and organized exhibitions from 1871 included many realists such as Ilya Repin, Vasily Perov and Ivan Shishkin, and had a great influence on Russian art. In Britain, artists such as Hubert von Herkomer and Luke Fildes had great success with realist paintings dealing with social issues.Vasily Perov, The Drowned, 1867\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIlya Repin, Religious Procession in Kursk Province, 1880–1883\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAleksander Gierymski Feast of Trumpets, 1884\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHubert von Herkomer, Hard Times, 1885","title":"Visual arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"objective reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"empirical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"ontologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontological"},{"link_name":"Ian Watt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Watt"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"Thomas Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Reid"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Romantic era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_era"},{"link_name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barth79Replenishment-19"},{"link_name":"Victorian literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_literature"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist_literature"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barth79Replenishment-19"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graff75-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graff73-22"}],"text":"Broadly defined as \"the faithful representation of reality\",[14] Realism as a literary movement is based on \"objective reality.\" It focuses on showing everyday activities and life, primarily among the middle- or lower-class society, without romantic idealization or dramatization.[15] According to Kornelije Kvas, \"the realistic figuration and re-figuration of reality form logical constructs that are similar to our usual notion of reality, without violating the principle of three types of laws – those of natural sciences, psychological and social ones\".[16] It may be regarded as a general attempt to depict subjects as they are considered to exist in third-person objective reality without embellishment or interpretation and \"in accordance with secular, empirical rules.\"[17] As such, the approach inherently implies a belief that such reality is ontologically independent of humankind's conceptual schemes, linguistic practices and beliefs and thus can be known to the artist, who can in turn represent this 'reality' faithfully. As Ian Watt states, modern realism \"begins from the position that truth can be discovered by the individual through the senses\" and as such, \"it has its origins in Descartes and Locke, and received its first full formulation by Thomas Reid in the middle of the eighteenth century.\"[18]While the preceding Romantic era was also a reaction against the values of the Industrial Revolution, realism was in its turn a reaction to Romanticism, and for this reason it is also commonly derogatorily referred as \"traditional bourgeois realism\".[19] Some writers of Victorian literature produced works of realism.[20] The rigidities, conventions, and other limitations of \"bourgeois realism\" prompted in their turn the revolt later labeled as modernism; starting around 1900, the driving motive of modernist literature was the criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and world view, which was countered with an anti-rationalist, anti-realist and anti-bourgeois program.[19][21][22]","title":"Literature"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chekhov_Uncle_Vanya.jpg"},{"link_name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Anton Chekov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov"},{"link_name":"slice of life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slice_of_life"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"melodramatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melodrama"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-31"},{"link_name":"William Dean Howells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dean_Howells"},{"link_name":"Henry James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-31"},{"link_name":"nihilism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism"},{"link_name":"absurd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdism"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-23"}],"text":"A photograph taken during the 1922 performance of 'Uncle Vanya' at the Moscow Art TheatreTheatrical realism is said to have first emerged in European drama in the 19th century as an offshoot of the Industrial Revolution and the age of science.[23][24] Some also specifically cited the invention of photography as the basis of the realist theater[25][26] while others view that the association between realism and drama is far older as demonstrated by the principles of dramatic forms such as the presentation of the physical world that closely matches reality.[27]The achievement of realism in the theatre was to direct attention to the social and psychological problems of ordinary life. In its dramas, people emerge as victims of forces larger than themselves, as individuals confronted with a rapidly accelerating world.[28] These pioneering playwrights present their characters as ordinary, impotent, and unable to arrive at answers to their predicaments. This type of art represents what we see with our human eyes. Anton Chekov, for instance, used camera works to reproduce an uninflected slice of life.[29] Scholars such as Thomas Postlewait noted that throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there were numerous joining of melodramatic and realistic forms and functions, which could be demonstrated in the way melodramatic elements existed in realistic forms and vice versa.[30]In the United States, realism in drama preceded fictional realism by about two decades as theater historians identified the first impetus toward realism during the late 1870s and early 1880s.[31] Its development is also attributed to William Dean Howells and Henry James who served as the spokesmen for realism as well as articulator of its aesthetic principles.[31]The realistic approach to theater collapsed into nihilism and the absurd after World War II.[23]","title":"Theatre"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neorealism (art)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neorealism_(art)"},{"link_name":"Poetic realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_realism"},{"link_name":"Socialist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_realism"},{"link_name":"Italian Neorealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Neorealism"},{"link_name":"Vittorio De Sica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittorio_De_Sica"},{"link_name":"Luchino Visconti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchino_Visconti"},{"link_name":"Roberto Rossellini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Rossellini"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"},{"link_name":"authenticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"},{"link_name":"Andre Bazin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Bazin"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"},{"link_name":"Siegfried Kracauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_Kracauer"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"long shots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_shot"},{"link_name":"deep focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_focus"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"},{"link_name":"cinéma vérité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cin%C3%A9ma_v%C3%A9rit%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jean Rouch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Rouch"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"},{"link_name":"kitchen sink dramas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen_sink_drama"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334-32"}],"text":"See also: Neorealism (art), Poetic realism, and Socialist realismItalian Neorealism was a cinematic movement incorporating elements of realism that developed in post-WWII Italy. Notable Neorealists included Vittorio De Sica, Luchino Visconti, and Roberto Rossellini. Realist films generally focus on social issues.[32] There are two types of realism in film: seamless realism and aesthetic realism. Seamless realism tries to use narrative structures and film techniques to create a \"reality effect\" to maintain its authenticity.[32] Aesthetic realism, which was first called for by French filmmakers in the 1930s and promoted by Andre Bazin in the 1950s, acknowledges that a \"film cannot be fixed to mean what it shows\", as there are multiple realisms; as such, these filmmakers use location shooting, natural light and non-professional actors to ensure the viewer can make up her/his own choice based on the film, rather than being manipulated into a \"preferred reading\".[32] Siegfried Kracauer is also notable for arguing that realism is the most important function of cinema.[33]Aesthetically realist filmmakers use long shots, deep focus and eye-level 90-degree shots to reduce manipulation of what the viewer sees.[32] Italian neorealism filmmakers from after WWII took the existing realist film approaches from France and Italy that emerged in the 1960s and used them to create a politically oriented cinema. French filmmakers made some politically oriented realist films in the 1960s, such as the cinéma vérité and documentary films of Jean Rouch[32] while in the 1950s and 1960s, British, French and German new waves of filmmaking produced \"slice-of-life\" films (e.g., kitchen sink dramas in the UK).[32]","title":"Cinema"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pietro Mascagni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Mascagni"},{"link_name":"Ruggero Leoncavallo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruggero_Leoncavallo"},{"link_name":"Umberto Giordano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_Giordano"},{"link_name":"Francesco Cilea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Cilea"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Puccini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini"},{"link_name":"Émile Zola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola"},{"link_name":"Gustave Flaubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert"},{"link_name":"Henrik Ibsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-35"},{"link_name":"Giuseppe Verdi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi"},{"link_name":"Luisa Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luisa_Miller"},{"link_name":"La traviata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_traviata"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Mascagni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Mascagni"},{"link_name":"Cavalleria rusticana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalleria_rusticana"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-34"},{"link_name":"Victorian-era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era"},{"link_name":"W. S. Gilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilbert"},{"link_name":"Arthur Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-35"},{"link_name":"Iolanthe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iolanthe"}],"text":"Verismo was a post-Romantic operatic tradition associated with Italian composers such as Pietro Mascagni, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Umberto Giordano, Francesco Cilea and Giacomo Puccini. They sought to bring the naturalism of influential late 19th-century writers such as Émile Zola, Gustave Flaubert and Henrik Ibsen into opera. This new style presented true-to-life drama that featured gritty and flawed lower-class protagonists[34] while some described it as a heightened portrayal of a realistic event.[35] Although an account considered Giuseppe Verdi's Luisa Miller and La traviata as the first stirrings of the verismo,[36] some claimed that it began in 1890 with the first performance of Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana, peaked in the early 1900s.[37] It was followed by Leoncavallo's Pagliacci, which dealt with the themes of infidelity, revenge, and violence.[34]Verismo also reached Britain where pioneers included the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the dramatist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900).[35] Specifically, their play Iolanthe is considered a realistic representation of the nobility although it included fantastical elements.","title":"Opera"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arthistoryteachingresources.org/lessons/italian-renaissance-art-1400-1600/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Metropolitan Museum of Art\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Stremmel, Kerstin, Realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=aSBAUzb8SokC&dq=Realism+painting&pg=PA7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-8228-2942-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8228-2942-0"},{"link_name":"978-3-8228-2942-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8228-2942-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Needham_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Needham_9-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Needham_9-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"NGA Realism movement\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140714144138/http://www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"National Gallery glossary, Realism movement\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/realist-movement"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"Philosophy of Realism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//impressionist1877.tripod.com/realism.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"Realism in American Literature\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Realism"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-7936-0910-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-0910-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Morris, 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#refMorris2003"},{"link_name":"p. 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=MFAW6dh24ZwC&q=realism"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Watt, 1957","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#refWatt1957"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Barth79Replenishment_19-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Barth79Replenishment_19-1"},{"link_name":"John Barth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Barth"},{"link_name":"The Literature of Replenishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Literature_of_Replenishment"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"\"Victorian Literature\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.online-literature.com/periods/victorian.php"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Graff75_21-0"},{"link_name":"Gerald Graff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Graff"},{"link_name":"TriQuarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TriQuarterly"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Graff73_22-0"},{"link_name":"Gerald 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Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort"},{"link_name":"194","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort/page/n201"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-28687-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-28687-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7486-4520-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4520-6"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:2_31-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:2_31-1"},{"link_name":"American Realism and American Drama, 1880–1940","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/americanrealisma0000murp/page/1"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/americanrealisma0000murp/page/1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-32711-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32711-4"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Hayward,_Susan_2006._pp._334_32-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"Dudley Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Andrew"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_34-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_34-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-78323-121-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78323-121-8"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_35-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_35-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84383-542-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-542-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"Tosca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/giacomopuccinito00carn"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/giacomopuccinito00carn/page/n16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-22824-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22824-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56159-174-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56159-174-2"}],"text":"^ Sarah Dillon and Amy Raffel (October 2014). \"Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)\". Art History Teaching Resources. AHTR. Retrieved November 6, 2021.\n\n^ \"Metropolitan Museum of Art\". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ Stremmel, Kerstin, Realism, pp. 6–9, 2004, Taschen, ISBN 3-8228-2942-0, 978-3-8228-2942-4\n\n^ Finocchio, Ross. \"Nineteenth-Century French Realism\". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. online (October 2004)\n\n^ Blunt, 30–32, and the whole short chapter on Leonardo\n\n^ Blunt, 14–20\n\n^ Blunt, 59–64\n\n^ \"Quelle che si gloriamo del nome de naturalisti\", quoted in Raben, 134, note 31\n\n^ a b c Needham\n\n^ \"NGA Realism movement\". Nga.gov. January 6, 1941. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ \"National Gallery glossary, Realism movement\". Nationalgallery.org.uk. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ \"Philosophy of Realism\". Impressionist1877.tripod.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ \"Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ Donna M. Campbell. \"Realism in American Literature\". Wsu.edu. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ \"Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia\". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.\n\n^ Kvas, Kornelije (2020). The Boundaries of Realism in World Literature. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Lexington Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6.\n\n^ in so far as such subjects are \"explicable in terms of natural causation without resort to supernatural or divine intervention\" Morris, 2003. p. 5\n\n^ Watt, 1957, p. 12\n\n^ a b John Barth (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later republished in The Friday Book (1984).\n\n^ \"Victorian Literature\". The Literature Network. Retrieved October 7, 2013.\n\n^ Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Context of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.\n\n^ Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the Postmodernist Breakthrough, TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383–417; rept in The Novel Today: Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed., (London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice Krytyczne (Warsaw, 1984); reprinted in Postmodernism in American Literature: A Critical Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen Verlag, 1984), 58–81.\n\n^ a b Hill, Philip (1992). Our Dramatic Heritage, Volume 6. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8386-3421-9.\n\n^ Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-13-547861-5.\n\n^ Downs, William; Wright, Lou Anne; Ramsey, Erik (2013). The Art of Theatre: A Concise Introduction, 3rd edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-111-34831-1.\n\n^ Zarrilli, Phillip; McConachie, Bruce; Williams, Gary Jay; Sorgenfrei, Carol (2010). Theatre Histories: An Introduction, 2nd edition. Oxon: Routledge. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-415-46223-5.\n\n^ Lane, David (2010). Contemporary British Drama. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7486-3821-5.\n\n^ Simard, Rodney. Postmodern Drama: Contemporary Playwrights in America and Britain. New York: UP of America, 1984.\n\n^ Worthen, W.B. (1992). Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-520-28687-0.\n\n^ Saxon, Theresa (2011). American Theatre. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-7486-4520-6.\n\n^ a b Murphy, Brenda (1987). American Realism and American Drama, 1880–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-32711-4.\n\n^ a b c d e f Hayward, Susan. \"Realism\" in Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts (Third Edition). Routledge, 2006. pp. 334–35\n\n^ Dudley Andrew, The Major Film Theories: An Introduction, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1976, Part II.\n\n^ a b Paxman, Jon (2014). A Chronology Of Western Classical Music 1600–2000. London: Omnibus Press. pp. 425–26. ISBN 978-1-78323-121-8.\n\n^ a b Wright, Adrian (2010). A Tanner's Worth of Tune: Rediscovering the Post-war British Musical. Suffolk, UK: The Boydell Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-84383-542-4.\n\n^ Carner, Mosco (1993). Tosca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-521-22824-4.\n\n^ \"Verismo\" in Stanley Sadie (ed.) The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, London: Macmillan/New York: Grove, 1980, vol. 19 p. 670, ISBN 1-56159-174-2","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cencrastus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cencrastus"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0264-0856","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0264-0856"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-26115-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26115-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-27841-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27841-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-07644-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07644-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-25148-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25148-9"}],"text":"Buchanan, William (1982), The Realist Tradition, in Cencrastus No. 8, Spring 1982, pp. 17–20, ISSN 0264-0856\nDahlhaus, Carl (1985). Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by Mary Whittall. Cambridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26115-9. ISBN 978-0-521-27841-6 (pbk).\nDahlhaus, Carl (1989). Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.\nFrisch, Walter (2005). German Modernism: Music and the Arts. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25148-9.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Bonjour, Monsieur Courbet (1854) – a Realist painting by Gustave Courbet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg/350px-Gustave_Courbet_-_Bonjour_Monsieur_Courbet_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre.jpg"},{"image_text":"Francisco Goya, Charles IV of Spain and His Family, 1800–01","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/La_familia_de_Carlos_IV%2C_por_Francisco_de_Goya.jpg/220px-La_familia_de_Carlos_IV%2C_por_Francisco_de_Goya.jpg"},{"image_text":"Eilif Peterssen, The Salmon Fisher, 1889","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Eilif_Peterssen-Laksefiskeren_%281889%29.jpg/220px-Eilif_Peterssen-Laksefiskeren_%281889%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Henri Biva, Matin à Villeneuve, c. 1905–06","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Henri_BIVA%2C_ca_1905-06%2C_Matin_%C3%A0_Villeneuve%2C_Salon_1906_postcard_-_original_painting%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_151.1_x_125.1_cm%2C_private_collection.jpeg/210px-Henri_BIVA%2C_ca_1905-06%2C_Matin_%C3%A0_Villeneuve%2C_Salon_1906_postcard_-_original_painting%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_151.1_x_125.1_cm%2C_private_collection.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Lord Leighton's Cimabue's Celebrated Madonna of 1853–55 is at the end of a long tradition of illusionism in painting, but is not Realist in the sense of Courbet's work of the same period.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Frederic_Leighton_-_Cimabue%27s_Madonna_Carried_in_Procession_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/220px-Frederic_Leighton_-_Cimabue%27s_Madonna_Carried_in_Procession_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bas-de-page of the Baptism of Christ, \"Hand G\" (Jan van Eyck?), Turin–Milan Hours. An illusionistic work for c. 1425, with the dove of the Holy Ghost in the sky.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Eyckbaptism.png/220px-Eyckbaptism.png"},{"image_text":"Woodcutting, miniature from a set of Labours of the Months by Simon Bening, c. 1550","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Simon_Bening_%28Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Simon_Bening_%28Flemish_-_Gathering_Twigs_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"image_text":"Annibale Carracci, The Butcher's Shop, early 1580s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Annibale_Carracci_-_Butcher%27s_Shop_-_WGA04409.jpg/220px-Annibale_Carracci_-_Butcher%27s_Shop_-_WGA04409.jpg"},{"image_text":"A photograph taken during the 1922 performance of 'Uncle Vanya' at the Moscow Art Theatre","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Chekhov_Uncle_Vanya.jpg/220px-Chekhov_Uncle_Vanya.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Aesthetic Realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism"},{"title":"American realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_realism"},{"title":"Ashcan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashcan_School"},{"title":"Aspectism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspectism"},{"title":"Capitalist realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_realism"},{"title":"Contemporary realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_realism"},{"title":"Chanson réaliste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanson_r%C3%A9aliste"},{"title":"Humanist photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanist_photography"},{"title":"Street photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_photography"},{"title":"Hyperrealism (visual arts)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperrealism_(visual_arts)"},{"title":"Magic realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_realism"},{"title":"Nouveau réalisme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouveau_r%C3%A9alisme"},{"title":"Peredvizhniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peredvizhniki"},{"title":"Photorealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorealism"},{"title":"Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood"},{"title":"Pseudorealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorealism"},{"title":"Romantic realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_realism"},{"title":"Social realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_realism"},{"title":"Verism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verism"}] | [{"reference":"Sarah Dillon and Amy Raffel (October 2014). \"Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)\". Art History Teaching Resources. AHTR. Retrieved November 6, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://arthistoryteachingresources.org/lessons/italian-renaissance-art-1400-1600/","url_text":"\"Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Metropolitan Museum of Art\". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm","url_text":"\"Metropolitan Museum of Art\""}]},{"reference":"\"NGA Realism movement\". Nga.gov. January 6, 1941. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714144138/http://www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm","url_text":"\"NGA Realism movement\""},{"url":"http://www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"National Gallery glossary, Realism movement\". Nationalgallery.org.uk. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/realist-movement","url_text":"\"National Gallery glossary, Realism movement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Philosophy of Realism\". Impressionist1877.tripod.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://impressionist1877.tripod.com/realism.htm","url_text":"\"Philosophy of Realism\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\". Metmuseum.org. June 2, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm","url_text":"\"Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\""}]},{"reference":"Donna M. Campbell. \"Realism in American Literature\". Wsu.edu. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm","url_text":"\"Realism in American Literature\""}]},{"reference":"\"Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia\". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Realism","url_text":"\"Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia\""}]},{"reference":"Kvas, Kornelije (2020). The Boundaries of Realism in World Literature. Lanham, Boulder, New York, London: Lexington Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-0910-6","url_text":"978-1-7936-0910-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Victorian Literature\". The Literature Network. Retrieved October 7, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.online-literature.com/periods/victorian.php","url_text":"\"Victorian Literature\""}]},{"reference":"Hill, Philip (1992). Our Dramatic Heritage, Volume 6. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8386-3421-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3421-9","url_text":"978-0-8386-3421-9"}]},{"reference":"Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-13-547861-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-547861-5","url_text":"978-0-13-547861-5"}]},{"reference":"Downs, William; Wright, Lou Anne; Ramsey, Erik (2013). The Art of Theatre: A Concise Introduction, 3rd edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-111-34831-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-34831-1","url_text":"978-1-111-34831-1"}]},{"reference":"Zarrilli, Phillip; McConachie, Bruce; Williams, Gary Jay; Sorgenfrei, Carol (2010). Theatre Histories: An Introduction, 2nd edition. Oxon: Routledge. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-415-46223-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46223-5","url_text":"978-0-415-46223-5"}]},{"reference":"Lane, David (2010). Contemporary British Drama. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7486-3821-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3821-5","url_text":"978-0-7486-3821-5"}]},{"reference":"Worthen, W.B. (1992). Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-520-28687-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort","url_text":"Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort/page/n201","url_text":"194"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-28687-0","url_text":"978-0-520-28687-0"}]},{"reference":"Saxon, Theresa (2011). American Theatre. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-7486-4520-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4520-6","url_text":"978-0-7486-4520-6"}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Brenda (1987). American Realism and American Drama, 1880–1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. 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ISBN 978-0-415-22938-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22938-8","url_text":"978-0-415-22938-8"}]},{"reference":"Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of California Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/riseofnovelstudi00watt","url_text":"The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding"}]},{"reference":"West, Shearer (1996). The Bullfinch Guide to Art. UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. ISBN 978-0-8212-2137-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bulfinchguidetoa0000west","url_text":"The Bullfinch Guide to Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8212-2137-2","url_text":"978-0-8212-2137-2"}]},{"reference":"Dahlhaus, Carl (1985). Realism in Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by Mary Whittall. Cambridge, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26115-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26115-9","url_text":"978-0-521-26115-9"}]},{"reference":"Dahlhaus, Carl (1989). Nineteenth-Century Music. Translated by J. Bradford Robinson. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07644-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07644-0","url_text":"978-0-520-07644-0"}]},{"reference":"Frisch, Walter (2005). German Modernism: Music and the Arts. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25148-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25148-9","url_text":"978-0-520-25148-9"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://arthistoryteachingresources.org/lessons/italian-renaissance-art-1400-1600/","external_links_name":"\"Italian Renaissance Art (1400–1600)\""},{"Link":"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm","external_links_name":"\"Metropolitan Museum of Art\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=aSBAUzb8SokC&dq=Realism+painting&pg=PA7","external_links_name":"Stremmel, Kerstin, Realism"},{"Link":"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714144138/http://www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm","external_links_name":"\"NGA Realism movement\""},{"Link":"http://www.nga.gov/collection/sfp/noflash/realism/1941_6_1.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/realist-movement","external_links_name":"\"National Gallery glossary, Realism movement\""},{"Link":"http://impressionist1877.tripod.com/realism.htm","external_links_name":"\"Philosophy of Realism\""},{"Link":"http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rlsm/hd_rlsm.htm","external_links_name":"\"Nineteenth-Century French Realism | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art\""},{"Link":"http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm","external_links_name":"\"Realism in American Literature\""},{"Link":"http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Realism","external_links_name":"\"Realism definition of Realism in the Free Online Encyclopedia\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MFAW6dh24ZwC&q=realism","external_links_name":"p. 5"},{"Link":"http://www.online-literature.com/periods/victorian.php","external_links_name":"\"Victorian Literature\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort","external_links_name":"Modern Drama and the Rhetoric of Theater"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/moderndramarheto00wort/page/n201","external_links_name":"194"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/americanrealisma0000murp/page/1","external_links_name":"American Realism and American Drama, 1880–1940"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/americanrealisma0000murp/page/1","external_links_name":"1"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/giacomopuccinito00carn","external_links_name":"Tosca"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/giacomopuccinito00carn/page/n16","external_links_name":"6"},{"Link":"http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T061451","external_links_name":"subscriber link"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20355327","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/riseofnovelstudi00watt","external_links_name":"The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/bulfinchguidetoa0000west","external_links_name":"The Bullfinch Guide to Art"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0264-0856","external_links_name":"0264-0856"},{"Link":"http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm","external_links_name":"Article on American literary realism"},{"Link":"https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/r/realism","external_links_name":"Art term: Realism"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565879705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85111768","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan_Memorial_Death_March | Bataan Memorial Death March | ["1 Race categories","2 References","3 External links"] | Walking event
For the historical event, see Bataan Death March.
Bataan Memorial Death MarchDateMarch 17th 2019LocationWhite Sands Missile RangeEvent typeCleared pathDistanceMarathon and marchEstablished1989Official sitewww.bataanmarch.com
The Bataan Memorial Death March is an annual commemoration of the Bataan Death March attended by many of the survivors of the march, along with thousands of supporters from around the world, held at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Held annually since 1989, this is a full marathon, or a 15 mi (24 km) route for those who do not wish to complete the full course. Covering paved road and sandy trails, it is regarded by Marathon Guide as one of the top 30 marathons in the U.S.
The race is open to all members of the public, though a significant portion of the participants are members of military units of the U.S. and foreign armed forces and their families. Civilians usually run in the full marathon, which is timed with awards though not certified by USA Track and Field. Several surviving Bataan prisoners usually await the competitors to congratulate them on completing the grueling march. Many injured veterans including some amputees attend to march as well.
The race continues all day, with the slowest marchers taking over 12 hours to complete the course.
Runners along the course of the Bataan Memorial Death March marathon at WSMR
In 2011, a record 6,300 marchers participated in both the marathon and the 15.4 mi (24.8 km) course. In 2012 over 7,000 marchers competed and due to the heat and conditions 2012 became the most medicated march yet. In 2013, conditions were such that a weather advisory was put out to the 5,800 participants to reconsider running the race if they had not trained in the heat or at higher altitudes and that officials were considering altering or canceling the event. In 2018, over 8,000 participated in the march.
Race categories
There are two individual categories ("light" and "heavy") and one team category, and two divisions: civilian and military. In the light category, runners may wear standard distance-running apparel; in the heavy division they must carry a minimum of 35 lb (16 kg) in rucksacks or backpacks in addition to any consumables. Military entrants must wear their Army Combat Uniform (ACUs) or other service equivalent uniform.
A team must include exactly 5 people, and only finishes the race if all members finish together, on the principle that one does not leave teammates behind.
References
^ "USA Marathons & Marathoners 2007". marathonguide.com. Retrieved May 8, 2008.
^ Schurtz, Christopher, "Record Number Gather To Honor Bataan Death March", Las Cruces Sun-News, March 22, 2010, p. 1.
^ Official Bataan Memorial Death March Page
^ 2011 civilian results Archived May 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, via All Arizona Running Events
^ Joe Bartels, "Thousands turn out for Bataan Memorial Death March", KOB Eyewitness News 4, March 28, 2011 Accessed March 29, 2011
^ Williams, Kari. "Desert Hike Honors Bataan POWs", VFW Magazine, vol. 105, no. 9, (June/July 2018), p. 36.
^ Bataan Memorial Death March Rules Archived July 23, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
External links
The official Bataan March website | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bataan Death March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan_Death_March"},{"link_name":"Bataan Death March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan_Death_March"},{"link_name":"White Sands Missile Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"marathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"USA Track and Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Track_and_Field"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BataanMarathon.jpg"},{"link_name":"WSMR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"For the historical event, see Bataan Death March.The Bataan Memorial Death March is an annual commemoration of the Bataan Death March attended by many of the survivors of the march, along with thousands of supporters from around the world, held at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Held annually since 1989, this is a full marathon, or a 15 mi (24 km) route for those who do not wish to complete the full course. Covering paved road and sandy trails, it is regarded by Marathon Guide as one of the top 30 marathons in the U.S.[1][2]The race is open to all members of the public, though a significant portion of the participants are members of military units of the U.S. and foreign armed forces and their families. Civilians usually run in the full marathon, which is timed with awards though not certified by USA Track and Field. Several surviving Bataan prisoners usually await the competitors to congratulate them on completing the grueling march. Many injured veterans including some amputees attend to march as well.[3]The race continues all day, with the slowest marchers taking over 12 hours to complete the course.[4]Runners along the course of the Bataan Memorial Death March marathon at WSMRIn 2011, a record 6,300 marchers[5] participated in both the marathon and the 15.4 mi (24.8 km) course. In 2012 over 7,000 marchers competed and due to the heat and conditions 2012 became the most medicated march yet. In 2013, conditions were such that a weather advisory was put out to the 5,800 participants to reconsider running the race if they had not trained in the heat or at higher altitudes and that officials were considering altering or canceling the event. In 2018, over 8,000 participated in the march.[6]","title":"Bataan Memorial Death March"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Army Combat Uniform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Combat_Uniform"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"There are two individual categories (\"light\" and \"heavy\") and one team category, and two divisions: civilian and military. In the light category, runners may wear standard distance-running apparel; in the heavy division they must carry a minimum of 35 lb (16 kg) in rucksacks or backpacks in addition to any consumables. Military entrants must wear their Army Combat Uniform (ACUs) or other service equivalent uniform.[7]A team must include exactly 5 people, and only finishes the race if all members finish together, on the principle that one does not leave teammates behind.","title":"Race categories"}] | [{"image_text":"Runners along the course of the Bataan Memorial Death March marathon at WSMR","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/BataanMarathon.jpg/220px-BataanMarathon.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"USA Marathons & Marathoners 2007\". marathonguide.com. Retrieved May 8, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marathonguide.com/features/Articles/2007RecapOverview.cfm","url_text":"\"USA Marathons & Marathoners 2007\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.bataanmarch.com/","external_links_name":"www.bataanmarch.com"},{"Link":"http://www.marathonguide.com/features/Articles/2007RecapOverview.cfm","external_links_name":"\"USA Marathons & Marathoners 2007\""},{"Link":"http://www.bataanmarch.com/","external_links_name":"Official Bataan Memorial Death March Page"},{"Link":"http://allarizonarunningevents.com/2011_Results/2011_Bataan/2011-Bataan-3-Civilian.htm","external_links_name":"2011 civilian results"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110523044738/http://allarizonarunningevents.com/2011_Results/2011_Bataan/2011-Bataan-3-Civilian.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.kob.com/article/stories/S2038424.shtml?cat=504","external_links_name":"Joe Bartels, \"Thousands turn out for Bataan Memorial Death March\", KOB Eyewitness News 4, March 28, 2011"},{"Link":"http://www.bataanmarch.com/Rules.htm","external_links_name":"Bataan Memorial Death March Rules"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080723105125/http://www.bataanmarch.com/Rules.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.bataanmarch.com/","external_links_name":"The official Bataan March"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appointment_in_Bray | Rendezvous at Bray | ["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 References","4 External links"] | 1971 film
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Rendezvous at Bray" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Rendezvous at BrayDirected byAndré DelvauxWritten byJulien GracqAndré DelvauxProduced byMag BodardStarringAnna KarinaCinematographyGhislain CloquetEdited byNicole BerckmansMusic byFrédéric DevreeseDistributed byParc Film (France)Release date
June 1971 (1971-06)
Running time90 minutesCountriesFranceBelgiumLanguagesFrenchGerman
Rendezvous at Bray (French: Rendez-vous à Bray) is a 1971 French-Belgian drama film directed by André Delvaux and starring Anna Karina. It was entered into the 21st Berlin International Film Festival. Much of the film may be imagined by the characters and much is unexplained, leaving viewers to come up with their own interpretations.
Plot
Jacques, a composer serving as a fighter pilot during the First World War, asks his friend Julien, a Luxembourger working as a music journalist in Paris, to meet him at Bray behind the front lines. His family's country house is there, looked after by a solitary housekeeper. Jacques has not arrived when Julien turns up and is let in by the beautiful but largely silent woman. While she prepares him dinner, he reflects on the ups and downs of his life in Paris before the war with the charming rich Jacques and his vivacious girl friend Odile. After showing him to a bedroom, the servant spends the night with him. In the morning, he rushes off to the railway station but does not board the Paris train. Something, we do not know what, impels him to stay.
Cast
Anna Karina as Elle (la servante)
Mathieu Carrière as Julien Eschenbach
Roger Van Hool as Jacques Neuil
Bulle Ogier as Odile
Boby Lapointe as L'Aubergiste
Pierre Vernier as Monsieur Hausmann
Luce Garcia-Ville as Mme Nueil
Nella Bielski as Un Visage (la femme du train)
Pierre Lampe as Le Soldat
Jean Aron as Joseph, le projectionniste
Léonce Corne as Le Garde-Vue
Martine Sarcey as Mme Hausmann
Jean Bouise as Le rédacteur en chef
References
^ Clarke Fountain (2008). "NY Times.com: Rendezvous at Bray". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
External links
Rendezvous at Bray at IMDb
vteFilms directed by André Delvaux
The Man Who Had His Hair Cut Short (1966)
One Night... A Train (1968)
Rendezvous at Bray (1971)
Belle (1973)
Woman Between Wolf and Dog (1979)
Benvenuta (1983)
The Abyss (1988)
This article related to a French film of the 1970s is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article related to a Belgian film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"drama film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama_film"},{"link_name":"André Delvaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Delvaux"},{"link_name":"Anna Karina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karina"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes-1"},{"link_name":"21st Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Berlin_International_Film_Festival"}],"text":"Rendezvous at Bray (French: Rendez-vous à Bray) is a 1971 French-Belgian drama film directed by André Delvaux and starring Anna Karina.[1] It was entered into the 21st Berlin International Film Festival. 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Something, we do not know what, impels him to stay.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anna Karina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karina"},{"link_name":"Mathieu Carrière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathieu_Carri%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Roger Van Hool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Van_Hool"},{"link_name":"Bulle Ogier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulle_Ogier"},{"link_name":"Boby Lapointe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boby_Lapointe"},{"link_name":"Pierre Vernier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Vernier_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Luce Garcia-Ville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luce_Garcia-Ville&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nella Bielski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nella_Bielski"},{"link_name":"Pierre Lampe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Lampe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jean Aron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Aron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Léonce Corne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9once_Corne"},{"link_name":"Martine Sarcey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martine_Sarcey"},{"link_name":"Jean Bouise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bouise"}],"text":"Anna Karina as Elle (la servante)\nMathieu Carrière as Julien Eschenbach\nRoger Van Hool as Jacques Neuil\nBulle Ogier as Odile\nBoby Lapointe as L'Aubergiste\nPierre Vernier as Monsieur Hausmann\nLuce Garcia-Ville as Mme Nueil\nNella Bielski as Un Visage (la femme du train)\nPierre Lampe as Le Soldat\nJean Aron as Joseph, le projectionniste\nLéonce Corne as Le Garde-Vue\nMartine Sarcey as Mme Hausmann\nJean Bouise as Le rédacteur en chef","title":"Cast"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Clarke Fountain (2008). \"NY Times.com: Rendezvous at Bray\". Movies & TV Dept. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 April 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080418024910/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/143246/Rendez-Vous-a-Bray/overview","url_text":"\"NY Times.com: Rendezvous at Bray\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/143246/Rendez-Vous-a-Bray/overview","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22","external_links_name":"\"Rendezvous at Bray\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Rendezvous+at+Bray%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080418024910/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/143246/Rendez-Vous-a-Bray/overview","external_links_name":"\"NY Times.com: Rendezvous at Bray\""},{"Link":"https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/143246/Rendez-Vous-a-Bray/overview","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0067667/","external_links_name":"Rendezvous at Bray"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rendezvous_at_Bray&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rendezvous_at_Bray&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Rose_(play) | Mary Rose (play) | ["1 Plot","2 Productions","3 Music","4 Reception","5 Adaptations","6 See also","7 Notes"] | Play by J. M. Barrie
Mary Rose is a play by J. M. Barrie, who is best known for Peter Pan. It was first produced in April 1920 at the Haymarket Theatre, London, with incidental music specially composed by Norman O'Neill. The play was produced in New York that year. Its most recent revival in New York was in 2007 and in London in 2012.
Plot
This is the fictional story of Mary Rose, a girl who vanishes twice. As a child, Mary Rose was taken by her father to a remote Scottish island. While she is briefly out of her father's sight, Mary Rose vanishes. The entire island is searched exhaustively. Twenty-one days later, Mary Rose reappears as mysteriously as she disappeared...but she shows no effects of having been gone for three weeks, and she has no knowledge of any gap or missing time.
Years later, as a young wife and mother, the adult Mary Rose persuades her husband to take her to the same island. Again she vanishes: this time for a period of decades. When she is found again, she is not a single day older and has no awareness of the passage of time. In the interim, her son has grown to adulthood and is now physically older than his mother.
Productions
Fay Compton, for whom the title role of Mary Rose was written Barrie, who normally wrote with his right hand, wrote Mary Rose with his left hand due to a "writer's cramp". Mary Rose first opened in London at the Haymarket Theatre, running from 22 April 1920 to 26 February 1921, with Fay Compton as Mary Rose, a role which was written for her by Barrie. It was revived (with many of the same cast still in place) in 1926.
Mary Rose opened in New York on Broadway at the Empire Theatre, running from 22 December 1920 to April 1921. Direction was by Ben Iden Payne with Ruth Chatterton as Mary Rose.
A revival ran on Broadway at the ANTA Playhouse, running from 4 March 1951 to 16 March 1951. The play was directed by John Stix, produced by Helen Hayes, with Mary Rose played by Bethel Leslie.
The play was revived off-Broadway by the Vineyard Theater in 2007. The play was produced in a London revival in 2012 at Riverside Studios.
Music
Norman O'Neill's original music for the 1920 production gained widespread acclaim. At the end of the first night, Barrie greeted the composer with "Well, O'Neill, I think we have made a success", and later wrote him a letter that "it was a lucky day for me when you had that inspiration." Barrie also described the effect of the music in the stage directions of the published text, effectively incorporating the music into the play. Fay Compton wrote of "that beautiful, haunting music which in turn inspired us; the tremendous debt of gratitude I owed to that music I can never hope to repay." Ernest Irving compared a performance of Mary Rose without O'Neill's music to "a dance by a fairy with a wooden leg."
Reception
In 1921, the play was included in Best Plays of 1920–1921.
The New York Times reviewer called the 2007 revival of the play an "elegantly plotted ghost story". He noted: "The play is in many ways a more mature and mournful reworking of themes Barrie explored in the tale of the boy Peter Pan who refused to grow up. Time is seen as a quiet despoiler of happiness and innocence, and the lure of another world unblemished by its passing has an irresistible seduction."
Of its London revival in 2012, a reviewer wrote that the play "...reveals a somewhat uncomfortable preoccupation with childhood innocence extending some of the themes of Pan; the child who cannot grow up, and meditation on death and loss."
Adaptations
Alfred Hitchcock had seen the play as a young man in its original production. Later in his career as a film director, he wanted to film it, asking Jay Presson Allen to write a screenplay after she had written the screenplay for Hitchcock's film Marnie (1964). However, Hitchcock was under contract to Universal Pictures at the time, and the studio believed that the project was "too troubling", with not enough commercial appeal, so would not approve production.
In 2016, a radio play adaptation of Mary Rose was broadcast on BBC Radio 3. It was adapted and directed by Abigail le Fleming with music composed and performed by cellist Laura Moody.
In 2017, Adaptive Books published the novel Mary Rose by Geoffrey Girard, a modern retelling based on the original play and Hitchcock's plans. Booklist gave the novel a starred review, calling the adaptation "a ghost story that should be suggested to a wide range of readers."
In 2022, a musical adaptation of Mary Rose opened in Chicago, with book and lyrics by Ed Rutherford and music and lyrics by Jeff Bouthiette, produced by Black Button Eyes Productions.
Currently a film titled The Island Between Tides starring Paloma Kwiatkowski, Donal Logue, David Mazouz, Camille Sullivan and Adam Beach is filming in Prince Rupert, Canada.
See also
The published 1925 text of Barrie's Mary Rose on archive.org
Mary Rose public domain audiobook at LibriVox
List of unproduced Hitchcock projects
Notes
^ a b Everybody's magazine, Volume 43, page 30, December 1920.
^ Heywood Broun, Seeing Things at Night, page 127, 1921
^ The Times, 23 April 1920
^ The Times, 22 January 1926
^ Mary Rose, 1920 Internet Broadway Database, accessed November 11, 2012
^ Mary Rose, 1951 Internet Broadway Database, accessed November 11, 2012
^ Hudson, Derek. Letter to The Listener, 9 April 1959, p 639
^ Isherwood, Charles. "Theater Review. 'Mary Rose'" The New York Times, February 21, 2007
^ "Review: 'Mary Rose', Riverside Studios", Fourth Wall Magazine, April 4, 2012
^ Joseph McBride, An Old Master's Unheard Cri de Coeur: Alfred Hitchcock's Mary Rose, Cineaste volume 26, issue 2 (01/Mar/2001), pages 24-28
^ "Mary Rose, Drama on 3 - BBC Radio 3". BBC. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
^ Becky Spratford (1 October 2017). "Mary Rose". Booklist. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
^ "Mary Rose, A World Premiere Musical". Black Button Eyes Productions Website. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
^ Andreas Wiseman (29 March 2022). "Supernatural Thriller 'The Island Between Tides', Based On Storied J.M. Barrie Play, Sets Cast, XYZ Films, First Look As Shoot Kicks Off". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 16 October 2021. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"J. M. Barrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._Barrie"},{"link_name":"Peter Pan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Pan"},{"link_name":"Norman O'Neill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_O%27Neill"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-every-1"}],"text":"Mary Rose is a play by J. M. Barrie, who is best known for Peter Pan. It was first produced in April 1920 at the Haymarket Theatre, London, with incidental music specially composed by Norman O'Neill.[1] The play was produced in New York that year. Its most recent revival in New York was in 2007 and in London in 2012.","title":"Mary Rose (play)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-every-1"}],"text":"This is the fictional story of Mary Rose, a girl who vanishes twice.[1] As a child, Mary Rose was taken by her father to a remote Scottish island. While she is briefly out of her father's sight, Mary Rose vanishes. The entire island is searched exhaustively. Twenty-one days later, Mary Rose reappears as mysteriously as she disappeared...but she shows no effects of having been gone for three weeks, and she has no knowledge of any gap or missing time.Years later, as a young wife and mother, the adult Mary Rose persuades her husband to take her to the same island. Again she vanishes: this time for a period of decades. When she is found again, she is not a single day older and has no awareness of the passage of time. In the interim, her son has grown to adulthood and is now physically older than his mother.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fay_Compton.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Haymarket Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Fay Compton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fay_Compton"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Empire Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_Theatre_(41st_Street)"},{"link_name":"Ben Iden Payne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Iden_Payne"},{"link_name":"Ruth Chatterton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Chatterton"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"John Stix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Stix&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Helen Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Hayes"},{"link_name":"Bethel Leslie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethel_Leslie"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"off-Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-Broadway"}],"text":"Fay Compton, for whom the title role of Mary Rose was writtenBarrie, who normally wrote with his right hand, wrote Mary Rose with his left hand due to a \"writer's cramp\".[2] Mary Rose first opened in London at the Haymarket Theatre, running from 22 April 1920 to 26 February 1921, with Fay Compton as Mary Rose, a role which was written for her by Barrie.[3] It was revived (with many of the same cast still in place) in 1926.[4]Mary Rose opened in New York on Broadway at the Empire Theatre, running from 22 December 1920 to April 1921. Direction was by Ben Iden Payne with Ruth Chatterton as Mary Rose.[5]A revival ran on Broadway at the ANTA Playhouse, running from 4 March 1951 to 16 March 1951. The play was directed by John Stix, produced by Helen Hayes, with Mary Rose played by Bethel Leslie.[6]The play was revived off-Broadway by the Vineyard Theater in 2007. The play was produced in a London revival in 2012 at Riverside Studios.","title":"Productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ernest Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Irving"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Norman O'Neill's original music for the 1920 production gained widespread acclaim. At the end of the first night, Barrie greeted the composer with \"Well, O'Neill, I think we have made a success\", and later wrote him a letter that \"it was a lucky day for me when you had that inspiration.\" Barrie also described the effect of the music in the stage directions of the published text, effectively incorporating the music into the play. Fay Compton wrote of \"that beautiful, haunting music which in turn inspired us; the tremendous debt of gratitude I owed to that music I can never hope to repay.\" Ernest Irving compared a performance of Mary Rose without O'Neill's music to \"a dance by a fairy with a wooden leg.\"[7]","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Peter Pan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Pan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In 1921, the play was included in Best Plays of 1920–1921.The New York Times reviewer called the 2007 revival of the play an \"elegantly plotted ghost story\". He noted: \"The play is in many ways a more mature and mournful reworking of themes Barrie explored in the tale of the boy Peter Pan who refused to grow up. Time is seen as a quiet despoiler of happiness and innocence, and the lure of another world unblemished by its passing has an irresistible seduction.\"[8]Of its London revival in 2012, a reviewer wrote that the play \"...reveals a somewhat uncomfortable preoccupation with childhood innocence extending some of the themes of [Peter] Pan; the child who cannot grow up, and meditation on death and loss.\"[9]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alfred Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"Jay Presson Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Presson_Allen"},{"link_name":"Marnie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marnie_(film)"},{"link_name":"Universal Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Pictures"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Girard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Girard"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Alfred Hitchcock had seen the play as a young man in its original production. Later in his career as a film director, he wanted to film it, asking Jay Presson Allen to write a screenplay after she had written the screenplay for Hitchcock's film Marnie (1964). However, Hitchcock was under contract to Universal Pictures at the time, and the studio believed that the project was \"too troubling\", with not enough commercial appeal, so would not approve production.[10]In 2016, a radio play adaptation of Mary Rose was broadcast on BBC Radio 3. It was adapted and directed by Abigail le Fleming with music composed and performed by cellist Laura Moody.[11]In 2017, Adaptive Books published the novel Mary Rose by Geoffrey Girard, a modern retelling based on the original play and Hitchcock's plans. Booklist gave the novel a starred review, calling the adaptation \"a ghost story that should be suggested to a wide range of readers.\"[12]In 2022, a musical adaptation of Mary Rose opened in Chicago, with book and lyrics by Ed Rutherford and music and lyrics by Jeff Bouthiette, produced by Black Button Eyes Productions.[13]Currently a film titled The Island Between Tides starring Paloma Kwiatkowski, Donal Logue, David Mazouz, Camille Sullivan and Adam Beach is filming in Prince Rupert, Canada.[14]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-every_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-every_1-1"},{"link_name":"Everybody's magazine, Volume 43, page 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1rHmAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Heywood Broun, Seeing Things at Night, page 127","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5S4qAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA127"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"The Times, 23 April 1920","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/The_Times_(23/Apr/1920)_-_Mary_Rose:_New_Barrie_Play_at_the_Haymarket"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"The Times, 22 January 1926","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/The_Times_(22/Jan/1926)_-_Haymarket_Theatre:_Mary_Rose"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Mary Rose, 1920","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=9012"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Mary Rose, 1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=1927"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Theater Review. 'Mary Rose'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//theater2.nytimes.com/2007/02/21/theater/reviews/21rose.html?_r=0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Review: 'Mary Rose', Riverside Studios\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fourthwallmagazine.co.uk/2012/04/review-mary-rose-riverside-studios/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"An Old Master's Unheard Cri de Coeur: Alfred Hitchcock's Mary Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//the.hitchcock.zone/wiki/Cineaste_(2001)_-_An_Old_Master%27s_Unheard_Cri_de_Coeur:_Alfred_Hitchcock%27s_Mary_Rose"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Mary Rose, Drama on 3 - BBC Radio 3\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0801l4v"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"Mary Rose\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.booklistonline.com/Mary-Rose-Geoffrey-Girard/pid=8989627"},{"link_name":"Booklist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booklist"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Mary Rose, A World Premiere Musical\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.blackbuttoneyes.com/mary-rose-event-page"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"Supernatural Thriller 'The Island Between Tides', Based On Storied J.M. Barrie Play, Sets Cast, XYZ Films, First Look As Shoot Kicks Off\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//deadline.com/2022/03/donal-logue-david-mazouz-adam-beach-island-between-tides-jm-barrie-1234990044/"},{"link_name":"Deadline Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood"}],"text":"^ a b Everybody's magazine, Volume 43, page 30, December 1920.\n\n^ Heywood Broun, Seeing Things at Night, page 127, 1921\n\n^ The Times, 23 April 1920\n\n^ The Times, 22 January 1926\n\n^ Mary Rose, 1920 Internet Broadway Database, accessed November 11, 2012\n\n^ Mary Rose, 1951 Internet Broadway Database, accessed November 11, 2012\n\n^ Hudson, Derek. Letter to The Listener, 9 April 1959, p 639\n\n^ Isherwood, Charles. \"Theater Review. 'Mary Rose'\" The New York Times, February 21, 2007\n\n^ \"Review: 'Mary Rose', Riverside Studios\", Fourth Wall Magazine, April 4, 2012\n\n^ Joseph McBride, An Old Master's Unheard Cri de Coeur: Alfred Hitchcock's Mary Rose, Cineaste volume 26, issue 2 (01/Mar/2001), pages 24-28\n\n^ \"Mary Rose, Drama on 3 - BBC Radio 3\". BBC. Retrieved 23 October 2016.\n\n^ Becky Spratford (1 October 2017). \"Mary Rose\". Booklist. Retrieved 18 June 2022.\n\n^ \"Mary Rose, A World Premiere Musical\". Black Button Eyes Productions Website. Retrieved 28 December 2021.\n\n^ Andreas Wiseman (29 March 2022). \"Supernatural Thriller 'The Island Between Tides', Based On Storied J.M. Barrie Play, Sets Cast, XYZ Films, First Look As Shoot Kicks Off\". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 16 October 2021.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Fay Compton, for whom the title role of Mary Rose was written","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Fay_Compton.jpg/220px-Fay_Compton.jpg"}] | [{"title":"The published 1925 text of Barrie's Mary Rose on archive.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86628"},{"title":"Mary Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//librivox.org/search?title=Mary+Rose&author=Barrie&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"},{"title":"LibriVox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibriVox"},{"title":"List of unproduced Hitchcock projects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproduced_Hitchcock_projects"}] | [{"reference":"\"Mary Rose, Drama on 3 - BBC Radio 3\". BBC. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yacov_Hadas-Handelsman | Yacov Hadas-Handelsman | ["1 References"] | Israeli diplomatYacov Hadas-HandelsmanHandelsman in 2014Israeli Ambassador to GermanyIn office2012–2017Preceded byYoram Ben-ZeevSucceeded byJeremy IssacharoffIsraeli Ambassador to HungaryIncumbentAssumed office 2019Preceded byYossi Amrani
Personal detailsBornAugust 22, 1957Tel Aviv, IsraelAlma materHebrew University
Yacov Hadas-Handelsman (born August 22, 1957, in Tel Aviv) is the Israeli Ambassador to Hungary. From 2012 to 2017 he was the Israeli ambassador to Germany, based at the Embassy of Israel, Berlin.
He earned a BA in Middle East and political science studies from Tel Aviv University and an MA in Middle East studies from Hebrew University.
References
^ a b "Hungary". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
^ "Der Botschafter". embassies.gov.il. Retrieved 2019-01-29.
^ ""Was nehme ich mit aus Deutschland?"". August 24, 2017.
^ K.d.ö.R, Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland (August 29, 2017). "Israels neuer Mann in Berlin". Jüdische Allgemeine.
This Israeli diplomat-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"Israeli Ambassador to Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Israel_to_Hungary"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hungary-1"},{"link_name":"Israeli ambassador to Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Israel_to_Germany"},{"link_name":"Embassy of Israel, Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_Israel,_Berlin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University"},{"link_name":"Hebrew University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hungary-1"}],"text":"Yacov Hadas-Handelsman (born August 22, 1957, in Tel Aviv) is the Israeli Ambassador to Hungary.[1] From 2012 to 2017 he was the Israeli ambassador to Germany, based at the Embassy of Israel, Berlin.[2][3][4]He earned a BA in Middle East and political science studies from Tel Aviv University and an MA in Middle East studies from Hebrew University.[1]","title":"Yacov Hadas-Handelsman"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Hungary\". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 20 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Israeli%20ambassadors/Pages/Hungary.aspx","url_text":"\"Hungary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Der Botschafter\". embassies.gov.il. Retrieved 2019-01-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://embassies.gov.il/berlin/AboutTheEmbassy/Pages/Botschafter_HadasHandelsman.aspx","url_text":"\"Der Botschafter\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"Was nehme ich mit aus Deutschland?\"\". August 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hagalil.com/2017/08/hadas-handelsman-3/","url_text":"\"\"Was nehme ich mit aus Deutschland?\"\""}]},{"reference":"K.d.ö.R, Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland (August 29, 2017). \"Israels neuer Mann in Berlin\". Jüdische Allgemeine.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.juedische-allgemeine.de/politik/israels-neuer-mann-in-berlin/","url_text":"\"Israels neuer Mann in Berlin\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutTheMinistry/Israeli%20ambassadors/Pages/Hungary.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Hungary\""},{"Link":"https://embassies.gov.il/berlin/AboutTheEmbassy/Pages/Botschafter_HadasHandelsman.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Der Botschafter\""},{"Link":"https://www.hagalil.com/2017/08/hadas-handelsman-3/","external_links_name":"\"\"Was nehme ich mit aus Deutschland?\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.juedische-allgemeine.de/politik/israels-neuer-mann-in-berlin/","external_links_name":"\"Israels neuer Mann in Berlin\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yacov_Hadas-Handelsman&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85rstad_(municipality) | Årstad (municipality) | ["1 History","1.1 Name","2 Government","2.1 Mayors","3 See also","4 References"] | Coordinates: 60°22′35″N 05°21′41″E / 60.37639°N 5.36139°E / 60.37639; 5.36139Former municipality in Hordaland, Norway
Former municipality in Hordaland, NorwayÅrstad Municipality
Årstad herredAarstad herredFormer municipalityPanorama of Årstad from the mountain FløyenHordaland within NorwayÅrstad within HordalandCoordinates: 60°22′35″N 05°21′41″E / 60.37639°N 5.36139°E / 60.37639; 5.36139CountryNorwayCountyHordalandDistrictMidhordlandEstablished1 Jan 1838 • Created asFormannskapsdistriktDisestablished1 July 1915 • Succeeded byBergen MunicipalityAdministrative centreKronstadGovernment • Mayor (1906-1915)Gerdt Meyer BruunArea (upon dissolution) • Total21.37 km2 (8.25 sq mi)Population (1915) • Total7,463 • Density350/km2 (900/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)ISO 3166 codeNO-1280Data from Statistics Norway
Årstad is a former municipality in the old Hordaland county in Norway. The 21.37-square-kilometre (8.25 sq mi) municipality existed from 1838 until 1915 when it was merged into the city of Bergen. The municipality of Årstad (historically spelled Aarstad) was a southern suburb of the city of Bergen, mostly located in the valley to the south of the bay Store Lungegårdsvannet and the Puddefjorden all the way south to the village of Nattland. The administrative centre of Årstad was the village of Kronstad. The mountain Ulriken lies to the east of Årstad and the mountain Løvstakken lies to the west. The municipality is named after the medieval farm Alrekstad, located on this site. The area of the old municipality somewhat corresponds to the present-day borough of Årstad in the city of Bergen.
History
The parish of Aarstad was established as a municipality 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). Originally, it sat south of both the city of Bergen and the Bergen Landdistrikt. Årstad and the city of Bergen worked closely together from the start since both made up one large urban area. In fact, most of Årstad had been part of the Bergen Police District since 1808.
On 1 July 1915, Årstad municipality (population: 7,463) was merged into the city of Bergen increasing the area of Bergen municipality from 13.9 to 34.9 square kilometres (5.4 to 13.5 sq mi). The merger happened after a long political process, following decades of close cooperation between the two municipalities. The merger also moved Årstad from Søndre Bergenhus county to Bergen county.
Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Aarstad royal estate (Old Norse: Álreksstaðir) since the first Årstad Church was built there. The first element is identical to the old male name Álrekr. The male name is a compound word that is derived from al- which means "all" and rekr which means "mighty". This is the same root as the nearby mountain Ulriken. The last element is the plural form of staðr which means "town" or "abode". During its time as a municipality, it was always spelled Aarstad. On 21 December 1917 (after the municipality had been dissolved and merged into Bergen), a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Prior to this change, the name was spelled Aarstad with the digraph "aa", and after this reform, the name was spelled Årstad, using the letter å instead. Since then, when referring to the old municipality, the new spelling is used, but the letter "Å" was never used while the municipality existed.
Government
During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor was indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council.
Mayors
The mayors (Nynorsk: ordførar) of Årstad:
1837–1850: C. Wiese
1850–1856: Ole Nicolai Løberg
1856–1860: Samuel B. Meyer
1860–1862: A. Christie
1862–1876: Hjalmar Løberg
1876–1880: Anders Paulsen
1880–1882: A. Christie
1882–1887: Carl Berg
1888–1896: J.C. Meyer
1896–1899: Samuel B. Michelsen
1899–1902: Statius Arentz
1902–1906: Halvor Kloster
1906–1915: Gerdt Meyer Bruun
See also
List of former municipalities of Norway
References
^ Bolstad, Erik; Thorsnæs, Geir, eds. (26 January 2023). "Kommunenummer". Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian). Kunnskapsforlaget.
^ Store norske leksikon. "Årstad – kommune" (in Norwegian). Retrieved 10 September 2014.
^ Stein Thowsen and Harald Garmannslund (2000). Årstad - historisk vandring i en ny bydel. Forlaget Livskunst. p. 12.
^ Jukvam, Dag (1999). Historisk oversikt over endringer i kommune- og fylkesinndelingen (PDF) (in Norwegian). Statistisk sentralbyrå. ISBN 9788253746845.
^ Rygh, Oluf (1910). Norske gaardnavne: Søndre Bergenhus amt (in Norwegian) (11 ed.). Kristiania, Norge: W. C. Fabritius & sønners bogtrikkeri. pp. 291–292.
^ "Norsk Lovtidende. 2den Afdeling. 1917. Samling af Love, Resolutioner m.m". Norsk Lovtidend (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Grøndahl og Søns Boktrykkeri: 1000. 1917.
^ Den Nye rettskrivning : regler og ordlister (in Norwegian). Kristiania, Norge: Den Mallingske Boktrykkeri. 1918.
^ Hansen, Tore; Vabo, Signy Irene, eds. (20 September 2022). "kommunestyre". Store norske leksikon (in Norwegian). Kunnskapsforlaget. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
^ "Ordførere i Årstad, 1837-1915". Bergen Byarkiv (in Norwegian). Retrieved 29 June 2023.
vteVestland county, Norway
Main article: Vestland
Capitals: Bergen; Leikanger
County government: Vestland County Municipality
County lists:
County Governors
Villages
Churches
Towns and cities
Bergen (1060)
Florø (1860)
Førde (1997)
Leirvik (1997)
Måløy (1997)
Odda (2004)
MunicipalitiesNordfjord and Sunnfjord
Askvoll
Bremanger
Fjaler
Gloppen
Kinn
Stad
Stryn
Sunnfjord
Sogn
Årdal
Aurland
Gulen
Høyanger
Hyllestad
Lærdal
Luster
Sogndal
Solund
Vik
Nordhordland
Alver
Austrheim
Fedje
Masfjorden
Modalen
Osterøy
Vaksdal
Hardanger and Voss
Eidfjord
Kvam
Ullensvang
Ulvik
Voss
Midhordland
Askøy
Austevoll
Bjørnafjorden
Bergen
Øygarden
Samnanger
Sunnhordland
Bømlo
Etne
Fitjar
Kvinnherad
Stord
Sveio
Tysnes
Former Municipalities in VestlandSogn og Fjordane
Balestrand (1850-2020)
Borgund (1864-1964)
Breim (1886-1964)
Brekke (1850-1861, 1905-1964)
Bru (1923-1964)
Davik (1838-1964)
Eid (1838-2020)
Eikefjord (1923-1964)
Flora (1964-2020)
Florø (1861-1964)
Førde (1838-2020)
Gaular (1838-2020)
Hafslo (1838-1963)
Hornindal (1867-1965, 1977-2020)
Innvik (1838-1965)
Jostedal (1838-1963)
Jølster (1838-2020)
Kinn (1838-1964)
Kyrkjebø (1858-1964)
Lavik (1838-1861, 1905-1964)
Lavik og Brekke (1861-1905)
Leikanger (1838-2020)
Naustdal (1896-2020)
Nord-Vågsøy (1910-1964)
Selje (1838-2020)
Sør-Vågsøy (1910-1964)
Vevring (1838-1964)
Vågsøy (1964-2020)
Hordaland
Alversund (1885-1964)
Arna (1964-1972)
Bergen landdistrikt (1838-1877)
Bremnes (1916-1963)
Bruvik (1870-1964)
Eid (1838-1855)
Evanger (1885-1964)
Fana (1838-1972)
Finnås (1838-1916)
Fjelberg (1838-1965)
Fjell (1838-2020)
Fusa (1856-2020)
Granvin (1891-2020)
Hamre (1838-1964)
Haus (1838-1964)
Herdla (1871-1964)
Hjelme (1910-1964)
Hordabø (1924-1964)
Hosanger (1838-1964)
Hålandsdal (1903-1964)
Jondal (1863-2020)
Kinsarvik (1838-1869, 1913-1964)
Laksevåg (1918-1972)
Lindås (1838-2020)
Manger (1838-1964)
Meland (1923-2020)
Moster (1916-1963)
Odda (1913-2020)
Os (1838-2020)
Radøy (1964-2020)
Røldal (1838-1964)
Skånevik (1838-1965)
Strandebarm (1838-1965)
Strandvik (1903-1964)
Sund (1838-2020)
Sæbø (1924-1964)
Valestrand (1868-1964)
Varaldsøy (1902-1965)
Vikebygd (1902-1964)
Vossestrand (1868-1964)
Ølen (1916-2006)
Årstad (1838-1915)
Åsane (1904-1972)
Note: The former counties of Sogn og Fjordane and Hordaland were merged to form Vestland on 1 January 2020. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"former municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_former_municipalities_of_Norway"},{"link_name":"Hordaland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordaland"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen"},{"link_name":"Store Lungegårdsvannet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_Lungeg%C3%A5rdsvannet"},{"link_name":"Puddefjorden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puddefjorden"},{"link_name":"Nattland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nattland"},{"link_name":"administrative centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_centre"},{"link_name":"Kronstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronstad,_Bergen"},{"link_name":"Ulriken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulriken"},{"link_name":"Løvstakken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8vstakken"},{"link_name":"Alrekstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alrekstad"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-snl-2"},{"link_name":"Årstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85rstad,_Bergen"}],"text":"Former municipality in Hordaland, NorwayFormer municipality in Hordaland, NorwayÅrstad is a former municipality in the old Hordaland county in Norway. The 21.37-square-kilometre (8.25 sq mi) municipality existed from 1838 until 1915 when it was merged into the city of Bergen. The municipality of Årstad (historically spelled Aarstad) was a southern suburb of the city of Bergen, mostly located in the valley to the south of the bay Store Lungegårdsvannet and the Puddefjorden all the way south to the village of Nattland. The administrative centre of Årstad was the village of Kronstad. The mountain Ulriken lies to the east of Årstad and the mountain Løvstakken lies to the west. The municipality is named after the medieval farm Alrekstad, located on this site.[2] The area of the old municipality somewhat corresponds to the present-day borough of Årstad in the city of Bergen.","title":"Årstad (municipality)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"formannskapsdistrikt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formannskapsdistrikt"},{"link_name":"Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen"},{"link_name":"Bergen Landdistrikt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_Landdistrikt"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-histvand5-3"},{"link_name":"Søndre Bergenhus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordaland"},{"link_name":"Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dag-4"}],"text":"The parish of Aarstad was established as a municipality 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). Originally, it sat south of both the city of Bergen and the Bergen Landdistrikt. Årstad and the city of Bergen worked closely together from the start since both made up one large urban area. In fact, most of Årstad had been part of the Bergen Police District since 1808.[3]On 1 July 1915, Årstad municipality (population: 7,463) was merged into the city of Bergen increasing the area of Bergen municipality from 13.9 to 34.9 square kilometres (5.4 to 13.5 sq mi). The merger happened after a long political process, following decades of close cooperation between the two municipalities. The merger also moved Årstad from Søndre Bergenhus county to Bergen county.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestegjeld"},{"link_name":"Old Norse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse_language"},{"link_name":"Årstad Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85rstad_Church"},{"link_name":"al-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/al-#Old_Norse"},{"link_name":"rekr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rekr#Old_Norse"},{"link_name":"Ulriken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulriken"},{"link_name":"staðr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sta%C3%B0r#Old_Norse"},{"link_name":"abode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abode"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"royal resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_decree"},{"link_name":"1917 Norwegian language reforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_language_conflict"},{"link_name":"digraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)"},{"link_name":"aa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aa_(digraph)"},{"link_name":"å","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Name","text":"The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Aarstad royal estate (Old Norse: Álreksstaðir) since the first Årstad Church was built there. The first element is identical to the old male name Álrekr. The male name is a compound word that is derived from al- which means \"all\" and rekr which means \"mighty\". This is the same root as the nearby mountain Ulriken. The last element is the plural form of staðr which means \"town\" or \"abode\".[5] During its time as a municipality, it was always spelled Aarstad. On 21 December 1917 (after the municipality had been dissolved and merged into Bergen), a royal resolution enacted the 1917 Norwegian language reforms. Prior to this change, the name was spelled Aarstad with the digraph \"aa\", and after this reform, the name was spelled Årstad, using the letter å instead. Since then, when referring to the old municipality, the new spelling is used, but the letter \"Å\" was never used while the municipality existed.[6][7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"municipal council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_council_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"directly elected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_election"},{"link_name":"mayor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor"},{"link_name":"indirectly elected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_election"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ks-8"}],"text":"During its existence, this municipality was governed by a municipal council of directly elected representatives. The mayor was indirectly elected by a vote of the municipal council.[8]","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mayors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor#Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"Nynorsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nynorsk_language"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Mayors","text":"The mayors (Nynorsk: ordførar) of Årstad:[9]1837–1850: C. Wiese\n1850–1856: Ole Nicolai Løberg\n1856–1860: Samuel B. Meyer\n1860–1862: A. Christie\n1862–1876: Hjalmar Løberg\n1876–1880: Anders Paulsen\n1880–1882: A. Christie\n1882–1887: Carl Berg\n1888–1896: J.C. Meyer\n1896–1899: Samuel B. Michelsen\n1899–1902: Statius Arentz\n1902–1906: Halvor Kloster\n1906–1915: Gerdt Meyer Bruun","title":"Government"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of former municipalities of Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_former_municipalities_of_Norway"}] | [{"reference":"Bolstad, Erik; Thorsnæs, Geir, eds. 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Retrieved 29 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bergenbyarkiv.no/bergenbyleksikon/arkiv/14354492","url_text":"\"Ordførere i Årstad, 1837-1915\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%C3%85rstad_(municipality)¶ms=60_22_35_N_05_21_41_E_region:NO_type:city(7463)","external_links_name":"60°22′35″N 05°21′41″E / 60.37639°N 5.36139°E / 60.37639; 5.36139"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%C3%85rstad_(municipality)¶ms=60_22_35_N_05_21_41_E_region:NO_type:city(7463)","external_links_name":"60°22′35″N 05°21′41″E / 60.37639°N 5.36139°E / 60.37639; 5.36139"},{"Link":"http://ssb.no/kommunefakta/","external_links_name":"Data from Statistics Norway"},{"Link":"https://snl.no/kommunenummer","external_links_name":"\"Kommunenummer\""},{"Link":"https://snl.no/%C3%85rstad%2Fkommune","external_links_name":"\"Årstad – kommune\""},{"Link":"http://www.ssb.no/emner/00/90/rapp_9913/rapp_9913.pdf","external_links_name":"Historisk oversikt over endringer i kommune- og fylkesinndelingen"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ud5LAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Norske gaardnavne: Søndre Bergenhus amt"},{"Link":"https://www.nb.no/items/URN:NBN:no-nb_digitidsskrift_2015102381014_001","external_links_name":"\"Norsk Lovtidende. 2den Afdeling. 1917. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_Edition_(Magic:_The_Gathering) | Limited Edition (Magic: The Gathering) | ["1 Set history","2 Mechanics","3 Notable cards","3.1 Errors in Alpha","4 References","5 External links"] | First Magic: The Gathering card set
Limited Edition AlphaReleasedAugust 5, 1993Size295 cards(74 common95 uncommon116 rare10 basic land)Print run2,600,000KeywordsBanding, First Strike, Flying, Landwalk, Trample, ProtectionExpansion codeLEA (LA)
Limited Edition BetaReleasedOctober 1993Size302 cards (75 common, 95 uncommon, 117 rare, 15 basic land)Print run7,300,000 or 7,800,000KeywordsBanding, First Strike, Flying, Landwalk, Trample, ProtectionExpansion codeLEB (LB)
← Alpha
Unlimited →
Magic: The Gathering Limited Edition is the first Magic: The Gathering card set. It premiered in a limited release at Origins Game Fair in 1993, with a general release that August. The initial print run of 2.6 million cards sold out quickly, and a new printing run was released in October 1993. These two runs are known as Limited Edition Alpha and Limited Edition Beta, or just Alpha and Beta for short. Although Alpha and Beta are referred to as different sets by some, officially they are the same set; Wizards of the Coast had expected that people wouldn't necessarily be able to tell the two press runs apart. Beta fixed a number of misprints and errors on cards. The printer accidentally used different corner rounding dies for the second run, resulting in Alpha cards being noticeably distinct in shape and appearance from Beta cards and all subsequent cards. The Beta printing also included a revised rulebook with a number of clarifications, although creator Richard Garfield's short fiction "Worzel's Tale" was removed to make room.
The print run of Beta is given as 7.3 million or 7.8 million depending on the source. Despite the set's print run being about three times as big as Alpha's, Beta sold out as quickly as its predecessor.
Limited Edition cards have no expansion symbol, no copyright date, and no trademark symbols; the text on the bottom left consists only of an artist credit.
Set history
Card fronts of early Magic cards: Alpha on left, Beta on right.
Originally, the designers and playtesters of the new card game intended the name would simply be "Magic". However, the lawyers at Wizards of the Coast advised that the name was too generic to be trademarked, and was thus changed to "Magic: The Gathering". The original intent was that each Magic expansion would have a different subtitle; while the first Magic set would be "The Gathering", future sets could be labeled as "Magic: Arabian Nights" or "Magic: Ice Age". When it was decided that the backs of Magic should be identical regardless of the expansion, the name "Magic: The Gathering" would appear prominently on the back of every Magic card. "Magic: The Gathering" thus became the name of the entire game instead of "The Gathering" only being the subtitle referring to the first release.
As the names Alpha and Beta only distinguish different print runs of the same set, Alpha and Beta contain largely the same cards. However, in the Alpha print run the cards Circle of Protection: Black and Volcanic Island were omitted as the art was not completed in time for the Alpha print run. As well as including these two extra cards, the Beta print run included a new illustration for each of the five basic lands, taking the total card count from 295 to 302. According to Mark Rosewater, this was done so that the product could be advertised as having "over 300 cards". Several mistakes on Alpha cards were corrected in Beta. Alpha cards are easily distinguishable from Beta cards as unlike all succeeding sets, cards from Alpha have steeply rounded corners. This was reportedly caused by sharpening of the dies used to cut the Beta cards, which resulted in the less rounded corners. The Wizards of the Coast tournament rules require that a deck including Alpha cards have opaque card sleeves to prevent a player from being able to identify the difference between an Alpha and a non-Alpha card in their library, as the corners are different from all the printings that followed.
Alpha, Beta, and Unlimited are known for having extremely powerful cards at the higher rarities. This was an intentional choice during development; the thought was that "players (...) wouldn't be able to acquire many of the power rares, because supply would keep them actually rare". Players spending hundreds of dollars to acquire multiple copies of each of the powerful rares was not anticipated at the time, as the developers assumed players would stop at around 30-50 dollars.
The Alpha rulebook contains a fantasy tale called "Worzel's Story" by Richard Garfield which was removed for the Beta release. Alpha deck boxes also lack a UPC on the bottom.
Mechanics
See also: List of Magic: The Gathering keywords
Being the first Magic set, Limited Edition has all of the original mechanics intrinsic to Magic, such as "tapping" cards to use their abilities. Many of the original base keywords are "evergreen" and still used commonly in Magic design as of 2019, such as Flying, First Strike, and Trample. A few keywords have since been phased out of the game. The Banding ability was discontinued in the set Tempest, released in 1997. According to the Wizards of the Coast designers, the Banding mechanic confused players and required too much text to explain. When old mechanics were revisited in the Time Spiral block, banding was left out for this same reason. Much later, regeneration and "landwalk" (e.g. Forestwalk, Swampwalk) were discontinued. Landwalk was removed in 2015 with the release of Magic Origins, and no more Regeneration cards have been created starting with the Shadows over Innistrad block in 2016.
Many Limited Edition cards had abilities that have since become keyword abilities. The ability "may only be blocked by black or artifact creatures" was recast as the keyword Fear in 8th Edition which was replaced by Intimidate with the release of Zendikar. A rule in Limited Edition that prevented Walls from attacking was removed in 9th Edition and all walls were given the new keyword "Defender", which prevents them from attacking. Serra Angel's ability "doesn't tap to attack" was recast as the keyword Vigilance in Champions of Kamigawa. "May attack the turn it comes into play" has changed twice; it was first changed to "unaffected by summoning sickness" in Mirage and then replaced with the keyword Haste in Urza's Destiny.
The rules of Limited Edition included a provision for ante. Games would be started by each player removing a card at random from their deck. The winner of the game took both cards. There were also cards that interacted with the ante, such as Contract From Below. This aspect of the game continued until the Homelands set in 1995, but was dropped as the cards became collectible and valuable and the company did not want to be associated with gambling.
Limited Edition included a number of unique cards exploring mechanics rarely seen in later sets. Chaos Orb is a card involving dexterity, in which the card is flipped onto the play area to determine cards destroyed by the Orb. Both manual dexterity cards such as Chaos Orb and ante cards are banned in all sanctioned Magic formats as of 2013.
Notable cards
The "Power Nine": Black Lotus, Mox Pearl, Mox Sapphire, Mox Jet, Mox Ruby, Mox Emerald, Ancestral Recall, Time Walk, and Timetwister. These are widely considered the most powerful cards in Limited Edition, and are among the most powerful in all of Magic: The Gathering. All of these cards are now restricted in tournament play; players may only include one copy of each in a deck. The color distribution of the Power Nine is heavily skewed; six of the cards are Artifacts, while the other three are Blue cards. In April 2016, an Alpha Black Lotus card graded as a 9.5 out of 10 was sold on eBay for $38,000; on February 27, 2019 a Black Lotus graded 9.5 out of 10 was sold in auction for $166,100.
The Dual Lands: Tundra, Underground Sea, Badlands, Taiga, Savannah, Scrubland, Bayou, Tropical Island, Plateau, and Volcanic Island. These lands provide two colors of mana with the benefit of possessing two basic land types, an uncommon trait on non-basic lands. All future dual lands would be printed with restrictions. They are now a defining part of the Legacy and Vintage formats, in particular for their ability to be found by the various "fetchlands" (for example, Flooded Strand) released many years later.
The "Boons": Healing Salve, Ancestral Recall, Dark Ritual, Lightning Bolt, and Giant Growth. This was the first and most famous cycle in Magic. All of them provided an effect in the number three. The cards defined the core ability of each color, but they proved to be disparate in power; the Blue Boon, Ancestral Recall, was considered the strongest, and was the only card in the cycle printed as a Rare. The green boon, Giant Growth, was considered an iconic card of Green and had appeared in every core set until the printing of Magic 2012. Many modern variations on the other cards have been printed, including Mending Hands, Concentrate, Cabal Ritual, and Shock.
Chaos Orb: The first Magic card that required manual dexterity as part of the game play. The only other such card not in Unglued or Unhinged was Falling Star, from Legends. These two cards are currently banned in all sanctioned tournament formats.
Errors in Alpha
Alpha contained numerous misprints and did not adhere to close standardized wordings for similar effects seen in later sets and printings. The following cards had printing errors, most of which were fixed in the Beta release.
Circle of Protection: Black was accidentally omitted from the set.
Cyclopean Tomb had no casting cost, instead of a casting cost of 4.
Death Ward incorrectly credited Dan Frazier as the artist. The correct artist is Mark Poole.
Demonic Hordes was printed with the letter B in its text box rather than the black mana symbol.
Drain Life was printed with the letter B in its text box rather than the black mana symbol.
Elvish Archers had its power/toughness listed as 1/2 rather than 2/1.
Force of Nature was printed with the letter G in its text box rather than the green mana symbol, and the artist's name was spelled incorrectly.
Orcish Artillery had a casting cost of 1R rather than 1RR.
Orcish Oriflamme had a casting cost of 1R rather than 3R.
Phantasmal Forces was printed with the letter U in its text box rather than the blue mana symbol.
Rock Hydra was printed with the letter R in its text box rather than the red mana symbol.
Red Elemental Blast was printed as an instant rather than an interrupt (see this version), making half of its ability unplayable under the rules of the time.
Sedge Troll incorrectly credited Jeff A. Menges as the artist. The correct artist is Dan Frazier.
Tropical Island credited Mark Poole as the artist instead of Jesper Myrfors. This was corrected in the Beta printing.
Unsummon states that enchantments on the unsummoned card are "CARDed" instead of discarded.
Volcanic Island was accidentally omitted from Alpha and only appears in Beta.
The name of artist Douglas Shuler is generally misspelled as "Douglas Schuler". The mistake was not fixed until Revised Edition.
Several Alpha cards have other minor mistakes, most of them relating to the font.
References
^ a b c d "Alpha, Beta, Unlimited Editions". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on September 4, 2008. Retrieved August 10, 2009.
^ a b "Limited Edition". Crystal Keep. Archived from the original on April 6, 2007. Retrieved November 1, 2012.
^ a b Miller, John Jackson (2001), Scrye Collectible Card Game Checklist & Price Guide, p. 520.
^ a b Moursund, Beth (2002), The Complete Encyclopedia of Magic The Gathering, p. 720.
^ Searle, Michael (March 1997), InQuest, The Ultimate Guide to Card Games, p. 136.
^ Burke, Scott M., "Magic: The Gathering", Scrye - The Game Card Collector's Guide, no. 2, p. 68.
^ Limited Edition Part I, Podcast by Mark Rosewater. Note that this is a 6-part podcast on LE; see for the others.
^ Magic: The Gathering - Official Encyclopedia, Volume 1
^ Official Tournament Rules
^ Rosewater, Mark (August 18, 2008). "To Thine Own Elf Be True". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on August 27, 2008. Retrieved December 19, 2010.
^ Rosewater, Mark (December 1, 2003). "The Baby and the Bathwater". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 17, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2014.
^ "Evergreen Eggs & Ham".
^ Blogatog
^ "The Original Magic Rulebook". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. December 25, 2004. Archived from the original on September 7, 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2010.
^ The Winding Path. LaPille, Tom.
^ Newmark, Leigh; InQuest Gamer (December 15, 2006). "History of the World". InQuest Gamer. WizardUniverse.com. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b "The Power Nine". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 15, 2003. Archived from the original on November 27, 2003. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b DCI (June 1, 2007). "Legacy Format Deck Construction". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on June 26, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ Magic: The Gathering’s Black Lotus sells for $166K at auction, doubling its value
^ Iain Telfer (October 23, 2002). "Playing Fetchlands Properly".
^ a b Rosewater, Mark (July 8, 2002). "Zen and the Art of Cycle Maintenance". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on July 13, 2002. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ Bleiweiss, Ben (February 27, 2002). "Tap One Mountain". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on October 1, 2002. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Waterman, Paul (February 1995). "Oops: the definitive guide to Magic misprints". Scrye. No. 4. pp. 85–86.
^ "Alpha "Oops..." V". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. July 12, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ "Alpha "Oops..." IV". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. May 15, 2002. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b c DeVincentis, Joseph (January 15, 1996). "/dev/joe's list of Magic:the Gathering errors, version 1.0". Magic Judge List Archives. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2010.
^ Compare Death Ward with Death Ward
^ "Alpha "Oops..." VII". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 4, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b "Alpha "Oops..."". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. February 1, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ a b "Alpha "Oops..." II". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. February 25, 2002. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ "Alpha "Oops..." VI". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 12, 2002. Archived from the original on September 10, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ Compare Sedge Troll with Sedge Troll
^ "Alpha "Oops..." III". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. April 10, 2002. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.
^ The mistake can be seen on Animate Artifact, Serra Angel
External links
Wizards of the Coast's official page on Alpha, Beta, and Unlimited
Gatherer Alpha set list
Transcription of the original Magic rulebook
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Magic: The Gathering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic:_The_Gathering"},{"link_name":"Origins Game Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_Game_Fair"},{"link_name":"Wizards of the Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MILLER-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MOURSUND-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SEARLE-5"},{"link_name":"Richard Garfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Garfield"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abupp-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abuck-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BURKE-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MILLER-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MOURSUND-4"}],"text":"Magic: The Gathering Limited Edition is the first Magic: The Gathering card set. It premiered in a limited release at Origins Game Fair in 1993, with a general release that August. The initial print run of 2.6 million cards sold out quickly, and a new printing run was released in October 1993. These two runs are known as Limited Edition Alpha and Limited Edition Beta, or just Alpha and Beta for short. Although Alpha and Beta are referred to as different sets by some, officially they are the same set; Wizards of the Coast had expected that people wouldn't necessarily be able to tell the two press runs apart. Beta fixed a number of misprints and errors on cards. The printer accidentally used different corner rounding dies for the second run, resulting in Alpha cards being noticeably distinct in shape and appearance from Beta cards and all subsequent cards.[3][4][5] The Beta printing also included a revised rulebook with a number of clarifications, although creator Richard Garfield's short fiction \"Worzel's Tale\" was removed to make room. \nThe print run of Beta is given as 7.3 million[1] or 7.8 million[2][6] depending on the source. Despite the set's print run being about three times as big as Alpha's, Beta sold out as quickly as its predecessor.Limited Edition cards have no expansion symbol, no copyright date, and no trademark symbols; the text on the bottom left consists only of an artist credit.[3][4]","title":"Limited Edition (Magic: The Gathering)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha_and_Beta_Magic_cards.jpg"},{"link_name":"designers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_design"},{"link_name":"playtesters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playtest"},{"link_name":"Circle of Protection: Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=536"},{"link_name":"Volcanic Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=585"},{"link_name":"Mark Rosewater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rosewater"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"card sleeves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_sleeve"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-To_Thine_Own_Elf_Be_True-10"},{"link_name":"Richard Garfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Garfield"},{"link_name":"UPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code"}],"text":"Card fronts of early Magic cards: Alpha on left, Beta on right.Originally, the designers and playtesters of the new card game intended the name would simply be \"Magic\". However, the lawyers at Wizards of the Coast advised that the name was too generic to be trademarked, and was thus changed to \"Magic: The Gathering\". The original intent was that each Magic expansion would have a different subtitle; while the first Magic set would be \"The Gathering\", future sets could be labeled as \"Magic: Arabian Nights\" or \"Magic: Ice Age\". When it was decided that the backs of Magic should be identical regardless of the expansion, the name \"Magic: The Gathering\" would appear prominently on the back of every Magic card. \"Magic: The Gathering\" thus became the name of the entire game instead of \"The Gathering\" only being the subtitle referring to the first release.As the names Alpha and Beta only distinguish different print runs of the same set, Alpha and Beta contain largely the same cards. However, in the Alpha print run the cards Circle of Protection: Black and Volcanic Island were omitted as the art was not completed in time for the Alpha print run. As well as including these two extra cards, the Beta print run included a new illustration for each of the five basic lands, taking the total card count from 295 to 302. According to Mark Rosewater, this was done so that the product could be advertised as having \"over 300 cards\".[7] Several mistakes on Alpha cards were corrected in Beta. Alpha cards are easily distinguishable from Beta cards as unlike all succeeding sets, cards from Alpha have steeply rounded corners. This was reportedly caused by sharpening of the dies used to cut the Beta cards, which resulted in the less rounded corners.[8] The Wizards of the Coast tournament rules require that a deck including Alpha cards have opaque card sleeves to prevent a player from being able to identify the difference between an Alpha and a non-Alpha card in their library, as the corners are different from all the printings that followed.[9]Alpha, Beta, and Unlimited are known for having extremely powerful cards at the higher rarities. This was an intentional choice during development; the thought was that \"players (...) wouldn't be able to acquire many of the power rares, because supply would keep them actually rare\".[10] Players spending hundreds of dollars to acquire multiple copies of each of the powerful rares was not anticipated at the time, as the developers assumed players would stop at around 30-50 dollars.The Alpha rulebook contains a fantasy tale called \"Worzel's Story\" by Richard Garfield which was removed for the Beta release. Alpha deck boxes also lack a UPC on the bottom.","title":"Set history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Magic: The Gathering keywords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Magic:_The_Gathering_keywords"},{"link_name":"tapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Magic:_The_Gathering_keywords#Tap/Untap"},{"link_name":"evergreen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Magic:_The_Gathering_keywords#Evergreen_keywords"},{"link_name":"Tempest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempest_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rosewaterband-11"},{"link_name":"Time Spiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Spiral_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"Magic Origins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Origins"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Shadows over Innistrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_over_Innistrad"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"8th Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th_Edition_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"Zendikar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zendikar"},{"link_name":"9th Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9th_Edition_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"Serra Angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=270"},{"link_name":"Champions of Kamigawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champions_of_Kamigawa"},{"link_name":"Mirage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirage_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"Urza's Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urza%27s_Destiny"},{"link_name":"ante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ante_(cards)"},{"link_name":"Contract From Below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Contract+From+Below"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Original_Magic_Rulebook-14"},{"link_name":"Chaos Orb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=6"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"See also: List of Magic: The Gathering keywordsBeing the first Magic set, Limited Edition has all of the original mechanics intrinsic to Magic, such as \"tapping\" cards to use their abilities. Many of the original base keywords are \"evergreen\" and still used commonly in Magic design as of 2019, such as Flying, First Strike, and Trample. A few keywords have since been phased out of the game. The Banding ability was discontinued in the set Tempest, released in 1997. According to the Wizards of the Coast designers, the Banding mechanic confused players and required too much text to explain.[11] When old mechanics were revisited in the Time Spiral block, banding was left out for this same reason. Much later, regeneration and \"landwalk\" (e.g. Forestwalk, Swampwalk) were discontinued. Landwalk was removed in 2015 with the release of Magic Origins,[12] and no more Regeneration cards have been created starting with the Shadows over Innistrad block in 2016.[13]Many Limited Edition cards had abilities that have since become keyword abilities. The ability \"may only be blocked by black or artifact creatures\" was recast as the keyword Fear in 8th Edition which was replaced by Intimidate with the release of Zendikar. A rule in Limited Edition that prevented Walls from attacking was removed in 9th Edition and all walls were given the new keyword \"Defender\", which prevents them from attacking. Serra Angel's ability \"doesn't tap to attack\" was recast as the keyword Vigilance in Champions of Kamigawa. \"May attack the turn it comes into play\" has changed twice; it was first changed to \"unaffected by summoning sickness\" in Mirage and then replaced with the keyword Haste in Urza's Destiny.The rules of Limited Edition included a provision for ante. Games would be started by each player removing a card at random from their deck. The winner of the game took both cards. There were also cards that interacted with the ante, such as Contract From Below. This aspect of the game continued until the Homelands set in 1995, but was dropped as the cards became collectible and valuable and the company did not want to be associated with gambling.[14]Limited Edition included a number of unique cards exploring mechanics rarely seen in later sets. Chaos Orb is a card involving dexterity, in which the card is flipped onto the play area to determine cards destroyed by the Orb. Both manual dexterity cards such as Chaos Orb and ante cards are banned in all sanctioned Magic formats as of 2013.[15]","title":"Mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Power Nine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Nine"},{"link_name":"Black Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inquest-16"},{"link_name":"Mox Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=34"},{"link_name":"Mox Sapphire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=36"},{"link_name":"Mox Jet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=33"},{"link_name":"Mox Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=35"},{"link_name":"Mox Emerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=32"},{"link_name":"Ancestral Recall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=95"},{"link_name":"Time Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=131"},{"link_name":"Timetwister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=132"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Power_Nine-17"},{"link_name":"tournament 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Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Underground+Sea"},{"link_name":"Badlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Badlands"},{"link_name":"Taiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Taiga"},{"link_name":"Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Savannah"},{"link_name":"Scrubland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Scrubland"},{"link_name":"Bayou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Bayou"},{"link_name":"Tropical Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Tropical+Island"},{"link_name":"Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Plateau"},{"link_name":"Volcanic Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Volcanic+Island"},{"link_name":"Flooded Strand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Flooded+Strand"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Healing Salve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=253"},{"link_name":"Ancestral Recall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=95"},{"link_name":"Dark Ritual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=54"},{"link_name":"Lightning Bolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=209"},{"link_name":"Giant Growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=153"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cycle-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cycle-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boons-22"},{"link_name":"Mending Hands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Mending+Hands"},{"link_name":"Concentrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Concentrate"},{"link_name":"Cabal Ritual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Cabal+Ritual"},{"link_name":"Shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Shock"},{"link_name":"Chaos Orb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=6"},{"link_name":"Unglued","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unglued"},{"link_name":"Unhinged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unhinged_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"Falling Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=1571"},{"link_name":"Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legends_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banned_List-18"}],"text":"The \"Power Nine\": Black Lotus,[16] Mox Pearl, Mox Sapphire, Mox Jet, Mox Ruby, Mox Emerald, Ancestral Recall, Time Walk, and Timetwister. These are widely considered the most powerful cards in Limited Edition, and are among the most powerful in all of Magic: The Gathering.[17] All of these cards are now restricted in tournament play; players may only include one copy of each in a deck.[18] The color distribution of the Power Nine is heavily skewed; six of the cards are Artifacts, while the other three are Blue cards.[17] In April 2016, an Alpha Black Lotus card graded as a 9.5 out of 10 was sold on eBay for $38,000; on February 27, 2019 a Black Lotus graded 9.5 out of 10 was sold in auction for $166,100.[19]\nThe Dual Lands: Tundra, Underground Sea, Badlands, Taiga, Savannah, Scrubland, Bayou, Tropical Island, Plateau, and Volcanic Island. These lands provide two colors of mana with the benefit of possessing two basic land types, an uncommon trait on non-basic lands. All future dual lands would be printed with restrictions. They are now a defining part of the Legacy and Vintage formats, in particular for their ability to be found by the various \"fetchlands\" (for example, Flooded Strand) released many years later.[20]\nThe \"Boons\": Healing Salve, Ancestral Recall, Dark Ritual, Lightning Bolt, and Giant Growth. This was the first and most famous cycle in Magic.[21] All of them provided an effect in the number three. The cards defined the core ability of each color, but they proved to be disparate in power; the Blue Boon, Ancestral Recall, was considered the strongest, and was the only card in the cycle printed as a Rare. The green boon, Giant Growth, was considered an iconic card of Green and had appeared in every core set until the printing of Magic 2012.[21][22] Many modern variations on the other cards have been printed, including Mending Hands, Concentrate, Cabal Ritual, and Shock.\nChaos Orb: The first Magic card that required manual dexterity as part of the game play. The only other such card not in Unglued or Unhinged was Falling Star, from Legends. These two cards are currently banned in all sanctioned tournament formats.[18]","title":"Notable cards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Circle of Protection: Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=536"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_5-24"},{"link_name":"Cyclopean Tomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=11"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_4-25"},{"link_name":"Death Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=248"},{"link_name":"Mark Poole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Poole"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joeslist-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Demonic Hordes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=59"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Drain Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=61"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Elvish Archers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=147"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_7-28"},{"link_name":"Force of Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=150"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_1-29"},{"link_name":"Orcish Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=213"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_2-30"},{"link_name":"Orcish Oriflamme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=214"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_2-30"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Phantasmal Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=115"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_1-29"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Rock Hydra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=219"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Red Elemental Blast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=217"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"this version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=512"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_6-31"},{"link_name":"Sedge Troll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=220"},{"link_name":"Dan Frazier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Frazier_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joeslist-26"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Tropical Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=285"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Unsummon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=134"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Volcanic Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=585"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alpha_oops_3-33"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waterman-23"},{"link_name":"Revised Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_Edition_(Magic:_The_Gathering)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joeslist-26"}],"sub_title":"Errors in Alpha","text":"Alpha contained numerous misprints and did not adhere to close standardized wordings for similar effects seen in later sets and printings. The following cards had printing errors, most of which were fixed in the Beta release.Circle of Protection: Black was accidentally omitted from the set.[23][24]\nCyclopean Tomb had no casting cost, instead of a casting cost of 4.[23][25]\nDeath Ward incorrectly credited Dan Frazier as the artist. The correct artist is Mark Poole.[23][26][27]\nDemonic Hordes was printed with the letter B in its text box rather than the black mana symbol.[23]\nDrain Life was printed with the letter B in its text box rather than the black mana symbol.[23]\nElvish Archers had its power/toughness listed as 1/2 rather than 2/1.[23][28]\nForce of Nature was printed with the letter G in its text box rather than the green mana symbol, and the artist's name was spelled incorrectly.[23][29]\nOrcish Artillery had a casting cost of 1R rather than 1RR.[30]\nOrcish Oriflamme had a casting cost of 1R rather than 3R.[23][30][dead link]\nPhantasmal Forces was printed with the letter U in its text box rather than the blue mana symbol.[23][29][dead link]\nRock Hydra was printed with the letter R in its text box rather than the red mana symbol.[23]\nRed Elemental Blast was printed as an instant rather than an interrupt[23] (see this version), making half of its ability unplayable under the rules of the time.[31]\nSedge Troll incorrectly credited Jeff A. Menges as the artist. The correct artist is Dan Frazier.[23][26][32]\nTropical Island credited Mark Poole as the artist instead of Jesper Myrfors.[23] This was corrected in the Beta printing.\nUnsummon states that enchantments on the unsummoned card are \"CARDed\" instead of discarded.[23]\nVolcanic Island was accidentally omitted from Alpha and only appears in Beta.[23][33]\nThe name of artist Douglas Shuler is generally misspelled as \"Douglas Schuler\".[23] The mistake was not fixed until Revised Edition.[34]Several Alpha cards have other minor mistakes, most of them relating to the font.[26]","title":"Notable cards"}] | [{"image_text":"Card fronts of early Magic cards: Alpha on left, Beta on right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ee/Alpha_and_Beta_Magic_cards.jpg/275px-Alpha_and_Beta_Magic_cards.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Alpha, Beta, Unlimited Editions\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on September 4, 2008. Retrieved August 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080904131914/http://www.wizards.com/magic/tcg/productarticle.aspx?x=mtg_tcg_abu_productinfo","url_text":"\"Alpha, Beta, Unlimited Editions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/magic/tcg/productarticle.aspx?x=mtg_tcg_abu_productinfo","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Limited Edition\". Crystal Keep. Archived from the original on April 6, 2007. Retrieved November 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070406063112/http://www.crystalkeep.com/magic/products/limited.php","url_text":"\"Limited Edition\""},{"url":"http://www.crystalkeep.com/magic/products/limited.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Miller, John Jackson (2001), Scrye Collectible Card Game Checklist & Price Guide, p. 520.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Moursund, Beth (2002), The Complete Encyclopedia of Magic The Gathering, p. 720.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Searle, Michael (March 1997), InQuest, The Ultimate Guide to Card Games, p. 136.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Burke, Scott M., \"Magic: The Gathering\", Scrye - The Game Card Collector's Guide, no. 2, p. 68.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rosewater, Mark (August 18, 2008). \"To Thine Own Elf Be True\". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on August 27, 2008. Retrieved December 19, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rosewater","url_text":"Rosewater, Mark"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080827144742/http://www.wizards.com/Magic/Magazine/Article.aspx?x=mtgcom/daily/mr345","url_text":"\"To Thine Own Elf Be True\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/magic/magazine/article.aspx?x=mtgcom/daily/mr345","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rosewater, Mark (December 1, 2003). \"The Baby and the Bathwater\". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 17, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rosewater","url_text":"Rosewater, Mark"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160117103922/http://archive.wizards.com/Magic/magazine/article.aspx?x=mtgcom/daily/mr100","url_text":"\"The Baby and the Bathwater\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://archive.wizards.com/Magic/magazine/article.aspx?x=mtgcom/daily/mr100","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Evergreen Eggs & Ham\".","urls":[{"url":"http://magic.wizards.com/en/articles/archive/making-magic/evergreen-eggs-ham-2015-06-08","url_text":"\"Evergreen Eggs & Ham\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Original Magic Rulebook\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. December 25, 2004. Archived from the original on September 7, 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100907045909/http://www.wizards.com/magic/magazine/article.aspx?x=mtgcom%2Fdaily%2Fjc20","url_text":"\"The Original Magic Rulebook\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/Magic/Magazine/Article.aspx?x=mtgcom/daily/jc20","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Newmark, Leigh; InQuest Gamer (December 15, 2006). \"History of the World\". InQuest Gamer. WizardUniverse.com. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070930153805/http://www.wizarduniverse.com/magazine/inquest/002758188.cfm?page=1","url_text":"\"History of the World\""},{"url":"http://www.wizarduniverse.com/magazine/inquest/002758188.cfm?page=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Power Nine\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 15, 2003. Archived from the original on November 27, 2003. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20031127184758/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/432","url_text":"\"The Power Nine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/432","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"DCI (June 1, 2007). \"Legacy Format Deck Construction\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on June 26, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duelists%27_Convocation_International","url_text":"DCI"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070626034759/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=judge%2Fresources%2Fsfrlegacy","url_text":"\"Legacy Format Deck Construction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=judge/resources/sfrlegacy","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Iain Telfer (October 23, 2002). \"Playing Fetchlands Properly\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.starcitygames.com/magic/misc/3922_Playing_Fetchlands_Properly.html","url_text":"\"Playing Fetchlands Properly\""}]},{"reference":"Rosewater, Mark (July 8, 2002). \"Zen and the Art of Cycle Maintenance\". Making Magic. Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on July 13, 2002. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Rosewater","url_text":"Rosewater, Mark"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20020713161940/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/daily/mr28","url_text":"\"Zen and the Art of Cycle Maintenance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/daily/mr28","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bleiweiss, Ben (February 27, 2002). \"Tap One Mountain\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on October 1, 2002. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021001200019/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/daily/bb9","url_text":"\"Tap One Mountain\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/daily/bb9","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Waterman, Paul (February 1995). \"Oops: the definitive guide to Magic misprints\". Scrye. No. 4. pp. 85–86.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrye","url_text":"Scrye"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" V\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. July 12, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071027143116/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F137","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" V\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/137","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" IV\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. May 15, 2002. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070930083853/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F95","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" IV\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/95","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"DeVincentis, Joseph (January 15, 1996). \"/dev/joe's list of Magic:the Gathering errors, version 1.0\". Magic Judge List Archives. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110718073625/http://oracle.wizards.com/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind9601c&L=mtg-l&P=3529","url_text":"\"/dev/joe's list of Magic:the Gathering errors, version 1.0\""},{"url":"http://oracle.wizards.com/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind9601c&L=mtg-l&P=3529","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" VII\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 4, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071027143128/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F198","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" VII\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/198","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\"\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. February 1, 2002. Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071027143135/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F22","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/22","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" II\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. February 25, 2002. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070906075925/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F38","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" II\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/38","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" VI\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. October 12, 2002. Archived from the original on September 10, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070910235601/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F182","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" VI\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/182","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" III\". Magic Arcana. Wizards of the Coast. April 10, 2002. Archived from the original on September 6, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070906080842/http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom%2Farcana%2F70","url_text":"\"Alpha \"Oops...\" III\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=mtgcom/arcana/70","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=536","external_links_name":"Circle of Protection: Black"},{"Link":"http://gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=585","external_links_name":"Volcanic Island"},{"Link":"http://gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=270","external_links_name":"Serra Angel"},{"Link":"http://gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?name=Contract+From+Below","external_links_name":"Contract From Below"},{"Link":"http://gatherer.wizards.com/pages/card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=6","external_links_name":"Chaos 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Prince_Edward_Island_general_election | 1966 Prince Edward Island general election | ["1 Party Standings","2 Electoral reform","3 Members Elected","3.1 Kings","3.2 Prince","3.3 Queens","4 References","5 Further reading"] | Canadian provincial election
1966 Prince Edward Island general election
← 1962
May 30, 1966 (1966-05-30) (11 July 1966)
1970 →
← outgoing membersmembers →All 32 seats in the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island17 seats needed for a majority
First party
Second party
Lib
PC
Leader
Alex Campbell
Walter R. Shaw
Party
Liberal
Progressive Conservative
Leader since
December 11, 1965
September 17, 1957
Leader's seat
5th Prince
1st Queens
Last election
11 seats, 49.4%
19 seats, 50.6%
Seats won
17
15
Seat change
6
4
Popular vote
47,065
46,118
Percentage
50.5%
49.5%
Swing
1.1pp
1.1pp
Seats won by each party per district. Voters elect two members (one Councillor and Assemblyman) from each of the 16 districts.
Premier before election
Walter R. Shaw
Progressive Conservative
Premier after election
Alex Campbell
Liberal
The 1966 Prince Edward Island general election was held on May 30, 1966.
The election in the riding of 1st Kings was delayed until July 11, 1966 due to the death of Liberal Assemblyman and candidate William Acorn. As it turned out, other ridings elected a total of 15 Liberals and 15 Progressive Conservatives, and the riding of 1st Kings would by itself decide the general election.
The outgoing Progressive Conservative government attempted to win 1st Kings by resorting to such methods as naming one of the PC candidates (Keith Mackenzie) as Minister of Transports, and paving 30 miles of road in the district. At the time, a reporter from the Charlottetown Guardian commented on how "the riding may well sink under the weight of the machines". The strategy failed as both Liberal candidates in 1st Kings ultimately won, giving the Liberals a 17 to 15 majority and enabling Liberal leader Alex Campbell to become Premier.
The 1966 election was the first following the splitting of the 5th Queens district. The Progressive Conservative government decided to break with the tradition of each county having five ridings and ten members; by splitting 5th Queens, it gave the city of Charlottetown two ridings and therefore four members; and gave Queen's County a sixth district. This was the single biggest change to the map since 1893 when the ridings were devised. In that time population shifts had made some changes needed, as Charlottetown's population was more than five times that of some of the more rural ridings. The Progressive Conservatives had hoped that traditionally Progressive Conservative Charlottetown would vote in two additional Progressive Conservative members to the legislature; on election day the new riding elected two Progressive Conservatives, but the now modified old riding (Fifth Queen's) elected two Liberals.
Party Standings
↓
17
15
Liberal
PC
Party
Party Leader
Seats
Popular Vote
1962
Elected
Change
#
%
Change
Liberal
Alex Campbell
11
17
+6
47,065
50.5%
+1.1%
Progressive Conservative
Walter R. Shaw
19
15
-4
46,118
49.5%
-1.1%
Popular vote
Liberal
50.51%
PC
49.49%
Seats summary
Liberal
53.13%
PC
46.87%
Electoral reform
The Legislature of Prince Edward Island had two levels of membership from 1893 to 1996 - Assemblymen and Councillors. This was a holdover from when the Island had a bicameral legislature, the General Assembly and the Legislative Council.
In 1893, the Legislative Council was abolished and had its membership merged with the Assembly, though the two titles remained separate and were elected by different electoral franchises. Assembleymen were elected by eligible voters within a district. Up until past the 1962 election, Councillors were only elected by landowners within a district.
The Shaw government passed an Act in 1963, eliminating this requirement.
Henceforth, until multi-member seats were abolished (1996), the Assemblyman and the Councillor in each district would be elected by universal adult suffrage identically. But each seat would be filled in separate contest, through First past the post. The separate contests were held that way despite the fact that the members would sit in the same chamber. They ensured that in each contest a party would run just one candidate so no candidate had to run against others of the same party as would have happened in a one-ballot, multi-member district. It also allowed one contest to be between Catholics of various parties and the other contest to be between Protestants of various parties.
As well the ability of a voter to cast multiple votes in a contest was discontinued. Henceforth the rule would be "one man, one vote" or actually "one man, two votes".
Members Elected
Kings
District
Assemblyman
Party
Councillor
Party
1st Kings
Bruce L. Stewart
Liberal
Daniel J. MacDonald
Liberal
2nd Kings
Walter Dingwell
Progressive Conservative
Leo Rossiter
Progressive Conservative
3rd Kings
Thomas A. Curran
Progressive Conservative
Preston MacLure
Progressive Conservative
4th Kings
Lorne Bonnell
Liberal
Keir Clark
Liberal
5th Kings
Cyril Sinnott
Progressive Conservative
George J. Ferguson
Liberal
Prince
District
Assemblyman
Party
Councillor
Party
1st Prince
Prosper Arsenault
Liberal
Robert E. Campbell
Liberal
2nd Prince
George Dewar
Progressive Conservative
Robert Grindlay
Progressive Conservative
3rd Prince
Henry Wedge
Progressive Conservative
Keith Harrington
Progressive Conservative
4th Prince
Max Thompson
Liberal
Frank Jardine
Liberal
5th Prince
Earle Hickey
Liberal
Alexander B. Campbell
Liberal
Queens
District
Assemblyman
Party
Councillor
Party
1st Queens
Frank Myers
Progressive Conservative
Walter Russell Shaw
Progressive Conservative
2nd Queens
Sinclair Cutcliffe
Liberal
Lloyd MacPhail
Progressive Conservative
3rd Queens
Cecil A. Miller
Liberal
J. Russell Driscoll
Progressive Conservative
4th Queens
J. Stewart Ross
Liberal
Harold P. Smith
Liberal
5th Queens
Gordon L. Bennett
Liberal
Elmer Blanchard
Liberal
6th Queens
J. David Stewart
Progressive Conservative
Alban Farmer
Progressive Conservative
References
^ 1st Kings district election was delayed July 11, 1966
^ "Provincial General Election Results, 1966" (PDF). Elections PEI. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 25, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
^ "Prince Edward Island Chief Electoral Officer report for 1966" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 8, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2006.
^ Political historian Wayne MacKinnon, as quoted on http://fruitsandvotes.com/?p=250
^ Fred Driscoll. "History and Politics of Prince Edward Island" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review.
^ Bolger, Canada's Smallest Province, p. 294-5; 308-316
^ Bolger, Canada's Smallest Province, p. 316
^ new riding
Further reading
Saywell, John, ed. (1967). Canadian Annual Review for 1966. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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See also: List of Prince Edward Island by-elections | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-results-2"},{"link_name":"1st Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Kings"},{"link_name":"Liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Progressive Conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island_Progressive_Conservative_Party"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Alex Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Campbell_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_Prince_Edward_Island"},{"link_name":"5th Queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Queens"},{"link_name":"Charlottetown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlottetown"}],"text":"The 1966 Prince Edward Island general election was held on May 30, 1966.[2]The election in the riding of 1st Kings was delayed until July 11, 1966 due to the death of Liberal Assemblyman and candidate William Acorn.[3] As it turned out, other ridings elected a total of 15 Liberals and 15 Progressive Conservatives, and the riding of 1st Kings would by itself decide the general election.The outgoing Progressive Conservative government attempted to win 1st Kings by resorting to such methods as naming one of the PC candidates (Keith Mackenzie) as Minister of Transports, and paving 30 miles of road in the district.[4] At the time, a reporter from the Charlottetown Guardian commented on how \"the riding may well sink under the weight of the [paving] machines\". The strategy failed as both Liberal candidates in 1st Kings ultimately won, giving the Liberals a 17 to 15 majority and enabling Liberal leader Alex Campbell to become Premier.The 1966 election was the first following the splitting of the 5th Queens district. The Progressive Conservative government decided to break with the tradition of each county having five ridings and ten members; by splitting 5th Queens, it gave the city of Charlottetown two ridings and therefore four members; and gave Queen's County a sixth district. This was the single biggest change to the map since 1893 when the ridings were devised. In that time population shifts had made some changes needed, as Charlottetown's population was more than five times that of some of the more rural ridings. 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This was a holdover from when the Island had a bicameral legislature, the General Assembly and the Legislative Council.In 1893, the Legislative Council was abolished and had its membership merged with the Assembly, though the two titles remained separate and were elected by different electoral franchises. Assembleymen were elected by eligible voters within a district. Up until past the 1962 election, Councillors were only elected by landowners within a district.The Shaw government passed an Act in 1963, eliminating this requirement.[5]Henceforth, until multi-member seats were abolished (1996), the Assemblyman and the Councillor in each district would be elected by universal adult suffrage identically. But each seat would be filled in separate contest, through First past the post. The separate contests were held that way despite the fact that the members would sit in the same chamber. They ensured that in each contest a party would run just one candidate so no candidate had to run against others of the same party as would have happened in a one-ballot, multi-member district. It also allowed one contest to be between Catholics of various parties and the other contest to be between Protestants of various parties.[6]As well the ability of a voter to cast multiple votes in a contest was discontinued. 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(May)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=May_1954_Prince_Edward_Island_potato_referendum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1954 (Nov)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=November_1954_Prince_Edward_Island_potato_referendum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Prince_Edward_Island_fixed_link_crossing_referendum"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Prince_Edward_Island_electoral_reform_referendum"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Prince_Edward_Island_electoral_reform_referendum"},{"link_name":"2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Prince_Edward_Island_electoral_reform_referendum"},{"link_name":"List of Prince Edward Island by-elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Prince_Edward_Island_by-elections"}],"text":"Saywell, John, ed. (1967). Canadian Annual Review for 1966. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.vte Elections and referendums in Prince Edward IslandGeneral elections\n1873\n1876\n1879\n1882\n1886\n1890\n1893\n1897\n1900\n1904\n1908\n1912\n1915\n1919\n1923\n1927\n1931\n1935\n1939\n1943\n1947\n1951\n1955\n1959\n1962\n1966\n1970\n1974\n1978\n1979\n1982\n1986\n1989\n1993\n1996\n2000\n2003\n2007\n2011\n2015\n2019\n2023\nNext\nMunicipal elections\n2014\n2018\n2022\nReferendums\n1878\n1893\n1898\n1901\n1913\n1923\n1929\n1940\n1948\n1954 (May)\n1954 (Nov)\n1988\n2005\n2016\n2019\nSee also: List of Prince Edward Island by-elections","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Provincial General Election Results, 1966\" (PDF). Elections PEI. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 25, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150525203935/http://www.electionspei.ca/pdfs/ceoreports/results/1966Report.pdf","url_text":"\"Provincial General Election Results, 1966\""},{"url":"http://www.electionspei.ca/pdfs/ceoreports/results/1966Report.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Prince Edward Island Chief Electoral Officer report for 1966\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 8, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071008133044/http://www.electionspei.ca/provincial/historical/ceoreports/general/general-1966-05-30.pdf","url_text":"\"Prince Edward Island Chief Electoral Officer report for 1966\""},{"url":"http://www.electionspei.ca/provincial/historical/ceoreports/general/general-1966-05-30.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fred Driscoll. \"History and Politics of Prince Edward Island\" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.revparl.ca/11/2/11n2_88e_Driscoll.pdf","url_text":"\"History and Politics of Prince Edward Island\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Parliamentary_Review","url_text":"Canadian Parliamentary Review"}]},{"reference":"Saywell, John, ed. (1967). Canadian Annual Review for 1966. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Saywell","url_text":"Saywell, John"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/canadianannualre0000unse_o2i8","url_text":"Canadian Annual Review for 1966"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150525203935/http://www.electionspei.ca/pdfs/ceoreports/results/1966Report.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Provincial General Election Results, 1966\""},{"Link":"http://www.electionspei.ca/pdfs/ceoreports/results/1966Report.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071008133044/http://www.electionspei.ca/provincial/historical/ceoreports/general/general-1966-05-30.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Prince Edward Island Chief Electoral Officer report for 1966\""},{"Link":"http://www.electionspei.ca/provincial/historical/ceoreports/general/general-1966-05-30.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://fruitsandvotes.com/?p=250","external_links_name":"Political historian Wayne MacKinnon, as quoted on http://fruitsandvotes.com/?p=250"},{"Link":"http://www.revparl.ca/11/2/11n2_88e_Driscoll.pdf","external_links_name":"\"History and Politics of Prince Edward Island\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/canadianannualre0000unse_o2i8","external_links_name":"Canadian Annual Review for 1966"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge_Castle | Rotherfield | ["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Governance","4 Landmarks","5 The villages","5.1 Rotherfield","5.2 Eridge","5.3 Mark Cross","5.4 Boarshead","6 Education","7 Community projects","8 Religion","9 Transport","10 Leisure, culture and sport","11 Twin towns","12 Notable residents","13 References","14 External links"] | Coordinates: 51°02′46″N 0°13′09″E / 51.04601°N 0.21916°E / 51.04601; 0.21916Village in East Sussex, England
For the places in Oxfordshire, see Rotherfield Greys and Rotherfield Peppard.
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Human settlement in EnglandRotherfieldHigh Street, RotherfieldRotherfieldLocation within East SussexArea46.1 km2 (17.8 sq mi) Population3,208 (2011 census)• Density177/sq mi (68/km2)OS grid referenceTQ556297• London35 miles (56 km) NNWDistrictWealdenShire countyEast SussexRegionSouth EastCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townCROWBOROUGHPostcode districtTN6Dialling code01892PoliceSussexFireEast SussexAmbulanceSouth East Coast
UK ParliamentWealdenWebsiteRotherfield Parish Council
List of places
UK
England
East Sussex
51°02′46″N 0°13′09″E / 51.04601°N 0.21916°E / 51.04601; 0.21916
Rotherfield is a village and civil parish in the Wealden District of East Sussex, England. It is one of the largest parishes in East Sussex. There are three villages in the parish: Rotherfield, Mark Cross and Eridge. The River Rother, which drains much of the county and discharges at Rye Harbour, has its source on the south side of the hill on which Rotherfield village is built.
Etymology
The name Rotherfield is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon redrefeld meaning cattle lands, although it has been speculated that it may have originally been called or Hrytheranfelda meaning Hrother's field. On the south side of the hill on which the village of Rotherfield is built, the River Rother has its source. The main tributary of the River Adur in West Sussex has the same name, as does the river which runs through Rotherham, South Yorkshire.
History
There are written records of Rotherfield in the 8th century; it was also included in the Domesday Book of 1086 and in various other medieval documents. In Tudor times three of the inhabitants were burned at the stake for their religious beliefs.
In the 18th century, the road through the village became part of the Turnpike Trust road between Tunbridge Wells and Lewes. Until 1880, when a new ecclesiastical parish was formed, Crowborough was also part of the parish; in 1905 the latter became a civil parish in its own right.
Governance
The parish council consists of thirteen members, three representing the Eridge and Mark Cross ward and ten representing the Rotherfield Ward. This ward had a population of 2,433 at the 2011 Census.
Landmarks
Rotherfield parish lies to the south of Tunbridge Wells in the High Weald, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Within the parish boundaries lies Bream Wood, a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest, comprising an area of woodland with a ghyll hosting several species of fern and moss not found elsewhere in the area.
The Rotherfield Millennium Green was set up in 2000. It is run by a group of volunteer trustees who manage it for the village.
Rotherfield has been designated as a conservation area because of the quality of the buildings, including the Grade I listed St Denys Church and the soon to be completed picturesque homes of the Court Farm development.
The villages
Rotherfield
Cottages in the main street of Rotherfield
Rotherfield was originally a Saxon settlement in an area generally covered with oak forest. The church stands at the top of a hill, and was then surrounded by cleared land. The areas nearest to the valley bottoms, where water was available, were farmed. Rotherfield became a royal hunting estate in the times of Kings Alfred the Great, Æthelstan and William Rufus.
It was the winner of the Calor East Sussex Village of the Year Award in 2007.
Eridge
See also: Eridge Park and Eridge Green
Mark Cross village sign
Eridge (/ˈɛrɪdʒ/) or Eridge Green is a small village but not a civil parish: it is situated on a sandstone ridge in the northern borderlands of East Sussex next to Kent, having some publicly accessible woodland and trails with far-reaching views across the Kent and Sussex countryside. Although the village is in East Sussex, its post town of Tunbridge Wells is in the former postal county of Kent.
The name Eridge is thought to derive from 'Eagle ridge', or 'ridge frequented by eagles'. It is directly north of Rotherfield, and largely overlaps the ecclesiastical parish of Eridge Green. It was formed on 5 February 1856 out of parts of the former parishes of Frant, Rotherfield, Eridge Park and Eridge Castle, the latter being the seat of the Earl and Marquess of Abergavenny. On the village street is the church which is grade II listed, a mainline railway station (Eridge) and six other listed buildings including the public house, the Neville Crest and Gun. In 1792 Henry Nevill, 2nd Earl of Abergavenny converted the old Eridge House into a Gothic castle, which he named "Eridge Castle". It was replaced by a Neo-Georgian mansion in the 1930s after the original structure was badly damaged by fire. The area also contains several follies, including the Saxonbury Tower and several ornamental buildings near the Sham Farm business park. The undulating park and garden of Eridge Park is densely wooded to its north (Whitehill Wood) and south (Saxonbury Hill) and is highly rated (Grade II* listed) for its landscape.
The A26 road between Tunbridge Wells and Crowborough passes through the village.
Mark Cross
Mark Cross is located to the east of Rotherfield, at the junction of the A267 and B2100 Lamberhurst to Crowborough road. One notable residence is Walter's Mill, a house converted from a windmill.
Boarshead
Boarshead, a hamlet within the parish, developed around the A26 road between Crowborough and Eridge. Current amenities include an eponymous pub and a public golf course.
Education
There are two primary schools in the parish: Rotherfield Primary School, located in North Street, and Mark Cross CE Primary School.
Community projects
Rotherfield St Martin is a charitable organisation that provides social support and arranges activities to older adults in the area.
Religion
Main articles: List of current places of worship in Wealden and List of former places of worship in Wealden
Church of St Denys
There are five churches within Rotherfield parish: Rotherfield's 11th-century parish church is dedicated to St Denys. A timber church was first built on the site in 792 AD, and the present sandstone church occupies the same site; the original church is believed to have been under the north-east corner of the current building, in the area now known as the Nevill chapel.https://sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/ The Nevill family were Lords of the Manor from 1450. The building was extended at various times, with the last major alteration being the addition of the tower, porch and spire in the 15th century. The original spire was destroyed by a storm in October 1987, and reconstructed using a steel frame raised to the roof by helicopter. Construction of the tower meant that a new porch and entrance had to be built on the north side of the nave, to replace the west door obstructed by the tower. A new west door was also built.
Also in Rotherfield are the Providence Chapel (Strict Baptist); and the Roman Catholic Church dedicated to St Peter, Prince of Apostles. A former Methodist chapel at Town Row, between Rotherfield and Mark Cross, was closed in the early 21st century.
The church in Mark Cross is dedicated to St Mark; that at Eridge Green, to the Holy Trinity.
Transport
The A267 road between Tunbridge Wells and Eastbourne passes through the parish.
The one railway station still operating in the parish is at Eridge, served by Southern trains between Uckfield and London Bridge and since 2011 by the preserved Spa Valley Railway trains to Tunbridge Wells West. Until 1965 it was the junction for the cross-country railway to Hailsham, Polegate and Eastbourne.
The parish used to be served by Rotherfield and Mark Cross railway station on the Cuckoo Line which closed in 1965: It was situated adjacent to the B2100 road in the small village of Town Row about one mile east of Rotherfield. The former railway station is now a private house.
Leisure, culture and sport
In the Eridge area lies one of several local sandstone outcrops used for climbing.
The village hosts two drama groups: Stage Door Drama School for young people and the Rotherfield Players.
The area has the following pubs: in Rotherfield, the Catts Inn and the Kings Arms; in Mark Cross, the Mark Cross Inn; and in Eridge, the Huntsman and the Nevill Crest and Gun.
The local recreation ground is home to Rotherfield Football Club who play in the Mid-Sussex Football League.
On the first Saturday in October, Rotherfield plays host to its annual carnival night organised by the Rotherfield and Mark Cross Bonfire Society. This is a torchlight procession through the village streets involving many other Sussex Bonfire and Carnival societies. This is an old Sussex tradition which predates the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot but is now part of the buildup to the celebrations in Lewes on Bonfire night. This is the biggest event the village holds per year, and often sees crowds of up to 3,500 people lining the streets. The climax of the evening is the bonfire and fireworks display. Money raised from the event is given to local charities.
Twin towns
Saint-Chéron, France
Notable residents
Richard Jefferies (1848–1887), writer, lived briefly at Rehoboth Villa (now Brook View House), Jarvis Brook, Rotherfield
Sophia Jex-Blake (1840–1912), one of the first women doctors, lived in Mark Cross: she is buried in Rotherfield graveyard
John O. Lyle, Chairman of Tate and Lyle
Anton Zwemmer (1892–1979), Dutch-born British bookseller, book distributor, art dealer, publisher and collector, lived here the late 1970s
Innes Hope Pearse(1889–1978) of the Peckham Experiment, who lived at the Argos Hill Windmill with her husband George Scott Williamson also of the Peckham Experiment
Lisa Marie Presley (1968–2023), musician and singer, the only child of Elvis Presley
References
^ "East Sussex in Figures". East Sussex County Council. Retrieved 26 April 2008.
^ UK Census (2011). "Local Area Report – Rotherfield Parish (1170213727)". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
^ "History of Sussex – Some Place Names of Sussex". Ye Olde Sussex Pages. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011.
^ Samuel Lewis (publisher) (1848). "Ross – Rothwell". A Topographical Dictionary of England. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
^ "Rotherfield Countryside: history notes". Archived from the original on 21 June 2006.
^ "Rotherfield Parish Council Members list" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ UK Census (2011). "Local Area Report – Rotherfield Ward (as of 2011) (1237323045)". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
^ "Bream Wood SSSI". Natural England. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ "Rotherfield Millennium Green Trust". Retrieved 1 September 2020.
^ "Villages awarded for community spirit".
^ Glover, Judith (1975) The Place Names of Sussex, p. 53, London: B.T. Batsford Ltd. ISBN 0-7134-2853-8
^ Holy Trinity Church, Eridge, Grade II Historic England. "Details from listed building database (1028329)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
^ Eridge Park (Park and Garden) Historic England. "Details from listed building database (1000265)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
^ "The Mark Cross village website". Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ "Rotherfield Primary School website". Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ "Mark Cross Primary School website". Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ "About Us". Rotherfield St Martin. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
^ "Eridge Green Rocks". Climb-Guide climbing wiki. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
^ "Stage Door Drama". Retrieved 23 February 2018.
^ "The Rotherfield Players". Retrieved 23 February 2018.
^ "Twin towns". www.eastsussex.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
External links
Rotherfield Parish Council
Media related to Rotherfield at Wikimedia Commons
vteTowns, villages and hamlets in the Wealden District of East Sussex, England
Alciston
Alfriston
Arlington
Berwick
Best Beech Hill
Birling Gap
Blackboys
Blackham
Bodle Street Green
Boreham Street
Broad Oak
Burlow
Buxted
Chalvington
Chelwood Gate
Chiddingly
Coleman's Hatch
Cooper's Green
Cousley Wood
Cowbeech
Cross-in-Hand
Crowborough
Danehill
Duddleswell
East Dean
East Hoathly
Eridge Green
Etchingwood
Exceat
Fairwarp
Five Ash Down
Five Ashes
Fletching
Folkington
Forest Row
Framfield
Frant
Friston
Furner's Green
Golden Cross
Groombridge
Gun Hill
Hadlow Down
Hailsham
Halland
Hammerwood
Hankham
Hartfield
Heathfield
Hellingly
Heron's Ghyll
Herstmonceux
High Hurstwood
Holtye
Hooe
Hooe Common
Horam
Horney Common
Isfield
Jevington
Laughton
Litlington
Little Horsted
Little London
Lower Dicker
Lower Horsebridge
Lullington
Magham Down
Maresfield
Mark Cross
Mayfield
Maynard's Green
Milton Street
Muddles Green
Ninfield
Nutley
Old Heathfield
Pevensey
Pevensey Bay
Polegate
Poundgate
Punnett's Town
Rickney
Ripe
Roser's Cross
Rotherfield
Rushlake Green
Selmeston
Sparrow's Green
Stone Cross
Stunts Green
Tidebrook
Three Cups Corner
Uckfield
Upper Dicker
Upper Hartfield
Vines Cross
Wadhurst
Waldron
Warbleton
Wartling
Westdean
Westham
Whitesmith
Willingdon
Wilmington
Windmill Hill
Winton
Withyham
Wych Cross
Authority control databases: National
Israel | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotherfield Greys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherfield_Greys"},{"link_name":"Rotherfield Peppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherfield_Peppard"},{"link_name":"civil parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parishes_in_England"},{"link_name":"Wealden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealden_District"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"River Rother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Rother,_East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Rye Harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_Harbour"}],"text":"Village in East Sussex, EnglandFor the places in Oxfordshire, see Rotherfield Greys and Rotherfield Peppard.Human settlement in EnglandRotherfield is a village and civil parish in the Wealden District of East Sussex, England. It is one of the largest parishes in East Sussex. There are three villages in the parish: Rotherfield, Mark Cross and Eridge. The River Rother, which drains much of the county and discharges at Rye Harbour, has its source on the south side of the hill on which Rotherfield village is built.","title":"Rotherfield"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"River Rother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Rother,_East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"River Adur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Adur"},{"link_name":"West Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Rotherham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherham"},{"link_name":"South Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yorkshire"}],"text":"The name Rotherfield is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon redrefeld meaning cattle lands, although it has been speculated that it may have originally been called or Hrytheranfelda meaning Hrother's field.[3] On the south side of the hill on which the village of Rotherfield is built, the River Rother has its source.[4] The main tributary of the River Adur in West Sussex has the same name, as does the river which runs through Rotherham, South Yorkshire.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"Tudor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_period"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Turnpike Trust road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll_road"},{"link_name":"Lewes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewes"},{"link_name":"ecclesiastical parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_parish"},{"link_name":"Crowborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowborough"}],"text":"There are written records of Rotherfield in the 8th century; it was also included in the Domesday Book of 1086 and in various other medieval documents. In Tudor times three of the inhabitants were burned at the stake for their religious beliefs.[5]In the 18th century, the road through the village became part of the Turnpike Trust road between Tunbridge Wells and Lewes. Until 1880, when a new ecclesiastical parish was formed, Crowborough was also part of the parish; in 1905 the latter became a civil parish in its own right.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The parish council consists of thirteen members, three representing the Eridge and Mark Cross ward and ten representing the Rotherfield Ward.[6] This ward had a population of 2,433 at the 2011 Census.[7]","title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tunbridge Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tunbridge_Wells"},{"link_name":"Weald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weald"},{"link_name":"Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty"},{"link_name":"Bream Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bream_Wood"},{"link_name":"Site of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"},{"link_name":"ghyll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gill_(stream)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_conservation"},{"link_name":"Grade I listed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building"}],"text":"Rotherfield parish lies to the south of Tunbridge Wells in the High Weald, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Within the parish boundaries lies Bream Wood, a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest, comprising an area of woodland with a ghyll hosting several species of fern and moss not found elsewhere in the area.[8]The Rotherfield Millennium Green was set up in 2000. It is run by a group of volunteer trustees who manage it for the village.[9]Rotherfield has been designated as a conservation area because of the quality of the buildings, including the Grade I listed St Denys Church and the soon to be completed picturesque homes of the Court Farm development.","title":"Landmarks"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The villages"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rotherfield_Sussex_cottages.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Alfred the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Æthelstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelstan"},{"link_name":"William Rufus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Rotherfield","text":"Cottages in the main street of RotherfieldRotherfield was originally a Saxon settlement in an area generally covered with oak forest. The church stands at the top of a hill, and was then surrounded by cleared land. The areas nearest to the valley bottoms, where water was available, were farmed. Rotherfield became a royal hunting estate in the times of Kings Alfred the Great, Æthelstan and William Rufus.\nIt was the winner of the Calor East Sussex Village of the Year Award in 2007.[10]","title":"The villages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eridge Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge_Park"},{"link_name":"Eridge Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge_Green"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarkCrossSign.jpg"},{"link_name":"/ˈɛrɪdʒ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"civil parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parishes_in_England"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"Tunbridge Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunbridge_Wells"},{"link_name":"postal county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_county"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"ecclesiastical parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_parish"},{"link_name":"Frant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frant"},{"link_name":"Eridge Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge_Park"},{"link_name":"Earl and Marquess of Abergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquess_of_Abergavenny"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building"},{"link_name":"public house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_house"},{"link_name":"Neville Crest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Neville"},{"link_name":"Henry Nevill, 2nd Earl of Abergavenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Nevill,_2nd_Earl_of_Abergavenny"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"Neo-Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_architecture"},{"link_name":"follies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folly"},{"link_name":"business park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_park"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"A26 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A26_road"},{"link_name":"Tunbridge Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tunbridge_Wells"},{"link_name":"Crowborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowborough"}],"sub_title":"Eridge","text":"See also: Eridge Park and Eridge GreenMark Cross village signEridge (/ˈɛrɪdʒ/) or Eridge Green is a small village but not a civil parish: it is situated on a sandstone ridge in the northern borderlands of East Sussex next to Kent, having some publicly accessible woodland and trails with far-reaching views across the Kent and Sussex countryside. Although the village is in East Sussex, its post town of Tunbridge Wells is in the former postal county of Kent.The name Eridge is thought to derive from 'Eagle ridge', or 'ridge frequented by eagles'.[11] It is directly north of Rotherfield, and largely overlaps the ecclesiastical parish of Eridge Green. It was formed on 5 February 1856 out of parts of the former parishes of Frant, Rotherfield, Eridge Park and Eridge Castle, the latter being the seat of the Earl and Marquess of Abergavenny. On the village street is the church which is grade II listed,[12] a mainline railway station (Eridge) and six other listed buildings including the public house, the Neville Crest and Gun. In 1792 Henry Nevill, 2nd Earl of Abergavenny converted the old Eridge House into a Gothic castle, which he named \"Eridge Castle\". It was replaced by a Neo-Georgian mansion in the 1930s after the original structure was badly damaged by fire. The area also contains several follies, including the Saxonbury Tower and several ornamental buildings near the Sham Farm business park. The undulating park and garden of Eridge Park is densely wooded to its north (Whitehill Wood) and south (Saxonbury Hill) and is highly rated (Grade II* listed) for its landscape.[13]The A26 road between Tunbridge Wells and Crowborough passes through the village.","title":"The villages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A267_road"},{"link_name":"Lamberhurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamberhurst"},{"link_name":"Crowborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowborough"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Walter's Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%27s_Mill,_Mark_Cross"}],"sub_title":"Mark Cross","text":"Mark Cross is located to the east of Rotherfield, at the junction of the A267 and B2100 Lamberhurst to Crowborough road.[14] One notable residence is Walter's Mill, a house converted from a windmill.","title":"The villages"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Boarshead","text":"Boarshead, a hamlet within the parish, developed around the A26 road between Crowborough and Eridge. Current amenities include an eponymous pub and a public golf course.","title":"The villages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"There are two primary schools in the parish: Rotherfield Primary School, located in North Street,[15] and Mark Cross CE Primary School.[16]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Rotherfield St Martin is a charitable organisation that provides social support and arranges activities to older adults in the area.[17]","title":"Community projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rotherfield_Sussex_church.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Denys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Denis_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"https://sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/"},{"link_name":"Strict Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_Baptists"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"St Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter"},{"link_name":"Methodist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism"},{"link_name":"St Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_the_Evangelist"},{"link_name":"Holy Trinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity"}],"text":"Church of St DenysThere are five churches within Rotherfield parish: Rotherfield's 11th-century parish church is dedicated to St Denys. A timber church was first built on the site in 792 AD, and the present sandstone church occupies the same site; the original church is believed to have been under the north-east corner of the current building, in the area now known as the Nevill chapel.https://sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/ The Nevill family were Lords of the Manor from 1450. The building was extended at various times, with the last major alteration being the addition of the tower, porch and spire in the 15th century. The original spire was destroyed by a storm in October 1987, and reconstructed using a steel frame raised to the roof by helicopter. Construction of the tower meant that a new porch and entrance had to be built on the north side of the nave, to replace the west door obstructed by the tower. A new west door was also built.Also in Rotherfield are the Providence Chapel (Strict Baptist); and the Roman Catholic Church dedicated to St Peter, Prince of Apostles. A former Methodist chapel at Town Row, between Rotherfield and Mark Cross, was closed in the early 21st century.The church in Mark Cross is dedicated to St Mark; that at Eridge Green, to the Holy Trinity.","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A267 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A267_road"},{"link_name":"Tunbridge Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tunbridge_Wells"},{"link_name":"Eastbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastbourne"},{"link_name":"railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_station"},{"link_name":"Eridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridge_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Southern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_(Govia_Thameslink_Railway)"},{"link_name":"Spa Valley Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spa_Valley_Railway"},{"link_name":"Hailsham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailsham"},{"link_name":"Polegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polegate"},{"link_name":"Eastbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastbourne"},{"link_name":"Rotherfield and Mark Cross railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherfield_and_Mark_Cross_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Cuckoo Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo_Line"}],"text":"The A267 road between Tunbridge Wells and Eastbourne passes through the parish.The one railway station still operating in the parish is at Eridge, served by Southern trains between Uckfield and London Bridge and since 2011 by the preserved Spa Valley Railway trains to Tunbridge Wells West. Until 1965 it was the junction for the cross-country railway to Hailsham, Polegate and Eastbourne.The parish used to be served by Rotherfield and Mark Cross railway station on the Cuckoo Line which closed in 1965: It was situated adjacent to the B2100 road in the small village of Town Row about one mile east of Rotherfield. The former railway station is now a private house.","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sandstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"pubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_houses"},{"link_name":"Mid-Sussex Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Sussex_Football_League"},{"link_name":"Mark Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Cross,_Rotherfield"},{"link_name":"torchlight procession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_procession"},{"link_name":"Sussex Bonfire and Carnival societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex_Bonfire_Societies"},{"link_name":"Gunpowder Plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder_Plot"},{"link_name":"Lewes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewes"},{"link_name":"fireworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireworks"}],"text":"In the Eridge area lies one of several local sandstone outcrops used for climbing.[18]The village hosts two drama groups: Stage Door Drama School for young people[19] and the Rotherfield Players.[20]The area has the following pubs: in Rotherfield, the Catts Inn and the Kings Arms; in Mark Cross, the Mark Cross Inn; and in Eridge, the Huntsman and the Nevill Crest and Gun.The local recreation ground is home to Rotherfield Football Club who play in the Mid-Sussex Football League.On the first Saturday in October, Rotherfield plays host to its annual carnival night organised by the Rotherfield and Mark Cross Bonfire Society. This is a torchlight procession through the village streets involving many other Sussex Bonfire and Carnival societies. This is an old Sussex tradition which predates the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot but is now part of the buildup to the celebrations in Lewes on Bonfire night. This is the biggest event the village holds per year, and often sees crowds of up to 3,500 people lining the streets. The climax of the evening is the bonfire and fireworks display. Money raised from the event is given to local charities.","title":"Leisure, culture and sport"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Saint-Chéron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Ch%C3%A9ron,_Essonne"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Saint-Chéron, France[21]","title":"Twin towns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Jefferies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jefferies"},{"link_name":"Sophia Jex-Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Jex-Blake"},{"link_name":"John O. Lyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_O._Lyle&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tate and Lyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tate_and_Lyle"},{"link_name":"Anton Zwemmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Zwemmer"},{"link_name":"Innes Hope Pearse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innes_Hope_Pearse"},{"link_name":"the Peckham Experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Peckham_Experiment"},{"link_name":"George Scott Williamson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Scott_Williamson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lisa Marie Presley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Marie_Presley"},{"link_name":"Elvis Presley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley"}],"text":"Richard Jefferies (1848–1887), writer, lived briefly at Rehoboth Villa (now Brook View House), Jarvis Brook, Rotherfield\nSophia Jex-Blake (1840–1912), one of the first women doctors, lived in Mark Cross: she is buried in Rotherfield graveyard\nJohn O. Lyle, Chairman of Tate and Lyle\nAnton Zwemmer (1892–1979), Dutch-born British bookseller, book distributor, art dealer, publisher and collector, lived here the late 1970s\nInnes Hope Pearse(1889–1978) of the Peckham Experiment, who lived at the Argos Hill Windmill with her husband George Scott Williamson also of the Peckham Experiment\nLisa Marie Presley (1968–2023), musician and singer, the only child of Elvis Presley","title":"Notable residents"}] | [{"image_text":"Cottages in the main street of Rotherfield","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Rotherfield_Sussex_cottages.jpg/280px-Rotherfield_Sussex_cottages.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mark Cross village sign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/68/MarkCrossSign.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St Denys","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rotherfield_Sussex_church.jpg/310px-Rotherfield_Sussex_church.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"East Sussex in Figures\". East Sussex County Council. Retrieved 26 April 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eastsussexinfigures.org.uk/webview/","url_text":"\"East Sussex in Figures\""}]},{"reference":"UK Census (2011). \"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Parish (1170213727)\". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 21 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_census","url_text":"UK Census"},{"url":"https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/localarea?compare=1170213727","url_text":"\"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Parish (1170213727)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics_(United_Kingdom)","url_text":"Office for National Statistics"}]},{"reference":"\"History of Sussex – Some Place Names of Sussex\". Ye Olde Sussex Pages. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111001040543/http://www.yeoldesussexpages.com/history/placen2.htm","url_text":"\"History of Sussex – Some Place Names of Sussex\""},{"url":"http://www.yeoldesussexpages.com/history/placen2.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Samuel Lewis (publisher) (1848). \"Ross – Rothwell\". A Topographical Dictionary of England. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 26 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Lewis_(publisher)","url_text":"Samuel Lewis (publisher)"},{"url":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=51245","url_text":"\"Ross – Rothwell\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rotherfield Countryside: history notes\". Archived from the original on 21 June 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060621214529/http://www.rotherfield-countryside.org.uk/location/history.html","url_text":"\"Rotherfield Countryside: history notes\""},{"url":"http://www.rotherfield-countryside.org.uk/location/history.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Rotherfield Parish Council Members list\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120331065131/http://www.rotherfieldparishcouncil.co.uk/Core/Rotherfield-PC/UserFiles/Files/Reference%20information/Public%20Contact%20details%20for%20Councillors%20updated%2020%20June%202011.pdf","url_text":"\"Rotherfield Parish Council Members list\""},{"url":"http://www.rotherfieldparishcouncil.co.uk/Core/Rotherfield-PC/UserFiles/Files/Reference%20information/Public%20Contact%20details%20for%20Councillors%20updated%2020%20June%202011.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"UK Census (2011). \"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Ward (as of 2011) (1237323045)\". Nomis. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 21 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_census","url_text":"UK Census"},{"url":"https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/localarea?compare=1237323045","url_text":"\"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Ward (as of 2011) (1237323045)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics_(United_Kingdom)","url_text":"Office for National Statistics"}]},{"reference":"\"Bream Wood SSSI\". Natural England. Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.natureonthemap.naturalengland.org.uk/map.aspx?map=sssi&feature=1002075,sssi,HYPERLINK,LABEL","url_text":"\"Bream Wood SSSI\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_England","url_text":"Natural England"}]},{"reference":"\"Rotherfield Millennium Green Trust\". Retrieved 1 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rotherfieldmillenniumgreen.co.uk/","url_text":"\"Rotherfield Millennium Green Trust\""}]},{"reference":"\"Villages awarded for community spirit\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/1694291.villages-awarded-for-community-spirit/","url_text":"\"Villages awarded for community spirit\""}]},{"reference":"Historic England. \"Details from listed building database (1028329)\". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 26 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1028329","url_text":"\"Details from listed building database (1028329)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"Historic England. \"Details from listed building database (1000265)\". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 26 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000265","url_text":"\"Details from listed building database (1000265)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"\"The Mark Cross village website\". Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.markcross.org.uk/","url_text":"\"The Mark Cross village website\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rotherfield Primary School website\". Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111028130234/http://school-portal.co.uk/Grouphomepage.asp?GroupId=394421","url_text":"\"Rotherfield Primary School website\""},{"url":"http://www.school-portal.co.uk/GroupHomepage.asp?GroupID=394421","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mark Cross Primary School website\". Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/educationandlearning/schools/primary/markcross8453331.htm","url_text":"\"Mark Cross Primary School website\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us\". Rotherfield St Martin. Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rotherfieldstmartin.org.uk/about-us","url_text":"\"About Us\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eridge Green Rocks\". Climb-Guide climbing wiki. Retrieved 2 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.climb-guide.com/guides/ssand/sscrags/eridge.htm","url_text":"\"Eridge Green Rocks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stage Door Drama\". Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stagedoordrama.org.uk/","url_text":"\"Stage Door Drama\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Rotherfield Players\". Retrieved 23 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rotherfieldplayers.co.uk/","url_text":"\"The Rotherfield Players\""}]},{"reference":"\"Twin towns\". www.eastsussex.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/community/local-information/towns-villages-local-land/twinning-towns","url_text":"\"Twin towns\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rotherfield¶ms=51.04601_N_0.21916_E_region:GB_type:city(3208)","external_links_name":"51°02′46″N 0°13′09″E / 51.04601°N 0.21916°E / 51.04601; 0.21916"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Rotherfield%22","external_links_name":"\"Rotherfield\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Rotherfield%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Rotherfield%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Rotherfield%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Rotherfield%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Rotherfield%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rotherfield¶ms=51.045564_N_0.218335_E_region:GB_scale:25000&title=Rotherfield","external_links_name":"TQ556297"},{"Link":"http://www.visionwebsites.co.uk/Contents/Text/Index.asp?SiteId=120&SiteExtra=15031299&TopNavId=242&NavSideId=1043","external_links_name":"Rotherfield Parish Council"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rotherfield¶ms=51.04601_N_0.21916_E_region:GB_type:city(3208)","external_links_name":"51°02′46″N 0°13′09″E / 51.04601°N 0.21916°E / 51.04601; 0.21916"},{"Link":"https://sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/","external_links_name":"https://sussexparishchurches.org/church/rotherfield-st-denys/"},{"Link":"http://www.eastsussexinfigures.org.uk/webview/","external_links_name":"\"East Sussex in Figures\""},{"Link":"https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/localarea?compare=1170213727","external_links_name":"\"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Parish (1170213727)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111001040543/http://www.yeoldesussexpages.com/history/placen2.htm","external_links_name":"\"History of Sussex – Some Place Names of Sussex\""},{"Link":"http://www.yeoldesussexpages.com/history/placen2.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=51245","external_links_name":"\"Ross – Rothwell\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060621214529/http://www.rotherfield-countryside.org.uk/location/history.html","external_links_name":"\"Rotherfield Countryside: history notes\""},{"Link":"http://www.rotherfield-countryside.org.uk/location/history.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120331065131/http://www.rotherfieldparishcouncil.co.uk/Core/Rotherfield-PC/UserFiles/Files/Reference%20information/Public%20Contact%20details%20for%20Councillors%20updated%2020%20June%202011.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Rotherfield Parish Council Members list\""},{"Link":"http://www.rotherfieldparishcouncil.co.uk/Core/Rotherfield-PC/UserFiles/Files/Reference%20information/Public%20Contact%20details%20for%20Councillors%20updated%2020%20June%202011.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/localarea?compare=1237323045","external_links_name":"\"Local Area Report – Rotherfield Ward (as of 2011) (1237323045)\""},{"Link":"http://www.natureonthemap.naturalengland.org.uk/map.aspx?map=sssi&feature=1002075,sssi,HYPERLINK,LABEL","external_links_name":"\"Bream Wood SSSI\""},{"Link":"http://www.rotherfieldmillenniumgreen.co.uk/","external_links_name":"\"Rotherfield Millennium Green Trust\""},{"Link":"https://www.theargus.co.uk/news/1694291.villages-awarded-for-community-spirit/","external_links_name":"\"Villages awarded for community spirit\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1028329","external_links_name":"\"Details from listed building database (1028329)\""},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1000265","external_links_name":"\"Details from listed building database (1000265)\""},{"Link":"http://www.markcross.org.uk/","external_links_name":"\"The Mark Cross village website\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111028130234/http://school-portal.co.uk/Grouphomepage.asp?GroupId=394421","external_links_name":"\"Rotherfield Primary School website\""},{"Link":"http://www.school-portal.co.uk/GroupHomepage.asp?GroupID=394421","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/educationandlearning/schools/primary/markcross8453331.htm","external_links_name":"\"Mark Cross Primary School website\""},{"Link":"http://www.rotherfieldstmartin.org.uk/about-us","external_links_name":"\"About Us\""},{"Link":"http://www.climb-guide.com/guides/ssand/sscrags/eridge.htm","external_links_name":"\"Eridge Green Rocks\""},{"Link":"http://www.stagedoordrama.org.uk/","external_links_name":"\"Stage Door Drama\""},{"Link":"http://www.rotherfieldplayers.co.uk/","external_links_name":"\"The Rotherfield Players\""},{"Link":"https://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/community/local-information/towns-villages-local-land/twinning-towns","external_links_name":"\"Twin towns\""},{"Link":"https://rotherfieldparishcouncil.co.uk/","external_links_name":"Rotherfield Parish Council"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007564295205171","external_links_name":"Israel"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Pr%C3%A9vadi%C3%A8s_Saint%E2%80%93Brieuc | Open Saint-Brieuc | ["1 Past finals","1.1 Singles","1.2 Doubles","2 External links"] | Tennis tournamentOpen Harmonie mutuelle 2023 Open Saint-BrieucATP Challenger TourEvent nameSaint-BrieucLocationSaint-Brieuc, FranceVenueSalle SteredennCategoryATP Challenger TourSurfaceRed clay (2004–2012)
Hard (indoor) (2013- current)Draw32S/24Q/16DPrize money€42,500+HWebsiteWebsiteCurrent champions (2022)Singles Jack DraperDoubles Sander Arends David Pel
2004 singles runner-up, doubles champion, Belgian Christophe Rochus eventually took the singles title in 2008Marc Gicquel is one of seven Frenchmen to have won the singles title in the tournament's twelve editions
The Saint-Brieuc Challenger (currently known as Open Harmonie mutuelle for sponsorship reasons) is a professional tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts. It is currently part of the ATP Challenger Tour. It is held annually in Saint-Brieuc, France, since 2004.
Past finals
Singles
Year
Champion
Runner-up
Score
2004
Olivier Mutis
Christophe Rochus
6–1, 4–6, 6–2
2005
Olivier Patience
Victor Ioniță
6–0, 6–2
2006
Marc Gicquel
Peter Wessels
6–3, 6–1
2007
Kristian Pless
Farrukh Dustov
6–3, 6–1
2008
Christophe Rochus
Marcel Granollers
6–2, 4–6, 6–1
2009
Josselin Ouanna
Adrian Mannarino
7–5, 1–6, 6–4
2010
Michał Przysiężny
Rubén Ramírez Hidalgo
4–6, 6–2, 6–3
2011
Maxime Teixeira
Benoît Paire
6–3, 6–0
2012
Grégoire Burquier
Augustin Gensse
7–5, 6–7(5–7), 7–6(7–3)
2013
Jesse Huta Galung
Kenny de Schepper
7–6 (7–4), 4–6, 7–6 (7–3)
2014
Andreas Beck
Grégoire Burquier
7–5, 6–3
2015
Nicolas Mahut
Yūichi Sugita
3–6, 7–6(7–3), 6–4
2016
Alexandre Sidorenko
Igor Sijsling
2–6, 6–3, 7–6(7–3)
2017
Egor Gerasimov
Tobias Kamke
7–6(7–3), 7–6(7–5)
2018
Ričardas Berankis
Constant Lestienne
6–2, 5–7, 6–4
2019
Kamil Majchrzak
Maxime Janvier
6–3, 7–6(7–1)
2020–2021
Not held
2022
Jack Draper
Zizou Bergs
6–2, 5–7, 6–4
2023
Ričardas Berankis
Dan Added
6–3, 6–7(3–7), 7–6(7–5)
Doubles
Year
Champions
Runners-up
Score
2004
Christophe Rochus Tom Vanhoudt
David Škoch Jiří Vaněk
6–0, 6–1
2005
Victor Ioniță Gabriel Moraru
Michal Mertiňák Daniel Vacek
6–1, 6–4
2006
Eric Butorac Chris Drake
Michael Lammer Stéphane Robert
6–4, 6–4
2007
Jean-Baptiste Perlant Xavier Pujo
Jean-Christophe Faurel Jérôme Haehnel
2–6, 6–2, 10–7
2008
Adrian Cruciat Daniel Muñoz de la Nava
Yu Xin-yuan Zeng Shao-Xuan
4–6, 6–4, 10–4
2009
David Martin Simon Stadler
Peter Luczak Joseph Sirianni
6–3, 6–2
2010
Uladzimir Ignatik David Marrero
Brian Battistone Ryler DeHeart
4–6, 6–4,
2011
Tomasz Bednarek Andreas Siljeström
Grégoire Burquier Romain Jouan
6–4, 6–7(4–7),
2012
Laurynas Grigelis Rameez Junaid
Stéphane Robert Laurent Rochette
1–6, 6–2,
2013
Tomasz Bednarek Andreas Siljeström
Jesse Huta Galung Konstantin Kravchuk
6–3, 4–6,
2014
Dominik Meffert Tim Pütz
Victor Baluda Philipp Marx
6–4, 6–3
2015
Grégoire Burquier Alexandre Sidorenko
Andriej Kapaś Yasutaka Uchiyama
6–3, 6–4
2016
Rameez Junaid Andreas Siljeström
James Cerretani Antal van der Duim
5–7, 7–6(7–4),
2017
Andre Begemann Frederik Nielsen
David O'Hare Joe Salisbury
6–3, 6–4
2018
Sander Arends Tristan-Samuel Weissborn
Luke Bambridge Joe Salisbury
4–6, 6–1,
2019
Jonathan Erlich Fabrice Martin
Jonathan Eysseric Antonio Šančić
7–6(7–2), 7–6(7–2)
2020–2021
Not held
2022
Sander Arends David Pel
Jonathan Eysseric Robin Haase
6–3, 6–3
2023
Dan Added Albano Olivetti
Patrik Niklas-Salminen Bart Stevens
4–6, 7–6(9–7),
External links
Official website
ITF Search
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Punta del Este | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChristopheRochusStuttgart06.jpg"},{"link_name":"Belgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Christophe Rochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_Rochus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MG1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marc Gicquel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Gicquel"},{"link_name":"Frenchmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis"},{"link_name":"hard courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_court"},{"link_name":"ATP Challenger Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_Challenger_Tour"},{"link_name":"Saint-Brieuc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Brieuc"}],"text":"2004 singles runner-up, doubles champion, Belgian Christophe Rochus eventually took the singles title in 2008Marc Gicquel is one of seven Frenchmen to have won the singles title in the tournament's twelve editionsThe Saint-Brieuc Challenger (currently known as Open Harmonie mutuelle for sponsorship reasons) is a professional tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts. It is currently part of the ATP Challenger Tour. It is held annually in Saint-Brieuc, France, since 2004.","title":"Open Saint-Brieuc"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Past finals"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Singles","title":"Past finals"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Doubles","title":"Past finals"}] | [{"image_text":"2004 singles runner-up, doubles champion, Belgian Christophe Rochus eventually took the singles title in 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ChristopheRochusStuttgart06.jpg/200px-ChristopheRochusStuttgart06.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marc Gicquel is one of seven Frenchmen to have won the singles title in the tournament's twelve editions","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/MG1.jpg/200px-MG1.jpg"}] | null | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.opensaintbrieuc.com/","external_links_name":"Website"},{"Link":"http://www.opensaintbrieuc.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.itftennis.com/mens/tournaments/tournamentSearch.asp","external_links_name":"ITF Search"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Sollmann | Wilhelm Sollmann | ["1 Life","1.1 Early life in the German Empire","1.2 German Revolution and Weimar Republic","1.3 Germany 1933 and emigration","1.4 In America","2 Works","3 References","4 External links"] | German journalist and politician (1881–1951)
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Wilhelm SollmannWilhelm Sollmann in 1923Reich Minister of the InteriorIn office13 August 1923 – 3 November 1923ChancellorGustav StresemannPreceded byRudolf OeserSucceeded byKarl JarresMember of the ReichstagIn office1920–1933ConstituencyKöln-AachenMember of the Weimar National AssemblyIn office6 February 1919 – 21 May 1920ConstituencyKöln-Aachen
Personal detailsBorn(1881-04-01)1 April 1881Saxe-Meiningen, German EmpireDied6 January 1951(1951-01-06) (aged 69)Hamden, Connecticut, U.S.Political partySocial Democratic PartyProfessionJournalist and politician
Right: Statue of Wilhelm Sollmann at the city hall tower of Cologne, Germany
Friedrich Wilhelm Sollmann, later William Frederick Sollmann (1 April 1881 – 6 January 1951) was a German journalist, politician, and interior minister of the Weimar Republic. In 1919, he was on the staff of the German delegation that was to receive the Treaty of Versailles. In 1933, he emigrated and eventually moved to the United States where he became an advocate for the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
Life
Early life in the German Empire
Wilhelm Sollmann was born on 2 April 1881 in Oberlind , Saxe-Meiningen (today a part of Sonneberg, Thuringia). His father was Johan Jakob Sollmann, a brewer and farmer in Oberlind and after 1889 tenant of the Ratskeller at Coburg. His mother was Christiane Sollmann, inn keeper. After the move to Coburg, Wilhelm attended the Casimirianum gymnasium from 1891 to 1897, when he had to leave due to the family's financial difficulties. That year, his family moved to Cologne. There, he began work as an apprentice (kaufmännische Lehre). From 1901-11 he worked as a Handlungsgehilfe whilst attending night school at the Handelshochschule Köln. Originally rooted in Lutheran Christianity, he was a member of the Internationaler Guttempler-Orden and the CVJM. However, in 1902 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and in 1907 co-founded the Workers' Youth at Cologne. He was also active in the temperance movement and was chairman of the Arbeiter-Abstinenzbewegung (workers' temperance movement, 1906–10). He was also a member of the Angestelltengwerkschaft (white-collar workers' union). In 1906, Sollmann married Anna Katharina (Käthe, Kate) née Grümmer (born 1883, died before 1975). They had one daughter, Elfriede (1912–97). In 1908, Sollmann became a Freidenker.
In 1911, Sollmann became editor of the socialdemocratic newspaper Fränkischer Volksfreund at Würzburg, but soon returned to Cologne where he became editor (1912) and later editor-in-chief (1920–33) of the Rheinische Zeitung. During World War I, Sollmann was the chairman of the socialdemocratic union (Verein) of Cologne.
German Revolution and Weimar Republic
During the German Revolution of 1918 he played a key role in the workers' and soldiers' council of Cologne. From 1918-24, Sollmann was a member of the Cologne municipal parliament (Stadtverordneter). In 1919, he was elected to the Weimar National Assembly and held his seat until the new elections to the Reichstag in 1920. Working closely with Konrad Adenauer, whom he later described as "a personal friend and political enemy", Sollmann helped turn the Handelshochschule into the University of Cologne in 1919. He rejected an honorific doctorate in 1919 (and again in 1928) for personal reasons.
In 1919, Sollmann also was a staff member of the German delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in Versailles, where he served as an expert on problems of the Rheinland occupation. He was a member of the Reichstag from 1920 until 1933. In 1921, he initiated the establishment of the Sozialdemokratischer Parlamentsdienst (after 1924: Sozialdemokratischer Pressedienst), a political news service. From 13 August 1923 until his resignation on 3 November, he served as Reichsminister des Innern (Reich Minister of the Interior) in the cabinets of Gustav Stresemann.
In parliament, he served as a member of the Committee for Foreign Affairs, and as an expert on disarmament and adult education.
Germany 1933 and emigration
In 1933, he was elected to the executive board of the SPD and as such persecuted by the Nazis after the Machtergreifung. On 9 March, he was taken into Schutzhaft ("protective custody") and tortured. After being released, he fled in May via Luxembourg to the occupied Saar. There he briefly worked as the editor-in-chief of the socialdemocratic Volskstimme. After the referendum he returned to Luxembourg, in 1936 went on to the United Kingdom and in 1937 emigrated to the United States.
In America
In the U.S., Sollmann worked as a writer, speaker, radio announcer and faculty member (1937–1950) of the Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation, a Quaker study center located in Wallingford, Pennsylvania.
In the next years, Sollmann travelled through most of the United States, giving lectures on world affairs. He became a visiting professor of international affairs at Haverford, Bard, and Reed Colleges.
Having lost his German citizenship in 1936, in 1943 he was naturalized and changed his name to William Frederick Sollmann. That year, he also became a Quaker.
A member of the SPD's right wing, in exile he was one of the leading proponents of the volkssozialistische Richtung within the party. At the request of the American Friends Service Committee, a Quaker organization, Sollmann briefly visited occupied Germany in 1948, where he held speeches and radio addresses. On another visit the following year he served as visiting professor at the University of Cologne. In 1949/50, the U.S. government consulted him on setting up a new German Civil Liberties Union (Bund für Bürgerrechte) and he worked for the Allied High Commission, but he had to return to the United States due to the onset of illness. During his visits, he met with politicians like Adenauer and Kurt Schumacher and also was Adenauer's guest of honour at the inaugural meeting of the Deutscher Bundestag. Sollmann was co-founder of the Carl Schurz-Gesellschaft, member of the Verbands deutscher Journalisten im Ausland and of the Legion for American Unity.
On 6 January 1951, Sollmann died in Mount Carmel, Connecticut.
A street in Cologne is named after him.
Works
"Zum Ausbau unserer sozialistischen Jugendbewegung", in: Die Neue Zeit, Wochenschrift der deutschen Sozialdemokratie, 1911
Der Kölner Polizeiprozeß vom 7. – 17. 1. 1914, 1914
"Ernährungsbeirat von Frauen", in: Die Gleichheit 26, 1916
Die Revolution in Köln, 1918
Sozialismus der Tat, 1925
"Untergang Amerikas", in: Studierstube 23, 1927
"Antwort an Josef Wirth, Wahlrecht und Parteien", in: Deutsche Republik 3, 1929
Presse und Kommunalverwaltung, in: Vorträge und Abhandlungen internationaler Institute (Köln), R. 11, 1930
"Jugend und Partei", in: Neue Blätter für den Sozialismus 2, 1931
Alkohol und öffentliche Meinung, in: Alkoholismus, Gesundheitspolitik, Gesundheitswirtschaft, 1931
"Schankstätten und Sozialhygiene", in: Zeitschrift für Gesundheitsverwaltung und Gesundheitsfürsorge 1, 1932
Der politische Antisemitismus, in: Gegen die Phrase vom jüdischen Schädling, 1933
"Sozialistische Machtpolitik", in: Zeitschrift für Sozialismus 2, 1935, pp. 758–65
Religion and Politics, 1941
German Labour, Hitler's Nemesis, in: Peace Aim Leaflets 1, 1943
Educational Reconstruction in Germany, in: Schoolmen's Week Proceedings, 1944
Zwischen Krieg und Frieden, 1948
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j "Biografie Friedrich Wilhem Sollmann (German)". Bayerische Nationalbibliothek. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
^ "Akten der Reichskanzlei: Biografie Friedrich Wilhem Sollmann (German)". Bundesarchiv. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
External links
Wilhelm Sollmann papers at the Swarthmore College Peace Collection Archived 17 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
vteInterior Ministers of Germany German Empire (1871–1918)
Karl Hofmann
Karl Heinrich von Boetticher
Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner
Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg
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Karl Helfferich
Max Wallraf
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Weimar Republic (1918–33)
Friedrich Ebert
Hugo Preuß
Eduard David
Erich Koch-Weser
Georg Gradnauer
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Rudolf Oeser
Wilhelm Sollmann
Karl Jarres
Martin Schiele
Otto Geßler
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Wilhelm Groener
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vteFirst Stresemann cabinet – 13 August 1923 to 3 October 1923
Gustav Stresemann (Reichskanzler, DVP)
Robert Schmidt (Deputy, SPD)
Heinrich Brauns (Zentrum)
Johannes Fuchs (-)
Otto Gessler (DDP)
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Anton Höfle (Zentrum)
Hans Luther (-)
Rudolf Oeser (DDP)
Gustav Radbruch (SPD)
Hans von Raumer (DVP)
Wilhelm Sollmann (SPD)
vteSecond Stresemann cabinet – 6 October 1923 to 23 November 1923
Gustav Stresemann (Reichskanzler, DVP)
Heinrich Brauns (Zentrum)
Johannes Fuchs (-)
Otto Gessler (DDP)
Anton Höfle (Zentrum)
Karl Jarres (DVP)
Gerhard von Kanitz (-)
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rathausturm_K%C3%B6ln_-_Haubrich_-_Sollmann_(5934-36).jpg"},{"link_name":"Weimar Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"}],"text":"Right: Statue of Wilhelm Sollmann at the city hall tower of Cologne, GermanyFriedrich Wilhelm Sollmann, later William Frederick Sollmann (1 April 1881 – 6 January 1951) was a German journalist, politician, and interior minister of the Weimar Republic. In 1919, he was on the staff of the German delegation that was to receive the Treaty of Versailles. In 1933, he emigrated and eventually moved to the United States where he became an advocate for the peaceful resolution of conflicts.","title":"Wilhelm Sollmann"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oberlind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oberlind&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberlind_(Sonneberg)"},{"link_name":"Saxe-Meiningen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe-Meiningen"},{"link_name":"Sonneberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonneberg"},{"link_name":"Thuringia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuringia"},{"link_name":"Coburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coburg,_Germany"},{"link_name":"gymnasium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"Internationaler Guttempler-Orden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organisation_of_Good_Templars"},{"link_name":"CVJM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"temperance movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperance_movement"},{"link_name":"Freidenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freethought"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"Würzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg"},{"link_name":"Rheinische Zeitung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinische_Zeitung"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"}],"sub_title":"Early life in the German Empire","text":"Wilhelm Sollmann was born on 2 April 1881 in Oberlind [de], Saxe-Meiningen (today a part of Sonneberg, Thuringia). His father was Johan Jakob Sollmann, a brewer and farmer in Oberlind and after 1889 tenant of the Ratskeller at Coburg. His mother was Christiane Sollmann, inn keeper. After the move to Coburg, Wilhelm attended the Casimirianum gymnasium from 1891 to 1897, when he had to leave due to the family's financial difficulties. That year, his family moved to Cologne. There, he began work as an apprentice (kaufmännische Lehre). From 1901-11 he worked as a Handlungsgehilfe whilst attending night school at the Handelshochschule Köln. Originally rooted in Lutheran Christianity, he was a member of the Internationaler Guttempler-Orden and the CVJM. However, in 1902 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and in 1907 co-founded the Workers' Youth at Cologne. He was also active in the temperance movement and was chairman of the Arbeiter-Abstinenzbewegung (workers' temperance movement, 1906–10). He was also a member of the Angestelltengwerkschaft (white-collar workers' union). In 1906, Sollmann married Anna Katharina (Käthe, Kate) née Grümmer (born 1883, died before 1975). They had one daughter, Elfriede (1912–97). In 1908, Sollmann became a Freidenker.[1]In 1911, Sollmann became editor of the socialdemocratic newspaper Fränkischer Volksfreund at Würzburg, but soon returned to Cologne where he became editor (1912) and later editor-in-chief (1920–33) of the Rheinische Zeitung. During World War I, Sollmann was the chairman of the socialdemocratic union (Verein) of Cologne.[1]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918-19"},{"link_name":"workers' and soldiers' council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_workers%27_and_soldiers%27_councils_1918%E2%80%931919"},{"link_name":"Weimar National Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Konrad Adenauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer"},{"link_name":"University of Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cologne"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"Paris Peace Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919"},{"link_name":"Reichstag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(Weimar_Republic)"},{"link_name":"Gustav Stresemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Stresemann"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"German Revolution and Weimar Republic","text":"During the German Revolution of 1918 he played a key role in the workers' and soldiers' council of Cologne. From 1918-24, Sollmann was a member of the Cologne municipal parliament (Stadtverordneter). In 1919, he was elected to the Weimar National Assembly and held his seat until the new elections to the Reichstag in 1920. Working closely with Konrad Adenauer, whom he later described as \"a personal friend and political enemy\", Sollmann helped turn the Handelshochschule into the University of Cologne in 1919. He rejected an honorific doctorate in 1919 (and again in 1928) for personal reasons.[1]In 1919, Sollmann also was a staff member of the German delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in Versailles, where he served as an expert on problems of the Rheinland occupation. He was a member of the Reichstag from 1920 until 1933. In 1921, he initiated the establishment of the Sozialdemokratischer Parlamentsdienst (after 1924: Sozialdemokratischer Pressedienst), a political news service. From 13 August 1923 until his resignation on 3 November, he served as Reichsminister des Innern (Reich Minister of the Interior) in the cabinets of Gustav Stresemann.[1]In parliament, he served as a member of the Committee for Foreign Affairs, and as an expert on disarmament and adult education.[citation needed]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Machtergreifung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machtergreifung"},{"link_name":"occupied Saar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar_(League_of_Nations)"},{"link_name":"referendum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935_Saar_status_referendum"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"}],"sub_title":"Germany 1933 and emigration","text":"In 1933, he was elected to the executive board of the SPD and as such persecuted by the Nazis after the Machtergreifung. On 9 March, he was taken into Schutzhaft (\"protective custody\") and tortured. After being released, he fled in May via Luxembourg to the occupied Saar. There he briefly worked as the editor-in-chief of the socialdemocratic Volskstimme. After the referendum he returned to Luxembourg, in 1936 went on to the United Kingdom and in 1937 emigrated to the United States.[1]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendle_Hill_Quaker_Center_for_Study_and_Contemplation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"Haverford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haverford_College"},{"link_name":"Bard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_College"},{"link_name":"Reed Colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_college"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"American Friends Service Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee"},{"link_name":"Allied High Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_High_Commission"},{"link_name":"Kurt Schumacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Schumacher"},{"link_name":"Deutscher Bundestag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Bundestag"},{"link_name":"Carl Schurz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Schurz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio2-2"},{"link_name":"Mount Carmel, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Carmel,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bio-1"}],"sub_title":"In America","text":"In the U.S., Sollmann worked as a writer, speaker, radio announcer and faculty member (1937–1950) of the Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation, a Quaker study center located in Wallingford, Pennsylvania.[1]In the next years, Sollmann travelled through most of the United States, giving lectures on world affairs. He became a visiting professor of international affairs at Haverford, Bard, and Reed Colleges.[citation needed]Having lost his German citizenship in 1936, in 1943 he was naturalized and changed his name to William Frederick Sollmann. That year, he also became a Quaker.[1]A member of the SPD's right wing, in exile he was one of the leading proponents of the volkssozialistische Richtung within the party. At the request of the American Friends Service Committee, a Quaker organization, Sollmann briefly visited occupied Germany in 1948, where he held speeches and radio addresses. On another visit the following year he served as visiting professor at the University of Cologne. In 1949/50, the U.S. government consulted him on setting up a new German Civil Liberties Union (Bund für Bürgerrechte) and he worked for the Allied High Commission, but he had to return to the United States due to the onset of illness. 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Sollmann was co-founder of the Carl Schurz-Gesellschaft, member of the Verbands deutscher Journalisten im Ausland and of the Legion for American Unity.[1][2]On 6 January 1951, Sollmann died in Mount Carmel, Connecticut.[1]A street in Cologne is named after him.[1]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"\"Zum Ausbau unserer sozialistischen Jugendbewegung\", in: Die Neue Zeit, Wochenschrift der deutschen Sozialdemokratie, 1911\nDer Kölner Polizeiprozeß vom 7. – 17. 1. 1914, 1914\n\"Ernährungsbeirat von Frauen\", in: Die Gleichheit 26, 1916\nDie Revolution in Köln, 1918\nSozialismus der Tat, 1925\n\"Untergang Amerikas\", in: Studierstube 23, 1927\n\"Antwort an Josef Wirth, Wahlrecht und Parteien\", in: Deutsche Republik 3, 1929\nPresse und Kommunalverwaltung, in: Vorträge und Abhandlungen internationaler Institute (Köln), R. 11, 1930\n\"Jugend und Partei\", in: Neue Blätter für den Sozialismus 2, 1931\nAlkohol und öffentliche Meinung, in: Alkoholismus, Gesundheitspolitik, Gesundheitswirtschaft, 1931\n\"Schankstätten und Sozialhygiene\", in: Zeitschrift für Gesundheitsverwaltung und Gesundheitsfürsorge 1, 1932\nDer politische Antisemitismus, in: Gegen die Phrase vom jüdischen Schädling, 1933\n\"Sozialistische Machtpolitik\", in: Zeitschrift für Sozialismus 2, 1935, pp. 758–65\nReligion and Politics, 1941\nGerman Labour, Hitler's Nemesis, in: Peace Aim Leaflets 1, 1943\nEducational Reconstruction in Germany, in: Schoolmen's Week Proceedings, 1944\nZwischen Krieg und Frieden, 1948","title":"Works"}] | [{"image_text":"Right: Statue of Wilhelm Sollmann at the city hall tower of Cologne, Germany","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Rathausturm_K%C3%B6ln_-_Haubrich_-_Sollmann_%285934-36%29.jpg/220px-Rathausturm_K%C3%B6ln_-_Haubrich_-_Sollmann_%285934-36%29.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Biografie Friedrich Wilhem Sollmann (German)\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyn_Headley | Gwyn Headley | ["1 Education and early life","2 Business","3 Mah-Jong","4 Follies","5 Typography","6 Blogs","7 Ffordd Pen Llech","8 Personal life","9 Books","10 Magazines","11 Knowledge Cards","12 Ebooks","13 Apps","14 References","15 External links"] | British businessman (born 1946)
Gwyn Headley (born 1946 in Harlech) is a British historian and writer.
Education and early life
As a child Headley lived in Accra, Gold Coast (now Ghana); Krumpendorf, Austria; Berlin, Germany; Warsaw, Poland; Westmalle, Belgium and Paris, France before his family settled in Chelsea in 1959. He was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, Hertford, Westminster City School, London, and at Saint Martin's School of Art, London.
Living in Chelsea in the 1960s, he formed The Sloane Squares, a beat group which played many venues across the capital, supporting John Lee Hooker, Jimi Hendrix, Pink Floyd, the Small Faces, Eric Clapton, Peter Frampton and others. Lead singer Pete Gage later became the front man for Dr. Feelgood.
He now lives in London and Harlech.
Business
He began work in book publishing in 1967 at George Newnes and started his first consultancy Headley Hesketh Associates in 1976. This evolved into HPR, a publishing and theatre marketing consultancy which promoted several West End hits and had nine No. 1 best-sellers, including The Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady.
In 1991 with Keith Price he launched Pavilions of Splendour Ltd, the first estate agency to deal exclusively in listed buildings, and which in 1993 became the first UK estate agency to have a website. The agency closed after Keith Price died in 2004.
In 2002 HPR was taken over by fotoLibra. the first open access, entirely digital picture library was created by Headley in 2002 and launched in 2004. A digital publishing company within the group, Heritage Ebooks, was launched in 2011 with forty titles.
Mah-Jong
Headley is President of the British Mah-Jong Association. With Yvonne Seeley he wrote Know The Game: Mah-Jong in 1977. The book has sold over 500,000 copies and is the standard rule book for the game in Britain and the Commonwealth.
Follies
An enthusiast of eccentric architecture since childhood, his first book on follies, written with Dutch art historian Wim Meulenkamp, was published for the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty by Jonathan Cape in 1986. The publication of the book led to the foundation of the amenity society and charity The Folly Fellowship, of which Headley was President. He has since written and co-written five further printed books on the subject, and forty ebooks. He describes a folly as 'a misunderstood building', and elaborates on this in an introduction: "Ideally, should be a big, Gothick, ostentatious, over-ambitious and useless structure, preferably with a wildly improbable local legend attached – but in real life it must be admitted that follies defy even such broad definitions. That's half the pleasure of the things: if they could be categorised and catalogued and pinned down like specimen butterflies we would lose that frisson of excitement and mystery when another unidentified ghostly grey ruin looms up out of a wet wood. A folly is essentially a misunderstood building, because folly can only lie in the eye of the beholder."
Typography
Headley's first essay on typography, Fabulous Fonts, was published by Pomegranate in 2001. Cassell Illustrated published his Encyclopaedia of Fonts in 2005. The author blurb described him as follows: "Gwyn Headley’s comfortably blurred memories of the 1960s include failing to become a rock star (despite playing with Hendrix, Clapton, Pink Floyd, the Small Faces, John Lee Hooker and others) and instead discovering a passion for typography at St. Martin’s School of Art in London’s Charing Cross Road. He has somehow combined a lifetime in publishing with writing books on architecture, follies, fonts and Mah-Jong; selling listed buildings; and founding fotoLibra.com, the world’s first entirely digital picture library. He has spent six months of his life at the Frankfurt Book Fair and to his eternal regret has never scored a try for Llanelli or Wales."
Blogs
Headley currently writes two blogs, the fotoLibra Pro BlogfotoLibra Pro Blog, which deals with photography, image sales and digital publishing, and fotoLibrarianFrom Harlech to London, his personal blog which concentrates on his interests, hobbies and opinions. The latter is notable for its typically British self-deprecating autobiography: "Gwyn describes himself as enthusiastic, lazy, persistent, creative, fat, well-educated, pedantic, polite, greedy, gentle, prejudiced, kind, unreliable, well-meaning, curious, shy, gregarious, snobbish, confident, cowardly, optimistic, comfortable, irritable, at ease, nervous, thirsty, tired, willing, competent, unselfconscious, spry, hard-working, querulous, prolix and cheerful. His favourite word is Sharawaggi, he would like his double helix to combine musicality and common sense, he has a huge vocabulary in several languages and no grammar in any. He enjoys drinking, eating, women, reading, writing, urban walking, typefaces, architecture, guitars, rugby, cricket, F1, Wales, London, the USA and Europe. He dislikes ‘features’, ‘slebrities’ and ‘communities’. He describes enjoyment as a two-bottle lunch with an old friend. He is married, with a tortoise, two mogs and a Golden Retriever."
Ffordd Pen Llech
In 2019 Headley led the successful campaign to get Ffordd Pen Llech in his hometown of Harlech, North West Wales, recognised by Guinness World Records as the steepest street in the world.
Personal life
He married Yvonne Seeley in 2008 at St John's Chapel in the Tower of London.
Books
Know The Game: Mah-Jong with Yvonne Seeley (1977) originally published by EP Publishing, Wakefield, now by A & C Black, ISBN 978-0-7136-8951-8.
Follies: A National Trust Guide with Wim Meulenkamp (1986), Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-224-02105-2.
Follies: A Guide to Rogue Architecture with Wim Meulenkamp (1990), Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-224-02790-5.
Architectural Follies in America (1996), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-14362-6.
London Sight Unseen with Lord Snowdon (1999), Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-82490-2.
Follies Grottoes and Garden Buildings with Wim Meulenkamp (1999), Aurum Press, ISBN 1-85410-625-2.
The Encyclopaedia of Fonts(2005), Cassell Illustrated, ISBN 1-84403-206-X.
Follies: Fabulous, Fanciful and Frivolous Buildings (2012), National Trust, ISBN 978-1-907892-30-1.
Magazines
Follies: The International Magazine for Follies, Grottoes and Garden Buildings, Editor, 1987–95.
Executive Excellence Europe, Editor, 1996–99.
Knowledge Cards
An Architectural Vocabulary, (2000) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-1120-1.
Fabulous Fonts, (2001) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-1749-8.
What Happened Here? England, (2002) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-2796-5.
Cockney Rhyming Slang, (2003) Pomegranate, ISBN 978-0-7649-2138-4.
What Happened Here? London, (2004) Pomegranate, ISBN 978-0-7649-2381-4.
Ebooks
’’Follies of Bath, Bristol & Avon’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-01-3
’’Follies of Bedfordshire & Cambridgeshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-02-0
’’Follies of Berkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-03-7
’’Follies of Buckinghamshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-04-4
’’Follies of Cheshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-05-1
’’Follies of Cornwall’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-00-6
’’Follies of Derbyshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-07-5
’’Follies of Cumbria’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-06-8
’’Follies of Devon’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-08-2
’’Follies of Dorset’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-09-9
’’Follies of County Durham’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-10-5
’’Follies of East Sussex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-11-2
’’Follies of Essex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-12-9
’’Follies of Gloucestershire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-13-6
’’Follies of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-14-3
’’Follies of Herefordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-15-0
’’Follies of Hertfordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-16-7
’’Follies of Kent’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-17-4
’’Follies of Lancashire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-18-1
’’Follies of Leicestershire & Rutland’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-19-8
’’Follies of Lincolnshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-20-4
’’Follies of Liverpool and Manchester’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-21-1
’’Follies of London’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-22-8
’’Follies of Norfolk’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-23-5
’’Follies of North & East Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-24-2
’’Follies of Northamptonshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-25-9
’’Follies of Northumberland’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-26-6
’’Follies of Nottinghamshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-27-3
’’Follies of Oxfordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-28-0
’’Follies of Shropshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-29-7
’’Follies of Somerset’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-30-3
’’Follies of South Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-31-0
’’Follies of Staffordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-32-7
’’Follies of Suffolk’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-33-4
’’Follies of Surrey’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-34-1
’’Follies of Warwickshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-35-8
’’Follies of West Sussex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-36-5
’’Follies of West Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-37-2
’’Follies of Wiltshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-38-9
’’Follies of Worcestershire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-39-6
Apps
Aaron's Time Machine: London, with Neil Smith (2010).
References
^ Chaplain's son leads beat group, Chelsea News, 26 March 1965
^ Warsaw tact, The Bookseller, 21 September 1990
^ Agency's aim is pure folly, Sunday Times, 8 November 1992
^ A man who takes folly seriously, The Daily Telegraph, 7 December 1994
^ … AND THE UGLY, Daily Telegraph, 14 October 1995
^ Finding fault is his folly, Daily Telegraph, 4 October 1997
^ Extreme living, Financial Times, 27 July 2008
^ Khan, Basheera (9 June 2004). "fotoLibra gets it picture perfect". i.t.wales. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012.
^ Headley, Gwyn (2008). Mah-Jong. London: A & C Black. ISBN 9780713689518.
^ Headley, Gwyn (1986). Follies: A National Trust Guide. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0224021052.
^ RIP the great English eccentric, Daily Telegraph, 16 June 1986
^ Where ignorance is pretty, The Times, 19 June 1986
^ The glorious folly of a useless tower, The Independent, 17 March 1990
^ Ostentatious, over-ambitious, useless … and irreplaceable, The Observer, 12 July 1992
^ Jolly good follies … Evening Standard, 28 February 1989
^ "A Life of Folly". The Dabbler. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
^ Bloxham, Andy (27 December 2011). "Britain's follies must be saved for posterity, says historian". Retrieved 2 August 2019 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
^ Planet, Lonely. "Welsh town of Harlech wins world's steepest street title". Lonely Planet News. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
^ Headley, Gwyn (1990). Follies: A Guide to Rogue Architecture. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0224027905.
^ Headley, Gwyn (1996). Architectural Follies in America. New York City: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471143626.
^ Headley, Gwyn (1999). London Sight Unseen. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0297824902.
^ Headley, Gwyn (1999). Follies Grottoes and Garden Buildings. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 1854106252.
^ Headley, Gwyn (2005). The Encyclopaedia of Fonts. London: Cassell Illustrated. ISBN 184403206X.
^ Headley, Gwyn (2012). Follies: Fabulous, Fanciful and Frivolous Buildings. London: National Trust. ISBN 9781907892301.
^ "Aaron's Apps". Retrieved 2 August 2019.
External links
fotoLibra.com Archived 15 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Heritage Ebooks
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Israel
United States
Netherlands
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harlech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlech"}],"text":"Gwyn Headley (born 1946 in Harlech) is a British historian and writer.","title":"Gwyn Headley"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Haileybury and Imperial Service College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haileybury_and_Imperial_Service_College"},{"link_name":"Westminster City School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_City_School"},{"link_name":"Saint Martin's School of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Martin%27s_School_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"John Lee Hooker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lee_Hooker"},{"link_name":"Jimi Hendrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"Small Faces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Faces"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton"},{"link_name":"Peter Frampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Frampton"},{"link_name":"Pete Gage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Gage_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Dr. Feelgood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Feelgood_(band)"}],"text":"As a child Headley lived in Accra, Gold Coast (now Ghana); Krumpendorf, Austria; Berlin, Germany; Warsaw, Poland; Westmalle, Belgium and Paris, France before his family settled in Chelsea in 1959. He was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, Hertford, Westminster City School, London, and at Saint Martin's School of Art, London.Living in Chelsea in the 1960s, he formed The Sloane Squares,[1] a beat group which played many venues across the capital, supporting John Lee Hooker, Jimi Hendrix, Pink Floyd, the Small Faces, Eric Clapton, Peter Frampton and others. Lead singer Pete Gage later became the front man for Dr. Feelgood.He now lives in London and Harlech.","title":"Education and early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Newnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Newnes_Ltd"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"The Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Country_Diary_of_an_Edwardian_Lady"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"fotoLibra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FotoLibra"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-news:picture_perfect-8"}],"text":"He began work in book publishing in 1967 at George Newnes and started his first consultancy Headley Hesketh Associates in 1976. This evolved into HPR,[2] a publishing and theatre marketing consultancy which promoted several West End hits and had nine No. 1 best-sellers, including The Country Diary of an Edwardian Lady. \nIn 1991 with Keith Price he launched Pavilions of Splendour Ltd,[3][4][5][6] the first estate agency to deal exclusively in listed buildings,[7] and which in 1993 became the first UK estate agency to have a website. The agency closed after Keith Price died in 2004.In 2002 HPR was taken over by fotoLibra.[8] the first open access, entirely digital picture library was created by Headley in 2002 and launched in 2004. A digital publishing company within the group, Heritage Ebooks, was launched in 2011 with forty titles.","title":"Business"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Headley is President of the British Mah-Jong Association. With Yvonne Seeley he wrote Know The Game: Mah-Jong [9] in 1977. The book has sold over 500,000 copies and is the standard rule book for the game in Britain and the Commonwealth.","title":"Mah-Jong"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Wim Meulenkamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wim_Meulenkamp"},{"link_name":"National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Cape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Cape"},{"link_name":"Folly Fellowship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folly_Fellowship"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"An enthusiast of eccentric architecture since childhood, his first book on follies,[10][11][12] written with Dutch art historian Wim Meulenkamp, was published for the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty by Jonathan Cape in 1986. The publication of the book led to the foundation of the amenity society and charity The Folly Fellowship,[13][14] of which Headley was President.[15] He has since written and co-written five further printed books on the subject, and forty ebooks.[16][17] He describes a folly as 'a misunderstood building', and elaborates on this in an introduction: \"Ideally, [a folly] should be a big, Gothick, ostentatious, over-ambitious and useless structure, preferably with a wildly improbable local legend attached – but in real life it must be admitted that follies defy even such broad definitions. That's half the pleasure of the things: if they could be categorised and catalogued and pinned down like specimen butterflies we would lose that frisson of excitement and mystery when another unidentified ghostly grey ruin looms up out of a wet wood. A folly is essentially a misunderstood building, because folly can only lie in the eye of the beholder.\"","title":"Follies"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Headley's first essay on typography, Fabulous Fonts, was published by Pomegranate in 2001. Cassell Illustrated published his Encyclopaedia of Fonts in 2005. The author blurb described him as follows: \"Gwyn Headley’s comfortably blurred memories of the 1960s include failing to become a rock star (despite playing with Hendrix, Clapton, Pink Floyd, the Small Faces, John Lee Hooker and others) and instead discovering a passion for typography at St. Martin’s School of Art in London’s Charing Cross Road. He has somehow combined a lifetime in publishing with writing books on architecture, follies, fonts and Mah-Jong; selling listed buildings; and founding fotoLibra.com, the world’s first entirely digital picture library. He has spent six months of his life at the Frankfurt Book Fair and to his eternal regret has never scored a try for Llanelli or Wales.\"","title":"Typography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fotoLibra Pro Blog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//blog.fotolibra.com/"},{"link_name":"fotoLibrarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//fotolibrarian.fotolibra.com/"}],"text":"Headley currently writes two blogs, the fotoLibra Pro BlogfotoLibra Pro Blog, which deals with photography, image sales and digital publishing, and fotoLibrarianFrom Harlech to London, his personal blog which concentrates on his interests, hobbies and opinions. The latter is notable for its typically British self-deprecating autobiography: \"Gwyn describes himself as enthusiastic, lazy, persistent, creative, fat, well-educated, pedantic, polite, greedy, gentle, prejudiced, kind, unreliable, well-meaning, curious, shy, gregarious, snobbish, confident, cowardly, optimistic, comfortable, irritable, at ease, nervous, thirsty, tired, willing, competent, unselfconscious, spry, hard-working, querulous, prolix and cheerful. His favourite word is Sharawaggi, he would like his double helix to combine musicality and common sense, he has a huge vocabulary in several languages and no grammar in any. He enjoys drinking, eating, women, reading, writing, urban walking, typefaces, architecture, guitars, rugby, cricket, F1, Wales, London, the USA and Europe. He dislikes ‘features’, ‘slebrities’ and ‘communities’. He describes enjoyment as a two-bottle lunch with an old friend. He is married, with a tortoise, two mogs and a Golden Retriever.\"","title":"Blogs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ffordd Pen Llech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffordd_Pen_Llech"},{"link_name":"Harlech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlech"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Records"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"In 2019 Headley led the successful campaign to get Ffordd Pen Llech in his hometown of Harlech, North West Wales, recognised by Guinness World Records as [18] the steepest street in the world.","title":"Ffordd Pen Llech"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St John's Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Chapel,_London"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"}],"text":"He married Yvonne Seeley in 2008 at St John's Chapel in the Tower of London.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7136-8951-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-8951-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-224-02105-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-224-02105-2"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-224-02790-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-224-02790-5"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-14362-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-14362-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Lord Snowdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Snowdon"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-297-82490-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-82490-2"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-85410-625-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85410-625-2"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-84403-206-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84403-206-X"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-907892-30-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907892-30-1"}],"text":"Know The Game: Mah-Jong with Yvonne Seeley (1977) originally published by EP Publishing, Wakefield, now by A & C Black, ISBN 978-0-7136-8951-8.\nFollies: A National Trust Guide with Wim Meulenkamp (1986), Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-224-02105-2.\nFollies: A Guide to Rogue Architecture [19] with Wim Meulenkamp (1990), Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-224-02790-5.\nArchitectural Follies in America[20] (1996), John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-14362-6.\nLondon Sight Unseen[21] with Lord Snowdon (1999), Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-82490-2.\nFollies Grottoes and Garden Buildings[22] with Wim Meulenkamp (1999), Aurum Press, ISBN 1-85410-625-2.\nThe Encyclopaedia of Fonts[23](2005), Cassell Illustrated, ISBN 1-84403-206-X.\nFollies: Fabulous, Fanciful and Frivolous Buildings [24](2012), National Trust, ISBN 978-1-907892-30-1.","title":"Books"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Follies: The International Magazine for Follies, Grottoes and Garden Buildings, Editor, 1987–95.\nExecutive Excellence Europe, Editor, 1996–99.","title":"Magazines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7649-1120-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7649-1120-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7649-1749-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7649-1749-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7649-2796-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7649-2796-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7649-2138-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7649-2138-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7649-2381-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7649-2381-4"}],"text":"An Architectural Vocabulary, (2000) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-1120-1.\nFabulous Fonts, (2001) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-1749-8.\nWhat Happened Here? England, (2002) Pomegranate, ISBN 0-7649-2796-5.\nCockney Rhyming Slang, (2003) Pomegranate, ISBN 978-0-7649-2138-4.\nWhat Happened Here? London, (2004) Pomegranate, ISBN 978-0-7649-2381-4.","title":"Knowledge 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of Bath, Bristol & Avon’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-01-3\n’’Follies of Bedfordshire & Cambridgeshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-02-0\n’’Follies of Berkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-03-7\n’’Follies of Buckinghamshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-04-4\n’’Follies of Cheshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-05-1\n’’Follies of Cornwall’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-00-6\n’’Follies of Derbyshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-07-5\n’’Follies of Cumbria’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-06-8\n’’Follies of Devon’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-08-2\n’’Follies of Dorset’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-09-9\n’’Follies of County Durham’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-10-5\n’’Follies of East Sussex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-11-2\n’’Follies of Essex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-12-9\n’’Follies of Gloucestershire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-13-6\n’’Follies of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-14-3\n’’Follies of Herefordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-15-0\n’’Follies of Hertfordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-16-7\n’’Follies of Kent’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-17-4\n’’Follies of Lancashire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-18-1\n’’Follies of Leicestershire & Rutland’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-19-8\n’’Follies of Lincolnshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-20-4\n’’Follies of Liverpool and Manchester’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-21-1\n’’Follies of London’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-22-8\n’’Follies of Norfolk’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-23-5\n’’Follies of North & East Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-24-2\n’’Follies of Northamptonshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-25-9\n’’Follies of Northumberland’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-26-6\n’’Follies of Nottinghamshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-27-3\n’’Follies of Oxfordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-28-0\n’’Follies of Shropshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-29-7\n’’Follies of Somerset’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-30-3\n’’Follies of South Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-31-0\n’’Follies of Staffordshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-32-7\n’’Follies of Suffolk’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-33-4\n’’Follies of Surrey’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-34-1\n’’Follies of Warwickshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-35-8\n’’Follies of West Sussex’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-36-5\n’’Follies of West Yorkshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-37-2\n’’Follies of Wiltshire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-38-9\n’’Follies of Worcestershire’‘, (2010) Heritage Ebooks, ISBN 978-1-908619-39-6","title":"Ebooks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Aaron's Time Machine: London,[25] with Neil Smith (2010).","title":"Apps"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Khan, Basheera (9 June 2004). \"fotoLibra gets it picture perfect\". i.t.wales. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Hydroxybenzoic_acid_4-O-glucoside | 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucoside | ["1 References","2 External links"] | 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucoside
Names
IUPAC name
4-(β-D-Glucopyranosyloxy)benzoic acid
Systematic IUPAC name
4-{oxy}benzoic acid
Other names
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid glucoside4-Hydroxybenzoate-O-glucoside
Identifiers
CAS Number
15397-25-8 N
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:16741
ChemSpider
389174
KEGG
C03993
PubChem CID
440186
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID601031606
InChI
InChI=1S/C13H16O8/c14-5-8-9(15)10(16)11(17)13(21-8)20-7-3-1-6(2-4-7)12(18)19/h1-4,8-11,13-17H,5H2,(H,18,19)/t8-,9-,10+,11-,13-/m1/s1Key: XSSDYIMYZONMBL-BZNQNGANSA-N
SMILES
C1=CC(=CC=C1C(=O)O)O2((((O2)CO)O)O)O
Properties
Chemical formula
C13H16O8
Molar mass
300.263 g·mol−1
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
Infobox references
Chemical compound
4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucoside is a glucoside of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. It can be found in mycorrhizal (Picea abies-Lactarius deterrimus and Picea abies-Laccaria amethystina) and non-mycorrhizal roots of Norway spruces (Picea abies).
The enzyme 4-hydroxybenzoate 4-O-beta-D-glucosyltransferase can be found in the pollen of Pinus densiflora.
References
^ Münzenberger, Babette; Heilemann, Jürgen; Strack, Dieter; Kottke, Ingrid; Oberwinkler, Franz (1990). "Phenolics of mycorrhizas and non-mycorrhizal roots of Norway spruce". Planta. 182 (1): 142–8. doi:10.1007/BF00239996. PMID 24197010. S2CID 43504838.
^ Katsuṁata, Teizo; Shige, Hiromitsu; Ejiri, Shin-Ichiro (1989). "UDP glucose: 4-(β-d-glucopyranosyloxy) benzoic acid glucosyltransferase from the pollen of Pinus densiflora". Phytochemistry. 28 (2): 359–362. doi:10.1016/0031-9422(89)80013-5.
External links
Media related to 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucoside at Wikimedia Commons
4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucoside at Phenol-Explorer.eu
vtePhenolic acids (C6-C1) and their glycosidesMonohydroxybenzoic acids
3-Hydroxybenzoic acid
4-Hydroxybenzoic acid
Salicylic acid (2-Hydroxybenzoic acid)
Glycosides
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid glucoside
Alkylated
Methylparaben (Methyl-p-hydroxybenzoic acid)
Dihydroxybenzoic acids
2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (Hypogallic acid)
2,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (Gentisic acid)
2,6-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (Protocatechuic acid)
3,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
Alkylated
Ethyl protocatechuate
Orsellinic acid
Trihydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
Phloroglucinol carboxylic acid
Glycosides
Bergenin
Norbergenin
Theogallin
Chebulic acid
Alkylated
Ethyl gallate
Eudesmic acid
Methyl gallate
Syringic acid
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Steel | JSW Steel | ["1 History","2 Operations","2.1 Carbon footprint","2.2 Plants","3 Merger and acquisitions","3.1 Mining acquisitions","4 Awards and recognitions","5 In media","5.1 Documentary","6 Further reading","7 References","8 External links"] | Indian multinational steel company
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JSW Steel LimitedJSW Vijaynagar Works, Toranagallu in the Bellary-Hospet, Kanataka, IndiaCompany typePublicTraded asBSE: 500228NSE: JSWSTEELBSE SENSEX ConstituentNSE NIFTY 50 ConstituentISININE019A01038IndustrySteelFounded1982FounderSajjan Jindal(chairman)HeadquartersMumbai, Maharashtra, IndiaArea servedWorldwideKey peopleSheshagiri Rao MVS, Jayant AcharyaProductsSteel, flat steel products, long steel products, wire products, platesRevenue₹176,010 crore (US$21 billion) (2024)Operating income₹13,380 crore (US$1.6 billion) (2024)Net income₹8,973 crore (US$1.1 billion) (2024)Total assets₹228,198 crore (US$27 billion) (2024)Total equity₹79,776 crore (US$9.6 billion) (2024)Number of employees13,128 (2021)ParentJSW GroupSubsidiariesAmba River CokeAsian Colour Coated Ispat LimitedJSW Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd.Neotrex Steel Private LimitedHasuad SteelJSW Ispat SteelJSW Bengal SteelJSW Energy (Bengal)JSW Industrial GasesJSW Jharkhand SteelJSW Natural Resources BengalJSW Utkal SteelWelspun Maxsteel LtdJSW MIRating
Carbon Disclosure Project A/Stable
Fitch Ratings BB/Long Term Issuer Default Rating
Websitewww.jswsteel.in
JSW Steel Limited is an Indian multinational steel producer based in Mumbai and is a flagship company of the JSW Group. After the merger of Bhushan Power & Steel, Ispat Steel and Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Limited, JSW Steel became India's second largest private sector steel company.
History
JSW Steel's history can be traced back to 1982, when the Jindal Group acquired Piramal Steel Limited, which operated a mini steel mill at Tarapur in Maharashtra and renamed it as Jindal Iron and Steel Company (JISCO). Soon after the acquisition the group set up its first steel plant in 1982 at Vasind, near Mumbai.
Later, in 1994, Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Limited (JVSL) was set up with its plant located at Toranagallu in the Bellary-Hospet area in the State of Karnataka, the heart of the iron ore belt and spread over 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land. It is well connected to both the Mormugao Port and Chennai Port and is 340 kilometres from Bangalore. It is said to be the sixth largest steel plant in the world.
In the year 2005, JISCO and JVSL merged to form JSW Steel Limited. It also set up a plant at Salem with an annual capacity of 1 million tonnes.
Operations
As of July 2023, the installed with a production capacity of 29.7 MTPA in India and the United States. The company is aiming to boost the total steel production capacity to 38.5 MTPA by the financial year 2025.
As of April 2023, nearly 98% of JSW Steel's revenue comes from steel and related products — long rolled products (18%), galvanised coils/sheets (15%), CR coils/sheets (9%), plates/pipes (5%), other miscellaneous steel products (5%), and iron ore (2%), in that order. Overall, 70% of revenue is derived from India, and 30% is from overseas. The company historical emphasis has primarily been on flat products, stemming from its origins in a cold rolling mill. As part of its corporate strategy, the company typically directs half of its flat products to downstream facilities for additional value-enhancing processes like galvanizing, coating, or tinning.
Carbon footprint
JSW Steel reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 March 2021 at 37,523.07 Kt (-2,998 /-8.6% y-o-y).
JSW Steel's annual Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect)
(in kilotonnes)
Mar 2016
Mar 2017
Mar 2018
Mar 2019
Mar 2020
Mar 2021
32,101
38,496
42,153
45,848
40,522
37,523
JSW Steel plans to utilize energy from a forthcoming 3,800-tonne hydrogen plant at its Vijayanagar facility, aiming to provide green steel at a premium price within the next 18–24 months. The company has established an agreement with its affiliate, JSW Energy, to procure green hydrogen and green oxygen for the production of sustainable steel. Additionally, the company will earn carbon credits based on the amount of conventional thermal power that is substituted with green energy. By 2030, the company plans to set up a green steel plant to comply with the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism and gradually reduce it use of blast furnaces throughout its value chain.
Plants
JSW Vijaynagar Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Vijaynagar): It is a flagship plant of the company, which also stands as the largest single-location steel manufacturing unit across India. At present, the plant is in the midst of a brownfield expansion aimed at increasing its current capacity from 13 MTPA to 18 MTPA by FY24. This expansion will cover 600 acres and involve the addition of a 4.5 MTPA blast furnace, two steel melt shops of 350 tonnes each, a 5 MTPA hot strip mill, alongside various other related facilities. In 2017-2018, a new ladle furnace slag recycling process was adopted at Vijayanagar Works as part of a new environmental and waste disposal strategy. The slag was stabilized using an alumina-based ladle-covering compound. The trials were conducted in two phases. Firstly, to prevent the dusting phenomenon in Al-killed steel ladle slag and generate lump slag, a suitable ladle covering compound was selected, and the slag was chemically modified. Secondly, the lump slag was utilized as a 100% replacement for synthetic slag in Si-killed steel ladles, reducing specific consumption from 1.2 kg per ton of liquid steel to zero. The report highlighted eliminating specific synthetic slag consumption at 1.2 kg per ton of liquid steel.
JSW Dolvi Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Dolvi): This plant was acquired by the company in 2010 from Ispat Steel for $3 billion. It was first Indian steel plant to adopt a combination of ConArc technology for both steel-making and compact strip production. Whereas a blast furnace transforms iron ore into steel, ConArc utilizes iron pellets, which are essentially one step processed iron ore. In 2022, Dolvi Works obtained security protection from the Central Industrial Security Force. At that time, it was the 13th industrial facility in the private sector in India to be placed under CISF security apparatus.
JSW Sambalpur Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Rengali): This plant was acquired by the company in 2019 after the liquidation of Bhushan Power & Steel by National Company Law Tribunal. It added 3.5 MTPA to overall steel production capacity of the company.
JSW Salav Works: This plant was previously was owned by Welspun Group and it was purchased by the JSW Steel in 2014 for ₹1,000 crore (US$120 million). It is located in near vicinity (within 40 km) of the JSW Dolvi Works.
JSW Kalmeshwar Works: It is India's first coated steel manufacturing facility, producing galvanized, Galvalume, and pre-painted galvanized/galvalume steel. The plant was acquired by the company from Ispat Steel, is situated 30 kilometers from Nagpur in Central India.
JSW Tarapur Works: It is country's largest single location coated steel plant which manufactures of ultra thin coated products such as pre-painted galvanised/galvalume, galvanised and bare galvalume steel. It is located about 100 kilometers from Mumbai.
JSW Vasind Works: The facility, situated 70 kilometers from Mumbai, is a complex equipped with cold rolling, galvanizing, and color coating capabilities.
JSW Salem Works: The plant is located 350 kilometers from Chennai, is known for producing special alloy steel.
Merger and acquisitions
In 2007, JSW Steel formed a joint venture for a steel plant in Georgia. Any by 2020, it sold of 39 percent stake which it held in JV to Georgian Steel Group Holdings Limited.
In 2009, Japan's JFE Steel, entered into a strategic partnership with JSW Steel to produce automotive steel products.
In 2014, it acquired Welspun Maxsteel Limited in a deal valued at around INR 1,000 Crores.
In 2018, JSW Steel Italy acquired 100% shares of Aferpi S.p.A, Piombino Logistics, and 69.27% of GSI Lucchini S.p.A's share capital from Cevitaly S.r.l for €55 million.
In 2019, JSW Steel acquired Bhushan Power & Steel. This resulted in the absorption of an integrated steel plant in Rengali, Sambalpur, with a capacity of 2.5 million tonnes annually.
in 2020, JSW Ispat Steel was acquired by JSW Steel, 20 months after the latter acquired a controlling stake in Monnet Ispat Industries.
In April 2021, the company acquired Plate and Coil Mill Division (PCMD) of Welspun Corp for a sum of ₹848.5 cr.
In October 2021, JSW Steel acquired 51% stake in Neotrex Steel from JSW Group promoters and entered into an under-construction project to manufacture Low Relaxation Prestressed Concrete (LRPC).
In October 2022, JSW Steel initiated a process to acquire Central-India based National Steel & Agro (NSAIL) through resolution plan submitted under the corporate insolvency resolution process. The company makes flat steel products such as cold-rolled coil, galvanised corrugated sheets, colour coil and pre-painted profile sheets and owes lenders over Rs 1,600 crore. In May 2023, the company got the final nod from National Company Law Tribunal for the acquisition.
In January 2023, JSW Steel entered into an agreement via one of its subsidiary to acquire 31 percent stake in startup Ayena Innovation which deals in home furnishings and interior decoration sector.
In May 2023, JSW Steel reached an in-principle agreement with JFE Steel to establish a 50:50 joint venture to manufacture cold-rolled grain-oriented (CRGO) electrical steel in India.
In March 2024, JSW Steel Italy SRL inked an MoU with the Government of Italy to invest €140 million in restarting production at the Piombino plant. JSW Steel's fate in Italy hinged largely on contracts from Italian railway authorities. Faced with this uncertainty and rising costs due to geopolitical issues like the Russo-Ukrainian War, the company explored disinvestment. However, this new agreement aims to double rail-making capacity to 600,000 tonnes per year in Piombino, enhancing local employment and reducing imports. Investments will modernize the rail mill with a tandem mill, head hardening facility, and longer rails (from 108 to 120 meters).
Mining acquisitions
JSW Steel currently possesses a total of 13 iron ore mines, with nine located in Karnataka and four in Odisha. Additionally, they have obtained three coking coal mines. During the fiscal year 2022, the company fulfilled 43% of its iron ore needs from its own mines.
In May 2023, JSW Steel bagged iron ore blocks in the Surjagarh area of Maoist-affected Gadchiroli district in Maharashtra after bidding for a composite license through government auctions.
As of 2023, discussions are underway between the company and BHP regarding the potential acquisition of the latter's Daunia and Faunus coking coal mines in Queensland. These mines possess a capacity of 20 million metric tons per annum (MTPA). In the past, JSW Steel has additionally acquired mining assets in the United States, the Republic of Chile, and Mozambique.
Based on the latest information as of August 2023, JSW Steel is actively seeking partners to put forth a proposal to acquire a 75% share in Teck Resources' coal mining assets. This move could potentially compete with a substantial $8 billion bid made by the commodities giant Glencore.
In 2024, media reports indicate that JSW Steel is vying against global steel giant Nippon Steel and other contenders to secure a 20% stake in Australia's Blackwater coal mine from Whitehaven Coal. Last October, Whitehaven acquired Blackwater and Daunia coal mines from BHP for $3.2 billion.
Awards and recognitions
Porter Prize 2015 for Leveraging Unique Activities.
Deming Prize 2018 for JSW Vijaynagar Works.
Deming Prize 2019 for JSW Salem Works.
S&P Dow Jones Sustainability Index 2021 for Emerging Markets.
World Steel Association’s Steel Sustainability Champion (2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022).
Great Places to Work Certified 2023-2024.
In media
Documentary
JSW: Architect Of Dreams, a documentary film premiered at National Geographic India on 16 March 2024.
Further reading
Mistry, Janki (25 March 2024). "The Knight in Shining Armour: JSW Steel Ltd's Acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd". Asian Journal of Management Cases. doi:10.1177/09728201231211724. eISSN 0973-0621. ISSN 0972-8201.
Singh, Lokendra Raj (2023). "JSW Steel—Journey with Speed and Innovation". Indian Metallurgy: Indian Institute of Metals Series. Singapore: Springer (published 16 November 2023). pp. 99–103. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-5060-7_9. ISBN 978-981-99-5059-1.
Mohanty, Pitabas; Stephen, Tina (2017). "The Challenges at JSW Steel: Brand Valuation and Corporate Governance Issues". Asian Case Research Journal. 21 (1): 231–251. doi:10.1142/S0218927517500080.
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External links
Official website
Business data for JSW Steel Ltd: Reuters Google Finance BloombergQuint
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UltraTech Cement | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"steel producer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steel_producers"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"JSW Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Group"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Ispat_Steel"},{"link_name":"Bhushan Power & Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhushan_Power_%26_Steel"},{"link_name":"Ispat Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Ispat_Steel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"JSW Steel Limited is an Indian multinational steel producer based in Mumbai and is a flagship company of the JSW Group.[4] After the merger of Bhushan Power & Steel, Ispat Steel and Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Limited, JSW Steel became India's second largest private sector steel company.[5]","title":"JSW Steel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Piramal Steel Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piramal_Group"},{"link_name":"steel mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_mill"},{"link_name":"Tarapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarapur,_Maharashtra"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Vasind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasind"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Toranagallu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toranagallu"},{"link_name":"Bellary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellary"},{"link_name":"Hospet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospet"},{"link_name":"Karnataka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka"},{"link_name":"Mormugao Port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormugao_Port_Trust"},{"link_name":"Chennai Port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennai_Port"},{"link_name":"Bangalore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Salem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem,_Tamil_Nadu"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"text":"JSW Steel's history can be traced back to 1982, when the Jindal Group acquired Piramal Steel Limited, which operated a mini steel mill at Tarapur in Maharashtra and renamed it as Jindal Iron and Steel Company (JISCO).[6] Soon after the acquisition the group set up its first steel plant in 1982 at Vasind, near Mumbai.[7]Later, in 1994, Jindal Vijayanagar Steel Limited (JVSL) was set up with its plant located at Toranagallu in the Bellary-Hospet area in the State of Karnataka, the heart of the iron ore belt and spread over 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land. It is well connected to both the Mormugao Port and Chennai Port and is 340 kilometres from Bangalore. It is said to be the sixth largest steel plant in the world.[6]In the year 2005, JISCO and JVSL merged to form JSW Steel Limited.[8] It also set up a plant at Salem with an annual capacity of 1 million tonnes.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"As of July 2023, the installed with a production capacity of 29.7 MTPA in India and the United States.[9] The company is aiming to boost the total steel production capacity to 38.5 MTPA by the financial year 2025.[10]As of April 2023, nearly 98% of JSW Steel's revenue comes from steel and related products — long rolled products (18%), galvanised coils/sheets (15%), CR coils/sheets (9%), plates/pipes (5%), other miscellaneous steel products (5%), and iron ore (2%), in that order. Overall, 70% of revenue is derived from India, and 30% is from overseas.[11] The company historical emphasis has primarily been on flat products, stemming from its origins in a cold rolling mill. As part of its corporate strategy, the company typically directs half of its flat products to downstream facilities for additional value-enhancing processes like galvanizing, coating, or tinning.[12]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CO2e emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_footprint"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-13"},{"link_name":"JSW Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Energy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"carbon credits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_credits"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Border_Adjustment_Mechanism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"blast furnaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_furnace"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Carbon footprint","text":"JSW Steel reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 March 2021 at 37,523.07 Kt (-2,998 /-8.6% y-o-y).[13]JSW Steel plans to utilize energy from a forthcoming 3,800-tonne hydrogen plant at its Vijayanagar facility, aiming to provide green steel at a premium price within the next 18–24 months. The company has established an agreement with its affiliate, JSW Energy, to procure green hydrogen and green oxygen for the production of sustainable steel.[14][15] Additionally, the company will earn carbon credits based on the amount of conventional thermal power that is substituted with green energy.[16] By 2030, the company plans to set up a green steel plant to comply with the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism[17] and gradually reduce it use of blast furnaces throughout its value chain.[18]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"furnace slag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furnace_slag"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ispat Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Ispat_Steel"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Central Industrial Security Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Industrial_Security_Force"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Bhushan Power & Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhushan_Power_%26_Steel"},{"link_name":"National Company Law Tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-26"},{"link_name":"Welspun Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welspun_Group"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Nagpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagpur"},{"link_name":"Central India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_India"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Plants","text":"JSW Vijaynagar Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Vijaynagar): It is a flagship plant of the company, which also stands as the largest single-location steel manufacturing unit across India.[19] At present, the plant is in the midst of a brownfield expansion aimed at increasing its current capacity from 13 MTPA to 18 MTPA by FY24. This expansion will cover 600 acres and involve the addition of a 4.5 MTPA blast furnace, two steel melt shops of 350 tonnes each, a 5 MTPA hot strip mill, alongside various other related facilities.[20] In 2017-2018, a new ladle furnace slag recycling process was adopted at Vijayanagar Works as part of a new environmental and waste disposal strategy. The slag was stabilized using an alumina-based ladle-covering compound. The trials were conducted in two phases.[21] Firstly, to prevent the dusting phenomenon in Al-killed steel ladle slag and generate lump slag, a suitable ladle covering compound was selected, and the slag was chemically modified. Secondly, the lump slag was utilized as a 100% replacement for synthetic slag in Si-killed steel ladles, reducing specific consumption from 1.2 kg per ton of liquid steel to zero.[21] The report highlighted eliminating specific synthetic slag consumption at 1.2 kg per ton of liquid steel.[22]\nJSW Dolvi Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Dolvi): This plant was acquired by the company in 2010 from Ispat Steel for $3 billion. It was first Indian steel plant to adopt a combination of ConArc technology for both steel-making and compact strip production.[23] Whereas a blast furnace transforms iron ore into steel, ConArc utilizes iron pellets, which are essentially one step processed iron ore.[24] In 2022, Dolvi Works obtained security protection from the Central Industrial Security Force. At that time, it was the 13th industrial facility in the private sector in India to be placed under CISF security apparatus.[25]\nJSW Sambalpur Works (also known as Integrated Steel Plant, Rengali): This plant was acquired by the company in 2019 after the liquidation of Bhushan Power & Steel by National Company Law Tribunal.[26][27] It added 3.5 MTPA to overall steel production capacity of the company.[26]\nJSW Salav Works: This plant was previously was owned by Welspun Group and it was purchased by the JSW Steel in 2014 for ₹1,000 crore (US$120 million). It is located in near vicinity (within 40 km) of the JSW Dolvi Works.[28]\nJSW Kalmeshwar Works: It is India's first coated steel manufacturing facility, producing galvanized, Galvalume, and pre-painted galvanized/galvalume steel. The plant was acquired by the company from Ispat Steel, is situated 30 kilometers from Nagpur in Central India.[29]\nJSW Tarapur Works: It is country's largest single location coated steel plant which manufactures of ultra thin coated products such as pre-painted galvanised/galvalume, galvanised and bare galvalume steel. It is located about 100 kilometers from Mumbai.[citation needed]\nJSW Vasind Works: The facility, situated 70 kilometers from Mumbai, is a complex equipped with cold rolling, galvanizing, and color coating capabilities.[citation needed]\nJSW Salem Works: The plant is located 350 kilometers from Chennai, is known for producing special alloy steel.[citation needed]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"JFE Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JFE_Steel"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Welspun Maxsteel Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welspun_Maxsteel_Ltd"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Bhushan Power & Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhushan_Power_%26_Steel"},{"link_name":"Rengali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rengali_Dam"},{"link_name":"Sambalpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambalpur"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"JSW Ispat Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Ispat_Steel"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Welspun Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welspun_Corp"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"JSW Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSW_Group"},{"link_name":"Prestressed Concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concrete"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"National Company Law Tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Company_Law_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Government of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-48"},{"link_name":"Russo-Ukrainian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-48"}],"text":"In 2007, JSW Steel formed a joint venture for a steel plant in Georgia.[30] Any by 2020, it sold of 39 percent stake which it held in JV to Georgian Steel Group Holdings Limited.[31]In 2009, Japan's JFE Steel, entered into a strategic partnership with JSW Steel to produce automotive steel products.[32]In 2014, it acquired Welspun Maxsteel Limited in a deal valued at around INR 1,000 Crores.[33][34]In 2018, JSW Steel Italy acquired 100% shares of Aferpi S.p.A, Piombino Logistics, and 69.27% of GSI Lucchini S.p.A's share capital from Cevitaly S.r.l for €55 million.[35]In 2019, JSW Steel acquired Bhushan Power & Steel. This resulted in the absorption of an integrated steel plant in Rengali, Sambalpur, with a capacity of 2.5 million tonnes annually.[36]in 2020, JSW Ispat Steel was acquired by JSW Steel, 20 months after the latter acquired a controlling stake in Monnet Ispat Industries.[37]In April 2021, the company acquired Plate and Coil Mill Division (PCMD) of Welspun Corp for a sum of ₹848.5 cr.[38][39]In October 2021, JSW Steel acquired 51% stake in Neotrex Steel from JSW Group promoters and entered into an under-construction project to manufacture Low Relaxation Prestressed Concrete (LRPC).[40]In October 2022, JSW Steel initiated a process to acquire Central-India based National Steel & Agro (NSAIL) through resolution plan submitted under the corporate insolvency resolution process. The company makes flat steel products such as cold-rolled coil, galvanised corrugated sheets, colour coil and pre-painted profile sheets and owes lenders over Rs 1,600 crore.[41][42] In May 2023, the company got the final nod from National Company Law Tribunal for the acquisition.[43]In January 2023, JSW Steel entered into an agreement via one of its subsidiary to acquire 31 percent stake in startup Ayena Innovation which deals in home furnishings and interior decoration sector.[44][45]In May 2023, JSW Steel reached an in-principle agreement with JFE Steel to establish a 50:50 joint venture to manufacture cold-rolled grain-oriented (CRGO) electrical steel in India.[46][47]In March 2024, JSW Steel Italy SRL inked an MoU with the Government of Italy to invest €140 million in restarting production at the Piombino plant.[48] JSW Steel's fate in Italy hinged largely on contracts from Italian railway authorities. Faced with this uncertainty and rising costs due to geopolitical issues like the Russo-Ukrainian War, the company explored disinvestment.[49] However, this new agreement aims to double rail-making capacity to 600,000 tonnes per year in Piombino, enhancing local employment and reducing imports. Investments will modernize the rail mill with a tandem mill, head hardening facility, and longer rails (from 108 to 120 meters).[48]","title":"Merger and acquisitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Odisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Gadchiroli district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadchiroli_district"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"BHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHP"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Republic of Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Mozambique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Teck Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Glencore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glencore"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Nippon Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon_Steel"},{"link_name":"Blackwater coal mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwater_coal_mine"},{"link_name":"BHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHP"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"sub_title":"Mining acquisitions","text":"JSW Steel currently possesses a total of 13 iron ore mines, with nine located in Karnataka and four in Odisha. Additionally, they have obtained three coking coal mines. During the fiscal year 2022, the company fulfilled 43% of its iron ore needs from its own mines.[50]In May 2023, JSW Steel bagged iron ore blocks in the Surjagarh area of Maoist-affected Gadchiroli district in Maharashtra after bidding for a composite license through government auctions.[51]As of 2023, discussions are underway between the company and BHP regarding the potential acquisition of the latter's Daunia and Faunus coking coal mines in Queensland. These mines possess a capacity of 20 million metric tons per annum (MTPA).[52] In the past, JSW Steel has additionally acquired mining assets in the United States,[53] the Republic of Chile,[54] and Mozambique.[55]Based on the latest information as of August 2023, JSW Steel is actively seeking partners to put forth a proposal to acquire a 75% share in Teck Resources' coal mining assets.[56] This move could potentially compete with a substantial $8 billion bid made by the commodities giant Glencore.[57][58]In 2024, media reports indicate that JSW Steel is vying against global steel giant Nippon Steel and other contenders to secure a 20% stake in Australia's Blackwater coal mine from Whitehaven Coal. Last October, Whitehaven acquired Blackwater and Daunia coal mines from BHP for $3.2 billion.[59][60]","title":"Merger and acquisitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Deming Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deming_Prize"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"S&P Dow Jones Sustainability Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Jones_Sustainability_Indices"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"text":"Porter Prize 2015 for Leveraging Unique Activities.[61]\nDeming Prize 2018 for JSW Vijaynagar Works.[62]\nDeming Prize 2019 for JSW Salem Works.[63]\nS&P Dow Jones Sustainability Index 2021 for Emerging Markets.[64]\nWorld Steel Association’s Steel Sustainability Champion (2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022).[65]\nGreat Places to Work Certified 2023-2024.[66]","title":"Awards and recognitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"In media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Geographic India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_India"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"Documentary","text":"JSW: Architect Of Dreams, a documentary film premiered at National Geographic India on 16 March 2024.[67][68]","title":"In media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Knight in Shining Armour: JSW Steel Ltd's Acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/09728201231211724"},{"link_name":"Asian Journal of Management Cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Journal_of_Management_Cases"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1177/09728201231211724","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1177%2F09728201231211724"},{"link_name":"eISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0973-0621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0973-0621"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0972-8201","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0972-8201"},{"link_name":"Springer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-981-99-5060-7_9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-99-5060-7_9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-99-5059-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-99-5059-1"},{"link_name":"\"The Challenges at JSW Steel: Brand Valuation and Corporate Governance Issues\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S0218927517500080"},{"link_name":"Asian Case Research Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Case_Research_Journal"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1142/S0218927517500080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218927517500080"}],"text":"Mistry, Janki (25 March 2024). \"The Knight in Shining Armour: JSW Steel Ltd's Acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd\". Asian Journal of Management Cases. doi:10.1177/09728201231211724. eISSN 0973-0621. ISSN 0972-8201.Singh, Lokendra Raj (2023). \"JSW Steel—Journey with Speed and Innovation\". Indian Metallurgy: Indian Institute of Metals Series. Singapore: Springer (published 16 November 2023). pp. 99–103. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-5060-7_9. ISBN 978-981-99-5059-1.\nMohanty, Pitabas; Stephen, Tina (2017). \"The Challenges at JSW Steel: Brand Valuation and Corporate Governance Issues\". Asian Case Research Journal. 21 (1): 231–251. doi:10.1142/S0218927517500080.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Mistry, Janki (25 March 2024). \"The Knight in Shining Armour: JSW Steel Ltd's Acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd\". Asian Journal of Management Cases. doi:10.1177/09728201231211724. eISSN 0973-0621. ISSN 0972-8201.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/09728201231211724","url_text":"\"The Knight in Shining Armour: JSW Steel Ltd's Acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel Ltd\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Journal_of_Management_Cases","url_text":"Asian Journal of Management Cases"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F09728201231211724","url_text":"10.1177/09728201231211724"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"eISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0973-0621","url_text":"0973-0621"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0972-8201","url_text":"0972-8201"}]},{"reference":"Singh, Lokendra Raj (2023). \"JSW Steel—Journey with Speed and Innovation\". Indian Metallurgy: Indian Institute of Metals Series. Singapore: Springer (published 16 November 2023). pp. 99–103. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-5060-7_9. ISBN 978-981-99-5059-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-99-5060-7_9","url_text":"10.1007/978-981-99-5060-7_9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-99-5059-1","url_text":"978-981-99-5059-1"}]},{"reference":"Mohanty, Pitabas; Stephen, Tina (2017). \"The Challenges at JSW Steel: Brand Valuation and Corporate Governance Issues\". Asian Case Research Journal. 21 (1): 231–251. doi:10.1142/S0218927517500080.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S0218927517500080","url_text":"\"The Challenges at JSW Steel: Brand Valuation and Corporate Governance Issues\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Case_Research_Journal","url_text":"Asian Case Research Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218927517500080","url_text":"10.1142/S0218927517500080"}]},{"reference":"\"JSW Steel Ltd. Financial Statements\" (PDF). bseindia.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bseindia.com/xml-data/corpfiling/AttachLive/6d30269b-1b70-4783-b4b1-9fc4cfdcde32.pdf","url_text":"\"JSW Steel Ltd. Financial Statements\""}]},{"reference":"Anand, Saurav (13 December 2022). \"JSW Steel's CDP Rating upgraded to A\". Mint.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jsw-steel-s-cdp-rating-upgraded-to-a-11670919382145.html","url_text":"\"JSW Steel's CDP Rating upgraded to A\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_(newspaper)","url_text":"Mint"}]},{"reference":"\"Fitch Ratings JSW Steel Limited\". Fitch Ratings.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fitchratings.com/entity/jsw-steel-limited-93353696","url_text":"\"Fitch Ratings JSW Steel Limited\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitch_Ratings","url_text":"Fitch Ratings"}]},{"reference":"Weng, Yuqing; Dong, Han; Gan, Yong (14 April 2011). Advanced Steels: The Recent Scenario in Steel Science and Technology. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 31. ISBN 978-3-642-17665-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf5PC_efNO8C&dq=JSW+Steel&pg=PA31","url_text":"Advanced Steels: The Recent Scenario in Steel Science and Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-17665-4","url_text":"978-3-642-17665-4"}]},{"reference":"Divekar, Aditi (5 June 2015). \"JSW Steel is now the largest steel maker in India\". www.business-standard.com. Retrieved 24 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jsw-steel-is-now-the-largest-steel-maker-in-india-115060400380_1.html","url_text":"\"JSW Steel is now the largest steel maker in India\""}]},{"reference":"S, Sruthi. S., Sruthi; Murthy, Y. Suryanarayana; Santoki, Ashwinkumar; Shaik, Salauddeen; V., Priyadarshini; G.R., Sachindra; Singh, Dhirendra Bahadur; Gupta, Ravi Kumar; Dimple; Birla, Surbhi (eds.). Emerging Trends in Commerce & Management. Vol. 2. Redshine Publication. p. 321. ISBN 978-93-93239-35-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1VZhEAAAQBAJ&dq=Piramal+Steel+Limited+acquired+by+Jindal+in+1982&pg=PA321","url_text":"Emerging Trends in Commerce & Management"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-93239-35-8","url_text":"978-93-93239-35-8"}]},{"reference":"Parikh, Hiral; Desai, Devesh (2022). \"A STUDY ON MAJOR STEEL COMPANIES OF INDIA\". Towards Excellence. 14 (Special Issue 1). ISSN 0974-035X – via UGC-Human Resource Development Centre, Gujarat University.","urls":[{"url":"https://hrdc.gujaratuniversity.ac.in/Publication/article?id=4845","url_text":"\"A STUDY ON MAJOR STEEL COMPANIES OF INDIA\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0974-035X","url_text":"0974-035X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat_University","url_text":"Gujarat University"}]},{"reference":"\"HC nod for Jisco & JVSL merger\". The Economic Times. Retrieved 24 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/hc-nod-for-jisco-jvsl-merger/articleshow/1006947.cms?from=mdr","url_text":"\"HC nod for Jisco & JVSL merger\""}]},{"reference":"Krishna, Tanya (6 July 2023). \"JSW Steel posts 11% on-year growth in steel production during Q1FY24\". Financialexpress. Retrieved 19 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/jsw-steel-posts-11-on-year-growth-in-steel-production-during-q1fy24/3158705/","url_text":"\"JSW Steel posts 11% on-year growth in steel production during Q1FY24\""}]},{"reference":"Cornish, Chloe (16 April 2023). \"Steelmaker JSW 'bullish' on grabbing share of India's infrastructure boom\". Financial Times. Retrieved 1 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/213e6f6a-08e7-447b-b5a9-b5429c6729f6","url_text":"\"Steelmaker JSW 'bullish' on grabbing share of India's infrastructure boom\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times","url_text":"Financial Times"}]},{"reference":"Ghosh, Ashish (14 March 2023). \"Equity Research Report: JSW Steel\". Sharescart.com. Retrieved 1 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sharescart.com/article/equity-research-report-jsw-steel","url_text":"\"Equity Research Report: JSW Steel\""}]},{"reference":"Saha, Sambit (19 August 2023). \"JSW Steel eyes higher share of long steel products in company's portfolio\". Telegraph India. Retrieved 19 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraphindia.com/business/jsw-steel-eyes-higher-share-of-long-steel-products-in-companys-portfolio/cid/1959961","url_text":"\"JSW Steel eyes higher share of long steel products in company's portfolio\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telegraph_(India)","url_text":"Telegraph India"}]},{"reference":"LTD, Exerica. \"ESG Environmental metrics | Public companies\". Exerica. Retrieved 12 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://exerica.com/","url_text":"\"ESG Environmental metrics | Public companies\""}]},{"reference":"P. Iyengar, Suresh (25 July 2023). \"JSW Steel to source hydrogen power in 18-24 months\". www.thehindubusinessline.com. Retrieved 19 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-to-source-hydrogen-power-in-18-24-months/article67115744.ece","url_text":"\"JSW Steel to source hydrogen power in 18-24 months\""}]},{"reference":"Law, Abhishek (22 August 2023). \"Steel Ministry to review CBAM preparedness of India's steel mills\". BusinessLine. Retrieved 28 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/steel-ministry-to-review-cbam-preparedness-of-indias-steel-mills/article67223122.ece","url_text":"\"Steel Ministry to review CBAM preparedness of India's steel mills\""}]},{"reference":"\"From dirty steel to green biz, how JSW Group is reinventing itself\". The Economic Times. 25 April 2023. ISSN 0013-0389. Retrieved 19 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/from-dirty-steel-to-green-biz-how-jsw-group-is-reinventing-itself/articleshow/99757037.cms?from=mdr","url_text":"\"From dirty steel to green biz, how JSW Group is reinventing itself\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","url_text":"0013-0389"}]},{"reference":"Mishra, Naman Suri,Mihir (24 October 2023). \"JSW readies for CBAM era with 4 mt green steel unit\". mint. Retrieved 28 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jsw-readies-for-cbam-era-with-4-mt-green-steel-unit-11698085932124.html","url_text":"\"JSW readies for CBAM era with 4 mt green steel unit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_(newspaper)","url_text":"mint"}]},{"reference":"Doshi, Menaka (29 December 2022). \"JSW Steel Warns Europe Carbon Tariff Will Hurt Asia Firms\". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 28 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-12-29/jsw-steel-warns-europe-carbon-tariff-will-hurt-asia-firms","url_text":"\"JSW Steel Warns Europe Carbon Tariff Will Hurt Asia Firms\""}]},{"reference":"Ahmad, Amreen (27 June 2018). \"JSW Steel to invest Rs 75 bn in Karnataka to expand Vijayanagar facility\". Business Standard. Retrieved 22 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jsw-steel-to-invest-rs-75-bn-in-karnataka-to-expand-vijayanagar-facility-118062700729_1.html","url_text":"\"JSW Steel to invest Rs 75 bn in Karnataka to expand Vijayanagar facility\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Standard","url_text":"Business Standard"}]},{"reference":"Iyengar, Suresh P. (7 January 2022). \"JSW Steel to invest ₹15,000 cr in expanding Vijayanagar capacity by 5 mtpa\". BusinessLine. 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S2CID 139537624.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03019233.2018.1432251","url_text":"\"From waste to wealth: recycling the secondary resource from steel ladle as a flux in Si-killed steelmaking process\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03019233.2018.1432251","url_text":"10.1080/03019233.2018.1432251"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0301-9233","url_text":"0301-9233"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:139537624","url_text":"139537624"}]},{"reference":"Varanasi, Suguna Soumya; Venu Madhava Rao, M.; Santanu, Dey; Alli, Sankar Reddy; Seshu Kumar, D. S. V.; Tangudu, Anil Kumar; Gollapalli, Veerababu; Pathak, Ranjan Kumar; Santhamma, C. S. (14 September 2022). \"Effect of recycling ladle furnace slag as flux on steel desulphurization during secondary steel making\". Ironmaking & Steelmaking. 49 (8): 813–820. doi:10.1080/03019233.2022.2060459. ISSN 0301-9233. 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lenders\""},{"Link":"https://www.livemint.com/Companies/r23zDVm5xuVfIOUGc5X8OJ/JSW-Steel-buys-Welspun-Maxsteel-for-Rs1000-crore.html","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel to acquire Welspun Maxsteel for Rs1,000 crore\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-completes-merger-of-jsw-ispat/articleshow/20412086.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel completes merger of JSW Ispat\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-to-set-up-rs-165-cr-jv-in-georgia/articleshow/2659159.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel to set up Rs 165 cr JV in Georgia\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-arm-completes-sale-of-39-stake-in-georgian-jv-firm/articleshow/73739454.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel arm completes sale of 39% stake in Georgian JV firm\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-japans-jfe-steel-tie-up-to-make-car-steel-in-india/articleshow/5247667.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel, Japan's JFE Steel tie up to make car steel in India\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-to-acquire-welspun-maxsteel-ltd-in-rs-1000-crore-deal/articleshow/40380491.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel to acquire Welspun Maxsteel Ltd in Rs 1,000-crore deal\""},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-completes-acquisition-of-welspuns-steel-business/article35509514.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel completes acquisition of Welspun's steel business\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-signs-pact-to-buy-aferpi-for-rs-600-crore-from-algerias-cevital/articleshow/64221394.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW buys Italy's Aferpi\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/jsw-acquires-bhushan-power-steel-creditors-get-rs19-350-crore-11616768408973.html","external_links_name":"\"JSW acquires Bhushan Power & Steel; creditors get Rs19,350 crore\""},{"Link":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jsw-ispat-special-steel-to-transfer-raipur-facilities-to-subsidiary-122021700470_1.html","external_links_name":"\"Ispat merges with JSW Steel\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-completes-acquisition-of-welspuns-plates-and-coil-mill-business/articleshow/81853539.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel completes acquisition of Welspun's plates and coil mill business\""},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-completes-acquisition-of-welspuns-steel-business/article35509514.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel completes acquisition of Welspun's steel business\""},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-acquires-neotrex-steel/article36791735.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel acquires Neotrex Steel\""},{"Link":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jsw-steel-coated-products-gets-loi-for-national-steel-and-agro-industries-122100701131_1.html","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel Coated Products gets LoI for National Steel and Agro Industries\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-entity-to-buy-national-steel-agro/articleshow/94713997.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel entity to buy National Steel & Agro\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-to-acquire-national-steel-agro-industries/article66870985.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel to acquire National Steel & Agro Industries\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-arm-enters-into-deal-to-buy-31-pc-stake-in-startup-ayena/articleshow/97275498.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel arm enters into deal to buy 31 pc stake in startup Ayena\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-arm-buys-stake-in-home-furnishing-start-up/article66429459.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel arm buys stake in home furnishing start-up\""},{"Link":"https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/companies/jsw-steel-jfe-steel-agree-to-establish-electrical-steel-manufacturing-jv-in-india-10638331.html","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel, JFE Steel to set up electrical steel manufacturing JV in India\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/steel/jsw-steel-japans-jfe-steel-ink-agreement-to-manufacture-electrical-steel-in-india/articleshow/100422110.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel, Japan's JFE Steel ink agreement to manufacture electrical steel in India\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-italy-to-restart-production-at-piombino/article67904431.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel Italy to restart production at Piombino\""},{"Link":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/rail-orders-critical-for-survival-of-jsw-steel-s-italian-biz-official-122060500772_1.html","external_links_name":"\"Rail orders critical for survival of JSW Steel's Italian biz: Company exec\""},{"Link":"https://www.fortuneindia.com/long-reads/jsw-group-life-beyond-steel/112193","external_links_name":"\"JSW Group: Life Beyond Steel\""},{"Link":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/jsw-steel-4-others-bag-iron-ore-block-in-gchiroli/articleshow/100691365.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel, 4 others bag iron ore block in G'chiroli\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-8257","external_links_name":"0971-8257"},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/jsw-eyes-coal-mines-of-australias-bhp-group-in-potential-1-5-2-billion-deal/articleshow/100405922.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW eyes coal mines of Australia's BHP Group in potential $1.5-2 billion deal\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/jsw-steel-completes-coal-mine-buy-in-us/articleshow/5932637.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel completes coal mine buy in US\""},{"Link":"https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/jsw-gets-mining-rights-in-chile-for-52-million-108011701093_1.html","external_links_name":"\"JSW gets mining rights in Chile for $52 million\""},{"Link":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/jsw-acquires-coal-mines-in-mozambique/articleshow/1896290.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW acquires coal mines in Mozambique\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/indias-jsw-steel-considers-75-interest-tecks-coal-business-bloomberg-2023-08-17/","external_links_name":"\"India's JSW Steel considers 75% interest in Teck's coal business\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-08-17/india-s-jsw-weighs-majority-stake-in-teck-coal-unit","external_links_name":"\"India's JSW Weighs Majority Stake in Teck Coal Unit\""},{"Link":"https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/jsw-weighs-majority-stake-in-teck-coal-unit/3214193/","external_links_name":"\"JSW weighs majority stake in Teck coal unit\""},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steel-eyes-1-billion-stake-in-australian-coal-mine/article67864265.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel eyes $1 billion stake in Australian coal mine\""},{"Link":"https://www.financialexpress.com/business/industry-jsw-steel-eyes-stake-in-australian-mine-3398989/","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel eyes stake in Australian mine\""},{"Link":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/reliance-foundation-tata-power-apollo-receive-porter-prize/articleshow/49141476.cms?from=mdr","external_links_name":"\"Reliance Foundation, Tata Power, Apollo receive Porter Prize\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0389","external_links_name":"0013-0389"},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/jsw-steels-vijayanagar-unit-awarded-the-deming-prize/article25568664.ece","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel's Vijayanagar unit awarded the Deming Prize\""},{"Link":"https://www.juse.or.jp/upload/files/2019Dprize_05_JSWS.pdf","external_links_name":"\"デミング賞受賞報告講演要旨 JSW STEEL LIMITED, SALEM WORKS, INDIA\""},{"Link":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/jsw-steel-enters-sp-djsi-sustainability-index-2021-for-emerging-markets/articleshow/87761016.cms","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel enters S&P DJSI Sustainability Index 2021 for Emerging Markets\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-8257","external_links_name":"0971-8257"},{"Link":"https://worldsteel.org/media-centre/press-releases/2022/worldsteel-announces-the-2022-steel-sustainability-champions/","external_links_name":"\"worldsteel announces the 2022 Steel Sustainability Champions\""},{"Link":"https://www.greatplacetowork.com/","external_links_name":"\"JSW Steel Ltd., a Great Place to Work\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAGGwNaIeio","external_links_name":"JSW: Architect Of Dreams | Full Episode | National Geographic | #SajjanJindal"},{"Link":"https://www.medianews4u.com/nat-geo-indias-new-documentary-jsw-architect-of-dreams-delves-into-the-journey-of-a-steel-company-jsw/","external_links_name":"\"Nat Geo India's new documentary 'JSW: Architect Of Dreams' delves into the journey of a steel company JSW\""},{"Link":"http://www.jsw.in/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170921193747/https://in.reuters.com/finance/stocks/overview/JSTL.NS","external_links_name":"Reuters"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/finance/quote/JSWSTEEL:NSE","external_links_name":"Google Finance"},{"Link":"https://www.bloombergquint.com/stock/891577/jsw-steel-ltd","external_links_name":"BloombergQuint"},{"Link":"http://www.prakash.com/","external_links_name":"Prakash Industries"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000103696013","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/154989352","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2006172560","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCtl%C3%BC%C3%A7e%C5%9Fme_(Metrobus) | Söğütlüçeşme (Metrobus) | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Coordinates: 40°59′30″N 29°02′15″E / 40.9917°N 29.0375°E / 40.9917; 29.0375SöğütlüçeşmeİETT Bus rapid transit stationGeneral informationLocationZiverbey Yolu, Hasanpaşa Mah., 34349Kadıköy/IstanbulTurkeyCoordinates40°59′30″N 29°02′15″E / 40.9917°N 29.0375°E / 40.9917; 29.0375Owned byIstanbul Metropolitan MunicipalityOperated byİETTLine(s)MetrobüsPlatforms1 side platformConnectionsTCDD Taşımacılık:Marmaray at SöğütlüçeşmeOther informationStation code1 (IETT)HistoryOpened3 March 2009 (2009-03-03)Services
Preceding station
İETT
Following station
Fikirtepetowards Beylikdüzü Sondurak
34G
Terminus
Fikirtepetowards Avcılar
34AS
Fikirtepetowards Cevizlibağ
34A
Fikirtepetowards Zincirlikuyu
34Z
Söğütlüçeşme is the eastern terminus of the Istanbul Metrobus Bus rapid transit line. It is located along Ziverbey Road, just west of the Istanbul Inner Beltway, adjacent to the Söğütlüçeşme railway station. Connection to Marmaray commuter rail service as well as high-speed, intercity and regional rail will be available towards the end of 2018.
Söğütlüçeşme station was opened on 3 March 2009 as part of the eastward expansion of the line across the Bosporus.
References
^ "Metrobüs Güzergahları". metrobus.iett.istanbul (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "İstanbul banliyö hattı 2018 sonunda bitiyor". cnnturk.com (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "Metrobüs Tarihçe". metrobus.iett.istanbul (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.
External links
Zincirlikuyu station
vteIstanbul Metrobus stations
Söğütlüçeşme
Fikirtepe
Uzunçayır
Acıbadem
Altunizade
Burhaniye
Boğaziçi Köprüsü
Zincirlikuyu
Mecidiyeköy
Çağlayan
Okmeydanı Hastane
Darülaceze—Perpa
Okmeydanı
Halıcıoğlu
Ayvansaray—Eyüp
Edirnekapı
Bayrampaşa—Maltepe
Topkapı
Cevizlibağ
Merter
Zetinburnu
İncirli
Bahçelievler
Şirinevler
Yenibosna
Sefaköy
Beşyol
Florya
Cennet Mahallesi
Küçükçekmece
İBB Sosyal Tesisleri
Şükrübey
Avcılar
Cihangir Üniversite Mahallesi
Mustafa Kemal Paşa
Saadetdere Mahallesi
Haramidere Sanayi
Haramidere
Güzelyurt
Beylikdüzü
Beylikdüzü Belediye
Cumhuriyet Mahallesi
Hadımköy
Beylikdüzü Sondurak | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Istanbul Metrobus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrobus_(Istanbul)"},{"link_name":"Bus rapid transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_rapid_transit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iett2-1"},{"link_name":"Istanbul Inner Beltway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otoyol_1"},{"link_name":"Söğütlüçeşme railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCtl%C3%BC%C3%A7e%C5%9Fme_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Marmaray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmaray"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnn-2"},{"link_name":"Bosporus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iett-3"}],"text":"Söğütlüçeşme is the eastern terminus of the Istanbul Metrobus Bus rapid transit line.[1] It is located along Ziverbey Road, just west of the Istanbul Inner Beltway, adjacent to the Söğütlüçeşme railway station. Connection to Marmaray commuter rail service as well as high-speed, intercity and regional rail will be available towards the end of 2018.[2]Söğütlüçeşme station was opened on 3 March 2009 as part of the eastward expansion of the line across the Bosporus.[3]","title":"Söğütlüçeşme (Metrobus)"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Metrobüs Güzergahları\". metrobus.iett.istanbul (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://metrobus.iett.istanbul/tr/metrobus/pages/metrobus-guzargahlari/286","url_text":"\"Metrobüs Güzergahları\""}]},{"reference":"\"İstanbul banliyö hattı 2018 sonunda bitiyor\". cnnturk.com (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnnturk.com/turkiye/istanbul-banliyo-hatti-2018-sonunda-bitiyor","url_text":"\"İstanbul banliyö hattı 2018 sonunda bitiyor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Metrobüs Tarihçe\". metrobus.iett.istanbul (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://metrobus.iett.istanbul/tr/metrobus/pages/metrobus-tarihce/222","url_text":"\"Metrobüs Tarihçe\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCtl%C3%BC%C3%A7e%C5%9Fme_(Metrobus)¶ms=40.9917_N_29.0375_E_type:railwaystation_region:TR","external_links_name":"40°59′30″N 29°02′15″E / 40.9917°N 29.0375°E / 40.9917; 29.0375"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCtl%C3%BC%C3%A7e%C5%9Fme_(Metrobus)¶ms=40.9917_N_29.0375_E_type:railwaystation_region:TR","external_links_name":"40°59′30″N 29°02′15″E / 40.9917°N 29.0375°E / 40.9917; 29.0375"},{"Link":"http://metrobus.iett.istanbul/tr/metrobus/pages/metrobus-guzargahlari/286","external_links_name":"\"Metrobüs Güzergahları\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnnturk.com/turkiye/istanbul-banliyo-hatti-2018-sonunda-bitiyor","external_links_name":"\"İstanbul banliyö hattı 2018 sonunda bitiyor\""},{"Link":"http://metrobus.iett.istanbul/tr/metrobus/pages/metrobus-tarihce/222","external_links_name":"\"Metrobüs Tarihçe\""},{"Link":"http://metrobus.iett.istanbul/tr/metrobus/istasyonlar/sogutlucesme/1","external_links_name":"Zincirlikuyu station"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Hunt | Joe Hunt | ["1 Tennis career","2 Grand Slam finals","2.1 Singles: 1 (1 title)","3 Grand Slam tournament performance timeline","4 Military service and death","5 References","6 External links"] | American tennis player (1919–1945)
For persons of a similar name, see Joseph Hunt (disambiguation).
Joe HuntFull nameJoseph Raphael HuntCountry (sports) United StatesBorn(1919-02-17)February 17, 1919San Francisco, California, U.S.DiedFebruary 2, 1945(1945-02-02) (aged 25)Daytona Beach, Florida, U.STurned pro1935 (amateur tour)Retired1945 (due to death)PlaysRight-handed (one-handed backhand)Int. Tennis HoF1966 (member page)SinglesGrand Slam singles resultsUS OpenW (1943)Team competitionsDavis CupF (1939Ch)
Joseph Raphael Hunt (February 17, 1919 – February 2, 1945) was an American tennis player of the late 1930s and early 1940s from Southern California. He was the number one ranked American in 1943 and won the US singles championship in his final match. He died off the coast of Florida in an airplane crash during World War II. To date he is the only man to win the U.S. boys' (15 and under), junior (18 and under), collegiate, and men's singles championship.
Tennis career
A graduate of Fairfax High School in Los Angeles, Hunt played college tennis at the University of Southern California as a freshman, and he went undefeated in singles and doubles play while in college during 1938, including the Ojai Tennis Tournament. Hunt was very athletic, and he played football for a while. After enlisting, he attended the United States Naval Academy and joined the Navy football team as a running back during the 1940 season. He was given the game ball for the 1940 Army–Navy Game. Hunt made the semifinals at the 1939 and 1940 United States singles championships. During the 1940 quarterfinals against Frank Kovacs, he staged a sit-down strike during the match after he complained to the referee about Kovacs' antics and was unhappy with the referee's lack of response. Early in their third set, Kovacs began engaging in prolonged antics with the stadium gallery. When the umpire would not stop Kovacs or quiet the crowd, Hunt sat down on his baseline and did not acknowledge several of Kovacs' serves, allowing them to fly by. Kovacs then sat down on his baseline, and the two players sat for up to five minutes while the crowd alternately jeered and cheered. When order was finally restored, Hunt went on to win the match in straight sets. Hunt represented the United States in the 1939 International Lawn Tennis Challenge (now Davis Cup) challenge round against Australia. He played the doubles match partnering Jack Kramer which they lost to John Bromwich and Adrian Quist.
Hunt married Jacque Carolyn Virgil in 1942.
In September 1943, he won the United States singles championship at Forest Hills while lying on the ground. On match point, Hunt collapsed with leg cramps while his opponent, Jack Kramer, who due to food poisoning had lost 19 pounds during tournament, hit a return that barely went long. Had it been in, most observers at the time felt that Kramer would have eventually won the match against Hunt. Hunt was unable to obtain leave from the Navy in 1944 in order to defend his title.
He was the U.S. no. 1 in 1943 and world no. 10 in 1939 by Gordon Lowe.
Hunt was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1966.
Pancho Segura, who had lost to Kramer in the semifinals, described Hunt as "a strong guy, big serve and volley, and took to grass, coming from the Southern California concrete". In a 2014 interview Segura added: "He was a very good-looking man with a body like Charles Atlas. He drew women to his matches. He would have been good for tennis. He was a credit to the game."
Grand Slam finals
Singles: 1 (1 title)
Result
Year
Championship
Surface
Opponent
Score
Win
1943
U.S. National Championships
Grass
Jack Kramer
6–3, 6–8, 10–8, 6–0
Grand Slam tournament performance timeline
Key
W
F
SF
QF
#R
RR
Q#
DNQ
A
NH
(W) winner; (F) finalist; (SF) semifinalist; (QF) quarterfinalist; (#R) rounds 4, 3, 2, 1; (RR) round-robin stage; (Q#) qualification round; (DNQ) did not qualify; (A) absent; (NH) not held; (SR) strike rate (events won / competed); (W–L) win–loss record.
Tournament
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
Grand Slam tournaments
Australian Open
A
A
A
A
A
NH
NH
NH
French Open
A
A
A
A
NH
NH
NH
NH
Wimbledon
A
A
A
A
NH
NH
NH
NH
US Open
3R
QF
QF
SF
SF
A
A
W
Military service and death
Hunt was a graduate from the Naval Academy at Annapolis. He became a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy during World War II and served a year on a destroyer in the Pacific and a year in the Atlantic. On February 2, 1945, close to his 26th birthday, Hunt was killed on a routine gunnery training mission off Daytona Beach, Florida when the fighter airplane that he was piloting, a Grumman Hellcat, went into a spin at an altitude of 10,000 feet from which he failed to recover.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i Robson, Douglas (April 23, 2014). "How a trophy found at garage sale revived forgotten champ's legacy". USA Today. Retrieved May 14, 2014.
^ Associated Press (September 7, 1943). "Hunt Bops Kramer for Net Crown; Navy Ace Triumphs in Four Sets". The Los Angeles Times. pt. II, pg. 9. Retrieved September 26, 2022.
^ a b "Joe Hunt induction". International Tennis Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on May 14, 2014. Retrieved May 14, 2014.
^ "Hunt Wins From Kovacs; 'Sitdown' Strike Features". The Milwaukee Sentinel. September 8, 1940.
^ American Lawn Tennis, September 20, 1940
^ "Davis Cup player profile". International Tennis Federation (ITF).
^ Porter, David L., ed. (1992). Biographical Dictionary of American Sports. New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 552–553. ISBN 978-0313267062.
^ "Joe Hunt Overwhelms Kramer in Tennis Finals". St. Petersburg Times. September 7, 1943.
^ "Joe Hunt Climbs To Tennis Throne". The Evening Independent. September 7, 1943.
^ United States Lawn Tennis Association (1972). Official Encyclopedia of Tennis (First Edition), p. 412, 425.
^ Collins, Bud (2010). The Bud Collins History of Tennis (2nd ed.). : New Chapter Press. p. 590. ISBN 978-0942257700.
^ "Plane Crash Proves Fatal To Joe Hunt". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. February 3, 1945.
^ "Lieut. Joe Hunt Dies In Mishap". The Tuscaloosa News. February 4, 1945.
External links
Joe Hunt at the International Tennis Hall of Fame
Joe Hunt at the Association of Tennis Professionals
Joe Hunt at the International Tennis Federation
Joe Hunt at the Davis Cup
vteUS Open men's singles championsAmateur Era
1881: Richard Sears
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1917: Robert Lindley Murray
1918: Robert Lindley Murray
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1924: Bill Tilden
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1936: Fred Perry
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1940: Don McNeill
1941: Bobby Riggs
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1944: Frank Parker
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1946: Jack Kramer
1947: Jack Kramer
1948: Pancho Gonzales
1949: Pancho Gonzales
1950: Arthur Larsen
1951: Frank Sedgman
1952: Frank Sedgman
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1955: Tony Trabert
1956: Ken Rosewall
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1958: Ashley Cooper
1959: Neale Fraser
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2018: Novak Djokovic
2019: Rafael Nadal
2020: Dominic Thiem
2021: Daniil Medvedev
2022: Carlos Alcaraz
2023: Novak Djokovic
vteMembers of the International Tennis Hall of FameMenMaster players
Manuel Alonso Areizaga
James Anderson
Mal Anderson
Bunny Austin
Wilfred Baddeley
Jean Borotra
John Bromwich
Norman Brookes
Jacques Brugnon
Clarence Clark
Henri Cochet
Ashley Cooper
Jim Courier
Jack Crawford
Owen Davidson
Sven Davidson
Jaroslav Drobný
Neale Fraser
Chuck Garland
Andrés Gimeno
Arthur Gore
Bryan Grant
Lew Hoad
Harry Hopman
Frederick Hovey
Karel Koželuh
René Lacoste
Herbert Lawford
Gene Mako
Ken McGregor
Robert Lindley Murray
Hans Nüsslein
Alex Olmedo
Manuel Orantes
Gerald Patterson
Theodore Pell
Fred Perry
Adrian Quist
Ernest Renshaw
William Renshaw
Mervyn Rose
Frank Sedgman
Pancho Segura
Gottfried von Cramm
Anthony Wilding
Players
Fred Alexander
Wilmer Allison
Karl Behr
Don Budge
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Malcolm Greene Chace
Joseph Clark
William Clothier
Dwight F. Davis
John Doeg
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James Dwight
Bob Falkenburg
Pancho Gonzales
Harold Hackett
Joe Hunt
Francis Hunter
Bill Johnston
Jack Kramer
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Art Larsen
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Frank Parker
Vincent Richards
Bobby Riggs
Ted Schroeder
Richard Sears
Frank Shields
Henry Slocum
Bill Talbert
Bill Tilden
John Van Ryn
Ellsworth Vines
Holcombe Ward
Watson Washburn
Malcolm Whitman
R. Norris Williams
Sidney Wood
Robert Wrenn
Beals Wright
Recent players
Andre Agassi
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Björn Borg
Michael Chang
Jimmy Connors
Rick Draney
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Roy Emerson
David Hall
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Yevgeny Kafelnikov
Jan Kodeš
Gustavo Kuerten
Goran Ivanišević
Rod Laver
Ivan Lendl
John McEnroe
Chuck McKinley
Frew McMillan
Don McNeill
Gardnar Mulloy
Ilie Năstase
John Newcombe
Yannick Noah
Rafael Osuna
Budge Patty
Nicola Pietrangeli
Pat Rafter
Dennis Ralston
Tony Roche
Andy Roddick
Ken Rosewall
Marat Safin
Pete Sampras
Manuel Santana
Dick Savitt
Vic Seixas
Stan Smith
Randy Snow
Michael Stich
Fred Stolle
Tony Trabert
Guillermo Vilas
Mats Wilander
Todd Woodbridge
Mark Woodforde
Court tennis players
Pierre Etchebaster
Tom Pettitt
WomenMaster players
Daphne Akhurst
Blanche Bingley
Nancye Wynne Bolton
Lesley Turner Bowrey
Dorothy Cheney
Charlotte Cooper
Françoise Dürr
Marion Jones Farquhar
Kathleen McKane Godfree
Suzanne Lenglen
Thelma Coyne Long
Simonne Mathieu
Elisabeth Moore
Angela Mortimer
Betty Nuthall
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Ellen Roosevelt
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Elizabeth Ryan
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Marie Wagner
Players
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Mabel Cahill
Maureen Connolly
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Shirley Fry
Althea Gibson
Ellen Hansell
Darlene Hard
Doris Hart
Helen Jacobs
Ann Jones
Dorothea Lambert Chambers
Molla Mallory
Alice Marble
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Helen Wills
Recent players
Tracy Austin
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Lindsay Davenport
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Steffi Graf
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Contributors
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Al Laney
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Original 9
Mary Ewing Outerbridge
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Dennis Van der Meer
Walter Clopton Wingfield
Portal: Tennis | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joseph Hunt (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Hunt_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis"},{"link_name":"Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California"},{"link_name":"US singles championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Open_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"}],"text":"For persons of a similar name, see Joseph Hunt (disambiguation).Joseph Raphael Hunt (February 17, 1919 – February 2, 1945) was an American tennis player of the late 1930s and early 1940s from Southern California. He was the number one ranked American in 1943 and won the US singles championship in his final match.[1] He died off the coast of Florida in an airplane crash during World War II.[1] To date he is the only man to win the U.S. boys' (15 and under), junior (18 and under), collegiate, and men's singles championship.[1]","title":"Joe Hunt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fairfax High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfax_High_School_(Los_Angeles)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"University of Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_California"},{"link_name":"Ojai Tennis Tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojai_Tennis_Tournament"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"United States Naval Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy"},{"link_name":"Navy football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Midshipmen_football"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"Army–Navy Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army%E2%80%93Navy_Game"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"United States singles championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Open_(tennis)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame-3"},{"link_name":"Frank Kovacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Kovacs"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"1939 International Lawn Tennis Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939_International_Lawn_Tennis_Challenge"},{"link_name":"Davis Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis_Cup"},{"link_name":"Jack Kramer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kramer"},{"link_name":"John Bromwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bromwich"},{"link_name":"Adrian Quist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Quist"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Forest Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Hills,_Queens"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"cramps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cramps"},{"link_name":"Jack Kramer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kramer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"Gordon Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Lowe"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USLTAEncyclopedia-10"},{"link_name":"International Tennis Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"},{"link_name":"Pancho Segura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancho_Segura"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Charles Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Atlas"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA_Today_Trophy_found_at_garage-1"}],"text":"A graduate of Fairfax High School in Los Angeles,[2] Hunt played college tennis at the University of Southern California as a freshman, and he went undefeated in singles and doubles play while in college during 1938, including the Ojai Tennis Tournament.[1] Hunt was very athletic, and he played football for a while. After enlisting, he attended the United States Naval Academy and joined the Navy football team as a running back during the 1940 season.[1] He was given the game ball for the 1940 Army–Navy Game.[1] Hunt made the semifinals at the 1939 and 1940 United States singles championships.[3] During the 1940 quarterfinals against Frank Kovacs, he staged a sit-down strike during the match after he complained to the referee about Kovacs' antics and was unhappy with the referee's lack of response.[4] Early in their third set, Kovacs began engaging in prolonged antics with the stadium gallery. When the umpire would not stop Kovacs or quiet the crowd, Hunt sat down on his baseline and did not acknowledge several of Kovacs' serves, allowing them to fly by. Kovacs then sat down on his baseline, and the two players sat for up to five minutes while the crowd alternately jeered and cheered. When order was finally restored, Hunt went on to win the match in straight sets.[5] Hunt represented the United States in the 1939 International Lawn Tennis Challenge (now Davis Cup) challenge round against Australia. He played the doubles match partnering Jack Kramer which they lost to John Bromwich and Adrian Quist.[3][6]Hunt married Jacque Carolyn Virgil in 1942.[7]In September 1943, he won the United States singles championship at Forest Hills while lying on the ground.[8][9] On match point, Hunt collapsed with leg cramps while his opponent, Jack Kramer, who due to food poisoning had lost 19 pounds during tournament,[1] hit a return that barely went long. Had it been in, most observers at the time felt that Kramer would have eventually won the match against Hunt. Hunt was unable to obtain leave from the Navy in 1944 in order to defend his title.He was the U.S. no. 1 in 1943 and world no. 10 in 1939 by Gordon Lowe.[10]Hunt was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1966.[1]Pancho Segura, who had lost to Kramer in the semifinals, described Hunt as \"a strong guy, big serve and volley, and took to grass, coming from the Southern California concrete\".[11] In a 2014 interview Segura added: \"He was a very good-looking man with a body like Charles Atlas. He drew women to his matches. He would have been good for tennis. He was a credit to the game.\"[1]","title":"Tennis career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Grand Slam finals"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Singles: 1 (1 title)","title":"Grand Slam finals"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"(W) winner; (F) finalist; (SF) semifinalist; (QF) quarterfinalist; (#R) rounds 4, 3, 2, 1; (RR) round-robin stage; (Q#) qualification round; (DNQ) did not qualify; (A) absent; (NH) not held; (SR) strike rate (events won / competed); (W–L) win–loss record.","title":"Grand Slam tournament performance timeline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Naval Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy"},{"link_name":"Annapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapolis"},{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy"},{"link_name":"Daytona Beach, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytona_Beach,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Grumman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman"},{"link_name":"Hellcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F6F_Hellcat"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Hunt was a graduate from the Naval Academy at Annapolis. He became a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy during World War II and served a year on a destroyer in the Pacific and a year in the Atlantic. On February 2, 1945, close to his 26th birthday, Hunt was killed on a routine gunnery training mission off Daytona Beach, Florida when the fighter airplane that he was piloting, a Grumman Hellcat, went into a spin at an altitude of 10,000 feet from which he failed to recover.[12][13]","title":"Military service and death"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Robson, Douglas (April 23, 2014). \"How a trophy found at garage sale revived forgotten champ's legacy\". USA Today. Retrieved May 14, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/tennis/2014/04/22/joe-hunt-forgotten-united-states-singles-champion/8014871/","url_text":"\"How a trophy found at garage sale revived forgotten champ's legacy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today","url_text":"USA Today"}]},{"reference":"\"Joe Hunt induction\". International Tennis Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on May 14, 2014. Retrieved May 14, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140514151022/http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/joe-hunt","url_text":"\"Joe Hunt induction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame","url_text":"International Tennis Hall of Fame"},{"url":"http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/joe-hunt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hunt Wins From Kovacs; 'Sitdown' Strike Features\". The Milwaukee Sentinel. September 8, 1940.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wDBQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Nw0EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6232%2C1358543","url_text":"\"Hunt Wins From Kovacs; 'Sitdown' Strike Features\""}]},{"reference":"\"Davis Cup player profile\". International Tennis Federation (ITF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id=800171773","url_text":"\"Davis Cup player profile\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tennis_Federation","url_text":"International Tennis Federation"}]},{"reference":"Porter, David L., ed. (1992). Biographical Dictionary of American Sports. New York: Greenwood Press. pp. 552–553. ISBN 978-0313267062.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_z6t1/page/552","url_text":"Biographical Dictionary of American Sports"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_z6t1/page/552","url_text":"552–553"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313267062","url_text":"978-0313267062"}]},{"reference":"\"Joe Hunt Overwhelms Kramer in Tennis Finals\". St. Petersburg Times. September 7, 1943.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=SRxPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n04DAAAAIBAJ&pg=7446%2C170627","url_text":"\"Joe Hunt Overwhelms Kramer in Tennis Finals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Joe Hunt Climbs To Tennis Throne\". The Evening Independent. September 7, 1943.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mb5RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1UDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2843%2C205945","url_text":"\"Joe Hunt Climbs To Tennis Throne\""}]},{"reference":"Collins, Bud (2010). The Bud Collins History of Tennis (2nd ed.). [New York]: New Chapter Press. p. 590. ISBN 978-0942257700.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0942257700","url_text":"978-0942257700"}]},{"reference":"\"Plane Crash Proves Fatal To Joe Hunt\". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. February 3, 1945.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HZJRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=LGoDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6024%2C3618402","url_text":"\"Plane Crash Proves Fatal To Joe Hunt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lieut. Joe Hunt Dies In Mishap\". The Tuscaloosa News. February 4, 1945.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PPE-AAAAIBAJ&sjid=SE0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=3702%2C1273821","url_text":"\"Lieut. Joe Hunt Dies In Mishap\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/inductees/joe-hunt/","external_links_name":"member page"},{"Link":"https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/tennis/2014/04/22/joe-hunt-forgotten-united-states-singles-champion/8014871/","external_links_name":"\"How a trophy found at garage sale revived forgotten champ's legacy\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/380845515/?clipping_id=110219968","external_links_name":"\"Hunt Bops Kramer for Net Crown; Navy Ace Triumphs in Four Sets\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140514151022/http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/joe-hunt","external_links_name":"\"Joe Hunt induction\""},{"Link":"http://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/joe-hunt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wDBQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Nw0EAAAAIBAJ&pg=6232%2C1358543","external_links_name":"\"Hunt Wins From Kovacs; 'Sitdown' Strike Features\""},{"Link":"http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id=800171773","external_links_name":"\"Davis Cup player profile\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_z6t1/page/552","external_links_name":"Biographical Dictionary of American Sports"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_z6t1/page/552","external_links_name":"552–553"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=SRxPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=n04DAAAAIBAJ&pg=7446%2C170627","external_links_name":"\"Joe Hunt Overwhelms Kramer in Tennis Finals\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mb5RAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1UDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2843%2C205945","external_links_name":"\"Joe Hunt Climbs To Tennis Throne\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HZJRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=LGoDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6024%2C3618402","external_links_name":"\"Plane Crash Proves Fatal To Joe Hunt\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PPE-AAAAIBAJ&sjid=SE0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=3702%2C1273821","external_links_name":"\"Lieut. Joe Hunt Dies In Mishap\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/inductees/joe-hunt","external_links_name":"Joe Hunt"},{"Link":"https://www.atptour.com/en/players/-/HD80/overview","external_links_name":"Joe Hunt"},{"Link":"https://www.itftennis.com/en/players/joseph-hunt/800171773/usa","external_links_name":"Joe Hunt"},{"Link":"https://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id=800171773","external_links_name":"Joe Hunt"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Whitehouse | Nigel Whitehouse | ["1 References"] | Rugby playerNigel WhitehouseNotable relative(s)Ben Whitehouse (son)Rugby union careerRefereeing careerYears
Competition
Apps1996–2006
Test Matches
–
Heineken Cup
26–
European Challenge Cup
13
Nigel Whitehouse is a Welsh rugby union referee. He has refereed 26 Heineken Cup matches and 13 Amlin Challenge Cup matches between 1996 and 2006, as well as international matches.
References
^ "European Rugby Cup". Archived from the original on 19 November 2008. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
vte2003 Rugby World Cup refereesReferees
Andrew Cole (Australia)
Pablo Deluca (Argentina)
Stuart Dickinson (Australia)
Paul Honiss (New Zealand)
Joël Jutge (France)
Jonathan Kaplan (South Africa)
Peter Marshall (Australia)
David McHugh (Ireland)
Paddy O'Brien (New Zealand)
Alain Rolland (Ireland)
Tony Spreadbury (England)
Steve Walsh (New Zealand)
André Watson (South Africa)
Chris White (England)
Nigel Williams (Wales)
Scott Young (Australia)
Assistant referees
Donal Courtney (Ireland)
Kelvin Deaker (New Zealand)
Giulio de Santis (Italy)
Joël Dumé (France)
Mark Lawrence (South Africa)
Alan Lewis (Ireland)
Iain Ramage (Scotland)
Nigel Whitehouse (Wales)
This Welsh rugby union biography is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"rugby union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"Heineken Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heineken_Cup"},{"link_name":"Amlin Challenge Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amlin_Challenge_Cup"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Rugby playerNigel Whitehouse is a Welsh rugby union referee. He has refereed 26 Heineken Cup matches and 13 Amlin Challenge Cup matches between 1996 and 2006,[1] as well as international matches.","title":"Nigel Whitehouse"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"European Rugby Cup\". Archived from the original on 19 November 2008. Retrieved 26 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081119071802/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/5377_5380.php?includeref=dynamic&official=1469","url_text":"\"European Rugby Cup\""},{"url":"http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/5377_5380.php?includeref=dynamic&official=1469","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081119071802/http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/5377_5380.php?includeref=dynamic&official=1469","external_links_name":"\"European Rugby Cup\""},{"Link":"http://www.ercrugby.com/eng/5377_5380.php?includeref=dynamic&official=1469","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nigel_Whitehouse&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Munford_Tuck | William M. Tuck | ["1 Early and Family Life","2 Career","3 Legacy","4 Electoral history","5 References","6 External links"] | American politician
William M. TuckMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Virginia's 5th districtIn officeApril 14, 1953 – January 3, 1969Preceded byThomas B. StanleySucceeded byDan Daniel55th Governor of VirginiaIn officeJanuary 16, 1946 – January 18, 1950LieutenantLewis Preston Collins IIPreceded byColgate DardenSucceeded byJohn S. Battle25th Lieutenant Governor of VirginiaIn officeJanuary 21, 1942 – January 16, 1946GovernorColgate DardenPreceded bySaxon Winston HoltSucceeded byLewis Preston Collins IIMember of the Virginia Senatefrom the 10th districtIn officeJanuary 13, 1932 – January 14, 1942Preceded byJames Stone EasleySucceeded byJames D. HagoodMember of the Virginia House of Delegates from Halifax CountyIn officeJanuary 9, 1924 – January 13, 1932Alongside John Glass, Samuel Adams and A. Owen KingPreceded byDaniel W. OwenSucceeded byRoy B. Davis
Personal detailsBorn(1896-09-28)September 28, 1896Halifax County, Virginia, U.S.DiedJune 9, 1983(1983-06-09) (aged 86)South Boston, Virginia, U.S.Political partyDemocraticSpouseEva Ellis Lovelace DillardParentRobert J. Tuck (father)Alma materCollege of William & MaryWashington & Lee UniversityProfessionAttorneyMilitary serviceAllegianceUnited StatesBranch/serviceUnited States Marine CorpsYears of service1918–1919Battles/warsWorld War I
William Munford Tuck (September 28, 1896 – June 9, 1983) was an American lawyer and lieutenant in the Byrd Organization, who served as the 55th Governor of Virginia from 1946 to 1950 as a Democrat, and as a U.S. Congressman from 1953 until 1969.
Early and Family Life
He was the youngest of nine children of Halifax County, Virginia tobacco warehouseman Robert James Tuck (1863–1930) and Virginia Susan Fitts (1860–1909). He was named for his grandfather William Munford Tuck (1832–1899), who served in the Third Virginia Infantry during the American Civil War. Tuck's mother died when he was 13. He attended county schools, Virgilina High School, and Chatham Training School (now Hargrave Military Academy). He attended the College of William and Mary for two years, earning a teacher's certificate and working for a year as a teacher/principal in Northumberland County. Tuck then enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps and served in 1917 in the Caribbean. Tuck returned to attend law school at the Washington and Lee University School of Law, graduating in 1921. In 1929 he married widow (and former schoolteacher) Eva Lovelace Dillard (1891–1975), to whom he remained married until her death in 1975, raising her son Lester Layne (L.L.) Dillard Jr. as his own.
Career
Tuck as governor
Upon being admitted to Virginia bar, Tuck maintained a private legal practice in Halifax for decades, eventually with his stepson L.L. Dillard.
His career as an elected official began in 1923, when Halifax County voters elected Tuck as their delegate (a part-time position) to the Virginia General Assembly. He was re-elected once but declined to run for re-election in 1929, citing the need to grow his legal business to support his new family. However, when his elected successor died, Tuck was drafted in 1930 and served the remainder of the term. He was then elected to the Virginia Senate in 1931, where he became a friend of U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, a former governor. During the national New Deal, state Senator Tuck worked to repeal Prohibition and sponsored new child labor laws, as well as an unemployment compensation system, old age assistance and jail reforms. He also helped develop the state park system.
In 1941, Tuck sought statewide office, but Senator Byrd slated Colgate Darden to run for Governor of Virginia, so Tuck was slated for and won election as the 25th Lieutenant Governor of Virginia. He served from 1942 to 1946 under Governor Darden, and gained visibility throughout the Commonwealth. Tuck defeated his Republican opponent, S. Floyd Landreth by a 2 to 1 margin and won election as governor.
As governor from 1946 to 1950, Tuck demonstrated his fiscal conservatism as a Dixiecrat by reorganizing state government and enacting a right-to-work law. He also created a state water pollution control agency, helped reform state schools and mental hospitals, as well as constructed roads. Governor Tuck gained national exposure, however, for labor unrest in his home state. He worked with Senator Harry Byrd to oppose President Harry Truman, although a fellow Democrat, especially Truman's plan to establish a Fair Employment Practices Commission. Once, as governor, Tuck drafted workers of the Virginia Electric Power Company into the state's national guard to avoid a threatened strike in an unionization effort. Transportation and coal also experienced labor unrest.
Tuck's resumption of legal practice in South Boston after his governorship proved short-lived, for he rose within the Byrd Organization. In 1953 Tuck won election as a Democrat to U.S. Congress vacated by Thomas Bahnson Stanley who had resigned to run for Governor of Virginia. A militant segregationist, Congressman Tuck opposed most major items of civil rights legislation during the 1950s and 1960s. Like U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Tuck promised "massive resistance" to the Supreme Court's 1954 and 1955 decisions banning segregation, Brown v. Board of Education, and helped draft the Stanley Plan—a series of state laws designed to legally avoid Brown, most of which were soon declared unconstitutional. Tuck was a signatory to the 1956 Southern Manifesto. Tuck voted against the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968 as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He was a member of the U.S. House of Representative's Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC).
He was a delegate to Democratic National Conventions of 1948 and 1952, and in 1967 announced he would not seek reelection to Congress, citing health problems. He remained a power broker in the state for years. He retired from his law practice in South Boston in 1979, after suffering a stroke.
Legacy
Virginia named highway 58 in Halifax County after Tuck, and elected a historical marker in his memory.
His personal papers, including papers from his time as congressman and governor, are held by the Special Collections Research Center at the College of William & Mary. His executive papers from his time as governor are held by the Library of Virginia.
His birthplace and home Buckshoal Farm was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.
Electoral history
1945; Tuck was elected Governor of Virginia with 66.57% of the vote, defeating Republican Sidney Floyd Landreth and Independent Howard Hearnes Carwile.
1953; Tuck was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives with 57.81% of the vote in a special election, defeating Republican Lorne R. Campbell.
1954; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.
1956; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.
1958; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.
1960; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.
1962; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.
1964; Tuck was re-elected with 63.47% of the vote, defeating Republican Robert L. Gilliam.
1966; Tuck was re-elected with 56.18% of the vote, defeating Republican Gilliam.
References
^ "Bioguide Search". bioguide.congress.gov. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
^ "William Munford Tuck, Former Va. Governor, Dies - The Washington Post". The Washington Post.
^ "Wm. M. Tuck and the Third Virginia Infantry". researchworks.oclc.org. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
^ "Gov. & Mrs. William M. Tuck". www.oldhalifax.com. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
^ "L.L. Dillard Jr., lawyer in South Boston, dies". June 23, 2008.
^ "Senate – March 12, 1956" (PDF). Congressional Record. 102 (4). U.S. Government Printing Office: 4459–4461.
^ "HR 6127. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957". GovTrack.us.
^ "HR 8601. PASSAGE".
^ "H.R. 7152. PASSAGE".
^ "TO PASS H.R. 2516, A BILL TO ESTABLISH PENALTIES FOR … -- House Vote #113 -- Aug 16, 1967". GovTrack.us. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
^ "S.J. RES. 29. CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT TO BAN THE USE OF POLL TAX AS A REQUIREMENT FOR VOTING IN FEDERAL ELECTIONS". GovTrack.us.
^ "TO PASS H.R. 6400, THE 1965 VOTING RIGHTS ACT".
^ William M. Tuck Marker Archived August 11, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ "William Munford Tuck Papers". Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
^ Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission (June 1978). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Buckshoal Farm" (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources.
External links
Finding aid for the Milliam Munford Tuck Papers
SCRC Wiki page for William Munford Tuck
Party political offices
Preceded byColgate Darden
Democratic nominee for Governor of Virginia 1945
Succeeded byJohn S. Battle
Political offices
Preceded byColgate Darden
Governor of Virginia 1946–1950
Succeeded byJohn S. Battle
Preceded bySaxon Winston Holt
Lieutenant Governor of Virginia 1942–1946
Succeeded byLewis Preston Collins II
U.S. House of Representatives
Preceded byThomas B. Stanley
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia's 5th congressional district 1953–1969
Succeeded byW. C. "Dan" Daniel
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SNAC | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Byrd Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrd_Organization"},{"link_name":"55th Governor of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"William Munford Tuck (September 28, 1896 – June 9, 1983) was an American lawyer and lieutenant in the Byrd Organization, who served as the 55th Governor of Virginia from 1946 to 1950 as a Democrat, and as a U.S. Congressman from 1953 until 1969.[1][2]","title":"William M. Tuck"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Halifax County, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halifax_County,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Robert James Tuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Tuck"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Hargrave Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hargrave_Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"College of William and Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_William_and_Mary"},{"link_name":"Northumberland County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland_County,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"U.S. Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Washington and Lee University School of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University_School_of_Law"}],"text":"He was the youngest of nine children of Halifax County, Virginia tobacco warehouseman Robert James Tuck (1863–1930) and Virginia Susan Fitts (1860–1909). He was named for his grandfather William Munford Tuck (1832–1899), who served in the Third Virginia Infantry during the American Civil War.[3] Tuck's mother died when he was 13. He attended county schools, Virgilina High School, and Chatham Training School (now Hargrave Military Academy). He attended the College of William and Mary for two years, earning a teacher's certificate and working for a year as a teacher/principal in Northumberland County. Tuck then enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps and served in 1917 in the Caribbean.[4] Tuck returned to attend law school at the Washington and Lee University School of Law, graduating in 1921. In 1929 he married widow (and former schoolteacher) Eva Lovelace Dillard (1891–1975), to whom he remained married until her death in 1975, raising her son Lester Layne (L.L.) Dillard Jr. as his own.","title":"Early and Family Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_M._Tuck_(VA).png"},{"link_name":"Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halifax_County,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Virginia General Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Virginia Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Senate"},{"link_name":"Harry F. Byrd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd"},{"link_name":"New Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal"},{"link_name":"state park system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_state_parks"},{"link_name":"Colgate Darden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colgate_Darden"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Governor of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"S. Floyd Landreth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Floyd_Landreth"},{"link_name":"Dixiecrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixiecrat"},{"link_name":"right-to-work law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-work_law"},{"link_name":"water pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution"},{"link_name":"Harry Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Truman"},{"link_name":"Fair Employment Practices Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practices_Commission"},{"link_name":"Virginia Electric Power Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_Resources"},{"link_name":"South Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Boston,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bahnson Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bahnson_Stanley"},{"link_name":"Governor of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Harry F. 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Dillard.[5]His career as an elected official began in 1923, when Halifax County voters elected Tuck as their delegate (a part-time position) to the Virginia General Assembly. He was re-elected once but declined to run for re-election in 1929, citing the need to grow his legal business to support his new family. However, when his elected successor died, Tuck was drafted in 1930 and served the remainder of the term. He was then elected to the Virginia Senate in 1931, where he became a friend of U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, a former governor. During the national New Deal, state Senator Tuck worked to repeal Prohibition and sponsored new child labor laws, as well as an unemployment compensation system, old age assistance and jail reforms. He also helped develop the state park system.In 1941, Tuck sought statewide office, but Senator Byrd slated Colgate Darden to run for Governor of Virginia, so Tuck was slated for and won election as the 25th Lieutenant Governor of Virginia. He served from 1942 to 1946 under Governor Darden, and gained visibility throughout the Commonwealth. Tuck defeated his Republican opponent, S. Floyd Landreth by a 2 to 1 margin and won election as governor.As governor from 1946 to 1950, Tuck demonstrated his fiscal conservatism as a Dixiecrat by reorganizing state government and enacting a right-to-work law. He also created a state water pollution control agency, helped reform state schools and mental hospitals, as well as constructed roads. Governor Tuck gained national exposure, however, for labor unrest in his home state. He worked with Senator Harry Byrd to oppose President Harry Truman, although a fellow Democrat, especially Truman's plan to establish a Fair Employment Practices Commission. Once, as governor, Tuck drafted workers of the Virginia Electric Power Company into the state's national guard to avoid a threatened strike in an unionization effort. Transportation and coal also experienced labor unrest.Tuck's resumption of legal practice in South Boston after his governorship proved short-lived, for he rose within the Byrd Organization. In 1953 Tuck won election as a Democrat to U.S. Congress vacated by Thomas Bahnson Stanley who had resigned to run for Governor of Virginia. A militant segregationist, Congressman Tuck opposed most major items of civil rights legislation during the 1950s and 1960s. Like U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Tuck promised \"massive resistance\" to the Supreme Court's 1954 and 1955 decisions banning segregation, Brown v. Board of Education, and helped draft the Stanley Plan—a series of state laws designed to legally avoid Brown, most of which were soon declared unconstitutional. Tuck was a signatory to the 1956 Southern Manifesto.[6] Tuck voted against the Civil Rights Acts of 1957,[7] 1960,[8] 1964,[9] and 1968[10] as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution[11] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.[12] He was a member of the U.S. House of Representative's Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC).He was a delegate to Democratic National Conventions of 1948 and 1952, and in 1967 announced he would not seek reelection to Congress, citing health problems. He remained a power broker in the state for years. He retired from his law practice in South Boston in 1979, after suffering a stroke.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Special Collections Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Gregg_Swem_Library#Special_Collections_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"College of William & Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_William_%26_Mary"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Library of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Buckshoal Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckshoal_Farm"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nris-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vaNRHPnom-16"}],"text":"Virginia named highway 58 in Halifax County after Tuck, and elected a historical marker in his memory.[13]His personal papers, including papers from his time as congressman and governor, are held by the Special Collections Research Center at the College of William & Mary.[14] His executive papers from his time as governor are held by the Library of Virginia.His birthplace and home Buckshoal Farm was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.[15][16]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945_Virginia_gubernatorial_election"},{"link_name":"Howard Hearnes Carwile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Carwile"}],"text":"1945; Tuck was elected Governor of Virginia with 66.57% of the vote, defeating Republican Sidney Floyd Landreth and Independent Howard Hearnes Carwile.\n1953; Tuck was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives with 57.81% of the vote in a special election, defeating Republican Lorne R. Campbell.\n1954; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.\n1956; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.\n1958; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.\n1960; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.\n1962; Tuck was re-elected unopposed.\n1964; Tuck was re-elected with 63.47% of the vote, defeating Republican Robert L. Gilliam.\n1966; Tuck was re-elected with 56.18% of the vote, defeating Republican Gilliam.","title":"Electoral history"}] | [{"image_text":"Tuck as governor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/William_M._Tuck_%28VA%29.png/140px-William_M._Tuck_%28VA%29.png"},{"image_text":"Colony of Virginia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Red_Ensign_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/45px-Red_Ensign_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Virginia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Virginia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Virginia.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Bioguide Search\". bioguide.congress.gov. Retrieved October 1, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/T000395","url_text":"\"Bioguide Search\""}]},{"reference":"\"William Munford Tuck, Former Va. Governor, Dies - The Washington Post\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_miniature_painting | Persian miniature | ["1 Style","2 Artists and technique","3 History","4 Chinese influences","5 Prominent Persian miniaturists","5.1 Gallery","6 Maktab","6.1 Style( Persian: (مکتب maktab) or (مدرسه school))","7 Intangible cultural heritage","8 In later culture","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 Further reading","13 External links"] | Small Persian painting on paper
Yusuf and Zulaikha (Joseph chased by Potiphar's wife), by Behzād, 1488
A Persian miniature (Persian: نگارگری ایرانی negârgari Irâni) is a small Persian painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are broadly comparable to the Western Medieval and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. Although there is an equally well-established Persian tradition of wall-painting, the survival rate and state of preservation of miniatures is better, and miniatures are much the best-known form of Persian painting in the West, and many of the most important examples are in Western, or Turkish, museums. Miniature painting became a significant genre in Persian art in the 13th century, receiving Chinese influence after the Mongol conquests, and the highest point in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, and has many modern exponents. The Persian miniature was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent.
Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure, and in the miniature tradition the depiction of figures, often in large numbers, is central. This was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be more free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. The Quran and other purely religious works are not known to have been illustrated in this way, though histories and other works of literature may include religiously related scenes, including those depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad, after 1500 usually without showing his face.
As well as the figurative scenes in miniatures, which this article concentrates on, there was a parallel style of non-figurative ornamental decoration which was found in borders and panels in miniature pages, and spaces at the start or end of a work or section, and often in whole pages acting as frontispieces. In Islamic art this is referred to as "illumination", and manuscripts of the Quran and other religious books often included considerable number of illuminated pages. The designs reflected contemporary work in other media, in later periods being especially close to book-covers and Persian carpets, and it is thought that many carpet designs were created by court artists and sent to the workshops in the provinces.
In later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums called muraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles and periods.
Style
Camp scene from late in the classic period, with no frame (c. 1556-1565), Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; Majnun (at top wearing orange) spies on his beloved Layla (standing in tent doorway).
The bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Normally all the pigments used are mineral-based ones which keep their bright colours very well if kept in proper conditions, the main exception being silver, mostly used to depict water, which will oxidize to a rough-edged black over time. The conventions of Persian miniatures changed slowly; faces are normally youthful and seen in three-quarters view, with a plump rounded lower face better suited to portraying typical Central Asian or Chinese features than those of most Persians. Lighting is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro. Walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at (to modern eyes) an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is (say) hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or "cutaways" with exterior views of other parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time.
Many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession (depth in the picture space) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be somewhat larger than those around them, and battle scenes can be very crowded indeed. Great attention is paid to the background, whether of a landscape or buildings, and the detail and freshness with which plants and animals, the fabrics of tents, hangings or carpets, or tile patterns are shown is one of the great attractions of the form. The dress of figures is equally shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Animals, especially the horses that very often appear, are mostly shown sideways on; even the love-stories that constitute much of the classic material illustrated are conducted largely in the saddle, as far as the prince-protagonist is concerned. Landscapes are very often mountainous (the plains that make up much of Persia are rarely attempted), this being indicated by a high undulating horizon, and outcrops of bare rock which, like the clouds in the normally small area of sky left above the landscape, are depicted in conventions derived from Chinese art. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air.
The earliest miniatures appeared unframed horizontally across the page in the middle of text, following Byzantine and Arabic precedents, but in the 14th century the vertical format was introduced, perhaps influenced by Chinese scroll-paintings. This is used in all the luxury manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts, and the vertical format dictates many characteristics of the style.
Saki, album miniature by Reza Abbasi, 1609
The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later sometimes spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal "landscape" format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, which is enclosed in a frame, eventually of several ruled lines with a broader band of gold or colour. The rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and brown; text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, which may disappear on one side of the image, or be omitted completely.
Another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of Shah Tahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these cheaper works for a wider circle of patrons. Albums or muraqqas were assembled by collectors with album miniatures, specimen pages of calligraphy, and miniatures taken from older books, to which border paintings were often added when they were remounted. Album miniatures usually showed a few figures on a larger scale, with less attention to the background, and tended to become drawings with some tints of coloured wash, rather than fully painted.
In the example at right the clothes are fully painted, and the background uses the gold grisaille style earlier reserved for marginal decoration, as in the miniature at the head of the article. Many were individual portraits, either of notable figures (but initially rarely portraits of rulers), or of idealized beautiful youths. Others were scenes of lovers in a garden or picnics. From about the middle of the 16th century these types of images became dominant, but they gradually declined in quality and originality and tended towards conventional prettiness and sentimentality.
Books were sometimes refurbished and added to after an interval of many years, adding or partly repainting miniatures, changing the border decoration, and making other changes, not all improvements. The Conference of the Birds miniature in the gallery below is an addition of 1600 to a manuscript of over a century earlier, and elements of the style appear to represent an effort to match the earlier miniatures in the book. The famous painting Princes of the House of Timur was first painted in 1550-55 in Persia for the exiled Mughal prince Humayun, who largely began the Mughal miniature tradition by taking back Persian miniaturists when he gained the throne. It was then twice updated in India (c.1605 and 1628) to show later generations of the royal house. The dimensions of the manuscripts covered a range not dissimilar to typical modern books, though with a more vertical ratio; many were as small as a modern paperback, others larger. Shah Tamasp's Shahnameh stood 47 cm high, and one exceptional Shahnameh from Tabriz of c. 1585 stood 53 cm high.
Artists and technique
Complex palace scene, 1539–1543, Mir Sayyid Ali
In the classic period artists were exclusively male, and normally grouped in workshops, of which the royal workshop (not necessarily in a single building) was much the most prestigious, recruiting talented artists from the bazaar workshops in the major cities. However the nature of the royal workshop remains unclear, as some manuscripts are recorded as being worked on in different cities, rulers often took artists with them on their travels, and at least some artists were able to work on private commissions. As in Europe, sons very often followed their father into the workshop, but boys showing talent from any background might be recruited; at least one notable painter was born a slave. There were some highly placed amateur artists, including Shah Tahmasp I (reigned 1524–1576), who was also one of the greatest patrons of miniatures. Persian artists were highly sought after by other Islamic courts, especially those of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires, whose own traditions of miniature were based on Persian painting but developed rather different styles.
The work was often divided between the main painter, who drew the outlines, and less senior painters who coloured in the drawing. In Mughal miniatures at least, a third artist might do just the faces. Then there might be the border paintings; in most books using them these are by far the largest area of painted material as they occur on text pages as well. The miniatures in a book were often divided up between different artists, so that the best manuscripts represent an overview of the finest work of the period. The scribes or calligraphers were normally different people, on the whole regarded as having a rather higher status than the artists - their names are more likely to be noted in the manuscript.
Royal librarians probably played a significant role in managing the commissions; the extent of direct involvement by the ruler himself is normally unclear. The scribes wrote the main text first, leaving spaces for the miniatures, presumably having made a plan for these with the artist and the librarian. The book covers were also richly decorated for luxury manuscripts, and when they too have figurative scenes these presumably used drawings by the same artists who created the miniatures. Paper was the normal material for the pages, unlike the vellum normally used in Europe for as long as the illuminated manuscript tradition lasted. The paper was highly polished, and when not given painted borders might be flecked with gold leaf.
A unique survival from the Timurid period, found "pasted inconspicuously" in a muraqqa in the Topkapi Palace is thought to be a report to Baysunghur from his librarian. After a brief and high-flown introduction, "Petition from the most humble servants of the royal library, whose eyes are as expectant of the dust from the hooves of the regal steed as the ears of those who fast are for the cry of Allahu akbar ..." it continues with very businesslike and detailed notes on what each of some twenty-five named artists, scribes and craftsmen has been up to over a period of perhaps a week: "Amir Khalil has finished the waves in two sea-scenes of the Gulistan and will begin to apply colour. ... All the painters are working on painting and tinting seventy-five tent-poles .... Mawlana Ali is designing a frontispiece illumination for the Shahnama. His eyes were sore for a few days." Apart from book arts, designs for tent-makers, tile-makers, woodwork and a saddle are mentioned, as is the progress of the "begim's little chest".
History
Juvaynī sitting and writing in front of Mongol emir Arghun Aqa. Frontispiece of Tārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā "The History of The World Conqueror" (damaged), completed in A.H. 689/ 1290 CE. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (Suppl. Pers. 205). It shows the "origin of the Metropolitan style" at the Ilkhanid court.
Ibn Bakhtishu's Manafi al-Hayawan ("Uses of Animals"), commissioned by Ghazan. Maragha, Persia, 1297-1299. Morgan Library & Museum (Ms. M.500).
The ancient Persian religion of Manichaeism made considerable use of images; not only was the founding prophet Mani (c.216–276) a professional artist, at least according to later Islamic tradition, but one of the sacred books of the religion, the Arzhang, was illustrated by the prophet himself, whose illustrations (probably essentially cosmological diagrams rather than images with figures) were regarded as part of the sacred material and always copied with the text. Unfortunately, the religion was repressed strongly from the Sassanid era and onwards so that only tiny fragments of Manichean art survive. These no doubt influenced the continuing Persian tradition, but little can be said about how. It is also known that Sassanid palaces had wall-paintings, but only fragments of these have survived.
There are narrative scenes in pottery (Mina'i ceramics), though it is hard to judge how these relate to lost contemporary book painting. Recent scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was also a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts (such as literature, science, and history); as early as the 9th century, such art flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 749-1258, across Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia).
The great period of the Persian miniature began when Persia was ruled by a succession of foreign dynasties, who came from the east and north. Before the Mongol Ikhanid dynasty (1253-1353), narrative representations are only known in Persia in architecture and ceramics. With the large tradition of Arabic manuscripts in the 12th-13th centuries, illustrated manuscripts probably also existed in Persia, but the only Persian-language illustrated manuscript securely datable to before Mongol conquest is the Varka and Golshah, attributable to Konya in Central Anatolia c.1250. The traumatic Mongol invasion of 1219 onwards established the Ilkhanate as a branch of the Mongol Empire, and despite the huge destruction of life and property, the new court had a galvanising effect on book painting, importing many Chinese works and probably artists, with their long-established tradition of narrative painting, and sponsoring a cultural revival and the creation of history-related literary works. The earliest known illustrated Persian manuscript under the Mongols is the Tarikh-i Jahangushay (1290), commissioned by the Mongol emir Arghun Aqa, also one of the earliest examples of "Metropolitan style" of the Mongol Ilkhanid court, followed by the 1297-1299 manuscript Manafi' al-hayawan (Ms M. 500), commissioned by Mongol ruler Ghazan. The Ilkhanids continued to migrate between summer and winter quarters, which together with other travels for war, hunting and administration, made the portable form of the illustrated book the most suitable vehicle for painting, as it also was for mobile European medieval rulers. The Great Mongol Shahnameh, now dispersed, is the outstanding manuscript of the following period.
After 1335 the Ilkhanate split into several warring dynasties, all swept aside by the new invasion of Timur from 1381. He established the Timurid dynasty, bringing a fresh wave of Chinese influence, who were replaced by the Black Sheep Turkmen in 1452, followed by the White Sheep Turkmen from 1468, who were in turn replaced by the Safavid dynasty by 1501; they ruled until 1722. After a chaotic period Nader Shah took control, but there was no long-lived dynasty until the Qajar dynasty, who ruled from 1794 to 1925.
The Mi'raj (also called the "Night Ride") of Muhammed on Buraq, Tabriz, 1307; Ilkhanid, with both Christian and Chinese influences, and horizontal format.
Scene from the Demotte or "Great Mongol Shahnameh", a key Ilkhanid work, 1330s?
It was only in the 14th century that the practice began of commissioning illustrated copies of classic works of Persian poetry, above all the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (940-1020) and the Khamsa of Nizami, which were to contain many of the finest miniatures. Previously book illustration, of works in both Arabic and Persian, had been concentrated in practical and scientific treatises, often following at several removes the Byzantine miniatures copied when ancient Greek books were translated. However a 14th-century flowering of Arabic illustrated literary manuscripts in Syria and Egypt collapsed at the end of the century, leaving Persia the undisputed leader in Islamic book illustration. Many of the best miniatures from early manuscripts were removed from their books in later centuries and transferred to albums, several of which are now in Istanbul; this complicates tracing the art history of the period.
Miniatures from the Safavid and later periods are far more common than earlier ones, but although some prefer the simpler elegance of the early 15th and 16th centuries, most art historians agree in seeing a rise in quality up to the mid-16th century, culminating in a series of superb royal commissions by the Safavid court, such as the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (or Houghton Shahnameh). There was a crisis in the 1540s when Shah Tahmasp I, previously a patron on a large scale, ceased to commission works, apparently losing interest in painting. Some of his artists went to the court of his nephew Ibrahim Mirza, governor of Mashad from 1556, where there was a brief flowering of painting until the Shah fell out with his nephew in 1565, including a Haft Awrang, the "Freer Jami". Other artists went to the Mughal court. After this the number of illustrated book manuscript commissions falls off, and the tradition falls into over-sophistication and decline.
Baysonghor Shahnameh, 1430. He was a key patron of the Herat school
Tabriz in the north-west of Iran is the longest established centre of production, and Baghdad (then under Persian rule) was often important. Shiraz in the south, sometimes the capital of a sub-ruler, was a centre from the late 14th century, and Herat, now in Afghanistan, was important in the periods when it was controlled from Persia, especially when the Timurid prince Baysonqor was governor in the 1420s; he was then the leading patron in Persia, commissioning the Baysonghor Shahnameh and other works. Each centre developed its own style, which were largely reconciled and combined under the Safavids.
The schools of Herat, where the Timurid royal workshops usually were, had developed a style of classical restraint and elegance, and the painters of Tabriz, a more expressive and imaginative style. Tabriz was the former capital of the Turkmen rulers, and in the early Safavid period the styles were gradually harmonized in works like the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp. But a famous unfinished miniature showing Rustam asleep, while his horse Rakhsh fights off a lion, was probably made for this manuscript, but was never finished and bound in, perhaps because its vigorous Tabriz style did not please Tahmasp. It appears to be by Sultan Mohammad, whose later works in the manuscript show a style adapted to the court style of Bizhad. It is now in the British Museum.
Chinese influences
Mi'raj of the Prophet by Sultan Muhammad, showing Chinese-influenced clouds and angels, 1539-43.
Before Chinese influence was introduced, figures were tied to the ground line and included "backgrounds of solid color", or in "clear accordance with indigenous artistic traditions". However, once influenced by the Chinese, Persian painters gained much more freedom through the Chinese traditions of "unrestricted space and infinite planes". Much of the Chinese influence in Persian art is probably indirect, transmitted through Central Asia. There appear to be no Persian miniatures that are clearly the work of a Chinese artist or one trained in China itself. The most prestigious Chinese painting tradition, of literati landscape painting on scrolls, has little influence; instead the closest parallels are with wall-paintings and motifs such as clouds and dragons found in Chinese pottery, textiles, and other decorative arts. The format and composition of the Persian miniature received strong influence from Chinese paintings.
The Ilkhanid rulers did not convert to Islam for several decades, meanwhile remaining Tantric Buddhists or Christians (usually Nestorians). While very few traces now remain, Buddhist and Christian images were probably easily available to Persian artists at this period. Especially in Ilkhanid and Timurid Mongol-Persian mythological miniatures, mythical beasts were portrayed in a style close to the Chinese qilin, fenghuang (phoenix), bixie and Chinese dragon, though they have a much more aggressive character in Islamic art, and are often seen fighting each other or natural beasts.
Prominent Persian miniaturists
The workshop tradition and division of labour within both an individual miniature and a book, as described above, complicates the attribution of paintings. Some are inscribed with the name of the artist, sometimes as part of the picture itself, for example as if painted on tiles in a building, but more often as a note added on the page or elsewhere; where and when being often uncertain. Because of the nature of the works, literary and historical references to artists, even if they are relied upon, usually do not enable specific paintings to be identified, though there are exceptions. The reputation of Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī, or Behzād, the leading miniaturist of the late Timurid era, and founder of the Safavid school, remained supreme in the Persianate world, and at least some of his work, and style, can be identified with a degree of confidence, despite a good deal of continuing scholarly debate.
Sultan Mohammed, Mir Sayyid Ali, and Aqa Mirak, were leading painters of the next generation, the Safavid culmination of the classic style, whose attributed works are found together in several manuscripts. Abd al-Samad was one of the most successful Persian painters recruited by the Mughal Emperors to work in India. In the next generation, Reza Abbasi worked in the Late Safavid period producing mostly album miniatures, and his style was continued by many later painters. In the 19th century, the miniatures of Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari (Sani ol molk), active in Qajar Persia, showed originality, naturalism, and technical perfection. Mahmoud Farshchian is a contemporary miniaturist whose style has broadened the scope of this art.
Gallery
Tabriz, c.1370, Abduction of Zal by the Simurgh
Bahram Gur Kills the Dragon, in a Shahnameh of 1371, Shiraz, with a very Chinese dragon
Page from the Turkmen "Big-head Shahnameh", Gilan, 1494
Behzad's Advice of the Ascetic, c. 1500-1550
Bath-house scene by Behzād
Rustam sleeps, while his horse Rakhsh fends off a tiger. Probably an early work by Sultan Mohammed, 1515–20
Fereydun in the guise of a dragon tests his sons", from the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, attributed to Aqa Mirak, circa 1525-35
Khusraw discovers Shirin bathing in a pool, a favourite scene, here from 1548
Poetry, wine and gardens are common elements in later works - 1585
Scene from Attar's Conference of the Birds, painted c. 1600
Youth reading, 1625-6 by Reza Abbasi
Prince Muhammad-Beik of Georgia - Reza Abbasi, 1620
Illustration of One Thousand and One Nights by Sani ol molk, Iran, 1853
Maktab
Style( Persian: (مکتب maktab) or (مدرسه school))
The maktab of Iranian miniature painting have been named based on the central authority of the ruling empires in the country. Wherever power and wealth were concentrated and considered the capital and seat of government, artists would come to those places willingly or sometimes forcibly. This naming and classification of Iranian miniature painting maktab have been commonly used in Western research and to some extent in Iranian studies.
There may be overlaps in the historical periods discussed later due to the dispersion of governments and their capitals within the realm of Iranian culture and art, rather than their political territories.
Some of the Iranian miniature painting maktab include the following (in chronological order):
1. Baghdad Maktab (or Abbasid Maktab): This maktab had a relatively short period during the late 12th century in the capital city of Baghdad under the Abbasid caliphate. It had less influence from Iranian art and showed a stronger inclination towards Byzantine painting and realism. However, some works exhibited influences from Sasanian and Central Asian art.
2. Seljuk Maktab: This maktab emerged during the Seljuk period and was influenced by both Iranian and Central Asian art.
3. First Tabriz Maktab (or Ilkhanid Maktab): This maktab developed during the Ilkhanid period, which was a Mongol dynasty. It had significant connections with Iranian and Central Asian art.
4. First Shiraz Maktab: This maktab emerged in Shiraz and had its own distinctive style.
5. Jalairid Maktab: This maktab developed during the Jalairid dynasty and had its own unique characteristics.
6. Second Shiraz Maktab: This maktab emerged as a revival of the First Shiraz Maktab and continued its artistic traditions.
7. Herat Maktab: This maktab flourished in Herat under the Timurid dynasty and produced remarkable works.
8. Bukhara Maktab: This maktab developed in Bukhara and had its own distinct artistic style.
9. Second Tabriz Maktab: This maktab emerged as a revival of the First Tabriz Maktab during the Safavid period and incorporated elements from various artistic traditions.
10. Qazvin Maktab: This maktab emerged in Qazvin and had its own artistic characteristics.
11. Isfahan Maktab: This maktab developed in Isfahan during the Safavid period and played a significant role in the development of Iranian miniature painting.
12. Qajar Maktab: This maktab emerged during the Qajar dynasty and had its own distinct style.
1) Tabriz Maktab of Art (First Period)
With the Mongol invasion and the establishment of the Ilkhanate rule, Maragheh and Tabriz transformed into cultural centers. The Ilkhanate rule had two important consequences for Iranian painting. The first was the transfer of elements and techniques of Chinese art to Iran, and the second was the establishment of a form of collective artistic education in workshops and royal libraries. The Tabriz Maktab of Art, also known as the Mongol or Ilkhanid Maktab, along with its subsequent period, the Jalayirid period, formed the main foundation of Iranian painting. During this period, artists sought to integrate visual and pictorial art. One of the notable events of this period was the creation of a cultural complex near Tabriz, known as Rab'-e Rashidi, by the order of Rashid al-Din Fazlullah Hamadani, the vizier of Ghazan Khan. This place served as a gathering place for Iranian and foreign artists, scholars, and calligraphers. One of the works produced in Rab'-e Rashidi is the Comprehensive Book of Chronicles, which was worked on by numerous artists in various styles. The First Tabriz style brought about fundamental changes compared to its previous period, the Seljuk period. The technique of hatching, the depiction of clouds and mountains, the rendering of faces, composition, and shading all borrowed from Chinese art, while the use of silver color and the depiction of garments recalled Byzantine and Mesopotamian art. However, the figurative style of the human figures and their arrangement in the composition remained Iranian in nature. The scenes became more expansive, and we can even see a portion of the sky in the images. The peak of the First Tabriz art can be seen in the Demotte Shahnameh, where the influence of foreign arts is more evident. Nevertheless, this imitation gave rise to new visual patterns and concepts. For example, the dragon in Chinese art symbolizes nature and fertility, but the Iranian painter portrays Bahram fighting the dragon as a symbol of overcoming evil, indicating a disregard for their original meanings and a mere adoption of the Chinese pattern. One of the renowned artists of this period is Ahmad Musa.
2) Jalayirid Maktab of Art
After the death of the last Mongol Ilkhan, Abu Sa'id, power struggles ensued among Mongol dynasties, and eventually, the Jalayirid dynasty seized power and established their rule in Tabriz and Baghdad. During this period, book illustration received significant attention, and artworks from the Ilkhanid period were collected and preserved. Despite the numerous tensions of this period, many artists, especially during the reign of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir, received patronage, with many kings themselves reciting poetry and engaging in painting. Although the artists continued the tradition of the Ilkhanid maktab, they also advanced experimental approaches. The outstanding result of this period is the Divan of Khwaju Kermani, which includes the signature of an artist named Junayd Baghdadi, making it the oldest known signature of an Iranian painter. In Junayd's paintings and generally in the Jalayirid maktab, the spaces expanded completely, and the paintings occupy an entire page. The figures in the images are slender and tall, and architectural spaces depict both interiors and exteriors simultaneously for the first time. In this period, books were written in a new style of Nasta'liq calligraphy, and the colors became more vibrant compared to the Ilkhanid period, while the issue of the relationship between humans and nature was resolved. Overall, the artworks of the Ilkhanid and Jalayirid periods can be divided into three main categories. The first category consists of pure Iranian works, which, even if influenced by other arts, are combined with Iranian elements. The second category includes paintings that combine Iranian and Chinese art, with a more tangible influence of Chinese art, and the third category consists of paintings abundant in Chinese elements and are almost foreign in nature. The artworks of the Jalayirid period belong to the first category, where Chinese elements are hardly seen.
3) The Maktab of Shiraz
During the 8th century AH (14th century CE), while the Ilkhanid and Jalayirid maktabs were flourishing in Tabriz and Baghdad, an independent artistic movement was taking place in the city of Shiraz. When the Mongols invaded, the rulers of Fars managed to protect the city through diplomacy and intelligence, allowing it to continue its existence under the same previous rulers. Many Iranian artists and intellectuals sought refuge in Shiraz under the patronage of local dynasties, namely the Al-e Injou and later the Al-e Mozaffar. Consequently, Shiraz became a central hub for preserving and continuing the ancient traditions and arts of Iran, such as Seljuk art and resistance against foreign influences.
Significant developments during this period include the flourishing of Persian poetry and literature, and the emergence of renowned figures like Saadi and Hafez. Calligraphy workshops thrived in Iran, and the production and illustration of Shahnameh (the Persian epic) had widespread popularity in Shiraz. The illustrations of Shirazi books were simple and reminiscent of Seljuk-era manuscripts, characterized by flat and vibrant colors, large figures, and shallow spaces, evoking the ancient traditions of Iranian art.
In the Maktab of Shiraz, the central theme is humanity, while other motifs fill the surrounding spaces. After the death of Abu Sa'id, the last ruler of the Injou dynasty, Shiraz and some other cities became artistically independent. For instance, in cities like Behbahan, a unique style of nature illustration without human presence can be observed. During the Mozaffarid period, the depiction of lyrical poems (ghazals) received more attention, and the spaces became more expansive. Although the Maktab of Shiraz had its distinct path compared to Tabriz and Baghdad, there was artistic and cultural exchange between these cities, influencing one another. It can be inferred that the vibrant colors of the Maktab of Shiraz influenced Baghdad and Tabriz, while in return, the spacious compositions from Tabriz and Baghdad reached Shiraz. The production of books in Shiraz was so extensive that its products were exported to other countries such as Turkey and India, representing a tradition known as the "commercial style" that endured until the Safavid era in Isfahan.
4) The Herat school (Maktab-e Herat)
was an artistic movement in Persian painting during the medieval period, originating in the city of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. The maktab flourished under the patronage of Baysonqor Mirza, who succeeded Shah Rukh and established Herat as his capital. During Baysonqor Mirza's reign, the workshop of the royal court in Herat became a melting pot of artistic influences from Shiraz, Tabriz, and even Chinese painting traditions. These diverse influences converged to give birth to the distinctive style of the Herat Maktab. The artistic style of the Baysonqor Mirza period transformed into a formal and refined manner, exemplified in the illustrations of the Baysonqori Shahnameh. Notable artists of this period included Jafar Tabrizi, Gawwam al-Din, Mir Khalil, and Khwaja Ghiyath al-Din. Despite the upheavals in Herat after Shah Rukh's death until the reign of Hussain Bayqara, independent artworks from artists such as Maulana Vali Allah and Mansur were produced. The establishment of Sultan Husayn Bayqara's rule and the presence of his minister, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i, marked a splendid era for art in Iran. Various art forms thrived, and artists gained recognition. Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i fostered a gathering of intellectuals who came together regardless of social status, sharing ideas and artworks. Notable members of this gathering included Wa'iz Kashifi, Kamal al-Din Behzad, and Sultan Ali Mashhadi. During this period, alongside the traditional masters who continued the Baysonqori style, a new generation of talented and innovative artists emerged, introducing new experiences to Persian painting. For example, Haji Mohammad Haravi, known as Mohammad Siyah Qalam, incorporated Iranian satire and grotesque elements in his works. Kamal al-Din Behzad focused on human figures and depicted everyday life in courtly paintings. In this period, the art of portraiture gradually gained popularity, often attributed to Kamal al-Din Behzad. Some portraits of contemporary rulers like Sultan Husayn and Shah Bayqara have survived from this time. This style was also influenced by the arrival of Gentile Bellini, who came to Istanbul at the invitation of an Ottoman Sultan, and later had an impact on Timurid artists. The Herat Maktab encompassed various artistic trends and exhibited a high degree of diversity. However, the works of the Sultan Husayn and Kamal al-Din Behzad period, known as the Kamaleddin Behzad Maktab, are particularly well-known. Generally, it can be said that colors became more vibrant in the Herat Maktab, and the compositions became more complex, featuring circular and intersecting elements. Human activities and details received more attention, and the workshop tradition became a fixed practice in Persian painting. The Herat Maktab, especially the style of Kamal al-Din Behzad, had a direct influence on subsequent periods, such as the Second Tabriz Maktab. Following the rise of the Shaybanid dynasty in Herat, Mohammad Khan Shaybani moved the capital to Bukhara, leading many artists of the Herat Maktab to migrate there. This migration gave rise to the Bukhara Maktab, which followed in the footsteps of the Herat Maktab. The prominent artist of the Bukhara Maktab was Mahmud Muzahhib, who continued the style of Kamal al-Din Behzad. The characteristics of the Bukhara Maktab included rich colors, intricate details within simple forms, short figures, and frontal structures.
5) The Second Shiraz School
In the city of Shiraz during the Timurid period, specifically in the late 8th century, two Timurid rulers, Sultan Iskandar and Sultan Ibrahim, governed Shiraz and greatly influenced its art. Sultan Iskandar gathered the artists of Shiraz once again after the Timurid invasions. It is likely that Pir Ahmad Baghshamali was active in Sultan Iskandar's workshop. The painters of Sultan Iskandar depicted his battles, which became known as "The Selected Battles of Sultan Iskandar." The court style of Sultan Iskandar had already emerged before the establishment of the Herat School and demonstrated the earliest fusion of Iran's exquisite painting styles, such as the Jalairid and Al-Muzaffar styles. The use of lapis lazuli blue color, sponge-like rocks in the sky's horizon, slender and colorful figures, and embellished architectural structures with arabesque patterns were characteristic of the Iskandar School, which later directly influenced the Herat School. Sultan Iskandar was deposed due to conflicts with Shah Rukh Timurid and was succeeded by Ibrahim Sultan, Shah Rukh's son. Ibrahim Sultan's reign brought about significant transformations in the Shiraz style. The figures became more strongly designed, and the colors became more muted, with a strong tendency towards compositional harmony evident in the artworks. Calligraphic elements gained particular importance in the composition, and fixed rules for arranging and formatting texts were established, which became inseparable from the Shiraz style until the late 10th century AH. The general rule was to place two or four inscriptions at the top and bottom of the image, creating a symmetrical and geometric structure within the artwork, with significant subjects often appearing in the central section and beneath the horizon line. Notable works from this period include the Khamsa of Nizami and the Shahnameh of Ibrahim Sultan.
6) The Turkman Style
During the 8th century AH, two Turkmen tribes simultaneously occupied the western regions of Iran. Initially, the Qara Qoyunlu gained power and made Tabriz their capital, followed by the Aq Qoyunlu, who seized control over all of Iran except for Khorasan. Overall, the Turkman style was a mixture of the Herat, Tabriz, Shiraz, and Baghdad schools. They established a royal workshop similar to the Timurid court workshop and employed both local and non-local painters. The result was a new and distinct style characterized by robust figures, round faces with arched eyebrows, and small mouths. The works produced in the Tabriz region, due to the strong tradition of landscape painting in the early Tabriz school, emphasized nature in Turkmen painting, giving rise to fantastical and surreal landscapes. As previously mentioned, there was a commercial style in Shiraz during the first period of the Shiraz School, which continued with the arrival of the Turkmen. The non-courtly Turkman style was simple and unadorned, yet it can be considered suitable for commercial purposes due to its commercial nature and high production. Nevertheless, these images are very explicit and clear in terms of description. One of the Shirazi artists believed to be the creator of this commercial style is Farhad. He is the same artist who illustrated the Khavarannameh manuscript written by Ibn Husam Khusfi. These illustrations have innovative compositions that vividly demonstrate Farhad's imagination. The final and most advanced phase of the Turkman style occurred during the reign of Yakub Beg, the Aq Qoyunlu ruler. Artists such as Sheikh and Darvish Mohammad produced images of the Khamsa of Nizami during that period. These images feature imaginative landscapes and diverse colors, with nature surpassing humanity. The power of imagination in these images is so high that the peaks of rocky mountains transform into human and animal forms. This poetic depiction of nature also found its way into the Safavid school through Sultan Muhammad.
7) Tabriz School 2
With the establishment of the Safavid government, Shah Ismail chose Tabriz as the center of his rule and gathered Turkmen painters, including Sultan Muhammad, in Tabriz. Artists from the Herat school, such as Sheikhzadeh and Kamal al-Din Behzad, initially produced artistic works under the rule of the Safavid government in Herat and then migrated to Tabriz during the reign of Shah Tahmasb. One notable work produced in Safavid Herat is the "Zafarnama" (Book of Victory), characterized by intricate compositions, diverse colors, and strong design, displaying elements of Behzad's style. In comparison to his Timurid-era works in the Herat school, Behzad's works in the Tabriz school exhibit less vibrant spirit and subdued colors, possibly influenced by the taste of the court patrons. One of the main characteristics we observe in Safavid paintings is the presence of a specific type of turban known as the "Qizilbash turban." The fusion of Western and Eastern Iranian painting styles gave rise to an authentic and complete style, exemplified by Shahnameh-e Tahmasbi (Tahmasb's Shahnameh) and Khamsa-e Tahmasbi (Tahmasb's Khamsa), which were the result of collaborative efforts by a group of artists. These two works represent a juxtaposition of two main stylistic poles: Sultan Muhammad's style, the Turkman style, and the contrasting style of the Calligraphers of the Behzad School. It seems that in images dominated by nature and slightly surreal, the Turkmen and Sultan Muhammad schools had an influence, while the Calligraphers of the Behzad School created works that focused more on human figures and human relationships. The paintings in the Tabriz school became much busier, featuring more figures within a scene. This led to more complex compositions, a higher variety of colors, and a tendency to push the figures out of the space. In Tabriz School 2, although there is no perspective, the principles of authentic Iranian painting are adhered to. However, due to the complex relationships between elements and architecture, the images appear both two-dimensional and three-dimensional simultaneously. The synchronicity of events and places reached its peak in Tabriz School 2, where one can witness various events taking place within a single image, yet perceiving the works as cohesive and unified. Tabriz School 2 came to a halt with the capital's relocation to Qazvin, and after Shah Tahmasb's withdrawal of support, many artists dispersed to various cities. On the other hand, in Mashhad, Ibrahim Mirza, a young Safavid prince, established a workshop and brought together skilled artists from Tabriz and local artists in Mashhad. Thus, the Safavid Tabriz style continued in Mashhad with new approaches. One of the most significant works produced in Mashhad is the "Haft Orang" by Jami. Overall, in Mashhad, we encounter new characteristics, including emphasis on color through white spots, dominance of soft and curvilinear lines, presence of ancient trees, fragmented rocks, and slender figures with long necks and round faces. During the twenty years that Mashhad continued its activities, there was not much book illustration flourishing in the Safavid capital of Qazvin, and only a few works were produced following the Mashhad style during a short period, particularly during the reign of Ismail II.
8) "Maktab-i Isfahan
After a tumultuous decade, Shah Abbas ascended the Safavid throne and relocated the capital to Isfahan. During this period, all the industrial arts flourished and served the taste of the Shah, resulting in the infiltration of Western art into the underlying fabric of society. Architecture, textiles, carpets, and ceramics of this era had numerous enthusiastic admirers, yet, with a fair critique, one can find a decline in vitality and creativity in almost all the arts of this period. However, the field of painting had a different and pioneering movement, as it was almost independent of court patronage. In this period, even before the Isfahan School, we encounter a new style where artists produced works independent of books on a large scale. The emergence of this phenomenon depended on two factors: a decrease in court support and the growth of the merchant class. The taste of the Shahs was changing, and artists could not rely solely on court patronage. Consequently, they turned towards capitalists and nobles. As they lacked the financial capability to produce a complete book, they contented themselves with single-page illustrations. In the midst of this, a young and talented artist named Reza Abbasi appeared and perfected this style of painting. Reza Abbasi's technique was based on the value of line, giving volume to the work through the thickness and thinness of lines. In his paintings, figures were usually large and detached from the surroundings. Later, Moin Mosavar continued Reza Abbasi's style by combining it with his own personal style. Generally, it can be said that the connection between painting and literature had weakened, and the line had surpassed color in the art of painting. These two events led artists to observe their surroundings and document various everyday events. Workshop traditions gradually weakened, and individual worth of each artist became more independent during this period. As a result, signing and long inscriptions became prevalent, particularly in the works of Moin Mosavar."Wall painting was another art form that emerged in the 11th century AH (17th century CE) in the Safavid palaces of Isfahan and continued the style of Qazvin School wall paintings. The compositions of the wall paintings resemble the illustrations found in books, but when executed on a large scale, they lose the delicacy found in books. Gradually, with the arrival of Europeans, Western painting styles entered Iranian paintings and captivated the taste of the Safavid Shahs. In the late period, we witness two main trends: the first being the distinctive and independent style of painters such as Reza Abbasi and Moin Mosavar, and the second being painters like Mohammad Zaman, who were influenced by European naturalism, and their works were referred to as the "School of Italy in Isfahan". The first trend continued until the end of Moin Mosavar's life, while the inclination towards naturalism grew and became more formalized, marking a new beginning in the Iranian painting style.
9) The Qajar School
This style emerged during the Zand period and continued into the Qajar era and slightly beyond. This style holds a prominent position as a cohesive and school-based style in Iranian painting, encompassing all the thematic and practical features of a painting school. It was primarily developed through the fusion of traditional Iranian painting characteristics with elements and techniques borrowed from European painting. Although there were some works in a similar style during the Safavid period in Iran, which were referred to as "Europeanization," it found its distinct form primarily during the Zand period and continued into the Qajar era. A genre of folk painting known as "Qahveh-Khaneh-gari" (coffeehouse painting) also emerged during this time.
Intangible cultural heritage
Main article: UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists
Art of miniatureUNESCO Intangible Cultural HeritageCountryAzerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, and UzbekistanReference01598Inscription historyInscription2020 (15th session)ListRepresentative
In 2020, UNESCO inscribed the art of miniature on its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity upon the nomination of four countries in which it is an important element of their culture: Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, and Uzbekistan.
In their rationale for inscription on the list, the nominators highlighted that "The patterns of the miniature represent beliefs, worldviews and lifestyles in a pictorial fashion and also gained a new character through the Islamic influence. While there are stylistic differences between them, the art of miniature as practised by the submitting States Parties shares crucial features. In all cases, it is a traditional craft typically transmitted through mentor-apprentice relationships (non-formal education) and considered as an integral part of each society's social and cultural identity".
In later culture
The French painter Henri Matisse said he was inspired by Persian miniatures. He visited the Munich 1910 exhibition of Persian miniatures and carpets, and noted that:
"the Persian miniatures showed me the possibility of my sensations. That art had devices to suggest a greater space, a really plastic space. It helped me to get away from intimate painting."
Persian miniatures are mentioned in the novel My Name Is Red by Orhan Pamuk.
See also
Persian culture
List of Persian painters
Persianate
Notes
^ Gruber, throughout; see Welch, 95-97 for one of the most famous examples, illustrated below
^ In the terminology of Western illuminated manuscripts, "illumination" usually covers both narrative scenes and decorative elements.
^ Canby (2009), 83
^ Gray (1930), 22-23
^ Gray (1930), 22-28; Welch, 35
^ Gray (1930), 25-26, 44-50
^ Gray (1930), 25-26, 48-49, 64
^ Sims
^ OAO (3, ii and elsewhere)
^ Brend, 164-165
^ OAO, Sims; Gray (1930), 74-81
^ OAO
^ Metropolitan Museum of Art Archived 2011-03-07 at the Wayback Machine "The Conference of the Birds": Page from a manuscript of the Mantiq al-Tayr (The Language of the Birds) of Farid al-Din cAttar, Isfahan (63.210.11). In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
^ Crill and Jarilwala, 50-51; Art Fund Archived 2011-06-17 at the Wayback Machine with image. The painting uses miniature techniques on cotton, and is much larger than most miniatures.
^ Uluc, 73
^ Roxburgh (2000), 6-8
^ Welch, 12-14
^ Gray (1930), 22-26; Welch, 12-14
^ Thackston, 43-44
^ Thackston, 43-44; a good number of those named are mentioned in other sources.
^ a b Jaber, Shady (2021). "The Paintings of al-Āthār al-Bāqiya of al-Bīrūnī: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation" (PDF). Lebanese American University: Figure 5.
^ "Consultation Supplément Persan 205". archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr. Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
^ Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
^ Gray (1930), 27-28
^ Sims
^ J. Bloom & S. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 2023-07-01. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
^ a b Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 214-215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
^ Ettinghausen, Richard (1959). "On Some Mongol Miniatures". Kunst des Orients. 3: 44–45. ISSN 0023-5393.
^ a b Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
^ Sims
^ Canby (1993), 33-34
^ Gray (1976), 309-315, OAO; Rawson, 146-147
^ Gray (1976), 310-311
^ Sims
^ Simms
^ Titley, 103; Welch (mostly on Freer Jami after p. 24), 23-27, 31, 98-127; Freer Gallery Archived 2022-01-04 at the Wayback Machine
^ OAO; Gray (1930), 74-89; Welch, throughout
^ Gray (1930), 37-55; Welch, 14-18; OAO
^ Titley, 80; Walther & Wolf, 420-424
^ Canby (1993), 79-80
^ see Welch, 95-97
^ Rawson, Chapter 5
^ Schmitz and Desai, 172; Meri, 585
^ Rawson, 146-147
^ Rawson, 169-173
^ Gray (1930), 57-66; OAO
^ Welch, 17-27, and many individual pictures shown
^ Gray (1930), 80-87
^ B. W. Robinson, "Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari Archived 2016-11-17 at the Wayback Machine," Encyclopædia Iranica, I/3, pp. 306-308
^ a b "Art of miniature". UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
^ Walsh, Judy. "Matisse, Persian miniatures and Modernism". judy walsh artwork. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-12-17.
References
Balafrej, Lamia. The Making of the Artist in Late Timurid Painting, Edinburgh University Press, 2019, ISBN 9781474437431
Brend, Barbara. Islamic art, Harvard University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-674-46866-X, 9780674468665
Canby, Sheila R. (ed) (2009). Shah Abbas; The Remaking of Iran, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2452-0
Canby, Sheila R. (1993), Persian Painting, 1993, British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714114590
Crill, Rosemary, and Jarilwala, Kapil. The Indian Portrait: 1560-1860, 2010, National Portrait Gallery Publications, ISBN 1-85514-409-3, 978 1855144095
("Gray 1930") Gray, Basil, Persian Painting, Ernest Benn, London, 1930
("Gray 1976") Gray, Basil, and others in Jones, Dalu & Michell, George, (eds); The Arts of Islam, Arts Council of Great Britain, 1976, ISBN 0-7287-0081-6
Gruber, Christiane, Representations of the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic painting, in Gulru Necipoglu, Karen Leal eds., Muqarnas, Volume 26, 2009, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-17589-X, 9789004175891, google books
Meri, Josef W. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, 2005, Psychology Press, ISBN 0-415-96690-6
Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0-7141-1431-6
"OAO", Sims, Eleanor, and others. Oxford Art Online (subscription required), Islamic art, §III, 4: Painted book illustration (v) c 1250–c 1500, and (vi) c 1500–c 1900, accessed Jan 21, 2011
Roxburgh, David J. 2000. The Study of Painting and the Arts of the Book, in Muqarnas, XVII, BRILL.
Thackston, Wheeler McIntosh. Album prefaces and other documents on the history of calligraphers and painters, Volume 10 of Studies and sources in Islamic art and architecture: Supplements to Muqarnas, BRILL, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11961-2, ISBN 978-90-04-11961-1
Titley, Norah M. Persian Miniature Painting, and Its Influence on the Art of Turkey and India: the British Library collections, 1983, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-76484-7
Welch, Stuart Cary. Royal Persian Manuscripts, Thames & Hudson, 1976, ISBN 0-500-27074-0
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Grabar, Oleg, Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting, 2001, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-04999-8, ISBN 978-0-691-04999-1
Hillenbrand, Robert. Shahnama: the visual language of the Persian book of kings, Ashgate Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-7546-3367-5, ISBN 978-0-7546-3367-9
Robinson, B. W., Islamic painting and the arts of the book, London, Faber and Faber, 1976
Robinson, B. W., Persian paintings in the India Office Library, a descriptive catalogue, London, Sotheby Parke Bernet, 1976
Schmitz, Barbara, and Desai, Ziyaud-Din A. Mughal and Persian paintings and illustrated manuscripts in the Raza Library, Rampur, 2006, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, ISBN 81-7305-278-6
"Iranica", Welch, Stuart Cary, and others, Art in Iran:vii. Islamic pre-Safavid, ix. Safavid to Qajar Periods, in Encyclopædia Iranica (online, accessed January 27, 2011)
Swietochowski, Marie Lukens & Babaie, Sussan (1989). Persian drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870995642.
Welch, S.C. (1972). A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870990281.
Swietochowski, Marie & Carboni, Stefano (1994). Illustrated poetry and epic images : Persian painting of the 1330s and 1340s. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persian miniatures.
The Shahnameh Project, Cambridge University – database of miniatures (archived 28 October 2017)
A brief history of Persian Miniature by Katy Kianush. Iran Chamber Society
Chester Beatty Library Image Gallery mixed Islamic images
Video on Behzad from the Asia Society, US
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian
Miniatures from the Topkapi Museum
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Traditional skills of crafting and playing Dotar | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yusef_Zuleykha.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yusuf and Zulaikha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_and_Zulaikha"},{"link_name":"Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_(son_of_Jacob)"},{"link_name":"Potiphar's wife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potiphar%27s_wife"},{"link_name":"Behzād","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behz%C4%81d"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Persian painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_painting"},{"link_name":"muraqqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muraqqa"},{"link_name":"Western Medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_art"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"link_name":"miniatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)"},{"link_name":"illuminated manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript"},{"link_name":"genre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre"},{"link_name":"Persian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_art"},{"link_name":"Chinese influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art"},{"link_name":"Mongol conquests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_conquests"},{"link_name":"Islamic miniature traditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_miniature"},{"link_name":"Ottoman miniature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_miniature"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Mughal miniature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_painting"},{"link_name":"Indian sub-continent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_sub-continent"},{"link_name":"Persian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_art"},{"link_name":"had never completely forbidden the human figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam"},{"link_name":"Quran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran"},{"link_name":"depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depictions_of_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Islamic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Persian carpets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_carpet"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"muraqqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muraqqa"}],"text":"Yusuf and Zulaikha (Joseph chased by Potiphar's wife), by Behzād, 1488A Persian miniature (Persian: نگارگری ایرانی negârgari Irâni) is a small Persian painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are broadly comparable to the Western Medieval and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. Although there is an equally well-established Persian tradition of wall-painting, the survival rate and state of preservation of miniatures is better, and miniatures are much the best-known form of Persian painting in the West, and many of the most important examples are in Western, or Turkish, museums. Miniature painting became a significant genre in Persian art in the 13th century, receiving Chinese influence after the Mongol conquests, and the highest point in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries. The tradition continued, under some Western influence, after this, and has many modern exponents. The Persian miniature was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent.Persian art under Islam had never completely forbidden the human figure, and in the miniature tradition the depiction of figures, often in large numbers, is central. This was partly because the miniature is a private form, kept in a book or album and only shown to those the owner chooses. It was therefore possible to be more free than in wall paintings or other works seen by a wider audience. The Quran and other purely religious works are not known to have been illustrated in this way, though histories and other works of literature may include religiously related scenes, including those depicting the Islamic prophet Muhammad, after 1500 usually without showing his face.[1]As well as the figurative scenes in miniatures, which this article concentrates on, there was a parallel style of non-figurative ornamental decoration which was found in borders and panels in miniature pages, and spaces at the start or end of a work or section, and often in whole pages acting as frontispieces. In Islamic art this is referred to as \"illumination\", and manuscripts of the Quran and other religious books often included considerable number of illuminated pages.[2] The designs reflected contemporary work in other media, in later periods being especially close to book-covers and Persian carpets, and it is thought that many carpet designs were created by court artists and sent to the workshops in the provinces.[3]In later periods miniatures were increasingly created as single works to be included in albums called muraqqa, rather than illustrated books. This allowed non-royal collectors to afford a representative sample of works from different styles and periods.","title":"Persian miniature"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82_%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_1556-65_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80.jpg"},{"link_name":"Freer Gallery of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freer_Gallery_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Majnun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layla_and_Majnun"},{"link_name":"pigments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"chiaroscuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiaroscuro"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saki_-_Reza_Abbasi_-_Moraqqa%E2%80%99-e_Golshan_1609_Golestan_Palace.jpg"},{"link_name":"Reza Abbasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Abbasi"},{"link_name":"grisaille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grisaille"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Tahmasp I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"muraqqas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muraqqa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Humayun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humayun"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Tabriz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Camp scene from late in the classic period, with no frame (c. 1556-1565), Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; Majnun (at top wearing orange) spies on his beloved Layla (standing in tent doorway).The bright and pure colouring of the Persian miniature is one of its most striking features. Normally all the pigments used are mineral-based ones which keep their bright colours very well if kept in proper conditions, the main exception being silver, mostly used to depict water, which will oxidize to a rough-edged black over time.[4] The conventions of Persian miniatures changed slowly; faces are normally youthful and seen in three-quarters view, with a plump rounded lower face better suited to portraying typical Central Asian or Chinese features than those of most Persians. Lighting is even, without shadows or chiaroscuro. Walls and other surfaces are shown either frontally, or as at (to modern eyes) an angle of about 45 degrees, often giving the modern viewer the unintended impression that a building is (say) hexagonal in plan. Buildings are often shown in complex views, mixing interior views through windows or \"cutaways\" with exterior views of other parts of a facade. Costumes and architecture are always those of the time.[5]Many figures are often depicted, with those in the main scene normally rendered at the same size, and recession (depth in the picture space) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space. More important figures may be somewhat larger than those around them, and battle scenes can be very crowded indeed. Great attention is paid to the background, whether of a landscape or buildings, and the detail and freshness with which plants and animals, the fabrics of tents, hangings or carpets, or tile patterns are shown is one of the great attractions of the form. The dress of figures is equally shown with great care, although artists understandably often avoid depicting the patterned cloth that many would have worn. Animals, especially the horses that very often appear, are mostly shown sideways on; even the love-stories that constitute much of the classic material illustrated are conducted largely in the saddle, as far as the prince-protagonist is concerned.[6] Landscapes are very often mountainous (the plains that make up much of Persia are rarely attempted), this being indicated by a high undulating horizon, and outcrops of bare rock which, like the clouds in the normally small area of sky left above the landscape, are depicted in conventions derived from Chinese art. Even when a scene in a palace is shown, the viewpoint often appears to be from a point some metres in the air.[7]The earliest miniatures appeared unframed horizontally across the page in the middle of text, following Byzantine and Arabic precedents, but in the 14th century the vertical format was introduced, perhaps influenced by Chinese scroll-paintings. This is used in all the luxury manuscripts for the court that constitute the most famous Persian manuscripts, and the vertical format dictates many characteristics of the style.[8]Saki, album miniature by Reza Abbasi, 1609The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later sometimes spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal \"landscape\" format. There are often panels of text or captions inside the picture area, which is enclosed in a frame, eventually of several ruled lines with a broader band of gold or colour. The rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in a muted grisaille, often gold and brown; text pages without miniatures often also have such borders. In later manuscripts, elements of the miniature begin to expand beyond the frame, which may disappear on one side of the image, or be omitted completely.[9]Another later development was the album miniature, conceived as a single picture rather than a book illustration, though such images may be accompanied by short lyric poems. The withdrawal of Shah Tahmasp I from commissioning illustrated books in the 1540s probably encouraged artists to transfer to these cheaper works for a wider circle of patrons.[10] Albums or muraqqas were assembled by collectors with album miniatures, specimen pages of calligraphy, and miniatures taken from older books, to which border paintings were often added when they were remounted. Album miniatures usually showed a few figures on a larger scale, with less attention to the background, and tended to become drawings with some tints of coloured wash, rather than fully painted.In the example at right the clothes are fully painted, and the background uses the gold grisaille style earlier reserved for marginal decoration, as in the miniature at the head of the article. Many were individual portraits, either of notable figures (but initially rarely portraits of rulers), or of idealized beautiful youths. Others were scenes of lovers in a garden or picnics. From about the middle of the 16th century these types of images became dominant, but they gradually declined in quality and originality and tended towards conventional prettiness and sentimentality.[11]Books were sometimes refurbished and added to after an interval of many years, adding or partly repainting miniatures, changing the border decoration, and making other changes, not all improvements.[12] The Conference of the Birds miniature in the gallery below is an addition of 1600 to a manuscript of over a century earlier, and elements of the style appear to represent an effort to match the earlier miniatures in the book.[13] The famous painting Princes of the House of Timur was first painted in 1550-55 in Persia for the exiled Mughal prince Humayun, who largely began the Mughal miniature tradition by taking back Persian miniaturists when he gained the throne. It was then twice updated in India (c.1605 and 1628) to show later generations of the royal house.[14] The dimensions of the manuscripts covered a range not dissimilar to typical modern books, though with a more vertical ratio; many were as small as a modern paperback, others larger. Shah Tamasp's Shahnameh stood 47 cm high, and one exceptional Shahnameh from Tabriz of c. 1585 stood 53 cm high.[15]","title":"Style"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mir_Sayyid_Ali_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mir Sayyid Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_Sayyid_Ali"},{"link_name":"bazaar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazaar"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Shah Tahmasp I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Tahmasp_I"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mughal Empires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Mughal miniatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_miniature"},{"link_name":"calligraphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy"},{"link_name":"vellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Topkapi Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkapi_Palace"},{"link_name":"Allahu akbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahu_akbar"},{"link_name":"Gulistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulistan_of_Sa%27di"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"begim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begum"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Complex palace scene, 1539–1543, Mir Sayyid AliIn the classic period artists were exclusively male, and normally grouped in workshops, of which the royal workshop (not necessarily in a single building) was much the most prestigious, recruiting talented artists from the bazaar workshops in the major cities. However the nature of the royal workshop remains unclear, as some manuscripts are recorded as being worked on in different cities, rulers often took artists with them on their travels, and at least some artists were able to work on private commissions.[16] As in Europe, sons very often followed their father into the workshop, but boys showing talent from any background might be recruited; at least one notable painter was born a slave. There were some highly placed amateur artists, including Shah Tahmasp I (reigned 1524–1576), who was also one of the greatest patrons of miniatures. Persian artists were highly sought after by other Islamic courts, especially those of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires, whose own traditions of miniature were based on Persian painting but developed rather different styles.[17]The work was often divided between the main painter, who drew the outlines, and less senior painters who coloured in the drawing. In Mughal miniatures at least, a third artist might do just the faces. Then there might be the border paintings; in most books using them these are by far the largest area of painted material as they occur on text pages as well. The miniatures in a book were often divided up between different artists, so that the best manuscripts represent an overview of the finest work of the period. The scribes or calligraphers were normally different people, on the whole regarded as having a rather higher status than the artists - their names are more likely to be noted in the manuscript.Royal librarians probably played a significant role in managing the commissions; the extent of direct involvement by the ruler himself is normally unclear. The scribes wrote the main text first, leaving spaces for the miniatures, presumably having made a plan for these with the artist and the librarian. The book covers were also richly decorated for luxury manuscripts, and when they too have figurative scenes these presumably used drawings by the same artists who created the miniatures. Paper was the normal material for the pages, unlike the vellum normally used in Europe for as long as the illuminated manuscript tradition lasted. The paper was highly polished, and when not given painted borders might be flecked with gold leaf.[18]A unique survival from the Timurid period, found \"pasted inconspicuously\" in a muraqqa in the Topkapi Palace is thought to be a report to Baysunghur from his librarian. After a brief and high-flown introduction, \"Petition from the most humble servants of the royal library, whose eyes are as expectant of the dust from the hooves of the regal steed as the ears of those who fast are for the cry of Allahu akbar ...\" it continues with very businesslike and detailed notes on what each of some twenty-five named artists, scribes and craftsmen has been up to over a period of perhaps a week: \"Amir Khalil has finished the waves in two sea-scenes of the Gulistan and will begin to apply colour. ... All the painters are working on painting and tinting seventy-five tent-poles .... Mawlana Ali is designing a frontispiece illumination for the Shahnama. His eyes were sore for a few days.\"[19] Apart from book arts, designs for tent-makers, tile-makers, woodwork and a saddle are mentioned, as is the progress of the \"begim's little chest\".[20]","title":"Artists and technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suppl._Pers._205_Frontispiece_detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"Juvaynī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni"},{"link_name":"Arghun Aqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun_Aqa"},{"link_name":"Tārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81r%C4%ABkh-i_Jah%C4%81n-Gush%C4%81"},{"link_name":"Suppl. Pers. 205","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale_de_France_(Suppl._Pers._205)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Groove-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ilkhanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanid"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabischer_Maler_um_1295_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ibn Bakhtishu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Bakhtishu"},{"link_name":"Manafi al-Hayawan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manafi_al-Hayawan"},{"link_name":"Ghazan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazan"},{"link_name":"Maragha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maragha"},{"link_name":"Ms. M.500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Manafi%27_al-Hayawan_(The_Morgan_Library_%26_Museum_MS_M_500)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Groove-21"},{"link_name":"Manichaeism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism"},{"link_name":"Mani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani_(prophet)"},{"link_name":"Arzhang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzhang"},{"link_name":"Sassanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Mina'i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mina%27i_ware"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Abbasid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JB214-27"},{"link_name":"Arabic manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_miniature"},{"link_name":"Varka and Golshah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varka_and_Golshah"},{"link_name":"Konya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konya"},{"link_name":"Central Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Anatolia"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RE-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JB214-27"},{"link_name":"Mongol invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_conquests"},{"link_name":"1219","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Khwarezmia_and_Eastern_Iran"},{"link_name":"Ilkhanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanate"},{"link_name":"Mongol Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JB215-29"},{"link_name":"Tarikh-i Jahangushay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikh-i_Jahangushay"},{"link_name":"Arghun Aqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun_Aqa"},{"link_name":"Ilkhanid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanid"},{"link_name":"Manafi' al-hayawan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manafi%27_al-Hayawan_(Ms_M._500)"},{"link_name":"Ghazan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazan"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JB215-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Great Mongol Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mongol_Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Timur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur"},{"link_name":"Timurid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Black Sheep Turkmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sheep_Turkmen"},{"link_name":"White Sheep Turkmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sheep_Turkmen"},{"link_name":"Safavid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Nader Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader_Shah"},{"link_name":"Qajar dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhammad_during_the_Mi%27raj_-_from_Jami_al-Tawarikh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mi'raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%27raj"},{"link_name":"Buraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buraq"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Demotte_Shahname_002.jpg"},{"link_name":"Demotte or \"Great Mongol Shahnameh\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotte_Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Persian poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_poetry"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Ferdowsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdowsi"},{"link_name":"Khamsa of Nizami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khamsa_of_Nizami"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp"},{"link_name":"Tahmasp I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I"},{"link_name":"Ibrahim Mirza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Mirza"},{"link_name":"Mashad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashad"},{"link_name":"Haft Awrang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haft_Awrang"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baysunghur%27s_Shahname_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Baysonghor Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baysonghor_Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"Herat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat"},{"link_name":"Tabriz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz"},{"link_name":"Baghdad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad"},{"link_name":"Shiraz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiraz"},{"link_name":"Herat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Baysonqor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baysonqor"},{"link_name":"Baysonghor Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baysonghor_Shahnameh"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Timurid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Safavid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Rustam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam"},{"link_name":"Rakhsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhsh"},{"link_name":"Bizhad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_ud-D%C4%ABn_Behz%C4%81d"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"Juvaynī sitting and writing in front of Mongol emir Arghun Aqa. Frontispiece of Tārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā \"The History of The World Conqueror\" (damaged), completed in A.H. 689/ 1290 CE. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (Suppl. Pers. 205).[21][22] It shows the \"origin of the Metropolitan style\" at the Ilkhanid court.[23]Ibn Bakhtishu's Manafi al-Hayawan (\"Uses of Animals\"), commissioned by Ghazan. Maragha, Persia, 1297-1299. Morgan Library & Museum (Ms. M.500).[21]The ancient Persian religion of Manichaeism made considerable use of images; not only was the founding prophet Mani (c.216–276) a professional artist, at least according to later Islamic tradition, but one of the sacred books of the religion, the Arzhang, was illustrated by the prophet himself, whose illustrations (probably essentially cosmological diagrams rather than images with figures) were regarded as part of the sacred material and always copied with the text. Unfortunately, the religion was repressed strongly from the Sassanid era and onwards so that only tiny fragments of Manichean art survive. These no doubt influenced the continuing Persian tradition, but little can be said about how. It is also known that Sassanid palaces had wall-paintings, but only fragments of these have survived.[24]There are narrative scenes in pottery (Mina'i ceramics), though it is hard to judge how these relate to lost contemporary book painting.[25] Recent scholarship has noted that, although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was also a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts (such as literature, science, and history); as early as the 9th century, such art flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 749-1258, across Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Mesopotamia, and Persia).[26]The great period of the Persian miniature began when Persia was ruled by a succession of foreign dynasties, who came from the east and north. Before the Mongol Ikhanid dynasty (1253-1353), narrative representations are only known in Persia in architecture and ceramics.[27] With the large tradition of Arabic manuscripts in the 12th-13th centuries, illustrated manuscripts probably also existed in Persia, but the only Persian-language illustrated manuscript securely datable to before Mongol conquest is the Varka and Golshah, attributable to Konya in Central Anatolia c.1250.[28][27] The traumatic Mongol invasion of 1219 onwards established the Ilkhanate as a branch of the Mongol Empire, and despite the huge destruction of life and property, the new court had a galvanising effect on book painting, importing many Chinese works and probably artists, with their long-established tradition of narrative painting, and sponsoring a cultural revival and the creation of history-related literary works.[29] The earliest known illustrated Persian manuscript under the Mongols is the Tarikh-i Jahangushay (1290), commissioned by the Mongol emir Arghun Aqa, also one of the earliest examples of \"Metropolitan style\" of the Mongol Ilkhanid court, followed by the 1297-1299 manuscript Manafi' al-hayawan (Ms M. 500), commissioned by Mongol ruler Ghazan.[29] The Ilkhanids continued to migrate between summer and winter quarters, which together with other travels for war, hunting and administration, made the portable form of the illustrated book the most suitable vehicle for painting, as it also was for mobile European medieval rulers.[30] The Great Mongol Shahnameh, now dispersed, is the outstanding manuscript of the following period.[31]After 1335 the Ilkhanate split into several warring dynasties, all swept aside by the new invasion of Timur from 1381. He established the Timurid dynasty, bringing a fresh wave of Chinese influence, who were replaced by the Black Sheep Turkmen in 1452, followed by the White Sheep Turkmen from 1468, who were in turn replaced by the Safavid dynasty by 1501; they ruled until 1722. After a chaotic period Nader Shah took control, but there was no long-lived dynasty until the Qajar dynasty, who ruled from 1794 to 1925.[32]The Mi'raj (also called the \"Night Ride\") of Muhammed on Buraq, Tabriz, 1307; Ilkhanid, with both Christian and Chinese influences, and horizontal format.Scene from the Demotte or \"Great Mongol Shahnameh\", a key Ilkhanid work, 1330s?It was only in the 14th century that the practice began of commissioning illustrated copies of classic works of Persian poetry, above all the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (940-1020) and the Khamsa of Nizami, which were to contain many of the finest miniatures. Previously book illustration, of works in both Arabic and Persian, had been concentrated in practical and scientific treatises, often following at several removes the Byzantine miniatures copied when ancient Greek books were translated.[33] However a 14th-century flowering of Arabic illustrated literary manuscripts in Syria and Egypt collapsed at the end of the century, leaving Persia the undisputed leader in Islamic book illustration.[34] Many of the best miniatures from early manuscripts were removed from their books in later centuries and transferred to albums, several of which are now in Istanbul; this complicates tracing the art history of the period.[35]Miniatures from the Safavid and later periods are far more common than earlier ones, but although some prefer the simpler elegance of the early 15th and 16th centuries, most art historians agree in seeing a rise in quality up to the mid-16th century, culminating in a series of superb royal commissions by the Safavid court, such as the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (or Houghton Shahnameh). There was a crisis in the 1540s when Shah Tahmasp I, previously a patron on a large scale, ceased to commission works, apparently losing interest in painting. Some of his artists went to the court of his nephew Ibrahim Mirza, governor of Mashad from 1556, where there was a brief flowering of painting until the Shah fell out with his nephew in 1565, including a Haft Awrang, the \"Freer Jami\". Other artists went to the Mughal court.[36] After this the number of illustrated book manuscript commissions falls off, and the tradition falls into over-sophistication and decline.[37]Baysonghor Shahnameh, 1430. He was a key patron of the Herat schoolTabriz in the north-west of Iran is the longest established centre of production, and Baghdad (then under Persian rule) was often important. Shiraz in the south, sometimes the capital of a sub-ruler, was a centre from the late 14th century, and Herat, now in Afghanistan, was important in the periods when it was controlled from Persia, especially when the Timurid prince Baysonqor was governor in the 1420s; he was then the leading patron in Persia, commissioning the Baysonghor Shahnameh and other works. Each centre developed its own style, which were largely reconciled and combined under the Safavids.[38]The schools of Herat, where the Timurid royal workshops usually were, had developed a style of classical restraint and elegance, and the painters of Tabriz, a more expressive and imaginative style. Tabriz was the former capital of the Turkmen rulers, and in the early Safavid period the styles were gradually harmonized in works like the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.[39] But a famous unfinished miniature showing Rustam asleep, while his horse Rakhsh fights off a lion, was probably made for this manuscript, but was never finished and bound in, perhaps because its vigorous Tabriz style did not please Tahmasp. It appears to be by Sultan Mohammad, whose later works in the manuscript show a style adapted to the court style of Bizhad. It is now in the British Museum.[40]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Miraj_by_Sultan_Muhammad.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mi'raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isra_and_Mi%27raj"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"landscape painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_painting"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Tantric Buddhists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantric_Buddhist"},{"link_name":"Nestorians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestorian_Christian"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Mongol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_people"},{"link_name":"qilin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qilin"},{"link_name":"fenghuang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenghuang"},{"link_name":"phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"bixie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bixie"},{"link_name":"Chinese dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_dragon"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"Mi'raj of the Prophet by Sultan Muhammad, showing Chinese-influenced clouds and angels, 1539-43.[41]Before Chinese influence was introduced, figures were tied to the ground line and included \"backgrounds of solid color\", or in \"clear accordance with indigenous artistic traditions\". However, once influenced by the Chinese, Persian painters gained much more freedom through the Chinese traditions of \"unrestricted space and infinite planes\". Much of the Chinese influence in Persian art is probably indirect, transmitted through Central Asia. There appear to be no Persian miniatures that are clearly the work of a Chinese artist or one trained in China itself. The most prestigious Chinese painting tradition, of literati landscape painting on scrolls, has little influence; instead the closest parallels are with wall-paintings and motifs such as clouds and dragons found in Chinese pottery, textiles, and other decorative arts.[42] The format and composition of the Persian miniature received strong influence from Chinese paintings.[43]The Ilkhanid rulers did not convert to Islam for several decades, meanwhile remaining Tantric Buddhists or Christians (usually Nestorians). While very few traces now remain, Buddhist and Christian images were probably easily available to Persian artists at this period.[44] Especially in Ilkhanid and Timurid Mongol-Persian mythological miniatures, mythical beasts were portrayed in a style close to the Chinese qilin, fenghuang (phoenix), bixie and Chinese dragon, though they have a much more aggressive character in Islamic art, and are often seen fighting each other or natural beasts.[45]","title":"Chinese influences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_ud-D%C4%ABn_Behz%C4%81d"},{"link_name":"Persianate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persianate"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Sultan Mohammed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed"},{"link_name":"Mir Sayyid Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_Sayyid_Ali"},{"link_name":"Aqa Mirak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqa_Mirak"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Samad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Samad"},{"link_name":"Mughal Emperors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Reza Abbasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Abbasi"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Sani ol molk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sani_ol_molk"},{"link_name":"Qajar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Mahmoud Farshchian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud_Farshchian"}],"text":"The workshop tradition and division of labour within both an individual miniature and a book, as described above, complicates the attribution of paintings. Some are inscribed with the name of the artist, sometimes as part of the picture itself, for example as if painted on tiles in a building, but more often as a note added on the page or elsewhere; where and when being often uncertain. Because of the nature of the works, literary and historical references to artists, even if they are relied upon, usually do not enable specific paintings to be identified, though there are exceptions. The reputation of Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād Herawī, or Behzād, the leading miniaturist of the late Timurid era, and founder of the Safavid school, remained supreme in the Persianate world, and at least some of his work, and style, can be identified with a degree of confidence, despite a good deal of continuing scholarly debate.[46]Sultan Mohammed, Mir Sayyid Ali, and Aqa Mirak, were leading painters of the next generation, the Safavid culmination of the classic style, whose attributed works are found together in several manuscripts.[47] Abd al-Samad was one of the most successful Persian painters recruited by the Mughal Emperors to work in India. In the next generation, Reza Abbasi worked in the Late Safavid period producing mostly album miniatures, and his style was continued by many later painters.[48] In the 19th century, the miniatures of Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari (Sani ol molk), active in Qajar Persia, showed originality, naturalism, and technical perfection.[49] Mahmoud Farshchian is a contemporary miniaturist whose style has broadened the scope of this art.","title":"Prominent Persian miniaturists"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SchoolOfTabriz3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tabriz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabriz"},{"link_name":"Zal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zal"},{"link_name":"Simurgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simurgh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bahram_Gur_Kills_the_Dragoon._Firdawsi,_Shahnama_1371.(Shiraz,_Muzaffarid_dyn.)_Topkapi_Palace_Library,_Istanbul.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bahram Gur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahram_Gur"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Big-Head_Shahname.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gilan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilan_Province"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Behzad_advice_ascetic.jpg"},{"link_name":"Behzad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_ud-D%C4%ABn_Behz%C4%81d"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bihhzad_001.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sleeping_Rustam.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rustam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam"},{"link_name":"Rakhsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhsh"},{"link_name":"Sultan Mohammed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_Mohammed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FOLIO_FROM_THE_SHAHNAMEH_OF_SHAH_TAHMASP,_ATTRIBUTED_TO_AQA_MIRAK,_CIRCA_1525-35,_Sotheby,s.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fereydun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fereydun"},{"link_name":"Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp"},{"link_name":"Aqa Mirak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqa_Mirak"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nizami_-_Khusraw_discovers_Shirin_bathing_in_a_pool.jpg"},{"link_name":"Khusraw discovers Shirin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_and_Shirin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Divan_von_Hafiz.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg"},{"link_name":"Attar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attar_of_Nishapur"},{"link_name":"Conference of the Birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conference_of_the_Birds"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg"},{"link_name":"Reza Abbasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Abbasi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thousand_and_One_Nights_21.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sani ol molk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sani_ol_molk"}],"sub_title":"Gallery","text":"Tabriz, c.1370, Abduction of Zal by the Simurgh\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBahram Gur Kills the Dragon, in a Shahnameh of 1371, Shiraz, with a very Chinese dragon\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPage from the Turkmen \"Big-head Shahnameh\", Gilan, 1494\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBehzad's Advice of the Ascetic, c. 1500-1550\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBath-house scene by Behzād\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRustam sleeps, while his horse Rakhsh fends off a tiger. Probably an early work by Sultan Mohammed, 1515–20\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFereydun in the guise of a dragon tests his sons\", from the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, attributed to Aqa Mirak, circa 1525-35\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKhusraw discovers Shirin bathing in a pool, a favourite scene, here from 1548\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPoetry, wine and gardens are common elements in later works - 1585\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tScene from Attar's Conference of the Birds, painted c. 1600\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tYouth reading, 1625-6 by Reza Abbasi\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPrince Muhammad-Beik of Georgia - Reza Abbasi, 1620\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIllustration of One Thousand and One Nights by Sani ol molk, Iran, 1853","title":"Prominent Persian miniaturists"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Maktab"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Turkman style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkman_style"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Style( Persian: (مکتب maktab) or (مدرسه school))","text":"The maktab of Iranian miniature painting have been named based on the central authority of the ruling empires in the country. Wherever power and wealth were concentrated and considered the capital and seat of government, artists would come to those places willingly or sometimes forcibly. This naming and classification of Iranian miniature painting maktab have been commonly used in Western research and to some extent in Iranian studies.There may be overlaps in the historical periods discussed later due to the dispersion of governments and their capitals within the realm of Iranian culture and art, rather than their political territories.Some of the Iranian miniature painting maktab include the following (in chronological order):1. Baghdad Maktab (or Abbasid Maktab): This maktab had a relatively short period during the late 12th century in the capital city of Baghdad under the Abbasid caliphate. It had less influence from Iranian art and showed a stronger inclination towards Byzantine painting and realism. However, some works exhibited influences from Sasanian and Central Asian art.2. Seljuk Maktab: This maktab emerged during the Seljuk period and was influenced by both Iranian and Central Asian art.3. First Tabriz Maktab (or Ilkhanid Maktab): This maktab developed during the Ilkhanid period, which was a Mongol dynasty. It had significant connections with Iranian and Central Asian art.4. First Shiraz Maktab: This maktab emerged in Shiraz and had its own distinctive style.5. Jalairid Maktab: This maktab developed during the Jalairid dynasty and had its own unique characteristics.6. Second Shiraz Maktab: This maktab emerged as a revival of the First Shiraz Maktab and continued its artistic traditions.7. Herat Maktab: This maktab flourished in Herat under the Timurid dynasty and produced remarkable works.8. Bukhara Maktab: This maktab developed in Bukhara and had its own distinct artistic style.9. Second Tabriz Maktab: This maktab emerged as a revival of the First Tabriz Maktab during the Safavid period and incorporated elements from various artistic traditions.10. Qazvin Maktab: This maktab emerged in Qazvin and had its own artistic characteristics.11. Isfahan Maktab: This maktab developed in Isfahan during the Safavid period and played a significant role in the development of Iranian miniature painting.12. Qajar Maktab: This maktab emerged during the Qajar dynasty and had its own distinct style.[citation needed]1) Tabriz Maktab of Art (First Period)With the Mongol invasion and the establishment of the Ilkhanate rule, Maragheh and Tabriz transformed into cultural centers. The Ilkhanate rule had two important consequences for Iranian painting. The first was the transfer of elements and techniques of Chinese art to Iran, and the second was the establishment of a form of collective artistic education in workshops and royal libraries. The Tabriz Maktab of Art, also known as the Mongol or Ilkhanid Maktab, along with its subsequent period, the Jalayirid period, formed the main foundation of Iranian painting. During this period, artists sought to integrate visual and pictorial art. One of the notable events of this period was the creation of a cultural complex near Tabriz, known as Rab'-e Rashidi, by the order of Rashid al-Din Fazlullah Hamadani, the vizier of Ghazan Khan. This place served as a gathering place for Iranian and foreign artists, scholars, and calligraphers. One of the works produced in Rab'-e Rashidi is the Comprehensive Book of Chronicles, which was worked on by numerous artists in various styles. The First Tabriz style brought about fundamental changes compared to its previous period, the Seljuk period. The technique of hatching, the depiction of clouds and mountains, the rendering of faces, composition, and shading all borrowed from Chinese art, while the use of silver color and the depiction of garments recalled Byzantine and Mesopotamian art. However, the figurative style of the human figures and their arrangement in the composition remained Iranian in nature. The scenes became more expansive, and we can even see a portion of the sky in the images. The peak of the First Tabriz art can be seen in the Demotte Shahnameh, where the influence of foreign arts is more evident. Nevertheless, this imitation gave rise to new visual patterns and concepts. For example, the dragon in Chinese art symbolizes nature and fertility, but the Iranian painter portrays Bahram fighting the dragon as a symbol of overcoming evil, indicating a disregard for their original meanings and a mere adoption of the Chinese pattern. One of the renowned artists of this period is Ahmad Musa.[citation needed]2) Jalayirid Maktab of ArtAfter the death of the last Mongol Ilkhan, Abu Sa'id, power struggles ensued among Mongol dynasties, and eventually, the Jalayirid dynasty seized power and established their rule in Tabriz and Baghdad. During this period, book illustration received significant attention, and artworks from the Ilkhanid period were collected and preserved. Despite the numerous tensions of this period, many artists, especially during the reign of Sultan Ahmad Jalayir, received patronage, with many kings themselves reciting poetry and engaging in painting. Although the artists continued the tradition of the Ilkhanid maktab, they also advanced experimental approaches. The outstanding result of this period is the Divan of Khwaju Kermani, which includes the signature of an artist named Junayd Baghdadi, making it the oldest known signature of an Iranian painter. In Junayd's paintings and generally in the Jalayirid maktab, the spaces expanded completely, and the paintings occupy an entire page. The figures in the images are slender and tall, and architectural spaces depict both interiors and exteriors simultaneously for the first time. In this period, books were written in a new style of Nasta'liq calligraphy, and the colors became more vibrant compared to the Ilkhanid period, while the issue of the relationship between humans and nature was resolved. Overall, the artworks of the Ilkhanid and Jalayirid periods can be divided into three main categories. The first category consists of pure Iranian works, which, even if influenced by other arts, are combined with Iranian elements. The second category includes paintings that combine Iranian and Chinese art, with a more tangible influence of Chinese art, and the third category consists of paintings abundant in Chinese elements and are almost foreign in nature. The artworks of the Jalayirid period belong to the first category, where Chinese elements are hardly seen.[citation needed]3) The Maktab of ShirazDuring the 8th century AH (14th century CE), while the Ilkhanid and Jalayirid maktabs were flourishing in Tabriz and Baghdad, an independent artistic movement was taking place in the city of Shiraz. When the Mongols invaded, the rulers of Fars managed to protect the city through diplomacy and intelligence, allowing it to continue its existence under the same previous rulers. Many Iranian artists and intellectuals sought refuge in Shiraz under the patronage of local dynasties, namely the Al-e Injou and later the Al-e Mozaffar. Consequently, Shiraz became a central hub for preserving and continuing the ancient traditions and arts of Iran, such as Seljuk art and resistance against foreign influences.Significant developments during this period include the flourishing of Persian poetry and literature, and the emergence of renowned figures like Saadi and Hafez. Calligraphy workshops thrived in Iran, and the production and illustration of Shahnameh (the Persian epic) had widespread popularity in Shiraz. The illustrations of Shirazi books were simple and reminiscent of Seljuk-era manuscripts, characterized by flat and vibrant colors, large figures, and shallow spaces, evoking the ancient traditions of Iranian art.In the Maktab of Shiraz, the central theme is humanity, while other motifs fill the surrounding spaces. After the death of Abu Sa'id, the last ruler of the Injou dynasty, Shiraz and some other cities became artistically independent. For instance, in cities like Behbahan, a unique style of nature illustration without human presence can be observed. During the Mozaffarid period, the depiction of lyrical poems (ghazals) received more attention, and the spaces became more expansive. Although the Maktab of Shiraz had its distinct path compared to Tabriz and Baghdad, there was artistic and cultural exchange between these cities, influencing one another. It can be inferred that the vibrant colors of the Maktab of Shiraz influenced Baghdad and Tabriz, while in return, the spacious compositions from Tabriz and Baghdad reached Shiraz. The production of books in Shiraz was so extensive that its products were exported to other countries such as Turkey and India, representing a tradition known as the \"commercial style\" that endured until the Safavid era in Isfahan.[citation needed]4) The Herat school (Maktab-e Herat)was an artistic movement in Persian painting during the medieval period, originating in the city of Herat in present-day Afghanistan. The maktab flourished under the patronage of Baysonqor Mirza, who succeeded Shah Rukh and established Herat as his capital. During Baysonqor Mirza's reign, the workshop of the royal court in Herat became a melting pot of artistic influences from Shiraz, Tabriz, and even Chinese painting traditions. These diverse influences converged to give birth to the distinctive style of the Herat Maktab. The artistic style of the Baysonqor Mirza period transformed into a formal and refined manner, exemplified in the illustrations of the Baysonqori Shahnameh. Notable artists of this period included Jafar Tabrizi, Gawwam al-Din, Mir Khalil, and Khwaja Ghiyath al-Din. Despite the upheavals in Herat after Shah Rukh's death until the reign of Hussain Bayqara, independent artworks from artists such as Maulana Vali Allah and Mansur were produced. The establishment of Sultan Husayn Bayqara's rule and the presence of his minister, Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i, marked a splendid era for art in Iran. Various art forms thrived, and artists gained recognition. Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i fostered a gathering of intellectuals who came together regardless of social status, sharing ideas and artworks. Notable members of this gathering included Wa'iz Kashifi, Kamal al-Din Behzad, and Sultan Ali Mashhadi. During this period, alongside the traditional masters who continued the Baysonqori style, a new generation of talented and innovative artists emerged, introducing new experiences to Persian painting. For example, Haji Mohammad Haravi, known as Mohammad Siyah Qalam, incorporated Iranian satire and grotesque elements in his works. Kamal al-Din Behzad focused on human figures and depicted everyday life in courtly paintings. In this period, the art of portraiture gradually gained popularity, often attributed to Kamal al-Din Behzad. Some portraits of contemporary rulers like Sultan Husayn and Shah Bayqara have survived from this time. This style was also influenced by the arrival of Gentile Bellini, who came to Istanbul at the invitation of an Ottoman Sultan, and later had an impact on Timurid artists. The Herat Maktab encompassed various artistic trends and exhibited a high degree of diversity. However, the works of the Sultan Husayn and Kamal al-Din Behzad period, known as the Kamaleddin Behzad Maktab, are particularly well-known. Generally, it can be said that colors became more vibrant in the Herat Maktab, and the compositions became more complex, featuring circular and intersecting elements. Human activities and details received more attention, and the workshop tradition became a fixed practice in Persian painting. The Herat Maktab, especially the style of Kamal al-Din Behzad, had a direct influence on subsequent periods, such as the Second Tabriz Maktab. Following the rise of the Shaybanid dynasty in Herat, Mohammad Khan Shaybani moved the capital to Bukhara, leading many artists of the Herat Maktab to migrate there. This migration gave rise to the Bukhara Maktab, which followed in the footsteps of the Herat Maktab. The prominent artist of the Bukhara Maktab was Mahmud Muzahhib, who continued the style of Kamal al-Din Behzad. The characteristics of the Bukhara Maktab included rich colors, intricate details within simple forms, short figures, and frontal structures.[citation needed]5) The Second Shiraz SchoolIn the city of Shiraz during the Timurid period, specifically in the late 8th century, two Timurid rulers, Sultan Iskandar and Sultan Ibrahim, governed Shiraz and greatly influenced its art. Sultan Iskandar gathered the artists of Shiraz once again after the Timurid invasions. It is likely that Pir Ahmad Baghshamali was active in Sultan Iskandar's workshop. The painters of Sultan Iskandar depicted his battles, which became known as \"The Selected Battles of Sultan Iskandar.\" The court style of Sultan Iskandar had already emerged before the establishment of the Herat School and demonstrated the earliest fusion of Iran's exquisite painting styles, such as the Jalairid and Al-Muzaffar styles. The use of lapis lazuli blue color, sponge-like rocks in the sky's horizon, slender and colorful figures, and embellished architectural structures with arabesque patterns were characteristic of the Iskandar School, which later directly influenced the Herat School. Sultan Iskandar was deposed due to conflicts with Shah Rukh Timurid and was succeeded by Ibrahim Sultan, Shah Rukh's son. Ibrahim Sultan's reign brought about significant transformations in the Shiraz style. The figures became more strongly designed, and the colors became more muted, with a strong tendency towards compositional harmony evident in the artworks. Calligraphic elements gained particular importance in the composition, and fixed rules for arranging and formatting texts were established, which became inseparable from the Shiraz style until the late 10th century AH. The general rule was to place two or four inscriptions at the top and bottom of the image, creating a symmetrical and geometric structure within the artwork, with significant subjects often appearing in the central section and beneath the horizon line. Notable works from this period include the Khamsa of Nizami and the Shahnameh of Ibrahim Sultan.[citation needed]6) The Turkman StyleDuring the 8th century AH, two Turkmen tribes simultaneously occupied the western regions of Iran. Initially, the Qara Qoyunlu gained power and made Tabriz their capital, followed by the Aq Qoyunlu, who seized control over all of Iran except for Khorasan. Overall, the Turkman style was a mixture of the Herat, Tabriz, Shiraz, and Baghdad schools. They established a royal workshop similar to the Timurid court workshop and employed both local and non-local painters. The result was a new and distinct style characterized by robust figures, round faces with arched eyebrows, and small mouths. The works produced in the Tabriz region, due to the strong tradition of landscape painting in the early Tabriz school, emphasized nature in Turkmen painting, giving rise to fantastical and surreal landscapes. As previously mentioned, there was a commercial style in Shiraz during the first period of the Shiraz School, which continued with the arrival of the Turkmen. The non-courtly Turkman style was simple and unadorned, yet it can be considered suitable for commercial purposes due to its commercial nature and high production. Nevertheless, these images are very explicit and clear in terms of description. One of the Shirazi artists believed to be the creator of this commercial style is Farhad. He is the same artist who illustrated the Khavarannameh manuscript written by Ibn Husam Khusfi. These illustrations have innovative compositions that vividly demonstrate Farhad's imagination. The final and most advanced phase of the Turkman style occurred during the reign of Yakub Beg, the Aq Qoyunlu ruler. Artists such as Sheikh and Darvish Mohammad produced images of the Khamsa of Nizami during that period. These images feature imaginative landscapes and diverse colors, with nature surpassing humanity. The power of imagination in these images is so high that the peaks of rocky mountains transform into human and animal forms. This poetic depiction of nature also found its way into the Safavid school through Sultan Muhammad.[citation needed]7) Tabriz School 2With the establishment of the Safavid government, Shah Ismail chose Tabriz as the center of his rule and gathered Turkmen painters, including Sultan Muhammad, in Tabriz. Artists from the Herat school, such as Sheikhzadeh and Kamal al-Din Behzad, initially produced artistic works under the rule of the Safavid government in Herat and then migrated to Tabriz during the reign of Shah Tahmasb. One notable work produced in Safavid Herat is the \"Zafarnama\" (Book of Victory), characterized by intricate compositions, diverse colors, and strong design, displaying elements of Behzad's style. In comparison to his Timurid-era works in the Herat school, Behzad's works in the Tabriz school exhibit less vibrant spirit and subdued colors, possibly influenced by the taste of the court patrons. One of the main characteristics we observe in Safavid paintings is the presence of a specific type of turban known as the \"Qizilbash turban.\" The fusion of Western and Eastern Iranian painting styles gave rise to an authentic and complete style, exemplified by Shahnameh-e Tahmasbi (Tahmasb's Shahnameh) and Khamsa-e Tahmasbi (Tahmasb's Khamsa), which were the result of collaborative efforts by a group of artists. These two works represent a juxtaposition of two main stylistic poles: Sultan Muhammad's style, the Turkman style, and the contrasting style of the Calligraphers of the Behzad School. It seems that in images dominated by nature and slightly surreal, the Turkmen and Sultan Muhammad schools had an influence, while the Calligraphers of the Behzad School created works that focused more on human figures and human relationships. The paintings in the Tabriz school became much busier, featuring more figures within a scene. This led to more complex compositions, a higher variety of colors, and a tendency to push the figures out of the space. In Tabriz School 2, although there is no perspective, the principles of authentic Iranian painting are adhered to. However, due to the complex relationships between elements and architecture, the images appear both two-dimensional and three-dimensional simultaneously. The synchronicity of events and places reached its peak in Tabriz School 2, where one can witness various events taking place within a single image, yet perceiving the works as cohesive and unified. Tabriz School 2 came to a halt with the capital's relocation to Qazvin, and after Shah Tahmasb's withdrawal of support, many artists dispersed to various cities. On the other hand, in Mashhad, Ibrahim Mirza, a young Safavid prince, established a workshop and brought together skilled artists from Tabriz and local artists in Mashhad. Thus, the Safavid Tabriz style continued in Mashhad with new approaches. One of the most significant works produced in Mashhad is the \"Haft Orang\" by Jami. Overall, in Mashhad, we encounter new characteristics, including emphasis on color through white spots, dominance of soft and curvilinear lines, presence of ancient trees, fragmented rocks, and slender figures with long necks and round faces. During the twenty years that Mashhad continued its activities, there was not much book illustration flourishing in the Safavid capital of Qazvin, and only a few works were produced following the Mashhad style during a short period, particularly during the reign of Ismail II.[citation needed]8) \"Maktab-i IsfahanAfter a tumultuous decade, Shah Abbas ascended the Safavid throne and relocated the capital to Isfahan. During this period, all the industrial arts flourished and served the taste of the Shah, resulting in the infiltration of Western art into the underlying fabric of society. Architecture, textiles, carpets, and ceramics of this era had numerous enthusiastic admirers, yet, with a fair critique, one can find a decline in vitality and creativity in almost all the arts of this period. However, the field of painting had a different and pioneering movement, as it was almost independent of court patronage. In this period, even before the Isfahan School, we encounter a new style where artists produced works independent of books on a large scale. The emergence of this phenomenon depended on two factors: a decrease in court support and the growth of the merchant class. The taste of the Shahs was changing, and artists could not rely solely on court patronage. Consequently, they turned towards capitalists and nobles. As they lacked the financial capability to produce a complete book, they contented themselves with single-page illustrations. In the midst of this, a young and talented artist named Reza Abbasi appeared and perfected this style of painting. Reza Abbasi's technique was based on the value of line, giving volume to the work through the thickness and thinness of lines. In his paintings, figures were usually large and detached from the surroundings. Later, Moin Mosavar continued Reza Abbasi's style by combining it with his own personal style. Generally, it can be said that the connection between painting and literature had weakened, and the line had surpassed color in the art of painting. These two events led artists to observe their surroundings and document various everyday events. Workshop traditions gradually weakened, and individual worth of each artist became more independent during this period. As a result, signing and long inscriptions became prevalent, particularly in the works of Moin Mosavar.\"Wall painting was another art form that emerged in the 11th century AH (17th century CE) in the Safavid palaces of Isfahan and continued the style of Qazvin School wall paintings. The compositions of the wall paintings resemble the illustrations found in books, but when executed on a large scale, they lose the delicacy found in books. Gradually, with the arrival of Europeans, Western painting styles entered Iranian paintings and captivated the taste of the Safavid Shahs. In the late period, we witness two main trends: the first being the distinctive and independent style of painters such as Reza Abbasi and Moin Mosavar, and the second being painters like Mohammad Zaman, who were influenced by European naturalism, and their works were referred to as the \"School of Italy in Isfahan\". The first trend continued until the end of Moin Mosavar's life, while the inclination towards naturalism grew and became more formalized, marking a new beginning in the Iranian painting style.[citation needed]9) The Qajar SchoolThis style emerged during the Zand period and continued into the Qajar era and slightly beyond. This style holds a prominent position as a cohesive and school-based style in Iranian painting, encompassing all the thematic and practical features of a painting school. It was primarily developed through the fusion of traditional Iranian painting characteristics with elements and techniques borrowed from European painting. Although there were some works in a similar style during the Safavid period in Iran, which were referred to as \"Europeanization,\" it found its distinct form primarily during the Zand period and continued into the Qajar era. A genre of folk painting known as \"Qahveh-Khaneh-gari\" (coffeehouse painting) also emerged during this time.[citation needed]","title":"Maktab"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intangible_cultural_heritage"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-50"}],"text":"In 2020, UNESCO inscribed the art of miniature on its Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity upon the nomination of four countries in which it is an important element of their culture: Azerbaijan, Iran, Turkey, and Uzbekistan.[50]In their rationale for inscription on the list, the nominators highlighted that \"The patterns of the miniature represent beliefs, worldviews and lifestyles in a pictorial fashion and also gained a new character through the Islamic influence. While there are stylistic differences between them, the art of miniature as practised by the submitting States Parties shares crucial features. In all cases, it is a traditional craft typically transmitted through mentor-apprentice relationships (non-formal education) and considered as an integral part of each society's social and cultural identity\".[50]","title":"Intangible cultural heritage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Henri Matisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Matisse"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"My Name Is Red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Name_Is_Red"},{"link_name":"Orhan Pamuk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk"}],"text":"The French painter Henri Matisse said he was inspired by Persian miniatures. He visited the Munich 1910 exhibition of Persian miniatures and carpets, and noted that:\n\"the Persian miniatures showed me the possibility of my sensations. That art had devices to suggest a greater space, a really plastic space. It helped me to get away from intimate painting.\"[51]Persian miniatures are mentioned in the novel My Name Is Red by Orhan Pamuk.","title":"In later culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"illuminated manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of 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Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/loveYearning/base.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20220104075728/https://asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/loveYearning/base.html/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-42"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-43"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-44"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-hasan-khan-gaffari-sani-al-molk-1814-66-painter-in-oils-and-miniature-lacquer-artist-and-book-illustrator"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161117010609/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abul-hasan-khan-gaffari-sani-al-molk-1814-66-painter-in-oils-and-miniature-lacquer-artist-and-book-illustrator"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-unesco_50-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-unesco_50-1"},{"link_name":"\"Art of miniature\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ich.unesco.org/en/RL/art-of-miniature-01598"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"\"Matisse, Persian miniatures and Modernism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog/Examplehttps//www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog-page-url/2017/12/12/new-post-title"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20191217170052/https://www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog/Examplehttps//www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog-page-url/2017/12/12/new-post-title"}],"text":"^ Gruber, throughout; see Welch, 95-97 for one of the most famous examples, illustrated below\n\n^ In the terminology of Western illuminated manuscripts, \"illumination\" usually covers both narrative scenes and decorative elements.\n\n^ Canby (2009), 83\n\n^ Gray (1930), 22-23\n\n^ Gray (1930), 22-28; Welch, 35\n\n^ Gray (1930), 25-26, 44-50\n\n^ Gray (1930), 25-26, 48-49, 64\n\n^ Sims\n\n^ OAO (3, ii and elsewhere)\n\n^ Brend, 164-165\n\n^ OAO, Sims; Gray (1930), 74-81\n\n^ OAO\n\n^ Metropolitan Museum of Art Archived 2011-03-07 at the Wayback Machine \"The Conference of the Birds\": Page from a manuscript of the Mantiq al-Tayr (The Language of the Birds) of Farid al-Din cAttar, Isfahan (63.210.11). In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.\n\n^ Crill and Jarilwala, 50-51; Art Fund Archived 2011-06-17 at the Wayback Machine with image. The painting uses miniature techniques on cotton, and is much larger than most miniatures.\n\n^ Uluc, 73\n\n^ Roxburgh (2000), 6-8\n\n^ Welch, 12-14\n\n^ Gray (1930), 22-26; Welch, 12-14\n\n^ Thackston, 43-44\n\n^ Thackston, 43-44; a good number of those named are mentioned in other sources.\n\n^ a b Jaber, Shady (2021). \"The Paintings of al-Āthār al-Bāqiya of al-Bīrūnī: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation\" (PDF). Lebanese American University: Figure 5.\n\n^ \"Consultation Supplément Persan 205\". archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr. Bibliothèque Nationale de France.\n\n^ Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.\n\n^ Gray (1930), 27-28\n\n^ Sims\n\n^ J. Bloom & S. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 2023-07-01. Retrieved 2020-11-02.\n\n^ a b Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 214-215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.\n\n^ Ettinghausen, Richard (1959). \"On Some Mongol Miniatures\". Kunst des Orients. 3: 44–45. ISSN 0023-5393.\n\n^ a b Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.\n\n^ Sims\n\n^ Canby (1993), 33-34\n\n^ Gray (1976), 309-315, OAO; Rawson, 146-147\n\n^ Gray (1976), 310-311\n\n^ Sims\n\n^ Simms\n\n^ Titley, 103; Welch (mostly on Freer Jami after p. 24), 23-27, 31, 98-127; Freer Gallery Archived 2022-01-04 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ OAO; Gray (1930), 74-89; Welch, throughout\n\n^ Gray (1930), 37-55; Welch, 14-18; OAO\n\n^ Titley, 80; Walther & Wolf, 420-424\n\n^ Canby (1993), 79-80\n\n^ see Welch, 95-97\n\n^ Rawson, Chapter 5\n\n^ Schmitz and Desai, 172; Meri, 585\n\n^ Rawson, 146-147\n\n^ Rawson, 169-173\n\n^ Gray (1930), 57-66; OAO\n\n^ Welch, 17-27, and many individual pictures shown\n\n^ Gray (1930), 80-87\n\n^ B. W. Robinson, \"Abu'l-Hasan Khan Gaffari Archived 2016-11-17 at the Wayback Machine,\" Encyclopædia Iranica, I/3, pp. 306-308\n\n^ a b \"Art of miniature\". UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 14 January 2024.\n\n^ Walsh, Judy. \"Matisse, Persian miniatures and Modernism\". judy walsh artwork. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-12-17.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grabar, Oleg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Grabar"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-691-04999-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04999-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-04999-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04999-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7546-3367-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-3367-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7546-3367-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3367-9"},{"link_name":"Robinson, B. W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_William_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Robinson, B. W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_William_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Schmitz, Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Schmitz"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"81-7305-278-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7305-278-6"},{"link_name":"Welch, Stuart Cary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Cary_Welch"},{"link_name":"Art in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/art-in-iran-ix-safavid"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Iranica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica"},{"link_name":"Persian drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/90639/rec/3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0870995642","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870995642"},{"link_name":"A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/36222/rec/1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780870990281","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870990281"},{"link_name":"Illustrated poetry and epic images : Persian painting of the 1330s and 1340s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/81182"}],"text":"Grabar, Oleg, Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting, 2001, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-04999-8, ISBN 978-0-691-04999-1\nHillenbrand, Robert. Shahnama: the visual language of the Persian book of kings, Ashgate Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-7546-3367-5, ISBN 978-0-7546-3367-9\nRobinson, B. W., Islamic painting and the arts of the book, London, Faber and Faber, 1976\nRobinson, B. W., Persian paintings in the India Office Library, a descriptive catalogue, London, Sotheby Parke Bernet, 1976\nSchmitz, Barbara, and Desai, Ziyaud-Din A. Mughal and Persian paintings and illustrated manuscripts in the Raza Library, Rampur, 2006, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, ISBN 81-7305-278-6\n\"Iranica\", Welch, Stuart Cary, and others, Art in Iran:vii. Islamic pre-Safavid, ix. Safavid to Qajar Periods, in Encyclopædia Iranica (online, accessed January 27, 2011)\nSwietochowski, Marie Lukens & Babaie, Sussan (1989). Persian drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870995642.\nWelch, S.C. (1972). A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870990281.\nSwietochowski, Marie & Carboni, Stefano (1994). Illustrated poetry and epic images : Persian painting of the 1330s and 1340s. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Yusuf and Zulaikha (Joseph chased by Potiphar's wife), by Behzād, 1488","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Yusef_Zuleykha.jpg/220px-Yusef_Zuleykha.jpg"},{"image_text":"Camp scene from late in the classic period, with no frame (c. 1556-1565), Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; Majnun (at top wearing orange) spies on his beloved Layla (standing in tent doorway).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82_%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_1556-65_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80.jpg/220px-%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%82_%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_1556-65_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80.jpg"},{"image_text":"Saki, album miniature by Reza Abbasi, 1609","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Saki_-_Reza_Abbasi_-_Moraqqa%E2%80%99-e_Golshan_1609_Golestan_Palace.jpg/220px-Saki_-_Reza_Abbasi_-_Moraqqa%E2%80%99-e_Golshan_1609_Golestan_Palace.jpg"},{"image_text":"Complex palace scene, 1539–1543, Mir Sayyid Ali","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Mir_Sayyid_Ali_2.jpg/220px-Mir_Sayyid_Ali_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Juvaynī sitting and writing in front of Mongol emir Arghun Aqa. Frontispiece of Tārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā \"The History of The World Conqueror\" (damaged), completed in A.H. 689/ 1290 CE. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (Suppl. Pers. 205).[21][22] It shows the \"origin of the Metropolitan style\" at the Ilkhanid court.[23]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Suppl._Pers._205_Frontispiece_detail.jpg/330px-Suppl._Pers._205_Frontispiece_detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ibn Bakhtishu's Manafi al-Hayawan (\"Uses of Animals\"), commissioned by Ghazan. Maragha, Persia, 1297-1299. Morgan Library & Museum (Ms. M.500).[21]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Arabischer_Maler_um_1295_001.jpg/220px-Arabischer_Maler_um_1295_001.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Mi'raj (also called the \"Night Ride\") of Muhammed on Buraq, Tabriz, 1307; Ilkhanid, with both Christian and Chinese influences, and horizontal format.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Muhammad_during_the_Mi%27raj_-_from_Jami_al-Tawarikh.jpg/220px-Muhammad_during_the_Mi%27raj_-_from_Jami_al-Tawarikh.jpg"},{"image_text":"Scene from the Demotte or \"Great Mongol Shahnameh\", a key Ilkhanid work, 1330s?","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Demotte_Shahname_002.jpg/220px-Demotte_Shahname_002.jpg"},{"image_text":"Baysonghor Shahnameh, 1430. He was a key patron of the Herat school","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Baysunghur%27s_Shahname_001.jpg/220px-Baysunghur%27s_Shahname_001.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mi'raj of the Prophet by Sultan Muhammad, showing Chinese-influenced clouds and angels, 1539-43.[41]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Miraj_by_Sultan_Muhammad.jpg/220px-Miraj_by_Sultan_Muhammad.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Persian culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_culture"},{"title":"List of Persian painters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Persian_painters"},{"title":"Persianate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persianate"}] | [{"reference":"Jaber, Shady (2021). \"The Paintings of al-Āthār al-Bāqiya of al-Bīrūnī: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation\" (PDF). Lebanese American University: Figure 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://laur.lau.edu.lb:8443/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10725/13751/Shady_Jaber_Thesis_Redacted.pdf?sequence=3","url_text":"\"The Paintings of al-Āthār al-Bāqiya of al-Bīrūnī: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Consultation Supplément Persan 205\". archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr. Bibliothèque Nationale de France.","urls":[{"url":"https://archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cc33978s","url_text":"\"Consultation Supplément Persan 205\""}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA215","url_text":"Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1","url_text":"978-0-19-530991-1"}]},{"reference":"J. Bloom & S. Blair (2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 192 and 207. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 2023-07-01. Retrieved 2020-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=cairo+egypt+miniature+paintings+mamluk&pg=RA1-PA192","url_text":"Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1","url_text":"978-0-19-530991-1"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230701140919/https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&q=cairo+egypt+miniature+paintings+mamluk&pg=RA1-PA192","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 214-215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA214","url_text":"Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1","url_text":"978-0-19-530991-1"}]},{"reference":"Ettinghausen, Richard (1959). \"On Some Mongol Miniatures\". Kunst des Orients. 3: 44–45. ISSN 0023-5393.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20752311","url_text":"\"On Some Mongol Miniatures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0023-5393","url_text":"0023-5393"}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (14 May 2009). Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set. OUP USA. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA215","url_text":"Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1","url_text":"978-0-19-530991-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Art of miniature\". UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 14 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/art-of-miniature-01598","url_text":"\"Art of miniature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Judy. \"Matisse, Persian miniatures and Modernism\". judy walsh artwork. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-12-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog/Examplehttps//www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog-page-url/2017/12/12/new-post-title","url_text":"\"Matisse, Persian miniatures and Modernism\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191217170052/https://www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog/Examplehttps//www.judywalsh-artwork.com/blog-page-url/2017/12/12/new-post-title","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Swietochowski, Marie Lukens & Babaie, Sussan (1989). Persian drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870995642.","urls":[{"url":"http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/90639/rec/3","url_text":"Persian drawings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870995642","url_text":"0870995642"}]},{"reference":"Welch, S.C. (1972). A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870990281.","urls":[{"url":"http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/36222/rec/1","url_text":"A king's book of kings: the Shah-nameh of Shah Tahmasp"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870990281","url_text":"9780870990281"}]},{"reference":"Swietochowski, Marie & Carboni, Stefano (1994). Illustrated poetry and epic images : Persian painting of the 1330s and 1340s. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Nova_Scotia | List of counties of Nova Scotia | ["1 History","2 List","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Counties of Nova ScotiaLocationProvince of Nova ScotiaNumber18Populations7,373 (Guysborough) – 440,072 (Halifax)Areas1,244.24 km² (Richmond) – 5,495.71 km² (Halifax)GovernmentCounty government (defunct in 9 counties)SubdivisionsMunicipalities
Counties of Nova Scotia (1862) with township subdivisions
The Canadian province of Nova Scotia has a historical system of 18 counties that originally had appointed court systems for local administration before the establishment of elected local governments in 1879. The historical counties continue as census divisions used by Statistics Canada in administering the Canadian census.
History
Before the establishment of rural municipalities in the form of county municipalities and district municipalities in 1879, local government in the historical counties was administered by appointed courts of sessions including justices appointed by the Crown with support from local proprietors selected to grand juries. These courts of sessions met "in the counties to hear cases, make regulations, authorize assessments, and appoint local officers." On April 17, 1879, the original non-elected courts of sessions were abolished in favour of elected councils when The County Incorporation Act came into force, which stated
The Inhabitants of every County and Sessional District in this Province ... shall be a body corporate under the name of the Municipality of the respective county or district, as the case may (be), ... As a result, 12 county municipalities were established, while the remaining 6 counties, which were previously divided into districts for court sessional purposes, were established as district municipalities. Today, 9 of the original 12 remain incorporated as county municipalities, with 3 eventually becoming regional municipalities in 1995 and 1996, while Statistics Canada uses all 18 historical counties as census divisions for statistical purposes in the Canadian census. County municipalities and district municipalities provide local government to the residents of the historical counties living outside of incorporated towns and regional municipalities.
Nova Scotia's 18 counties by government structure.
List
County
County seat
Established
Organization of county
Population(2021)
Population(2016)
Change
Land area(km²)
Populationdensity
Annapolis
Annapolis Royal
1759
County municipality
21,252
20,591
+3.2%
3,183.23
6.7/km2
Antigonish
Antigonish
1785
County municipality
20,129
19,301
+4.3%
1,456.42
13.8/km2
Cape Bretona
Sydney
1765
Regional municipality
98,318
98,722
−0.4%
2,457.21
40.0/km2
Colchester
Truro
1835
County municipality
51,476
50,585
+1.8%
3,627.50
14.2/km2
Cumberland
Amherst
1759
County municipality
30,538
30,005
+1.8%
4,275.77
7.1/km2
Digby
Digby
1837
District municipality
17,062
17,323
−1.5%
2,512.28
6.8/km2
Guysborough
Guysborough
1836
District municipality
7,373
7,625
−3.3%
4,037.16
1.8/km2
Halifaxb
Halifax
1759
Regional municipality
440,072
403,390
+9.1%
5,477.53
80.3/km2
Hants
Windsor
1781
District municipality
45,140
42,558
+6.1%
3,049.18
14.8/km2
Inverness
Port Hood
1835
County municipality
17,346
17,235
+0.6%
3,817.61
4.5/km2
Kings
Kentville
1759
County municipality
62,914
60,600
+3.8%
2,120.31
29.7/km2
Lunenburg
Lunenburg
1759
District municipality
48,599
47,126
+3.1%
2,906.47
16.7/km2
Pictou
Pictou
1835
County municipality
43,657
43,748
−0.2%
2,844.10
15.4/km2
Queensc
Liverpool
1762
Regional municipality
10,501
10,351
+1.4%
2,393.44
4.4/km2
Richmond
Arichat
1835
County municipality
8,914
8,964
−0.6%
1,246.08
7.2/km2
Shelburne
Shelburne
1784
District municipality
13,704
13,966
−1.9%
2,462.58
5.6/km2
Victoria
Baddeck
1851
County municipality
7,441
7,089
+5.0%
2,836.19
2.6/km2
Yarmouth
Yarmouth
1836
District municipality
24,947
24,419
+2.2%
2,121.64
11.8/km2
Total counties
—
—
—
969,383
923,598
+5.0%
52,824.71
18.4/km2
a county boundaries contiguous with those of the Cape Breton Regional Municipality.b county boundaries contiguous with those of the Halifax Regional Municipality.c county boundaries contiguous with those of the Region of Queens Municipality.
See also
Administrative divisions of Canada
Demographics of Nova Scotia
Geography of Nova Scotia
List of communities in Nova Scotia
List of municipalities in Nova Scotia
List of towns in Nova Scotia
List of villages in Nova Scotia
Subdivisions of Canada
References
^ County government has been defunct since 1879 for 6 counties now administered by district municipalities, and since 1995/1996 for 3 counties now administered by regional municipalities.
^ a b c d e "The Establishment of Elective Rural Municipal Government in Nova Scotia" (PDF). Government of Nova Scotia: Department of Municipal Affairs. pp. 1, 2. Retrieved December 27, 2016.
^ a b "Nova Scotia Annual Report of Municipal Statistics for the fiscal year ended March 31, 2014" (PDF). Department of Municipal Affairs. 2014. p. 12. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 29, 2016.
^ a b c d e f "Population and dwelling count highlight tables, 2021 Census". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Retrieved August 2, 2023.
^ "History of County Boundaries". Province of Nova Scotia: Department of Municipal Affairs. October 8, 2015. Retrieved December 27, 2016.
^ Foster Stockwell (2004). A Sourcebook for Genealogical Research: Resources Alphabetically by Type and Location. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 205. ISBN 9780786484386. Retrieved December 29, 2016.
External links
The County Incorporation Act and the Establishment of Municipal Government in Nova Scotia
Municipal History Highlights
Municipal Incorporation Timeline
vteSubdivisions of Nova ScotiaCounties
Annapolis
Antigonish
Cape Breton
Colchester
Cumberland
Digby
Guysborough
Halifax
Hants
Inverness
Kings
Lunenburg
Pictou
Queens
Richmond
Shelburne
Victoria
Yarmouth
County municipalities
Annapolis
Antigonish
Colchester
Cumberland
Inverness
Kings
Pictou
Richmond
Victoria
Regional municipalities
Cape Breton
Halifax
Queens
West Hants
District municipalities
Argyle
Barrington
Chester
Clare
Digby
East Hants
Guysborough
Lunenburg
Shelburne
St. Mary's
Yarmouth
Towns
Amherst
Annapolis Royal
Antigonish
Berwick
Bridgewater
Clark's Harbour
Digby
Kentville
Lockeport
Lunenburg
Mahone Bay
Middleton
Mulgrave
New Glasgow
Oxford
Pictou
Port Hawkesbury
Shelburne
Stellarton
Stewiacke
Trenton
Truro
Westville
Wolfville
Yarmouth
Villages
Aylesford
Baddeck
Bible Hill
Canning
Chester
Cornwallis Square
Dover
Freeport
Greenwood
Hebbville
Kingston
Lawrencetown
New Minas
Port Williams
Pugwash
River Hebert
St. Peter's
Tatamagouche
Tiverton
Westport
Weymouth
Economic regions
Annapolis Valley
Cape Breton Island
Halifax Regional Municipality
North Shore
Southern Nova Scotia
Lists
Administrative divisions
Communities
Municipalities
People
Category:Nova Scotia
Portal:Canada
WikiProject:Nova Scotia
vteCensus divisions of Canada (by province or territory)Provinces
Alberta
British Columbia
Manitoba
New Brunswick
Newfoundland and Labrador
Nova Scotia
Ontario
Prince Edward Island
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Territories
Northwest Territories
Nunavut
Yukon
Category
Canada portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nova_Scotia_1862_0450001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canadian province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"counties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County"},{"link_name":"census divisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_divisions_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Statistics Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada"},{"link_name":"Canadian census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_in_Canada"}],"text":"Counties of Nova Scotia (1862) with township subdivisionsThe Canadian province of Nova Scotia has a historical system of 18 counties that originally had appointed court systems for local administration before the establishment of elected local governments in 1879. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_loyalty | Fan loyalty | ["1 Underpinning psychology","2 Factors influencing fan loyalty","2.1 Community","2.2 Brand association","2.3 Motivations","3 Social media influence","4 Measurements and indices of fan loyalty","5 Threats to loyalty","6 References","7 Further reading"] | The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
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Fan loyalty is the loyalty felt and expressed by a fan towards the object of his/her fanaticism. Fan Loyalty is often used in the context of sports and the support of a specific team or institution. Fan loyalties can range from a passive support to radical allegiance and expressions of loyalty can take shape in many forms and be displayed across varying platforms. Fan loyalty can be threatened by team actions. The loyalties of sports fans in particular have been studied by psychologists, who have determined several factors that help to create such loyalties.
Underpinning psychology
Given the extensive costs involved in managing and operating a professional team sport, it is beneficial for sports marketers to be conscious of the elements that establish a strong brand and the effect they have on fan loyalty, so they can best cater to their current fans while acquiring new ones. This is because fans and spectators are considered key stakeholders of professional sports organisations. Fans directly and indirectly influence the production of operating revenue through purchasing merchandise, buying game tickets and improving the value that can be obtained from television broadcasting deals and sponsorship. Therefore, fans are a key factor to consider in determining the economic success of a sports club.
Deep psychological connections with new teams can be built with individuals before a team has even played a match revealing insights can develop quickly in the mind of consumers without direct encounters or experiences e.g. watching a team compete. Brand management approaches are helping sport organisations to expand the sport experience, appeal to new fans and enable long term business to consumer relationships through multi faceted connection such as social media. To affect consumers’ loyalty with a team, they must develop a compelling, positive and distinctive brand in order to stand out amongst competitor and vie for fan support.
Loyalty programmes positively shape fan attachment and behaviour as it connects teams and their fans, aside from a club's season ticketholder database. It not only provides marketers with essential information about consumers and their thinking, but also acts as a channel to promote attendance and an opportunity to add value to their game day experience.
Bauer et al. concludes that non product related attributes such as contextual factors (other fans, the club history and tradition, logo, club colours and the stadium atmosphere) hold a higher place in fan experience than product related attributes such as the team's winning record. Therefore, to increase fan loyalty (customer retention) Bauer et al. suggests sports marketers focus on targeting non product related benefits and brand attributes. As a result of fostering this loyalty, sports organisations can afford to charge prices at premium. Fan loyalty also leads to dependable ratings in broadcast media which means broadcasters can also charge premiums for advertising time in team broadcasts with loyal followings. A flow on effect from fan loyalty is the ability to create additional revenue streams outside of the core product such as merchandise shops and food venues that are close to the location of the game if the team chooses to own and operate ventures or share licensing agreements.
Fan loyalty, particularly with respect to team sports, is different from brand loyalty, in as much as if a consumer bought a product that was of lower quality than expected, he or she will usually abandon allegiance to the brand. However, fan loyalty continues even if the team that the fan supports continues to perform poorly year after year. Author Mark Conrad uses the Chicago Cubs as an example of a team with a loyal fan following, where fans spend their money in support of a poorly performing team that (until 2016) had not won a pennant since 1945 or a World Series since 1908.
Several psychologists have studied fan loyalty, and what causes a person to be a loyal fan, that sticks with a team through adversity (win or lose), rather than a bandwagon fan or fairweather fan, that switches support to whatever teams happen to be successful at the time. These include Dan Wann, a psychologist at Murray State University, psychologist Robert Passikoff.
They attribute it to the following factors:
Entertainment Value
The entertainment value that a fan derives from spectating motivates him/her to remain a loyal fan. Entertainment value of team sports is also valuable to communities in general.
Authenticity
This is described by Passikoff as "the acceptance of the game as real and meaningful".
Fan Bonding
Fan bonding is where a fan bonds with the players, identifying with them as individuals, and bonds with the team.
Team History and Tradition
Shank gives the Cincinnati Reds, all-professional baseball's oldest team, as an example of a team where a long team history and tradition is a motivator for fans in the Cincinnati area.
Group Affiliation
Fans receive personal validation of their support for a team from being surrounded by a group of fans who also support the same team.
Fair Weather Fans
Fans that engage when a team is good, and lose interest when a team is bad.
Bandwagon Fans
Fans who support the winning team, instead of supporting the same team year after year.
Diehard Fans
Fans who follow their team no matter if they are winning or losing.
Factors influencing fan loyalty
Community
Fan loyalty attachment is strengthened through communal ties that connect fans around a team, forming a community that results in regular fan interaction. This interaction is particularly important as fans may not develop solely an intra-psychic team identity but predominantly display behavioural loyalty through the group consumption of indirect sport experiences instead, such as wearing the team colours, singing, cheering, flags and interaction between the sport's team's fans (e.g. laughing, talking) Through indirect sport experiences, the stadium atmosphere can be heightened and as a result, the frequency of fan attendance can increase.
Furthermore, by wearing team apparel, fans can visually identify with one another resulting an increased likelihood of opportunities to engage with others socially through this point of connection. For example, a study on NASCAR fans found that their personal identity was connected to the brand itself as they felt connected to the larger community of NASCAR revealing an emotional connection to the brand. This indicates that their fan loyalty will result in the notion that fans are naturally more resistant to the promotional efforts of competing brands (e.g. lower-price offers) as their emotional commitment to NASCAR is greatly embedded in their sense of identity. When they associate themselves with the sponsors because of the sponsor's relation to the brand, they are solidifying their relationship with NASCAR and are therefore reinforcing their identity. Consequently, their fan loyalty translates into brand loyalty so long as the sponsor remains attached to the subject of their fanaticism, NASCAR, meaning they are less price sensitive and more willing to pay premium prices for sponsor's products or services. Another aspect of consumer behaviour regarding fan loyalty is the existence of consumption communities where members feel a sense of unity when they participate in the group consumption of brand sponsors’ goods and services further strengthening their ties to a brand and its sponsors. However, a strategy sports marketers use to appeal to a wider range of fan identities is to sponsor more than one club in sports such as soccer. This is so they are careful not to come across as a singularly affiliated club brand, where the opinion or perceptions of opposing teams’ fans would be one of disfavour towards them.
Brand association
Any benefit or characteristic connected to a brand as perceived by a consumer is called a brand association. These hold significance over the thoughts and opinions a consumer holds about a brand and can therefore influence one's loyalty. These associations provide a reference point to gauge the salience of a brand which is the perceived favourability associated with it. Brand salience is vital because it ultimately effects the likelihood of brand selection and loyalty leading to steadier spectator numbers, and an increase in attention from the media such as advertisers and sponsors.
However, loyalty is a developmental process. According to Bee & Havitz (2010), spectators who are highly involved in the participation of a sport and exhibit psychological commitment, possess the capability to display high levels of behavioural loyalty as they develop into committed fans. On the other hand, neutral or negative feelings towards a team are found to foster indifference or cause an individual to disidentify with a team altogether. A model of ‘escalating commitment’, put forward by Funk and James (2001), demonstrates an individual's movement from ‘awareness’ of team to a subsequent ‘allegiance’ but came to the conclusion that more research was required to find out the key influences that lead one to the highest state of commitment. However, brand association development is fostered under brand management within a sports organisation. It is important for sports management research to identify their brand associations in order to influence management and marketing actions as they reflect the meaning and value extracted from the team as well as the integral characteristics of a team.
Five personality traits are used as a brand personality identification method for sports teams. These include competitiveness, morality, credibility, prestige and authenticity. The team's aptitude to defeat competitors and attain goals is a measure of its competitiveness relating to descriptions such as triumphant, winning, dynamic, proud, successful and ambitious. Morality indicates fans’ thoughts and opinions about a team's code of conduct relating to their quality of character like being principled, ethical and cultivated. The degree to which a team resonates with self-assurance and confidence captures their credibility consisting of traits such as being influential and/or wealthy. The overall credit for a team's achievements and its superiority in relation to other teams relates to a team's prestige characterised by descriptions such as glorious, strong, honourable and great. Authenticity encapsulates the uniqueness of a team with descriptions corresponding to being uncompromising, radical or traditional. When teams are perceived as having human traits, the emotional connection between sports team and their sports fan is strengthened due to the ability to link their self-identity, with the team's identity, showing congruence with the brand's personality. Aspects that enable fan identification with a sports team are considered to be predictors of their consumption behaviour such as the continuation of support and participation in the team's activities even after long losing streaks.
Motivations
Team success is not necessarily linked to fan loyalty when it comes to highly committed fans. Therefore, loyal fans supply a steady flow of revenue irrespective of team performance. Nevertheless, providing exclusive access to players, other team members and executives as well as coaches can be a successful means to offer value to a highly committed fan. Aspects relating to a club's brand image that motivate fan loyalty include peer group acceptance (e.g. through consumption communities), escapeism, identification, nostalgia, emotion, socialisation/companionship and entertainment. Across these aspects, messages communicated from the brand to the fan must be understandable, straightforward and consistent. By strengthening these features of psychological commitment towards a team, it provides a stable foundation for brands to ultimately increase their fans’ behavioural loyalty. The ability to stipulate nostalgic memories is foretelling of fan loyalty towards a sports team. Nostalgic memories provide highly committed fans with an escape from day-to-day life and are most likely induce positive feelings, enhancing their experience with the brand whether it be on game day or through brand communication channels such as a television commercial.
Motivating factors that may also lead fans to support a team may be due to proximity of the team or the fan base. Closer proximity allows for a greater likelihood of personal connection because of mere familiarity. Additional motivating factors that may increase fan loyalty may be the demeanor or reputation of the team. Teams that exemplify the highest virtues of the game may have a more motivational pull, due to the alignment of values.
Social media influence
In the past, consumers have been ‘passive’ receivers of relational marketing endeavours by brands. Today, social networking sites make it possible for companies to interact with their customers and for consumers to become “co-creators and multipliers of brand messages” providing a greater opportunity for campaigns to go viral and establish prospects for word of mouth marketing through reviews and endorsements. Fan pages for brands on social networking sites need to be carefully managed by placing an importance of the design of their page with aspects that enable consultation, location, the ability to search and access to content. By doing this brands can increase the trust of their consumers as better navigation experiences allow for the opportunity of a positive touch point experience, thus improving fan loyalty. This results in an increase of consumers’ willingness to visit and use the page. As well as fan page design, content needs to be of interest to the user. This means brands need to regularly update relevant, well organised content that is clear for consumers to identify, locate and access the content promptly.
Emotional connection is central to fan loyalty and therefore is important for brands to promote it on their social media by reinforcing user trust in their site page. By communicating to the consumer about how much the brand is considering them, it increases consumer trust as they feels cared for by the brand. A brand's fan page must also align with their out workings such as delivering items in the time guaranteed on their social media pages to ensure a message of honesty, competence and trustworthiness is communicated to the consumer. To ensure customers consider an encounter with the page valuable and worthwhile, brands need to improve the usefulness of their page by offering exclusive offers only available through a given touchpoint e.g. a 20% off selected merchandise voucher only offered to those who have subscribed to the mailing list. Exclusivity encourages fan loyalty as it fosters the emotional connection of the fan feeling like a part of the team or brand's inner circle.
Fan pages also allow for customer-to-customer connections where they can interact and share a brand's page content, such as ‘sharing’ the brand's post on Facebook, as well as sharing user-generated content. Other consumers can then use the ‘reaction’ button and comment thread on Facebook to communicate their response allowing for brand managers to gauge their fans’ feeling and opinions, strengthening the brand-customer relationship.
Measurements and indices of fan loyalty
A Fan Loyalty Index was compiled from a survey of Major League Baseball fans in April 1997, and printed in the Forecast newsletter. Fans were asked to rate their hometown teams on each of four scales. The index ranged from the Chicago Cubs at the top, with a loyalty index of 132, to the Chicago White Sox at the bottom with a loyalty index of 73. The index was scaled such that the mean loyalty index was 100, as scored by both the Colorado Rockies and the Pittsburgh Pirates.
Passikoff studied the loyalties of U.S. sports fans towards all Major League sports in the summer of 2000, finding that loyalty to Major League Baseball scored the highest, followed by the National Basketball Association, the National Football League, and the National Hockey League.
Threats to loyalty
Shank observes that fan loyalty in the U.S. is perhaps higher towards sports teams than any other form of consumer loyalty to goods and services. However, loyalty can be threatened. Fan loyalty towards professional-level sports is beginning to erode in the U.S. as a consequence of continual threats to uproot franchises and to move them to other cities. Shank considers that this is perhaps the reason behind the increased popularity of amateur athletics. School and college teams do not threaten to move away from the fans in order to obtain a better deal on their sports stadiums. Athletes in school and college athletics are not traded to and from other teams and do not move around in search of better contracts (although they do sometimes leave their schools and colleges early to transfer elsewhere or for professional contracts).
Some professional sports teams have taken measures to combat this erosion. The Nashville Predators employ customer relationship management techniques to collect information about the demographics and psychographics of their fans. Their loyalty program involves a loyalty card that is swiped through a card reader in kiosks at the entrances to team events. The team can gather data on the fans, and the fans are rewarded by collecting points that are redeemable against tickets, merchandise, and concessions. The vice president of ticket sales for the Predators, Scott Loft, is quoted by Shanks as observing that "90 percent of sports teams either don't care or don't bother to find out any information about their fan base", however.
References
^ a b c Kunkel, Thilo; Doyle, Jason P.; Funk, Daniel C.; Du, Wenjie; McDonald, Heath (2015-12-16). "The Development and Change of Brand Associations and Their Influence on Team Loyalty Over Time". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 2748488. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ McDonald, Heath; Karg, Adam J.; Vocino, Andrea (2013-02-01). "Measuring season ticket holder satisfaction: Rationale, scale development and longitudinal validation". Sport Management Review. 16 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.05.003.
^ Kunzel, Funk, King, Hilo, Daniel, Ceridwyn (2014). "Developing a Conceptual Understanding of Consumer-based League Brand Associations". Journal of Sport Management. 28: 49–67. doi:10.1123/jsm.2011-0153.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Pritchard, Mark P.; Negro, Christopher M. (2001). "Sport Loyalty Programs and Their Impact On Fan Relationships". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 3 (3): 64–85. doi:10.1108/ijsms-03-03-2001-b006.
^ a b Bauer, Hans H.; Sauer, Nicola E.; Exler, Stefanie (2005). "The loyalty of German soccer fans: does a team's brand image matter?". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 7 (1): 8–16. doi:10.1108/ijsms-07-01-2005-b004.
^ Wu, Tsai, Hung, Shih-Hao, Ching-Yi Daphne, Chung-Chieh (2012). "Toward Team or Player? How Trust, Vicarious Achievement Motive, and Identification Affect Fan Loyalty" (PDF). Journal of Sport Management. 26 (2): 177–191. doi:10.1123/jsm.26.2.177.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ a b c Gladden, James M.; Funk, Daniel C. (2001). "Understanding Brand Loyalty in Professional Sport: Examining the Link Between Brand Associations and Brand Loyalty". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 3 (1): 54–81. doi:10.1108/ijsms-03-01-2001-b006.
^ a b c Mark Conrad (2006). "What Makes Sports a Unique Business?". The Business of Sports: A Primer for Journalists. Routledge. xxx–xxxi. ISBN 978-0-8058-5044-4.
^ a b c d e f Matthew D. Shank (2004). Sports Marketing: A Strategic Perspective (2nd ed.). 清华大学出版社. pp. 274–275. ISBN 978-7-302-09016-8.
^ Holt, Douglas B. (1995-06-01). "How Consumers Consume: A Typology of Consumption Practices". Journal of Consumer Research. 22 (1): 1. doi:10.1086/209431. ISSN 0093-5301.
^ Katz, Heere, Matthew, Bob (2013). "Leaders and Followers: An Exploration of the Notion of Scale-Free Networks Within a New Brand Community". Journal of Sport Management. 27 (4): 271–287. doi:10.1123/jsm.27.4.271.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Tobar, David (2006). "Affect and Purchase Intentions of Super Bowl XL Television Spectators: Examining the Influence of Sport Fandom, Age, and Gender". Sport Marketing Quarterly. 15 (4).
^ Levin, Aron M.; Beasley, Fred; Gamble, Tom (2004). "Brand loyalty of NASCAR fans towards sponsors: the impact of fan identification". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 6 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1108/ijsms-06-01-2004-b004.
^ Dionísio, Pedro; Leal, Carmo; Moutinho, Luiz (2008). "Fandom affiliation and tribal behaviour: a sports marketing application". Qualitative Market Research. 11 (1): 17–39. doi:10.1108/13522750810845531.
^ Karjaluoto, Heikki; Munnukka, Juha; Salmi, Milja (2016). "How do brand personality, identification, and relationship length drive loyalty in sports?". Journal of Service Theory and Practice. 26 (1): 50–71. doi:10.1108/jstp-09-2014-0206. S2CID 146469607.
^ Bee, Colleen C.; Havitz, Mark E. (2010). "Exploring the relationship between involvement, fan attraction, psychological commitment and behavioural loyalty in a sports spectator context". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 11 (2): 37–54. doi:10.1108/ijsms-11-02-2010-b004.
^ a b Lock, Daniel; Filo, Kevin; Kunkel, Thilo; Skinner, James (2013-11-01). "Thinking about the same things differently: Examining perceptions of a non-profit community sport organisation". Sport Management Review. 16 (4): 438–450. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2013.02.001. hdl:10072/58468.
^ Rodoula Tsiotsou (2012-06-29). "Developing a scale for measuring the personality of sport teams". Journal of Services Marketing. 26 (4): 238–252. doi:10.1108/08876041211237541. ISSN 0887-6045.
^ Fetchko, Roy, Clow, M, D.P., K.E. (2013). Sports Marketing. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Bodet, Bernache-Assollant, Guillaume, Louri (2011). "Consumer loyalty in sport spectatorship services: The relationships with consumer satisfaction and team identification". Psychology & Marketing. 28 (8): 781–802. doi:10.1002/mar.20412.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Dixon, Nicholas (2001). "The Ethics of Supporting Sports Teams". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 18 (2): 149–158. doi:10.1111/1468-5930.00182. JSTOR 24354091.
^ a b c d e Ruiz-Mafe, Carla; Martí-Parreño, Jose; Sanz-Blas, Silvia (2014). "Key drivers of consumer loyalty to Facebook fan pages". Online Information Review. 38 (3): 362–380. doi:10.1108/oir-05-2013-0101.
Further reading
Earnheardt, Adam C.; Haridakis, Paul M.; Hugenberg, Barbara, eds. (May 30, 2013). Sports Fans, Identity, and Socialization: Exploring the Fandemonium. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0739146217.
B. King (2004-03-01). "What makes fans tick?". Street and Smith's Sportsbusiness Journal. pp. 25–41.
Robert Passikoff (2000-11-06). "N.Y. Yankees aside, winning isn't only key to fan loyalty". Brandweek. 41 (43): 32.
Daniel L. Wann; Merrill J. Melnick; Gordon W. Russell; Dale G. Pease (2001). SportFans: The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92463-4.
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Fan service
Odagiri effect | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(person)"},{"link_name":"fanaticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanaticism"}],"text":"Fan loyalty is the loyalty felt and expressed by a fan towards the object of his/her fanaticism. Fan Loyalty is often used in the context of sports and the support of a specific team or institution. Fan loyalties can range from a passive support to radical allegiance and expressions of loyalty can take shape in many forms and be displayed across varying platforms. Fan loyalty can be threatened by team actions. The loyalties of sports fans in particular have been studied by psychologists, who have determined several factors that help to create such loyalties.","title":"Fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"customer retention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_retention"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"team sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_sport"},{"link_name":"brand loyalty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_loyalty"},{"link_name":"Chicago Cubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Chicago_Cubs_season"},{"link_name":"World Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Series"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-8"},{"link_name":"Murray State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_State_University"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"},{"link_name":"bonding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_bonding"},{"link_name":"Cincinnati Reds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati_Reds"},{"link_name":"Cincinnati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati"}],"text":"Given the extensive costs involved in managing and operating a professional team sport, it is beneficial for sports marketers to be conscious of the elements that establish a strong brand and the effect they have on fan loyalty, so they can best cater to their current fans while acquiring new ones. This is because fans and spectators are considered key stakeholders of professional sports organisations.[1] Fans directly and indirectly influence the production of operating revenue through purchasing merchandise, buying game tickets and improving the value that can be obtained from television broadcasting deals and sponsorship. Therefore, fans are a key factor to consider in determining the economic success of a sports club.[2]Deep psychological connections with new teams can be built with individuals before a team has even played a match revealing insights can develop quickly in the mind of consumers without direct encounters or experiences e.g. watching a team compete. Brand management approaches are helping sport organisations to expand the sport experience, appeal to new fans and enable long term business to consumer relationships through multi faceted connection such as social media. To affect consumers’ loyalty with a team, they must develop a compelling, positive and distinctive brand in order to stand out amongst competitor and vie for fan support.[1][3]Loyalty programmes positively shape fan attachment and behaviour as it connects teams and their fans, aside from a club's season ticketholder database. It not only provides marketers with essential information about consumers and their thinking, but also acts as a channel to promote attendance and an opportunity to add value to their game day experience.[4]Bauer et al. concludes that non product related attributes such as contextual factors (other fans, the club history and tradition, logo, club colours and the stadium atmosphere) hold a higher place in fan experience than product related attributes such as the team's winning record. Therefore, to increase fan loyalty (customer retention) Bauer et al. suggests sports marketers focus on targeting non product related benefits and brand attributes.[5][6] As a result of fostering this loyalty, sports organisations can afford to charge prices at premium. Fan loyalty also leads to dependable ratings in broadcast media which means broadcasters can also charge premiums for advertising time in team broadcasts with loyal followings. A flow on effect from fan loyalty is the ability to create additional revenue streams outside of the core product such as merchandise shops and food venues that are close to the location of the game if the team chooses to own and operate ventures or share licensing agreements.[7]Fan loyalty, particularly with respect to team sports, is different from brand loyalty, in as much as if a consumer bought a product that was of lower quality than expected, he or she will usually abandon allegiance to the brand. However, fan loyalty continues even if the team that the fan supports continues to perform poorly year after year. Author Mark Conrad uses the Chicago Cubs as an example of a team with a loyal fan following, where fans spend their money in support of a poorly performing team that (until 2016) had not won a pennant since 1945 or a World Series since 1908.[8]Several psychologists have studied fan loyalty, and what causes a person to be a loyal fan, that sticks with a team through adversity (win or lose), rather than a bandwagon fan or fairweather fan, that switches support to whatever teams happen to be successful at the time. These include Dan Wann, a psychologist at Murray State University, psychologist Robert Passikoff.[8][9]They attribute it to the following factors:[8][9]Entertainment Value\nThe entertainment value that a fan derives from spectating motivates him/her to remain a loyal fan. Entertainment value of team sports is also valuable to communities in general.\nAuthenticity\nThis is described by Passikoff as \"the acceptance of the game as real and meaningful\".\nFan Bonding\nFan bonding is where a fan bonds with the players, identifying with them as individuals, and bonds with the team.\nTeam History and Tradition\nShank gives the Cincinnati Reds, all-professional baseball's oldest team, as an example of a team where a long team history and tradition is a motivator for fans in the Cincinnati area.\nGroup Affiliation\nFans receive personal validation of their support for a team from being surrounded by a group of fans who also support the same team.\nFair Weather Fans\nFans that engage when a team is good, and lose interest when a team is bad.\nBandwagon Fans\nFans who support the winning team, instead of supporting the same team year after year.\nDiehard Fans\nFans who follow their team no matter if they are winning or losing.","title":"Underpinning psychology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Factors influencing fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"consumer behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_behaviour"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Community","text":"Fan loyalty attachment is strengthened through communal ties that connect fans around a team, forming a community that results in regular fan interaction. This interaction is particularly important as fans may not develop solely an intra-psychic team identity but predominantly display behavioural loyalty through the group consumption of indirect sport experiences instead, such as wearing the team colours, singing, cheering, flags and interaction between the sport's team's fans (e.g. laughing, talking) Through indirect sport experiences, the stadium atmosphere can be heightened and as a result, the frequency of fan attendance can increase.[10][11]Furthermore, by wearing team apparel, fans can visually identify with one another resulting an increased likelihood of opportunities to engage with others socially through this point of connection.[12] For example, a study on NASCAR fans found that their personal identity was connected to the brand itself as they felt connected to the larger community of NASCAR revealing an emotional connection to the brand. This indicates that their fan loyalty will result in the notion that fans are naturally more resistant to the promotional efforts of competing brands (e.g. lower-price offers) as their emotional commitment to NASCAR is greatly embedded in their sense of identity. When they associate themselves with the sponsors because of the sponsor's relation to the brand, they are solidifying their relationship with NASCAR and are therefore reinforcing their identity. Consequently, their fan loyalty translates into brand loyalty so long as the sponsor remains attached to the subject of their fanaticism, NASCAR, meaning they are less price sensitive and more willing to pay premium prices for sponsor's products or services. Another aspect of consumer behaviour regarding fan loyalty is the existence of consumption communities where members feel a sense of unity when they participate in the group consumption of brand sponsors’ goods and services further strengthening their ties to a brand and its sponsors.[13] However, a strategy sports marketers use to appeal to a wider range of fan identities is to sponsor more than one club in sports such as soccer. This is so they are careful not to come across as a singularly affiliated club brand, where the opinion or perceptions of opposing teams’ fans would be one of disfavour towards them.[14]","title":"Factors influencing fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Brand association","text":"Any benefit or characteristic connected to a brand as perceived by a consumer is called a brand association. These hold significance over the thoughts and opinions a consumer holds about a brand and can therefore influence one's loyalty. These associations provide a reference point to gauge the salience of a brand which is the perceived favourability associated with it. Brand salience is vital because it ultimately effects the likelihood of brand selection and loyalty leading to steadier spectator numbers, and an increase in attention from the media such as advertisers and sponsors.[15]However, loyalty is a developmental process. According to Bee & Havitz (2010),[16] spectators who are highly involved in the participation of a sport and exhibit psychological commitment, possess the capability to display high levels of behavioural loyalty as they develop into committed fans. On the other hand, neutral or negative feelings towards a team are found to foster indifference or cause an individual to disidentify with a team altogether.[1][17] A model of ‘escalating commitment’, put forward by Funk and James (2001), demonstrates an individual's movement from ‘awareness’ of team to a subsequent ‘allegiance’ but came to the conclusion that more research was required to find out the key influences that lead one to the highest state of commitment. However, brand association development is fostered under brand management within a sports organisation. It is important for sports management research to identify their brand associations in order to influence management and marketing actions as they reflect the meaning and value extracted from the team as well as the integral characteristics of a team.[17]Five personality traits are used as a brand personality identification method for sports teams. These include competitiveness, morality, credibility, prestige and authenticity. The team's aptitude to defeat competitors and attain goals is a measure of its competitiveness relating to descriptions such as triumphant, winning, dynamic, proud, successful and ambitious. Morality indicates fans’ thoughts and opinions about a team's code of conduct relating to their quality of character like being principled, ethical and cultivated. The degree to which a team resonates with self-assurance and confidence captures their credibility consisting of traits such as being influential and/or wealthy. The overall credit for a team's achievements and its superiority in relation to other teams relates to a team's prestige characterised by descriptions such as glorious, strong, honourable and great. Authenticity encapsulates the uniqueness of a team with descriptions corresponding to being uncompromising, radical or traditional.[18] When teams are perceived as having human traits, the emotional connection between sports team and their sports fan is strengthened due to the ability to link their self-identity, with the team's identity, showing congruence with the brand's personality.[19] Aspects that enable fan identification with a sports team are considered to be predictors of their consumption behaviour such as the continuation of support and participation in the team's activities even after long losing streaks.[20]","title":"Factors influencing fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Motivations","text":"Team success is not necessarily linked to fan loyalty when it comes to highly committed fans. Therefore, loyal fans supply a steady flow of revenue irrespective of team performance. Nevertheless, providing exclusive access to players, other team members and executives as well as coaches can be a successful means to offer value to a highly committed fan.[7] Aspects relating to a club's brand image that motivate fan loyalty include peer group acceptance (e.g. through consumption communities), escapeism, identification, nostalgia, emotion, socialisation/companionship and entertainment.[5] Across these aspects, messages communicated from the brand to the fan must be understandable, straightforward and consistent. By strengthening these features of psychological commitment towards a team, it provides a stable foundation for brands to ultimately increase their fans’ behavioural loyalty. The ability to stipulate nostalgic memories is foretelling of fan loyalty towards a sports team. Nostalgic memories provide highly committed fans with an escape from day-to-day life and are most likely induce positive feelings, enhancing their experience with the brand whether it be on game day or through brand communication channels such as a television commercial.[7]Motivating factors that may also lead fans to support a team may be due to proximity of the team or the fan base. Closer proximity allows for a greater likelihood of personal connection because of mere familiarity. Additional motivating factors that may increase fan loyalty may be the demeanor or reputation of the team. Teams that exemplify the highest virtues of the game may have a more motivational pull,[21] due to the alignment of values.","title":"Factors influencing fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-22"}],"text":"In the past, consumers have been ‘passive’ receivers of relational marketing endeavours by brands. Today, social networking sites make it possible for companies to interact with their customers and for consumers to become “co-creators and multipliers of brand messages” [22] providing a greater opportunity for campaigns to go viral and establish prospects for word of mouth marketing through reviews and endorsements. Fan pages for brands on social networking sites need to be carefully managed by placing an importance of the design of their page with aspects that enable consultation, location, the ability to search and access to content. By doing this brands can increase the trust of their consumers as better navigation experiences allow for the opportunity of a positive touch point experience, thus improving fan loyalty. This results in an increase of consumers’ willingness to visit and use the page. As well as fan page design, content needs to be of interest to the user. This means brands need to regularly update relevant, well organised content that is clear for consumers to identify, locate and access the content promptly.[22]Emotional connection is central to fan loyalty and therefore is important for brands to promote it on their social media by reinforcing user trust in their site page. By communicating to the consumer about how much the brand is considering them, it increases consumer trust as they feels cared for by the brand.[22] A brand's fan page must also align with their out workings such as delivering items in the time guaranteed on their social media pages to ensure a message of honesty, competence and trustworthiness is communicated to the consumer. To ensure customers consider an encounter with the page valuable and worthwhile, brands need to improve the usefulness of their page by offering exclusive offers only available through a given touchpoint e.g. a 20% off selected merchandise voucher only offered to those who have subscribed to the mailing list. Exclusivity encourages fan loyalty as it fosters the emotional connection of the fan feeling like a part of the team or brand's inner circle.[22]Fan pages also allow for customer-to-customer connections where they can interact and share a brand's page content, such as ‘sharing’ the brand's post on Facebook, as well as sharing user-generated content. Other consumers can then use the ‘reaction’ button and comment thread on Facebook to communicate their response allowing for brand managers to gauge their fans’ feeling and opinions, strengthening the brand-customer relationship.[22]","title":"Social media influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"Chicago Cubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs"},{"link_name":"Chicago White Sox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox"},{"link_name":"mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean"},{"link_name":"Colorado Rockies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Rockies"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"},{"link_name":"Major League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_professional_sports_leagues_of_the_United_States_and_Canada"},{"link_name":"National Basketball Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"National Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"National Hockey League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"}],"text":"A Fan Loyalty Index was compiled from a survey of Major League Baseball fans in April 1997, and printed in the Forecast newsletter. Fans were asked to rate their hometown teams on each of four scales. The index ranged from the Chicago Cubs at the top, with a loyalty index of 132, to the Chicago White Sox at the bottom with a loyalty index of 73. The index was scaled such that the mean loyalty index was 100, as scored by both the Colorado Rockies and the Pittsburgh Pirates.[9]Passikoff studied the loyalties of U.S. sports fans towards all Major League sports in the summer of 2000, finding that loyalty to Major League Baseball scored the highest, followed by the National Basketball Association, the National Football League, and the National Hockey League.[9]","title":"Measurements and indices of fan loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"},{"link_name":"Nashville Predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville_Predators"},{"link_name":"customer relationship management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_relationship_management"},{"link_name":"psychographics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychographics"},{"link_name":"loyalty card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty_card"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shank-9"}],"text":"Shank observes that fan loyalty in the U.S. is perhaps higher towards sports teams than any other form of consumer loyalty to goods and services. However, loyalty can be threatened. Fan loyalty towards professional-level sports is beginning to erode in the U.S. as a consequence of continual threats to uproot franchises and to move them to other cities.[citation needed] Shank considers that this is perhaps the reason behind the increased popularity of amateur athletics. School and college teams do not threaten to move away from the fans in order to obtain a better deal on their sports stadiums. Athletes in school and college athletics are not traded to and from other teams and do not move around in search of better contracts (although they do sometimes leave their schools and colleges early to transfer elsewhere or for professional contracts).[9]Some professional sports teams have taken measures to combat this erosion. The Nashville Predators employ customer relationship management techniques to collect information about the demographics and psychographics of their fans. Their loyalty program involves a loyalty card that is swiped through a card reader in kiosks at the entrances to team events. The team can gather data on the fans, and the fans are rewarded by collecting points that are redeemable against tickets, merchandise, and concessions. The vice president of ticket sales for the Predators, Scott Loft, is quoted by Shanks as observing that \"90 percent of sports teams either don't care or don't bother to find out any information about their fan base\", however.[9]","title":"Threats to loyalty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0739146217","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739146217"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-92463-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92463-4"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Supporter_Culture"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Supporter_Culture"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Supporter_Culture"},{"link_name":"Fan loyalty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Philosophy of sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport"},{"link_name":"Racism in sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_sport"},{"link_name":"Spectator sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectator_sport"},{"link_name":"Sports fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_fan"},{"link_name":"Sports rivalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sports_rivalries"},{"link_name":"Booing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booing"},{"link_name":"Cheering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheering"},{"link_name":"Crowd abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_abuse"},{"link_name":"Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_at_sporting_events"},{"link_name":"Fight song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight_song"},{"link_name":"Stadium anthem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadium_anthem"},{"link_name":"Pitch invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_invasion"},{"link_name":"Trash talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trash_talk"},{"link_name":"Violence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_in_sports"},{"link_name":"Cheerleading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheerleading"},{"link_name":"Groundhopping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundhopping"},{"link_name":"Haka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haka_(sports)"},{"link_name":"Hooliganism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooliganism"},{"link_name":"Sports betting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_betting"},{"link_name":"Sports tourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_tourism"},{"link_name":"Tifo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifo"},{"link_name":"Barmy Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barmy_Army"},{"link_name":"Beer wench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_wench"},{"link_name":"Beer 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anthem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadium_anthem"},{"link_name":"Football chant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_chant"},{"link_name":"Fight song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight_song"},{"link_name":"Sports memorabilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_memorabilia"},{"link_name":"Clothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sportswear_(fashion)"},{"link_name":"Away colours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Away_colours"},{"link_name":"Third jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_jersey"},{"link_name":"Throwback uniform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throwback_uniform"},{"link_name":"Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_(sports)"},{"link_name":"Number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_(sports)"},{"link_name":"Rally cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rally_cap"},{"link_name":"American 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scarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supporter_scarf"},{"link_name":"Types of supporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supporters%27_groups"},{"link_name":"Barra brava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barra_brava"},{"link_name":"Casuals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casual_(subculture)"},{"link_name":"Hooligan firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooligan_firm"},{"link_name":"Roligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roligan"},{"link_name":"Supporters' trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supporters%27_trust"},{"link_name":"Tifosi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifosi"},{"link_name":"Torcedor organizado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torcida_organizada"},{"link_name":"Ultras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultras"},{"link_name":"Sporting man culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporting_man_culture"},{"link_name":"Sports mascots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_mascots"},{"link_name":"Sports-related curses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports-related_curses"},{"link_name":"Terrace (stadium)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_(stadium)"},{"link_name":"Bleacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleacher"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Fandom"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Fandom"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fandom"},{"link_name":"Fandoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandom"},{"link_name":"Fantasy fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_fandom"},{"link_name":"Furry fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furry_fandom"},{"link_name":"Science fiction fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom"},{"link_name":"Yaoi fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaoi_fandom"},{"link_name":"Anime and manga fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime_and_manga_fandom"},{"link_name":"Bibliophilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliophilia"},{"link_name":"Cinephilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinephilia"},{"link_name":"Disney adults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_adult"},{"link_name":"Disneyland social club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyland_social_club"},{"link_name":"Donaldism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donaldism"},{"link_name":"Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamer"},{"link_name":"Sports fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_fan"},{"link_name":"A Song of Ice and Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire_fandom"},{"link_name":"Beatlemania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatlemania"},{"link_name":"Deadhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadhead"},{"link_name":"Doctor Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_fandom"},{"link_name":"EarthBound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EarthBound_fandom"},{"link_name":"James Bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bond_fandom"},{"link_name":"Janeite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janeite"},{"link_name":"Juggalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juggalo"},{"link_name":"Moonwalker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson_fandom"},{"link_name":"MST3K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Science_Theater_3000"},{"link_name":"MLP: FIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Little_Pony:_Friendship_Is_Magic_fandom"},{"link_name":"Parrothead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrothead"},{"link_name":"Sherlock Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes_fandom"},{"link_name":"Star Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Star_Wars"},{"link_name":"Stargate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_fandom"},{"link_name":"Shrek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrek_fandom"},{"link_name":"Swiftie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swifties"},{"link_name":"Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien_fandom"},{"link_name":"Trekkie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trekkie"},{"link_name":"Twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight_fandom"},{"link_name":"Anorak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorak_(slang)"},{"link_name":"Anti-fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fan"},{"link_name":"Celebrity worship syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrity_worship_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Cult following","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_following"},{"link_name":"Fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_(person)"},{"link_name":"Furry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fursona"},{"link_name":"Geek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geek"},{"link_name":"Groupie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupie"},{"link_name":"Nerd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerd"},{"link_name":"Otaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otaku"},{"link_name":"Sasaeng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasaeng_fan"},{"link_name":"Shipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping_(fandom)"},{"link_name":"Stan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_(fan)"},{"link_name":"Tifosi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifosi"},{"link_name":"Ultras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultras"},{"link_name":"Waifu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waifu"},{"link_name":"Amateur press association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_press_association"},{"link_name":"Car club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_club"},{"link_name":"Boy racer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy_racer"},{"link_name":"Cruising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruising_(driving)"},{"link_name":"Import scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Import_scene"},{"link_name":"Hot rodding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_rod"},{"link_name":"Kustom Kulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kustom_Kulture"},{"link_name":"Lowrider Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowrider_Club"},{"link_name":"Supercar Season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercar_Season"},{"link_name":"Cosplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosplay"},{"link_name":"Fan club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_club"},{"link_name":"Fan convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_convention"},{"link_name":"Fandom names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fandom_names"},{"link_name":"Game club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_club"},{"link_name":"Historical reenactment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_reenactment"},{"link_name":"Live action role-playing game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_action_role-playing_game"},{"link_name":"Motorcycle club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcycle_club"},{"link_name":"Harley Owners Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Owners_Group"},{"link_name":"Organization for Transformative Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works"},{"link_name":"Railfan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railfan"},{"link_name":"Stan Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Twitter"},{"link_name":"Anime music video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime_music_video"},{"link_name":"Autograph collecting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autograph_collecting"},{"link_name":"Doujin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doujin"},{"link_name":"Doujin music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doujin_music"},{"link_name":"Doujinshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doujinshi"},{"link_name":"Fan art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_art"},{"link_name":"Fan edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_edit"},{"link_name":"Fan fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_fiction"},{"link_name":"Fan film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_film"},{"link_name":"Fan labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_labor"},{"link_name":"Fan mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_mail"},{"link_name":"Fan rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_rice"},{"link_name":"Fan translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_translation"},{"link_name":"Fanac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanac"},{"link_name":"Fan game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_game"},{"link_name":"Doujin soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doujin_soft"},{"link_name":"Mod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_modding"},{"link_name":"Fansite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fansite"},{"link_name":"Fanspeak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanspeak"},{"link_name":"Fanzine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanzine"},{"link_name":"Filk music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filk_music"},{"link_name":"Real person fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_person_fiction"},{"link_name":"Vidding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidding"},{"link_name":"Zine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zine"},{"link_name":"Conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_convention"},{"link_name":"Anime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime_convention"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anime_conventions"},{"link_name":"Comic book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_book_convention"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_comic_book_conventions"},{"link_name":"Doujinshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doujinshi_convention"},{"link_name":"Furry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furry_convention"},{"link_name":"Gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaming_convention"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gaming_conventions"},{"link_name":"Horror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_convention"},{"link_name":"Multigenre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multigenre_conventions"},{"link_name":"Professional wrestling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_professional_wrestling_conventions"},{"link_name":"Science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_convention"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_conventions"},{"link_name":"by date of establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fan_conventions_by_date_of_founding"},{"link_name":"Autograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autograph"},{"link_name":"Fan loyalty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Fan service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_service"},{"link_name":"Odagiri effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odagiri_effect"}],"text":"Earnheardt, Adam C.; Haridakis, Paul M.; Hugenberg, Barbara, eds. (May 30, 2013). Sports Fans, Identity, and Socialization: Exploring the Fandemonium. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0739146217.\nB. King (2004-03-01). \"What makes fans tick?\". Street and Smith's Sportsbusiness Journal. pp. 25–41.\nRobert Passikoff (2000-11-06). \"N.Y. Yankees aside, winning isn't only key to fan loyalty\". Brandweek. 41 (43): 32.\nDaniel L. Wann; Merrill J. Melnick; Gordon W. Russell; Dale G. Pease (2001). SportFans: The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92463-4.vteSupporter cultureGeneral topics\nFan loyalty\nPhilosophy of sport\nRacism in sport\nSpectator sport\nSports fan\nSports rivalry\nActions\nBooing\nCheering\nCrowd abuse\nMusic (Fight song\nStadium anthem)\nPitch invasion\nTrash talk\nViolence\nAssociated activities\nCheerleading\nGroundhopping\nHaka\nHooliganism\nSports betting\nSports tourism\nTifo\nCultures by sportCricket\nBarmy Army\nBeer wench\nBeer snake\nSledging\n\nNorth American sports\nCollegiate sport rituals\nJocks\nKiss cam\nSurf culture\nTailgate party\n\nOther\nAssociation football culture\nAustralian rules football culture\nSongs\nStadium anthem\nFootball chant\nFight song\nSports memorabiliaClothingGeneral\nAway colours\nThird jersey\nThrowback uniform\nName\nNumber\nRally cap\nBy sport\nAmerican football\nAssociation football\nAustralian football\nBaseball\nBasketball\nCycling\nIce hockey\nRugby\n\nOther\nEvent programme\nPennant\nRally towel\nSupporter scarf\nTypes of supporter\nBarra brava\nCasuals\nHooligan firm\nRoligan\nSupporters' trust\nTifosi\nTorcedor organizado\nUltras\nOther\nSporting man culture\nSports mascots\nSports-related curses\nTerrace (stadium)\nBleachervteFandomsBy typeGenre\nFantasy fandom\nFurry fandom\nScience fiction fandom\nYaoi fandom\nMedium-specific\nAnime and manga fandom\nBibliophilia\nCinephilia\nDisney fandom\nDisney adults\nDisneyland social club\nDonaldism\nGamer\nSports fan\nProduction-specific\nA Song of Ice and Fire\nBeatlemania\nDeadhead\nDoctor Who\nEarthBound\nJames Bond\nJaneite\nJuggalo\nMoonwalker\nMST3K\nMLP: FIM\nParrothead\nSherlock Holmes\nStar Wars\nStargate\nShrek\nSwiftie\nTolkien\nTrekkie\nTwilight\nDemographics\nAnorak\nAnti-fan\nCelebrity worship syndrome\nCult following\nFan\nFurry\nGeek\nGroupie\nNerd\nOtaku\nSasaeng\nShipper\nStan\nTifosi\nUltras\nWaifu\nOrganizationsand events\nAmateur press association\nCar club\nBoy racer\nCruising\nImport scene\nHot rodding\nKustom Kulture\nLowrider Club\nSupercar Season\nCosplay\nFan club\nFan convention\nFandom names\nGame club\nHistorical reenactment\nLive action role-playing game\nMotorcycle club\nHarley Owners Group\nOrganization for Transformative Works\nRailfan\nStan Twitter\nPublicationsand activities\nAnime music video\nAutograph collecting\nDoujin\nDoujin music\nDoujinshi\nFan art\nFan edit\nFan fiction\nFan film\nFan labor\nFan mail\nFan rice\nFan translation\nFanac\nFan game\nDoujin soft\nMod\nFansite\nFanspeak\nFanzine\nFilk music\nReal person fiction\nVidding\nZine\nConventions\nAnime\nlist\nComic book\nlist\nDoujinshi\nFurry\nGaming\nlist\nHorror\nMultigenre\nProfessional wrestling\nScience fiction\nlist\nby date of establishment\nTopics\nAutograph\nFan loyalty\nFan service\nOdagiri effect","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Kunkel, Thilo; Doyle, Jason P.; Funk, Daniel C.; Du, Wenjie; McDonald, Heath (2015-12-16). \"The Development and Change of Brand Associations and Their Influence on Team Loyalty Over Time\". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 2748488.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)","url_text":"SSRN"},{"url":"https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2748488","url_text":"2748488"}]},{"reference":"McDonald, Heath; Karg, Adam J.; Vocino, Andrea (2013-02-01). \"Measuring season ticket holder satisfaction: Rationale, scale development and longitudinal validation\". Sport Management Review. 16 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.05.003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.smr.2012.05.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.smr.2012.05.003"}]},{"reference":"Kunzel, Funk, King, Hilo, Daniel, Ceridwyn (2014). \"Developing a Conceptual Understanding of Consumer-based League Brand Associations\". Journal of Sport Management. 28: 49–67. doi:10.1123/jsm.2011-0153.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1123%2Fjsm.2011-0153","url_text":"10.1123/jsm.2011-0153"}]},{"reference":"Pritchard, Mark P.; Negro, Christopher M. (2001). \"Sport Loyalty Programs and Their Impact On Fan Relationships\". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 3 (3): 64–85. doi:10.1108/ijsms-03-03-2001-b006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-03-03-2001-b006","url_text":"10.1108/ijsms-03-03-2001-b006"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Hans H.; Sauer, Nicola E.; Exler, Stefanie (2005). \"The loyalty of German soccer fans: does a team's brand image matter?\". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 7 (1): 8–16. doi:10.1108/ijsms-07-01-2005-b004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-07-01-2005-b004","url_text":"10.1108/ijsms-07-01-2005-b004"}]},{"reference":"Wu, Tsai, Hung, Shih-Hao, Ching-Yi Daphne, Chung-Chieh (2012). \"Toward Team or Player? How Trust, Vicarious Achievement Motive, and Identification Affect Fan Loyalty\" (PDF). Journal of Sport Management. 26 (2): 177–191. doi:10.1123/jsm.26.2.177.","urls":[{"url":"http://fitnessforlife.org/AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/06%20Tsai_JSM_2010_0162.pdf","url_text":"\"Toward Team or Player? How Trust, Vicarious Achievement Motive, and Identification Affect Fan Loyalty\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1123%2Fjsm.26.2.177","url_text":"10.1123/jsm.26.2.177"}]},{"reference":"Gladden, James M.; Funk, Daniel C. (2001). \"Understanding Brand Loyalty in Professional Sport: Examining the Link Between Brand Associations and Brand Loyalty\". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 3 (1): 54–81. doi:10.1108/ijsms-03-01-2001-b006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-03-01-2001-b006","url_text":"10.1108/ijsms-03-01-2001-b006"}]},{"reference":"Mark Conrad (2006). \"What Makes Sports a Unique Business?\". The Business of Sports: A Primer for Journalists. Routledge. xxx–xxxi. ISBN 978-0-8058-5044-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/businessofsports0000conr/page/","url_text":"The Business of Sports: A Primer for Journalists"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/businessofsports0000conr/page/","url_text":"xxx–xxxi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-5044-4","url_text":"978-0-8058-5044-4"}]},{"reference":"Matthew D. Shank (2004). Sports Marketing: A Strategic Perspective (2nd ed.). 清华大学出版社. pp. 274–275. ISBN 978-7-302-09016-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-302-09016-8","url_text":"978-7-302-09016-8"}]},{"reference":"Holt, Douglas B. (1995-06-01). \"How Consumers Consume: A Typology of Consumption Practices\". Journal of Consumer Research. 22 (1): 1. doi:10.1086/209431. ISSN 0093-5301.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F209431","url_text":"10.1086/209431"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0093-5301","url_text":"0093-5301"}]},{"reference":"Katz, Heere, Matthew, Bob (2013). \"Leaders and Followers: An Exploration of the Notion of Scale-Free Networks Within a New Brand Community\". Journal of Sport Management. 27 (4): 271–287. doi:10.1123/jsm.27.4.271.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1123%2Fjsm.27.4.271","url_text":"10.1123/jsm.27.4.271"}]},{"reference":"Tobar, David (2006). \"Affect and Purchase Intentions of Super Bowl XL Television Spectators: Examining the Influence of Sport Fandom, Age, and Gender\". Sport Marketing Quarterly. 15 (4).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Levin, Aron M.; Beasley, Fred; Gamble, Tom (2004). \"Brand loyalty of NASCAR fans towards sponsors: the impact of fan identification\". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 6 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1108/ijsms-06-01-2004-b004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-06-01-2004-b004","url_text":"10.1108/ijsms-06-01-2004-b004"}]},{"reference":"Dionísio, Pedro; Leal, Carmo; Moutinho, Luiz (2008). \"Fandom affiliation and tribal behaviour: a sports marketing application\". Qualitative Market Research. 11 (1): 17–39. doi:10.1108/13522750810845531.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2F13522750810845531","url_text":"10.1108/13522750810845531"}]},{"reference":"Karjaluoto, Heikki; Munnukka, Juha; Salmi, Milja (2016). \"How do brand personality, identification, and relationship length drive loyalty in sports?\". Journal of Service Theory and Practice. 26 (1): 50–71. doi:10.1108/jstp-09-2014-0206. S2CID 146469607.","urls":[{"url":"http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:jyu-201601151110","url_text":"\"How do brand personality, identification, and relationship length drive loyalty in sports?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fjstp-09-2014-0206","url_text":"10.1108/jstp-09-2014-0206"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146469607","url_text":"146469607"}]},{"reference":"Bee, Colleen C.; Havitz, Mark E. (2010). \"Exploring the relationship between involvement, fan attraction, psychological commitment and behavioural loyalty in a sports spectator context\". International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship. 11 (2): 37–54. doi:10.1108/ijsms-11-02-2010-b004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-11-02-2010-b004","url_text":"10.1108/ijsms-11-02-2010-b004"}]},{"reference":"Lock, Daniel; Filo, Kevin; Kunkel, Thilo; Skinner, James (2013-11-01). \"Thinking about the same things differently: Examining perceptions of a non-profit community sport organisation\". Sport Management Review. 16 (4): 438–450. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2013.02.001. hdl:10072/58468.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.smr.2013.02.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.smr.2013.02.001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10072%2F58468","url_text":"10072/58468"}]},{"reference":"Rodoula Tsiotsou (2012-06-29). \"Developing a scale for measuring the personality of sport teams\". Journal of Services Marketing. 26 (4): 238–252. doi:10.1108/08876041211237541. ISSN 0887-6045.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2F08876041211237541","url_text":"10.1108/08876041211237541"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0887-6045","url_text":"0887-6045"}]},{"reference":"Fetchko, Roy, Clow, M, D.P., K.E. (2013). Sports Marketing. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bodet, Bernache-Assollant, Guillaume, Louri (2011). \"Consumer loyalty in sport spectatorship services: The relationships with consumer satisfaction and team identification\". Psychology & Marketing. 28 (8): 781–802. doi:10.1002/mar.20412.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fmar.20412","url_text":"10.1002/mar.20412"}]},{"reference":"Dixon, Nicholas (2001). \"The Ethics of Supporting Sports Teams\". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 18 (2): 149–158. doi:10.1111/1468-5930.00182. JSTOR 24354091.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-5930.00182","url_text":"10.1111/1468-5930.00182"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/24354091","url_text":"24354091"}]},{"reference":"Ruiz-Mafe, Carla; Martí-Parreño, Jose; Sanz-Blas, Silvia (2014). \"Key drivers of consumer loyalty to Facebook fan pages\". Online Information Review. 38 (3): 362–380. doi:10.1108/oir-05-2013-0101.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Foir-05-2013-0101","url_text":"10.1108/oir-05-2013-0101"}]},{"reference":"Earnheardt, Adam C.; Haridakis, Paul M.; Hugenberg, Barbara, eds. (May 30, 2013). Sports Fans, Identity, and Socialization: Exploring the Fandemonium. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0739146217.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739146217","url_text":"978-0739146217"}]},{"reference":"B. King (2004-03-01). \"What makes fans tick?\". Street and Smith's Sportsbusiness Journal. pp. 25–41.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Robert Passikoff (2000-11-06). \"N.Y. Yankees aside, winning isn't only key to fan loyalty\". Brandweek. 41 (43): 32.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Daniel L. Wann; Merrill J. Melnick; Gordon W. Russell; Dale G. Pease (2001). SportFans: The Psychology and Social Impact of Spectators. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92463-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92463-4","url_text":"978-0-415-92463-4"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fan_loyalty&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fan_loyalty&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2748488","external_links_name":"2748488"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.smr.2012.05.003","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.smr.2012.05.003"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1123%2Fjsm.2011-0153","external_links_name":"10.1123/jsm.2011-0153"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-03-03-2001-b006","external_links_name":"10.1108/ijsms-03-03-2001-b006"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fijsms-07-01-2005-b004","external_links_name":"10.1108/ijsms-07-01-2005-b004"},{"Link":"http://fitnessforlife.org/AcuCustom/Sitename/Documents/DocumentItem/06%20Tsai_JSM_2010_0162.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Toward Team or Player? 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_Akhmyarov | Rustam Akhmyarov | ["1 See also","2 References"] | Russian former Guantanamo Bay detainee
Rustam AkhmyarovReleased2004RussiaCitizenshipRussiaDetained at GuantanamoISN573Charge(s)extrajudicial detention
Rustam Akhmyarov is a Russian who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detainment camps. His Guantanamo Internment Serial Number was 573. The Department of Defense reports that Akhmyarov was born on October 24, 1979, in Chelyabinsk, Russia.
He was repatriated to Russia in early 2004, prior to the institution of the Combatant Status Review Tribunals, in July 2004. He was subsequently released from Russian custody.
On August 27, 2005, Akhmyarov and another former Guantanamo detainee Airat Vakhitov, were reported to have been seized by Russian security officials in Moscow and jailed in Tatarstan. According to Geydar Dzhemal, chairman of the Islamic Committee of Russia, the security officials were concerned that when Akhmyarov and Airat Vakhitov visited the United Kingdom, as guests of Amnesty International, they would testify about human rights abuses in Russia, not just in Guantanamo. He predicted the pair would be arrested on trumped up charges.
The pair were released from detention on September 2, 2005.
In 2007, Akhmyarov and three other former captives were reported to have gone into hiding because other former Guantanamo captives had been tortured while in Russian custody.
See also
Muhammad Saad Iqbal
References
^
"List of Individuals Detained by the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba from January 2002 through May 15, 2006" (PDF). United States Department of Defense. Retrieved 2006-05-15.
Works related to List of Individuals Detained by the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba from January 2002 through May 15, 2006 at Wikisource
^ a b Stepenin, Maxim (2005-08-29). "Russian Talibs Found Through London". Kommersant. Archived from the original on 2016-08-17.
^ "Tatarstan Arrests Former Guantanamo Bay Prisoners". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
^ "Russia frees 2 former Gitmo prisoners". UPI. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
^
Maria Danilova (2007-03-29). "'Ex-Guantanamo inmates tortured in Russia'". Independent Online. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Four others - Rustam Akhmyarov, Shamil Khazhiyev, Ruslan Odizhev and Airat Vakhitov - are in hiding, according to activists.
vteControversies surrounding people captured during the War on TerrorGuantanamo Baydetention camp
Suicide attempts
Human rights violations
Quran desecration controversy
Boycott of military tribunals
Former captives alleged to have (re)joined insurgency
Hunger strikes
Force feeding
Homicide accusations
Juvenile prisoners
Seton Hall reports
CIA black site operations
Enhanced interrogation techniques
Ghost detainees
Waterboarding
Destruction of interrogation tapes
Prison and detainee abuse
Abu Ghraib
Bagram
Canadian Afghan detainee issue
Black jail
Salt Pit
Bruce Jessen
James Elmer Mitchell
Prison uprisingsand escapes
Battle of Qala-i-Jangi
Battle of Abu Ghraib
2008 Sarposa Prison mass escape
Basra prison incident
Afghan escapes
Iraqi escapes
Deaths in custody
Dilawar
Jamal Nasser
Abdul Wahid
Habibullah
Abed Hamed Mowhoush
Manadel al-Jamadi
Nagem Hatab
Baha Mousa
Fashad Mohamed
Muhammad Zaidan
Gul Rahman
Abdul Wali
Dasht-i-Leili massacre
Tortured
Abu Zubaydah
Mohamedou Ould Salahi
Mohammed al-Qahtani
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri
Binyam Mohamed
Khalid El-Masri
Forced disappearances
Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
Abdu Ali al Haji Sharqawi
Mohammed Omar Abdel-Rahman
Tariq Mahmood
Hassan Ghul
Musaad Aruchi
Hiwa Abdul Rahman Rashul
Reports and legal developments
Ryder Report
Fay Report
Taguba Report
Church Report
Detainee Treatment Act
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
Military Commissions Act of 2006
Senate Armed Services Committee Report
Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture
Related media
The Road to Guantánamo
Taxi to the Dark Side
Standard Operating Procedure
Torturing Democracy
Enemy Combatant
The Report | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"extrajudicial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrajudicial"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Guantanamo Bay detainment camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detainment_camp"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DoDList2-1"},{"link_name":"Internment Serial Number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_Serial_Number"},{"link_name":"Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Chelyabinsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelyabinsk"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Combatant Status Review Tribunals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combatant_Status_Review_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"Airat Vakhitov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airat_Vakhitov"},{"link_name":"Tatarstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatarstan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Geydar Dzhemal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geydar_Dzhemal"},{"link_name":"Islamic Committee of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_Committee_of_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Amnesty International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International"},{"link_name":"human rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Iol2007-5"}],"text":"Rustam Akhmyarov is a Russian who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detainment camps.[1] His Guantanamo Internment Serial Number was 573. The Department of Defense reports that Akhmyarov was born on October 24, 1979, in Chelyabinsk, Russia.He was repatriated to Russia in early 2004, prior to the institution of the Combatant Status Review Tribunals, in July 2004. He was subsequently released from Russian custody.On August 27, 2005, Akhmyarov and another former Guantanamo detainee Airat Vakhitov, were reported to have been seized by Russian security officials in Moscow and jailed in Tatarstan.[2][3] According to Geydar Dzhemal, chairman of the Islamic Committee of Russia, the security officials were concerned that when Akhmyarov and Airat Vakhitov visited the United Kingdom, as guests of Amnesty International, they would testify about human rights abuses in Russia, not just in Guantanamo. He predicted the pair would be arrested on trumped up charges.[2]The pair were released from detention on September 2, 2005.[4]In 2007, Akhmyarov and three other former captives were reported to have gone into hiding because other former Guantanamo captives had been tortured while in Russian custody.[5]","title":"Rustam Akhmyarov"}] | [] | [{"title":"Muhammad Saad Iqbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Saad_Iqbal"}] | [{"reference":"\"List of Individuals Detained by the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba from January 2002 through May 15, 2006\" (PDF). United States Department of Defense. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Deviq | Marcel Deviq | ["1 Biography","1.1 Early life and business career","1.2 Political career, later life, and death","2 References"] | French Algerian engineer and politician (1907–1972)
Marcel DeviqMember of the National Assemblyfor the Oasis constituency In office30 November 1958 – 3 July 1962
Personal detailsBornArmand-Marcel Deviq(1907-04-10)10 April 1907Batna, French AlgeriaDied17 June 1972(1972-06-17) (aged 65)Paris, FrancePolitical partyUnity of the Republic Children3Alma materESTP Paris
Armand-Marcel Deviq (10 April 1907 – 17 June 1972) was a French Algerian engineer, businessman, and politician who served in the National Assembly of France from 1958 until 1962. A member of the Unity of the Republic party, he represented a large portion of southeastern Algeria. Deviq and his family were the owners of the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile, which provided commercial transportation services across the Sahara Desert.
Biography
Early life and business career
Armand-Marcel Deviq was born on 10 April 1907 in Batna, a city in French Algeria. Deviq was a Pied-Noir, an ethnic French person who lived in Algeria. His grandfather, a vintner from the French region of Cévennes, moved to Algeria in 1878 after his crops were ruined by insects. Settling in Batna, he founded a transportation company which provided commercial transit services to surrounding towns using horse-drawn carriages. Deviq's father Armand took over the company in 1907 and began establishing routes further into central Algeria, connecting the desert cities of Touggourt and El Oued. The company acquired its first truck, a 2.5 T Renault, in 1925, and a connection between Touggourt and Ouargla was established the following year.
In 1928, Deviq graduated from the École Spéciale des Travaux Publics and began working at the company along with his brother René, who was two years younger. The company expanded rapidly across the Sahara in the 1930s, with routes able to reach Fort Flatters in the central desert by 1931 and In Guezzam in the far south by 1936. Around this period, the Deviq brothers began jointly leading the company, and it was renamed from Armand Deviq et sons to the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile, with Marcel working as director of engineering and René becoming the managing director.
The outbreak of World War II slowed the company's growth, as spare engine parts became difficult to acquire. Deviq was placed under house arrest by the Vichy government due to his sympathies for the Free French Forces, though he was released after only a few months due to the influence the two brothers held in the region. The post-war period saw the company achieve wide success, as spare parts were able to be scrapped from surrendered Italian materiel, while an oil boom in the 1950s led to the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile expanding their fleet to 260 vehicles and working with Berliet to develop the Berliet T100, a heavy-duty truck designed for the rough desert environment. In 1947, Deviq also became a member of the Société astronomique de France.
Political career, later life, and death
In the 1958 French legislative election, Deviq was elected to the National Assembly, representing the Oasis department – which consisted of a large portion of southeastern Algeria – as a member of the Unity of the Republic party. Deviq was a staunch supporter of a continued union between France and Algeria, favored "a modernization that respects traditions", and advocated for the Sahara region to be better integrated into the country. In his role as vice president of the parliamentary Commission for Production and Trade, Deviq was involved in establishing France's financial policy for the Sahara; among his proposals was the establishment of a Saharan bank.
Towards the end of the Algerian War in the early 1960s, Deviq raised concerns over the French military's abandonment of the Sahara to the National Liberation Front, and he raised concerns for the security of Europeans in Algeria due to a rise in ethnic violence, particularly suicide bombings. He was later a critic of the Évian Accords, the 1962 peace treaties which ended the Algerian War and led to Algeria becoming an independent nation. The parliamentary tenure of Deviq and the other French Algerian MPs ended on 3 July 1962, the day France declared Algeria to be independent.
Following Algerian independence, Deviq attempted to stay in the country to continue operating his business, which he had become the sole owner of following René's death in an accident in 1960. However, after receiving several threats against his life, Deviq fled to France in 1963. The Compagnie Saharienne Automobile was seized by the Algerian government and was renamed the Compagnie Socialiste Automobile; under the leadership of incompetent and corrupt bureaucrats, the company dissolved after only a few years. Deviq became a leader among the Algerian exile community in France, aiding Edmond Jouhaud in the National Committee of the Repatriated and Despoiled, and working in the Rahla, an association of exiles from the Sahara. Deviq died on 17 June 1972 in Paris at the age of 65.
References
^ a b c "Marcel Deviq". National Assembly of France. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ a b c d e "Les Deviq au Sahara" . Algeria Historical Documentation Center (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ a b Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France et revue mensuelle d'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe (in French). Société astronomique de France. 1947. p. 75.
^ Maubert, Nathalie (2014). "Un géant au travail: Le Berliet T100 6x6 n°2" . Marius-Berliet Automobile Foundation (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "M. Marcel Deviq". National Assembly of France. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ "Liste des deputes d'Algerie" . exode1962.fr (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^ Hoerber, Thomas; Leishman, Chad (2008). Francia – Forschungen zur westeuropäischen Geschichte (PDF) (in German). Max Weber Foundation. pp. 491–492. Retrieved March 19, 2023 – via Perspectivia.net.
Authority control databases: People
Sycomore | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French Algerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria"},{"link_name":"National Assembly of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France"},{"link_name":"Unity of the Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unity_of_the_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regroupement_national_pour_l%27unit%C3%A9_de_la_R%C3%A9publique"},{"link_name":"Sahara Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Desert"}],"text":"Armand-Marcel Deviq (10 April 1907 – 17 June 1972) was a French Algerian engineer, businessman, and politician who served in the National Assembly of France from 1958 until 1962. A member of the Unity of the Republic [fr] party, he represented a large portion of southeastern Algeria. Deviq and his family were the owners of the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile, which provided commercial transportation services across the Sahara Desert.","title":"Marcel Deviq"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Batna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batna_(city)"},{"link_name":"French Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Algeria"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Pied-Noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied-Noir"},{"link_name":"vintner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintner"},{"link_name":"Cévennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9vennes"},{"link_name":"transportation company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_company"},{"link_name":"horse-drawn carriages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse-drawn_carriage"},{"link_name":"Touggourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touggourt"},{"link_name":"El Oued","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Oued"},{"link_name":"Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault"},{"link_name":"Ouargla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouargla"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"École Spéciale des Travaux Publics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Sp%C3%A9ciale_des_Travaux_Publics"},{"link_name":"Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"},{"link_name":"Fort Flatters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Flatters"},{"link_name":"In Guezzam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Guezzam"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Vichy government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_government"},{"link_name":"Free French Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_French_Forces"},{"link_name":"materiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiel"},{"link_name":"oil boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_boom"},{"link_name":"Berliet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliet"},{"link_name":"Berliet T100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berliet_T100"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Société astronomique de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_astronomique_de_France"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"}],"sub_title":"Early life and business career","text":"Armand-Marcel Deviq was born on 10 April 1907 in Batna, a city in French Algeria.[1][2] Deviq was a Pied-Noir, an ethnic French person who lived in Algeria. His grandfather, a vintner from the French region of Cévennes, moved to Algeria in 1878 after his crops were ruined by insects. Settling in Batna, he founded a transportation company which provided commercial transit services to surrounding towns using horse-drawn carriages. Deviq's father Armand took over the company in 1907 and began establishing routes further into central Algeria, connecting the desert cities of Touggourt and El Oued. The company acquired its first truck, a 2.5 T Renault, in 1925, and a connection between Touggourt and Ouargla was established the following year.[2]In 1928, Deviq graduated from the École Spéciale des Travaux Publics and began working at the company along with his brother René, who was two years younger. The company expanded rapidly across the Sahara in the 1930s, with routes able to reach Fort Flatters in the central desert by 1931 and In Guezzam in the far south by 1936. Around this period, the Deviq brothers began jointly leading the company, and it was renamed from Armand Deviq et sons to the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile, with Marcel working as director of engineering and René becoming the managing director.[2][3]The outbreak of World War II slowed the company's growth, as spare engine parts became difficult to acquire. Deviq was placed under house arrest by the Vichy government due to his sympathies for the Free French Forces, though he was released after only a few months due to the influence the two brothers held in the region. The post-war period saw the company achieve wide success, as spare parts were able to be scrapped from surrendered Italian materiel, while an oil boom in the 1950s led to the Compagnie Saharienne Automobile expanding their fleet to 260 vehicles and working with Berliet to develop the Berliet T100, a heavy-duty truck designed for the rough desert environment.[2][4] In 1947, Deviq also became a member of the Société astronomique de France.[3]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1958 French legislative election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_French_legislative_election"},{"link_name":"National Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)"},{"link_name":"Oasis department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oasis_(department)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9partement_des_Oasis"},{"link_name":"Unity of the Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unity_of_the_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regroupement_national_pour_l%27unit%C3%A9_de_la_R%C3%A9publique"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Algerian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algerian_War"},{"link_name":"National Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)"},{"link_name":"Europeans in Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeans_in_Algeria"},{"link_name":"suicide bombings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_bombings"},{"link_name":"Évian Accords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89vian_Accords"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Edmond Jouhaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Jouhaud"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"}],"sub_title":"Political career, later life, and death","text":"In the 1958 French legislative election, Deviq was elected to the National Assembly, representing the Oasis department [fr] – which consisted of a large portion of southeastern Algeria – as a member of the Unity of the Republic [fr] party.[5][6] Deviq was a staunch supporter of a continued union between France and Algeria, favored \"a modernization that respects traditions\", and advocated for the Sahara region to be better integrated into the country. In his role as vice president of the parliamentary Commission for Production and Trade, Deviq was involved in establishing France's financial policy for the Sahara; among his proposals was the establishment of a Saharan bank.[1]Towards the end of the Algerian War in the early 1960s, Deviq raised concerns over the French military's abandonment of the Sahara to the National Liberation Front, and he raised concerns for the security of Europeans in Algeria due to a rise in ethnic violence, particularly suicide bombings. He was later a critic of the Évian Accords, the 1962 peace treaties which ended the Algerian War and led to Algeria becoming an independent nation. The parliamentary tenure of Deviq and the other French Algerian MPs ended on 3 July 1962, the day France declared Algeria to be independent.[1][7]Following Algerian independence, Deviq attempted to stay in the country to continue operating his business, which he had become the sole owner of following René's death in an accident in 1960. However, after receiving several threats against his life, Deviq fled to France in 1963. The Compagnie Saharienne Automobile was seized by the Algerian government and was renamed the Compagnie Socialiste Automobile; under the leadership of incompetent and corrupt bureaucrats, the company dissolved after only a few years. Deviq became a leader among the Algerian exile community in France, aiding Edmond Jouhaud in the National Committee of the Repatriated and Despoiled, and working in the Rahla, an association of exiles from the Sahara. Deviq died on 17 June 1972 in Paris at the age of 65.[2]","title":"Biography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Marcel Deviq\". National Assembly of France. Retrieved 2023-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/sycomore/fiche/%28num_dept%29/2484","url_text":"\"Marcel Deviq\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France","url_text":"National Assembly of France"}]},{"reference":"\"Les Deviq au Sahara\" [The Deviq in the Sahara]. Algeria Historical Documentation Center (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdha.fr/les-deviq-au-sahara","url_text":"\"Les Deviq au Sahara\""}]},{"reference":"Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France et revue mensuelle d'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe [Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of France and Monthly Journal of Astronomy, Meteorology and Physics of the Globe] (in French). Société astronomique de France. 1947. p. 75.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=m-fPAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Marcel+Deviq%22","url_text":"Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France et revue mensuelle d'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_astronomique_de_France","url_text":"Société astronomique de France"}]},{"reference":"Maubert, Nathalie (2014). \"Un géant au travail: Le Berliet T100 6x6 n°2\" [A Giant at Work: The Berliet T100 6x6 N°2]. Marius-Berliet Automobile Foundation [fr] (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://dokumen.tips/documents/un-geant-au-travail.html","url_text":"\"Un géant au travail: Le Berliet T100 6x6 n°2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marius-Berliet_Automobile_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Marius-Berliet Automobile Foundation"},{"url":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_de_l%27Automobile_Marius-Berliet","url_text":"fr"}]},{"reference":"\"M. Marcel Deviq\". National Assembly of France. Retrieved 2023-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/trombinoscope/Vrepublique/Legis01/deviq-marcel-10041907.asp","url_text":"\"M. Marcel Deviq\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Assembly_of_France","url_text":"National Assembly of France"}]},{"reference":"\"Liste des deputes d'Algerie\" [List of deputies of Algeria]. exode1962.fr (in French). Retrieved 2023-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://exode1962.fr/exode1962/en-savoir-plus/divers/deputes.html","url_text":"\"Liste des deputes d'Algerie\""}]},{"reference":"Hoerber, Thomas; Leishman, Chad (2008). Francia – Forschungen zur westeuropäischen Geschichte [Francia - Research on Western European History] (PDF) (in German). Max Weber Foundation. pp. 491–492. Retrieved March 19, 2023 – via Perspectivia.net.","urls":[{"url":"https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/ploneimport3_derivate_00007062/hoerber-leishman_abschied.pdf","url_text":"Francia – Forschungen zur westeuropäischen Geschichte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber_Foundation","url_text":"Max Weber Foundation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectivia.net","url_text":"Perspectivia.net"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www2.assemblee-nationale.fr/sycomore/fiche/%28num_dept%29/2484","external_links_name":"\"Marcel Deviq\""},{"Link":"https://www.cdha.fr/les-deviq-au-sahara","external_links_name":"\"Les Deviq au Sahara\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=m-fPAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Marcel+Deviq%22","external_links_name":"Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France et revue mensuelle d'astronomie, de météorologie et de physique du globe"},{"Link":"https://dokumen.tips/documents/un-geant-au-travail.html","external_links_name":"\"Un géant au travail: Le Berliet T100 6x6 n°2\""},{"Link":"https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/trombinoscope/Vrepublique/Legis01/deviq-marcel-10041907.asp","external_links_name":"\"M. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943 | List of shipwrecks in 1943 | [] | The list of shipwrecks in 1943 includes ships sunk, foundered, grounded, or otherwise lost during 1943.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
table of contents
← 1942
1943
1944 →
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Unknown date
References
January
Main article: List of shipwrecks in January 1943
February
Main article: List of shipwrecks in February 1943
March
Main article: List of shipwrecks in March 1943
April
Main article: List of shipwrecks in April 1943
May
Main article: List of shipwrecks in May 1943
June
Main article: List of shipwrecks in June 1943
July
Main article: List of shipwrecks in July 1943
August
Main article: List of shipwrecks in August 1943
September
Main article: List of shipwrecks in September 1943
October
Main article: List of shipwrecks in October 1943
November
Main article: List of shipwrecks in November 1943
December
Main article: List of shipwrecks in December 1943
Unknown date
List of shipwrecks: Unknown date 1943
Ship
State
Description
Alice L. Pendleton
United States
The 228-foot (69 m), four-masted lumber schooner (1,394 GRT, 1918) was abandoned at the Palmer Shipyard on the west side of the Mystic River in Noank, Connecticut, sometime during the 1940s, gradually rotted away, and settled on the river bottom in 10 feet (3.0 m) of water.
Cafernströn
Sweden
World War II: The cargo ship was bombed and sunk at Gdynia, Poland, by United States Army Air Forces aircraft.
D S S Co. No. 8
United States
The 33-gross register ton, 54.2-foot (16.5 m) scow sank in the Taku River in the Territory of Alaska.
Galveston
United States
The US Army Corps of Engineers dredge sank in a hurricane, probably off Galveston, Texas. 12 crew were killed.
Gelmer
United States
The dredge sank south of Apalachicola, Florida in the Gulf of Mexico (29°19′N 84°55′W / 29.317°N 84.917°W / 29.317; -84.917) in 88 feet (27 m) of water.
Gambhira
United Kingdom
World War II: The cargo ship was sunk as a target ship off Llandudno, Caernarfonshire.
Gyoraitei No. 109
Imperial Japanese Navy
The TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.
Gyoraitei No. 110
Imperial Japanese Navy
The TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.
Gyoraitei No. 111
Imperial Japanese Navy
The TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.
Kaifuku Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the East China Sea by the submarine USS Seawolf ( United States Navy) between 5 October and 27 November.
Miyadonu Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo liner was torpedoed and sunk in the Pacific Ocean by the submarine USS Growler ( United States Navy) sometime between 17 February and 27 October.
Sidney
Australia
The wreck of the former HMAS Protector at low tide on 22 March 2008.After suffering damage in a collision with a tug off Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, and being abandoned ca. July 1943, the former lighter – originally the flatiron gunboat HMAS Protector ( Royal Australian Navy) – was scuttled for use as a breakwater at Heron Island off Queensland on an unknown date.
Taiau Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Pacific Ocean by the submarine USS Gudgeon ( United States Navy) sometime between 1 September and 6 October.
Tateyama Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Philippine Sea by the submarine USS Pickerel ( United States Navy) sometime between 10 July and 26 August.
Thaddeus S. C. Lowe
United States
The Liberty ship was damaged while loading landing ships in heavy seas and was declared a constructive total loss.
Unknown shipwreck
The wreck was charted in 1943 6.8 miles (10.9 km) from the American Shoal Light, Florida at 24°34′N 81°24′W / 24.567°N 81.400°W / 24.567; -81.400. The wreck was destroyed on 24 March 1944.
Unknown shipwreck
The wreck was charted in 1943 just off the north west coast of Key West, Florida at 24°35′N 81°48′W / 24.583°N 81.800°W / 24.583; -81.800.
Unknown shipwreck
The wreck was charted in 1943 east of Marathon, Florida at 24°42′N 80°52′W / 24.700°N 80.867°W / 24.700; -80.867.
Wuhu Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the East China Sea by the submarine USS Seawolf ( United States Navy).
Yamagibu Maru
Japan
World War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Celebes Sea by the submarine USS Pargo ( United States Navy) sometime between 13 June and 3 September.
"Zibello"
Italy
The 160 foot barge was sunk off Internati Island National Park in the River Po.
See also
List of shipwrecks
References
^ "Alice L. Pendleton". Hunting New England Shipwrecks. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
^ "Raid Damage At Gdynia". The Times. No. 49677. London. 15 October 1943. col E, p. 3.
^ alaskashipwreck.com Alaska Shipwrecks (D)
^ "The history of Dredging at the Port of Houston: ditching high and low to build a port" (PDF). westerndredging.org. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
^ a b c d Shipwrecks of Florida: A comprehensive listing. Pineapple Press/Googlebooks. 1998. ISBN 9781561641635. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Gelmer (+1943)". Wrecksite. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ Jordan, Roger (1999). The World's Merchant Fleets, 1939. London: Chatham publishing. p. 517. ISBN 1-86176-023-X.
^ a b "Swordfish". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
^ "Growler (SS-215)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
^ "Gudgeon". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
^ "Pickerel". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
^ "Liberty Ships - T - U - B". Mariners. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
^ "Pargo". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
^ "Shipwreck of a World War II barge that sank in 1943 surfaces after Italy's largest river reaches low levels during drought". MSN.com. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
vteShip events in 1943Ship launches
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vteShipwrecks 1939–45, by month1939
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1940
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1941
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1942
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1943
Jan
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1944
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1945
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Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times151043-2"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"gross register ton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_register_ton"},{"link_name":"scow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scow"},{"link_name":"Taku River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taku_River"},{"link_name":"Territory of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alaskashipwrecksd-3"},{"link_name":"Galveston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Galveston&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"US Army Corps of Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Corps_of_Engineers"},{"link_name":"Galveston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Apalachicola, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apalachicola,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"29°19′N 84°55′W / 29.317°N 84.917°W / 29.317; -84.917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=29_19_N_84_55_W_"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pineapple_Press/Googlebooks-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Gambhira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Gambhira_(1919)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"target ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_ship"},{"link_name":"Llandudno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llandudno"},{"link_name":"Caernarfonshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caernarfonshire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan517-7"},{"link_name":"Gyoraitei No. 109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_motor_torpedo_boat_Gyoraitei_No._109&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"motor torpedo boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat"},{"link_name":"Gyoraitei No. 110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_motor_torpedo_boat_Gyoraitei_No._110&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"motor torpedo boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat"},{"link_name":"Gyoraitei No. 111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japanese_motor_torpedo_boat_Gyoraitei_No._111&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"motor torpedo boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat"},{"link_name":"Kaifuku Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Kaifuku_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"East China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Seawolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Seawolf_(SS-197)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seawolf-8"},{"link_name":"Miyadonu Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Miyadonu_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo liner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_liner"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Growler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Growler_(SS-215)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Growler-9"},{"link_name":"Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAS_Protector_(1884)"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMAS_Protector_Remains_S01.JPG"},{"link_name":"tug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboat"},{"link_name":"Gladstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladstone,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"lighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighter_(barge)"},{"link_name":"flatiron gunboat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatiron_gunboat"},{"link_name":"HMAS Protector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAS_Protector_(1884)"},{"link_name":"Royal Australian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy"},{"link_name":"scuttled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuttling"},{"link_name":"breakwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)"},{"link_name":"Heron Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island,_Australia"},{"link_name":"Taiau Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Taiau_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Gudgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Gudgeon_(SS-211)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gudgeon-10"},{"link_name":"Tateyama Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Tateyama_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"Philippine Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Sea"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Pickerel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Pickerel_(SS-177)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pickerel-11"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus S. C. Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Thaddeus_S._C._Lowe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Liberty ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_ship"},{"link_name":"landing ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_ship"},{"link_name":"constructive total loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_total_loss"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LibT-12"},{"link_name":"American Shoal Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Shoal_Light"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"24°34′N 81°24′W / 24.567°N 81.400°W / 24.567; -81.400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_34_N_81_24_W_"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pineapple_Press/Googlebooks-5"},{"link_name":"Key West, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_West,_Florida"},{"link_name":"24°35′N 81°48′W / 24.583°N 81.800°W / 24.583; -81.800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_35_N_81_48_W_"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pineapple_Press/Googlebooks-5"},{"link_name":"Marathon, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon,_Florida"},{"link_name":"24°42′N 80°52′W / 24.700°N 80.867°W / 24.700; -80.867","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_42_N_80_52_W_"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pineapple_Press/Googlebooks-5"},{"link_name":"Wuhu Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Wuhu_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"East China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Seawolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Seawolf_(SS-197)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seawolf-8"},{"link_name":"Yamagibu Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Yamagibu_Maru&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"cargo ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"Celebes Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebes_Sea"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Pargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Pargo_(SS-264)"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pargo-13"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Internati Island National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internati_Island_National_Park&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"River Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Po"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"List of shipwrecks: Unknown date 1943\n\n\nShip\nState\nDescription\n\n\nAlice L. Pendleton\n\n United States\n\nThe 228-foot (69 m), four-masted lumber schooner (1,394 GRT, 1918) was abandoned at the Palmer Shipyard on the west side of the Mystic River in Noank, Connecticut, sometime during the 1940s, gradually rotted away, and settled on the river bottom in 10 feet (3.0 m) of water.[1]\n\n\nCafernströn\n\n Sweden\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was bombed and sunk at Gdynia, Poland, by United States Army Air Forces aircraft.[2]\n\n\nD S S Co. No. 8\n\n United States\n\nThe 33-gross register ton, 54.2-foot (16.5 m) scow sank in the Taku River in the Territory of Alaska.[3]\n\n\nGalveston\n\n United States\n\nThe US Army Corps of Engineers dredge sank in a hurricane, probably off Galveston, Texas. 12 crew were killed.[4]\n\n\nGelmer\n\n United States\n\nThe dredge sank south of Apalachicola, Florida in the Gulf of Mexico (29°19′N 84°55′W / 29.317°N 84.917°W / 29.317; -84.917) in 88 feet (27 m) of water.[5][6]\n\n\nGambhira\n\n United Kingdom\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was sunk as a target ship off Llandudno, Caernarfonshire.[7]\n\n\nGyoraitei No. 109\n\n Imperial Japanese Navy\n\nThe TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.\n\n\nGyoraitei No. 110\n\n Imperial Japanese Navy\n\nThe TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.\n\n\nGyoraitei No. 111\n\n Imperial Japanese Navy\n\nThe TM 4/No. 102-class motor torpedo boat (13,1/19 t, 1942) was lost in 1943 or 1945.\n\n\nKaifuku Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the East China Sea by the submarine USS Seawolf ( United States Navy) between 5 October and 27 November.[8]\n\n\nMiyadonu Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo liner was torpedoed and sunk in the Pacific Ocean by the submarine USS Growler ( United States Navy) sometime between 17 February and 27 October.[9]\n\n\nSidney\n\n Australia\n\nThe wreck of the former HMAS Protector at low tide on 22 March 2008.After suffering damage in a collision with a tug off Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, and being abandoned ca. July 1943, the former lighter – originally the flatiron gunboat HMAS Protector ( Royal Australian Navy) – was scuttled for use as a breakwater at Heron Island off Queensland on an unknown date.\n\n\nTaiau Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Pacific Ocean by the submarine USS Gudgeon ( United States Navy) sometime between 1 September and 6 October.[10]\n\n\nTateyama Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Philippine Sea by the submarine USS Pickerel ( United States Navy) sometime between 10 July and 26 August.[11]\n\n\nThaddeus S. C. Lowe\n\n United States\n\nThe Liberty ship was damaged while loading landing ships in heavy seas and was declared a constructive total loss.[12]\n\n\nUnknown shipwreck\n\n\n\nThe wreck was charted in 1943 6.8 miles (10.9 km) from the American Shoal Light, Florida at 24°34′N 81°24′W / 24.567°N 81.400°W / 24.567; -81.400. The wreck was destroyed on 24 March 1944.[5]\n\n\nUnknown shipwreck\n\n\n\nThe wreck was charted in 1943 just off the north west coast of Key West, Florida at 24°35′N 81°48′W / 24.583°N 81.800°W / 24.583; -81.800.[5]\n\n\nUnknown shipwreck\n\n\n\nThe wreck was charted in 1943 east of Marathon, Florida at 24°42′N 80°52′W / 24.700°N 80.867°W / 24.700; -80.867.[5]\n\n\nWuhu Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the East China Sea by the submarine USS Seawolf ( United States Navy).[8]\n\n\nYamagibu Maru\n\n Japan\n\nWorld War II: The cargo ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Celebes Sea by the submarine USS Pargo ( United States Navy) sometime between 13 June and 3 September.[13]\n\n\n\"Zibello\"\n\n Italy\n\nThe 160 foot barge was sunk off Internati Island National Park in the River Po.[14]","title":"Unknown date"}] | [{"image_text":"The wreck of the former HMAS Protector at low tide on 22 March 2008.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/HMAS_Protector_Remains_S01.JPG/220px-HMAS_Protector_Remains_S01.JPG"}] | [{"title":"List of shipwrecks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks"}] | [{"reference":"\"Alice L. Pendleton\". Hunting New England Shipwrecks. Retrieved 1 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://wreckhunter.net/DataPages/alicelpendleton-dat.htm","url_text":"\"Alice L. Pendleton\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raid Damage At Gdynia\". The Times. No. 49677. London. 15 October 1943. col E, p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The history of Dredging at the Port of Houston: ditching high and low to build a port\" (PDF). westerndredging.org. Retrieved 25 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.westerndredging.org/phocadownload/Proceedings/2015/7a-1%20Vincent-Glahn-Raphaelson%20Dredge%20Houston%202015%20rer%20(2).pdf","url_text":"\"The history of Dredging at the Port of Houston: ditching high and low to build a port\""}]},{"reference":"Shipwrecks of Florida: A comprehensive listing. Pineapple Press/Googlebooks. 1998. ISBN 9781561641635. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6j6kjZQReqkC&q=ship%3A++David+Kemps%2C+1897&pg=PA198","url_text":"Shipwrecks of Florida: A comprehensive listing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781561641635","url_text":"9781561641635"}]},{"reference":"\"Gelmer (+1943)\". Wrecksite. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?26234","url_text":"\"Gelmer (+1943)\""}]},{"reference":"Jordan, Roger (1999). The World's Merchant Fleets, 1939. London: Chatham publishing. p. 517. ISBN 1-86176-023-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86176-023-X","url_text":"1-86176-023-X"}]},{"reference":"\"Swordfish\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 30 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/submar/ss197.txt","url_text":"\"Swordfish\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships","url_text":"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy","url_text":"Navy Department"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command","url_text":"Naval History and Heritage Command"}]},{"reference":"\"Growler (SS-215)\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 31 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/submar/ss215.txt","url_text":"\"Growler (SS-215)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships","url_text":"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy","url_text":"Navy Department"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command","url_text":"Naval History and Heritage Command"}]},{"reference":"\"Gudgeon\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 31 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/submar/ss211.txt","url_text":"\"Gudgeon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships","url_text":"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy","url_text":"Navy Department"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command","url_text":"Naval History and Heritage Command"}]},{"reference":"\"Pickerel\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 30 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/submar/ss177.txt","url_text":"\"Pickerel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships","url_text":"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy","url_text":"Navy Department"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command","url_text":"Naval History and Heritage Command"}]},{"reference":"\"Liberty Ships - T - U - B\". Mariners. Retrieved 6 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mariners-l.co.uk/LibShipsT.html","url_text":"\"Liberty Ships - T - U - B\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pargo\". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 4 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/submar/ss264.txt","url_text":"\"Pargo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_American_Naval_Fighting_Ships","url_text":"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy","url_text":"Navy Department"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_History_and_Heritage_Command","url_text":"Naval History and Heritage Command"}]},{"reference":"\"Shipwreck of a World War II barge that sank in 1943 surfaces after Italy's largest river reaches low levels during drought\". MSN.com. Retrieved 19 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.msn.com/en-us/weather/topstories/shipwreck-of-a-world-war-ii-barge-that-sank-in-1943-surfaces-after-italy-s-largest-river-reaches-low-levels-during-drought/ar-AAYDy6u?ocid=msedgntp&cvid=f794bd12ac944b3ea4115e885e72e0d5","url_text":"\"Shipwreck of a World War II barge that sank in 1943 surfaces after Italy's largest river reaches low levels during drought\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=29_19_N_84_55_W_","external_links_name":"29°19′N 84°55′W / 29.317°N 84.917°W / 29.317; -84.917"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_34_N_81_24_W_","external_links_name":"24°34′N 81°24′W / 24.567°N 81.400°W / 24.567; -81.400"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_35_N_81_48_W_","external_links_name":"24°35′N 81°48′W / 24.583°N 81.800°W / 24.583; -81.800"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943¶ms=24_42_N_80_52_W_","external_links_name":"24°42′N 80°52′W / 24.700°N 80.867°W / 24.700; -80.867"},{"Link":"http://wreckhunter.net/DataPages/alicelpendleton-dat.htm","external_links_name":"\"Alice L. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltonsborough | Baltonsborough | ["1 History","2 Governance","3 Landmarks","4 Church","5 Notable residents","6 References","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 51°06′40″N 2°39′18″W / 51.111°N 2.655°W / 51.111; -2.655
Human settlement in EnglandBaltonsboroughSt Dunstan's Church, BaltonsboroughBaltonsboroughLocation within SomersetPopulation864 (2011 Census)OS grid referenceST542348Civil parishBaltonsboroughUnitary authoritySomerset CouncilCeremonial countySomersetRegionSouth WestCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townGLASTONBURYPostcode districtBA6Dialling code01458PoliceAvon and SomersetFireDevon and SomersetAmbulanceSouth Western
UK ParliamentSomerton and FromeWebsiteBaltonsborough Parish Council
List of places
UK
England
Somerset
51°06′40″N 2°39′18″W / 51.111°N 2.655°W / 51.111; -2.655
Baltonsborough is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England. The parish had a population of 864 at the 2011 Census. As well as Baltonsborough village, the parish contains the hamlets of Ham Street, Catsham and Southwood.
History
The parish was part of the hundred of Glaston Twelve Hides.
The first clue as to the origins of Baltonsborough lies in the name. The village stands on a slight rise beyond what would have been a sea of water between it and Glastonbury. The highest point, now known as Windmill Hill, would have been the site of the settlement, ringed round with ditches and palisades. One authority gives the possible translation of Baltonsborough as Bealdhas Hill, another as Baldurs Stockade. Legend has it that men of Baltonsborough joined King Arthur in his wars against the Saxons in the 6th century, although the earliest written evidence is from a deed dated 744AD, in which ten hides of land in Baltunesberghe was given to the Abbot of Glastonbury. Other variations of the name include Baltenesbergh (c1250) and Balsborowe (1536), The abbreviated Balsbury appears at intervals in later records, mostly of a more casual nature. In 1989 there was an attempt to adopt this, mostly in order to shorten the length of the village nameplates, a movement which attracted the attention of the national press but very little enthusiasm from the villagers.
Baltonsborough is a sprawling village with five small centres, the main part nestling around the Church, an early 15th-century Perpendicular-style building. Ham Street to the east and West Town on the western fringe are slowly being joined to the centre by new housing, whereas Southwood and Catsham to the south remain largely unchanged. The names Northwood and Southwood still exist as evidence of the 800 acres of oak woodland mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. Although there is still evidence of the medieval strip fields to the north and south of the village centre, there is little or no modern arable farming, the few remaining farms concentrating on dairy farming for which the land is more suitable. The old cider apple orchards are slowly disappearing, accelerated by the closure of the Cider Mill in the 1950s and the unrealistic price offered by modern apple juice and cider factories.
Not far from the Church along the Mill Stream is the site of the old tannery, also used later as a cider mill, a waste paper reclamation works and now a modern housing estate. Next door is the old water grist mill, converted to a private house in the late 1960s, and the ancient Gatehouse, a fine 14th-century stone-built house, named after a family of linen weavers. On Ham Street a commercial business was built on the legendary site of the birthplace of St Dunstan in 909AD, to whom the Church is dedicated, later to become abbot of Glastonbury and Archbishop of Canterbury. Other buildings of interest include the Moravian Chapel, minister's house and school on Ham Street, now all in private ownership; Lubborn House where Messrs Whitehead and Mullins ran a national cheese dealership at the end of the 19th century; and Hillside House (complete with tunnel into the hill) and Orchard Neville House, both substantial houses built by the same builder/architect in the mid 19th century.
Governance
The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council.
For local government purposes, the village falls within the Somerset Council unitary authority area, which was created on 1 April 2023. From 1894 to 31 March 1974, the village was part of Wells Rural District, and from 1 April 1974 to 31 March 2023, it was part of the non-metropolitan district of Mendip.
It is also part of the Wells county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, though as of the next general election it will be in the Somerton and Frome constituency. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.
Landmarks
The Gatehouse is a thatched house dating from the 16th century.
Church
Baltonsborough's Church of St Dunstan was built in the 15th century to honour the most famous son of the village. The church's simple Somerset tower is topped by an elaborate ironwork weather vane crafted by the local blacksmith in the 19th century.
Notable residents
St Dunstan, born in Baltonsborough in 909, eventually became Archbishop of Canterbury and an important monastic reformer of the Anglo-Saxon period. Legends attached to Dunstan portray him nailing a horseshoe onto the devil, earning him a place as a patron saint of blacksmiths in the Roman Catholic pantheon.
Thomas Austin, held responsible for introducing Rabbits in Australia, was born in Baltonsborough
Robert Jacob, Canadian politician
Nicolas Cage, American film actor
Edward Noel Mellish, VC Medal winner WW1
References
^ a b "Baltonsborough Parish". Neighbourhood Statistics. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "Somerset Hundreds". GENUKI. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
^ "Wells RD". A Vision of Britain Through Time. University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
^ Historic England. "The Gatehouse (1345035)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
^ Pevsner, Nikolaus (2003). The Buildings of England, South and West Somerset. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09644-5.
6. History of Baltonsborough https://www.baltonsboroughpc.com/history---lclapp
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baltonsborough.
Baltonsborough Parish Council website
Baltonsborough in the Domesday Book
vteTowns, villages and hamlets in the Mendip district of Somerset, England
Alhampton
Ashwick
Baltonsborough
Batcombe
Beckington
Berkley
Binegar
Blatchbridge
Buckland Dinham
Chewton Mendip
Chilcompton
Coleford
Cranmore
Croscombe
Ditcheat
Doulting
Downhead
East Lydford
East Pennard
Emborough
Evercreech
Frome
Glastonbury
Godney
Great Elm
Hemington
Holcombe
Kilmersdon
Lamyatt
Leigh-on-Mendip
Litton
Lullington
Lydford-on-Fosse
Meare
Mells
Milton Clevedon
North Wootton
Norton St Philip
Nunney
Pilton
Priddy
Pylle
Rode
Rodney Stoke
Rudge
Selwood
Sharpham
Shepton Mallet
St Cuthbert Out
Stoke St Michael
Ston Easton
Stratton-on-the-Fosse
Street
Tellisford
Trudoxhill
Upton Noble
Walton
Wanstrow
Wells
West Bradley
West Lydford
West Pennard
Westbury-sub-Mendip
Whatley
Witham Friary
Wookey
Wookey Hole | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"civil parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parish"},{"link_name":"Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset"},{"link_name":"2011 Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_census"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-popn-1"},{"link_name":"hamlets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet_(place)"}],"text":"Human settlement in EnglandBaltonsborough is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England. The parish had a population of 864 at the 2011 Census.[1] As well as Baltonsborough village, the parish contains the hamlets of Ham Street, Catsham and Southwood.","title":"Baltonsborough"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hundred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_(county_subdivision)"},{"link_name":"Glaston Twelve Hides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaston_Twelve_Hides_(hundred)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Glastonbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury"},{"link_name":"Abbot of Glastonbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot_of_Glastonbury"},{"link_name":"Perpendicular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpendicular_Period"},{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"St Dunstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Dunstan"},{"link_name":"Archbishop of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Moravian Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_Church"}],"text":"The parish was part of the hundred of Glaston Twelve Hides.[2]The first clue as to the origins of Baltonsborough lies in the name. 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In 1989 there was an attempt to adopt this, mostly in order to shorten the length of the village nameplates, a movement which attracted the attention of the national press but very little enthusiasm from the villagers.Baltonsborough is a sprawling village with five small centres, the main part nestling around the Church, an early 15th-century Perpendicular-style building. Ham Street to the east and West Town on the western fringe are slowly being joined to the centre by new housing, whereas Southwood and Catsham to the south remain largely unchanged. The names Northwood and Southwood still exist as evidence of the 800 acres of oak woodland mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. Although there is still evidence of the medieval strip fields to the north and south of the village centre, there is little or no modern arable farming, the few remaining farms concentrating on dairy farming for which the land is more suitable. The old cider apple orchards are slowly disappearing, accelerated by the closure of the Cider Mill in the 1950s and the unrealistic price offered by modern apple juice and cider factories.Not far from the Church along the Mill Stream is the site of the old tannery, also used later as a cider mill, a waste paper reclamation works and now a modern housing estate. Next door is the old water grist mill, converted to a private house in the late 1960s, and the ancient Gatehouse, a fine 14th-century stone-built house, named after a family of linen weavers. On Ham Street a commercial business was built on the legendary site of the birthplace of St Dunstan in 909AD, to whom the Church is dedicated, later to become abbot of Glastonbury and Archbishop of Canterbury. Other buildings of interest include the Moravian Chapel, minister's house and school on Ham Street, now all in private ownership; Lubborn House where Messrs Whitehead and Mullins ran a national cheese dealership at the end of the 19th century; and Hillside House (complete with tunnel into the hill) and Orchard Neville House, both substantial houses built by the same builder/architect in the mid 19th century.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parish council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parish_councils_of_England"},{"link_name":"neighbourhood watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighbourhood_Watch_(UK)"},{"link_name":"local government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_England"},{"link_name":"Somerset Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Council"},{"link_name":"unitary authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_authorities_of_England"},{"link_name":"Wells Rural District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Rural_District"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wellsrd-3"},{"link_name":"non-metropolitan district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-metropolitan_district"},{"link_name":"Mendip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendip_District"},{"link_name":"Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"county constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_constituency"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_House_of_Commons"},{"link_name":"Parliament of the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Somerton and Frome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerton_and_Frome_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Member of Parliament (MP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"first past the post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_past_the_post"}],"text":"The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavus_Roy_Cohen | Octavus Roy Cohen | ["1 Biography","1.1 Early life","1.2 Career","1.3 Personal life and death","2 Works","2.1 Films","3 References","4 External links"] | American writer (1891–1959)
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Octavus Roy CohenCohen at the East Lake Golf Club, 1925Born(1891-06-26)June 26, 1891Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.DiedJanuary 6, 1959(1959-01-06) (aged 67)Los Angeles, California, U.S.Resting placeForest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, U.S.OccupationWriteractorAlma materClemson CollegeSpouse
Inez Lopez
(m. 1914; died 1953)Children1
Octavus Roy Cohen (1891–1959) was an early 20th-century American writer specializing in ethnic comedies. His dialect comedy stories about African Americans gained popularity after being published in the Saturday Evening Post and were adapted into a series of short films by Al Christie featuring actors Charles Olden, Spencer Williams Jr., Evelyn Preer, and Edward Thompson.
Biography
Early life
Cohen was born on June 26, 1891, in Charleston, South Carolina, to Octavus and Rebecca Cohen (née Ottolengui). He pronounced his first name oc-tav'us, a as in have. Through his mother, he was the cousin of Rodrigues Ottolengui, who also wrote crime fiction.
He received his secondary education at the Porter Military Academy, now the Porter-Gaud School, and graduated in 1908. He went on to Clemson College (later renamed Clemson University) and graduated in 1911 with a degree in engineering.
Career
Between 1910 and 1912, he worked in the editorial departments of the Birmingham Ledger, the Charleston News and Courier, the Bayonne Times, and the Newark Morning Star.
He became popular as a result of his stories printed in The Saturday Evening Post which were about African-Americans. In 1913, he was admitted to the South Carolina bar and practiced law in Charleston for two years. Between 1917 and his death, he published 56 books, works that included humorous and detective novels, plays, and collections of short stories. He also composed successful Broadway plays and radio, film, and television scripts.
As a mark of his success, on March 20, 1923, Cohen bought the "Redin-Cohen" house, a Tudor Revival-style home in Birmingham, Alabama. He was known to host local writers and journalists to discuss fiction writing while in Birmingham.
He moved from Birmingham to Harlem, New York, in the late 1930s and then to Los Angeles to pursue a film career.
Personal life and death
He married Inez Lopez in October 1914 in Bessemer, Alabama. They had one son, Octavus Roy Cohen, Jr.
His wife died in 1953. He died of a stroke on January 6, 1959, in Los Angeles and is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.
Works
His most notable creation was "Florian Slappey", a fictional black detective who appeared both in print (in the Saturday Evening Post) and in a series of short films in the 1920s, These were "ethnic comedies" following the bumbling investigations of Slappey and his travels from Birmingham, Alabama, to Harlem, New York. They were later assembled into a stage play, "Come Seven", with Slappey played by Earle Foxe, which ran for 72 performances. A second detective stage play, "The Crimson Alibi" , featured a white detective, David Carroll.
He wrote:
Polished Ebony (1919)
Gray Dusk (1920)
Come Seven (1920)
Highly Colored (1921)
Midnight (1922)
Installment of the short-lived comic strip Tempus Todd, the first comic strip in a mainstream newspaper to portray black characters as real people. Here, Tempus and a bakery owner talk about advertising.
Cohen wrote several novels about detective David Carroll. One of these novels, The Crimson Alibi, was adapted for the stage by George Broadhurst. Cohen's character of Jim Hanvey, "a sort of backwoods Nero Wolfe", "one of the earliest private eyes", appeared in two films; Curtain at Eight (1933), based on his novel The Backstage Mystery, and Jim Hanvey, Detective (1937), based on his original story. "Hanvey made most of his appearances in short stories in The Saturday Evening Post, where much of... Cohen's other work was also published... Cohen created a few other detectives... one of the first black private eyes, Florian Slappey, although they're more famous now for their unflattering portrayal of blacks than their historical significance."
Jim Hanvey books by Cohen:
Jim Hanvey, Detective (1923, short stories)
Detours (1927, short stories, one featuring Hanvey)
The May Day Mystery (1929)
The Backstage Mystery (also published as Curtain at Eight) (1930)
Star of Earth (1932)
Scrambled Yeggs (1934, short stories)
Films
The Lady Fare is a 1929 American comedy film adapted from a Cohen story.
Cohen was scriptwriter (or co-scriptwriter with Alfred A. Cohen) for six known films:
The Eyes of Mystery (1918) directed by Tod Browning
Melancholy Dame (1929) directed by Arvid Gillstrom, Florian Slappey played by Charles Olden
Hot Biscuits
The Widow's Bite
Oft in the Silly Night
Music Hath Harms (1929) directed by Walter Graham, Florian Slappey played by Harry Tracy
The Framing of the Shrew (1929) directed by Arvid Gillstrom, Florian Slappey played by Charles Olden
False Witness (1935) directed by Edward Buzzell
They Met in a Taxi (1936) directed by Alfred E. Green
References
^ a b c d Marquis, Albert Nelson; Leonard, John William, eds. (1920). Who's who in America. Vol. 11. p. 582.
^ Charles Earle Funk, What's the Name, Please?, Funk & Wagnalls, 1936
^ "DR. OTTOLENGUI, 76, DENTIST 50 YEARS; Specialist in Orthodontia and Root Canal Therapy DeadPioneer in X-Ray Field". The New York Times. July 13, 1937. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 31, 2023.
^ a b c d Wright, A.J. "Octavus Roy Cohen". encyclopediaofalabama.org. Retrieved March 9, 2021.
^ Honey, Maureen. “Images of Women in the Saturday Evening Post, 1931–1936,”.Journal of Popular Culture; Bowling Green, Ohio Vol. 10, Iss. 2, (Fall 1976): (p.352)
^ "Markers". Jefferson County Historical Commission. Retrieved March 9, 2021.
^ Jefferson County Historical Commission (Vol.1237, p.104)
^ Pines, Jim (1975). Blacks in Films. Littlehampton Book Services Ltd. ISBN 978-0289703267.
^ Lachman, Marvin (2014). The villainous stage : crime plays on Broadway and in the West End. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-9534-4. OCLC 903807427.
^ a b "Florian Slappey". The Thrilling Detective Web Site. April 25, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2021.
^ Bordman Gerald, American Theatre: A Chronicle of Comedy and Drama 1914-1930.Oxford University Press USA, 1995 ISBN 0195090780 (p.106).
^ a b "Jim Hanvey". www.thrillingdetective.com. March 28, 2021.
^ Crime Fiction, 1749-1980: A Comprehensive Bibliography by Allen J. Hubin, Garland, 1984, ISBN 0-8240-9219-8
^ "Exhibitors Herald World". Quigley Publishing Company. April 5, 1930 – via Google Books.
^ Peterson, Bernard L.; Peterson, Bernard J. (1990). Early Black American Playwrights and Dramatic Writers: A Biographical Directory and Catalog of Plays, Films, and Broadcasting Scripts. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9780313266218.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
External links
Media related to Octavus Roy Cohen at Wikimedia Commons
Works by or about Octavus Roy Cohen at Wikisource
Works by Octavus Roy Cohen at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Octavus Roy Cohen at Internet Archive
Works by Octavus Roy Cohen at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Information about Jim Hanvey from a website devoted to detective fiction, accessed July 18, 2021
Octavus Roy Cohen at IMDb
Authority control databases International
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SNAC | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saturday Evening Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Evening_Post"},{"link_name":"Al Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Christie"},{"link_name":"Charles Olden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Olden_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Spencer Williams Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Williams_Jr."},{"link_name":"Evelyn Preer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Preer"},{"link_name":"Edward Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thompson_(actor)"}],"text":"Octavus Roy Cohen (1891–1959) was an early 20th-century American writer specializing in ethnic comedies. His dialect comedy stories about African Americans gained popularity after being published in the Saturday Evening Post and were adapted into a series of short films by Al Christie featuring actors Charles Olden, Spencer Williams Jr., Evelyn Preer, and Edward Thompson.","title":"Octavus Roy Cohen"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charleston, South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Rodrigues Ottolengui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodrigues_Ottolengui"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Porter-Gaud School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porter-Gaud_School"},{"link_name":"Clemson College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemson_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ua-4"}],"sub_title":"Early life","text":"Cohen was born on June 26, 1891, in Charleston, South Carolina, to Octavus and Rebecca Cohen (née Ottolengui).[1] He pronounced his first name oc-tav'us, a as in have.[2] Through his mother, he was the cousin of Rodrigues Ottolengui, who also wrote crime fiction.[3]He received his secondary education at the Porter Military Academy, now the Porter-Gaud School, and graduated in 1908. He went on to Clemson College (later renamed Clemson University) and graduated in 1911 with a degree in engineering.[1][4]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Birmingham Ledger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Ledger"},{"link_name":"Charleston News and Courier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston_News_and_Courier"},{"link_name":"Bayonne Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bayonne_Times&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Newark Morning Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Newark_Morning_Star&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-1"},{"link_name":"The Saturday Evening Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Saturday_Evening_Post"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-honey-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Tudor Revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"Birmingham, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jefferson-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ua-4"},{"link_name":"Harlem, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"}],"sub_title":"Career","text":"Between 1910 and 1912, he worked in the editorial departments of the Birmingham Ledger, the Charleston News and Courier, the Bayonne Times, and the Newark Morning Star.[1]He became popular as a result of his stories printed in The Saturday Evening Post which were about African-Americans.[5] In 1913, he was admitted to the South Carolina bar and practiced law in Charleston for two years.[1] Between 1917 and his death, he published 56 books, works that included humorous and detective novels, plays, and collections of short stories.[citation needed] He also composed successful Broadway plays and radio, film, and television scripts.As a mark of his success, on March 20, 1923, Cohen bought the \"Redin-Cohen\" house, a Tudor Revival-style home in Birmingham, Alabama.[6][7][citation needed] He was known to host local writers and journalists to discuss fiction writing while in Birmingham.[4]He moved from Birmingham to Harlem, New York, in the late 1930s and then to Los Angeles to pursue a film career.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bessemer, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ua-4"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Forest Lawn Memorial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Lawn_Memorial_Park_(Glendale)"},{"link_name":"Glendale, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale,_California"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ua-4"}],"sub_title":"Personal life and death","text":"He married Inez Lopez in October 1914 in Bessemer, Alabama.[4] They had one son, Octavus Roy Cohen, Jr.His wife died in 1953. He died of a stroke on January 6, 1959, in Los Angeles and is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.[4]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Birmingham, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"Harlem, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Earle Foxe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earle_Foxe"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempus_Todd_(1923-03-12).png"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"George Broadhurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Broadhurst"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Nero Wolfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero_Wolfe"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thrill-12"},{"link_name":"Curtain at Eight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtain_at_Eight"},{"link_name":"Jim Hanvey, Detective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Hanvey,_Detective"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thrill-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hubin-13"}],"text":"His most notable creation was \"Florian Slappey\", a fictional black detective who appeared both in print (in the Saturday Evening Post) and in a series of short films in the 1920s,[8] These were \"ethnic comedies\" following the bumbling investigations of Slappey and his travels from Birmingham, Alabama, to Harlem, New York. They were later assembled into a stage play, \"Come Seven\", with Slappey played by Earle Foxe, which ran for 72 performances.[9] A second detective stage play, \"The Crimson Alibi\" , featured a white detective, David Carroll.[10]He wrote:Polished Ebony (1919)\nGray Dusk (1920)\nCome Seven (1920)\nHighly Colored (1921)\nMidnight (1922)Installment of the short-lived comic strip Tempus Todd, the first comic strip in a mainstream newspaper to portray black characters as real people.[citation needed] Here, Tempus and a bakery owner talk about advertising.Cohen wrote several novels about detective David Carroll. One of these novels, The Crimson Alibi, was adapted for the stage by George Broadhurst.[11] Cohen's character of Jim Hanvey, \"a sort of backwoods Nero Wolfe\", \"one of the earliest private eyes\",[12] appeared in two films; Curtain at Eight (1933), based on his novel The Backstage Mystery, and Jim Hanvey, Detective (1937), based on his original story. \"Hanvey made most of his appearances in short stories in The Saturday Evening Post, where much of... Cohen's other work was also published... Cohen created a few other detectives... one of the first black private eyes, Florian Slappey, although they're more famous now for their unflattering portrayal of blacks than their historical significance.\"[12]Jim Hanvey books by Cohen:[13]Jim Hanvey, Detective (1923, short stories)\nDetours (1927, short stories, one featuring Hanvey)\nThe May Day Mystery (1929)\nThe Backstage Mystery (also published as Curtain at Eight) (1930)\nStar of Earth (1932)\nScrambled Yeggs (1934, short stories)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Lady Fare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lady_Fare"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"link_name":"The Eyes of Mystery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eyes_of_Mystery"},{"link_name":"Tod Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tod_Browning"},{"link_name":"Melancholy Dame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholy_Dame"},{"link_name":"Arvid Gillstrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvid_Gillstrom"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Music Hath Harms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Hath_Harms"},{"link_name":"The Framing of the Shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Framing_of_the_Shrew"},{"link_name":"Arvid Gillstrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvid_Gillstrom"},{"link_name":"Florian Slappey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florian_Slappey"},{"link_name":"Edward Buzzell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Buzzell"},{"link_name":"They Met in a Taxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They_Met_in_a_Taxi"},{"link_name":"Alfred E. Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_E._Green"}],"sub_title":"Films","text":"The Lady Fare is a 1929 American comedy film adapted from a Cohen story.[14]Cohen was scriptwriter (or co-scriptwriter with Alfred A. Cohen) for six known films:[10]The Eyes of Mystery (1918) directed by Tod Browning\nMelancholy Dame (1929) directed by Arvid Gillstrom, Florian Slappey played by Charles Olden\nHot Biscuits\nThe Widow's Bite\nOft in the Silly Night[15]\nMusic Hath Harms (1929) directed by Walter Graham, Florian Slappey played by Harry Tracy\nThe Framing of the Shrew (1929) directed by Arvid Gillstrom, Florian Slappey played by Charles Olden\nFalse Witness (1935) directed by Edward Buzzell\nThey Met in a Taxi (1936) directed by Alfred E. Green","title":"Works"}] | [{"image_text":"Installment of the short-lived comic strip Tempus Todd, the first comic strip in a mainstream newspaper to portray black characters as real people.[citation needed] Here, Tempus and a bakery owner talk about advertising.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Tempus_Todd_%281923-03-12%29.png/220px-Tempus_Todd_%281923-03-12%29.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"Marquis, Albert Nelson; Leonard, John William, eds. (1920). Who's who in America. Vol. 11. p. 582.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WZJDV5f3DUoC&pg=PA582","url_text":"Who's who in America"}]},{"reference":"\"DR. OTTOLENGUI, 76, DENTIST 50 YEARS; Specialist in Orthodontia and Root Canal Therapy DeadPioneer in X-Ray Field\". The New York Times. July 13, 1937. ISSN 0362-4331. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS_Aramis | MS Aramis | ["1 Design and building","2 French service","3 Japanese service","4 References","5 Bibliography"] | Coordinates: 18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350Ocean liner that became a French armed merchant cruiser and Japanese troop ship
Teia Maru as a repatriation ship in 1943
History
Name
1932: Aramis
1940: X–1
1940: Aramis
1942: Teia Maru
Namesake1932: Aramis
OwnerMessageries Maritimes
Operator
1940: French Navy
1942: Nippon Yusen Kaisha
1942: Japanese Navy
Port of registry
1932: Marseille
1942: Yokohama
Route1932: Marseille – Suez – Far East
BuilderForges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée, La Seyne
Launched30 June 1931
Completed1932
Commissionedinto French Navy, 1 March 1940
Recommissionedinto Japanese Navy, 20 November 1942
Decommissionedfrom French Navy, 1 August 1940
Maiden voyage21 October 1932
Identification
code letters ORNA (until 1933)
call sign FOBP (1934 onward)
FateSunk by torpedo, 1944
General characteristics
Class and type"nautonaphte" ocean liner
Tonnage17,357 GRT, 9,990 NRT
Length543.5 ft (165.7 m)
Beam69.6 ft (21.2 m)
Depth33.6 ft (10.2 m)
Decks4
Installed power
1932: 2,490 NHP, 11,000 shp (8,200 kW)
1935: 15,600 shp (11,600 kW)
Propulsion
2 × screws
2 × two-stroke diesel engines
Speed
1932: 16 knots (30 km/h)
1935: 19 knots (35 km/h)
Capacitypassengers: 196 × 1st class, 110 × 2nd class, 60 × 3rd class, 1,183 – 1,402 × "rationnaires"
Sensors and processing systemswireless direction finding
Armament
as X-1:
8 × 138 mm (5.4 in) guns
2 × 75 mm (3.0 in) guns
2 × 37 mm (1.5 in) guns
8 × machine guns
Notessister ships: Félix Roussel, Georges Philippar
MS Aramis was a Messageries Maritimes ocean liner that was launched in France in 1931. She was a sister ship of Félix Roussel and Georges Philippar. The three sisters were highly unusual in having square funnels. Aramis' interior was an Art Deco interpretation of Minoan design.
When France entered the Second World War, Aramis was converted into the armed merchant cruiser X-1. In August 1940 she was decommissioned. In 1942 Japan seized her under angary and renamed her Teia Maru (帝亜丸). She was a repatriation ship in 1943 and a troop ship in 1944, until a United States Navy submarine sank her. About 2,665 of her passengers and crew were killed.
Design and building
Between 1929 and 1932 Messageries Maritimes (MM) had three new ocean liners built for its routes between France and the Far East. Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint-Nazaire launched Félix Roussel in 1929 and Georges Philippar in 1930. The Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne-sur-Mer launched Aramis on 30 June 1931 and completed her in October 1932.
Aramis' registered length was 543.5 ft (165.7 m), her beam was 69.6 ft (21.2 m)and her depth was 33.6 ft (10.2 m). Her tonnages were 17,357 GRT and 9,990 NRT. She had berths for 196 passengers in first class, 110 in second class, 60 in third class, and 1,183 to 1,402 "rationnaires".
The ship's Minoan décor was part of a programme by MM's President, Georges Philippar, to give MM's ships unusual revivalist décors from various ancient cultures, to get away from the usual 19th- and early 20th-century de luxe styles. In this case the designers went on a research trip to Crete. The "Neo-Aegean" design, based on Sir Arthur Evans' reconstructions at Knossos mixed with Art Deco, received much publicity. Tours of the ship were arranged at ports she visited on her maiden voyage.
The ship had twin screws, each driven by a French-built Sulzer ten-cylinder single-acting two-stroke diesel engine. The combined power of her twin engines was rated at 2,490 NHP or 11,000 shp (8,200 kW), and gave her a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h).
MM registered Aramis at Marseille. Her code letters were ORNA.
French service
Aramis, about 1932
On 21 October 1932 Aramis left Marseille on her maiden voyage to Kobe via the Suez Canal. She called at Port Said, Djibouti, Colombo, Penang, Singapore, Saigon, Hong Kong and Shanghai.
On 22 June 1933 Aramis ran aground on Zhoushan. She was refloated, and the French cruiser Primauguet towed her to Japan.
In 1934 the call sign FOBP superseded her code letters. In 1935–36 Aramis' engines were supercharged. This increased her power to 15,600 shp (11,600 kW) and her speed to 19 knots (35 km/h). At the same time, Chantier naval de La Ciotat built her a new bow, which lengthened her by 30 feet (9 m).
On 4 September 1939, work to convert Aramis into an armed merchant cruiser was started in Saigon. She was armed with eight 138 mm (5.4 in) guns, two 75 mm (3.0 in) anti-aircraft guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) anti-aircraft guns, and eight machine guns. On 20 January 1940 she left Saigon, and in February she reached Hong Kong, where she was dry docked. On 1 March she left dry dock, and was commissioned into the French Navy as auxiliary cruiser X-1. She patrolled the South China Sea.
On 22 June 1940 France capitulated to Germany and Italy. On 1 August 1940 Aramis returned to Saigon and was disarmed and returned to her owners. In January 1942 became a barracks ship in Saigon.
Japanese service
On 12 April 1942, Japan seized Aramis under angary. On 2 June her French crew was disembarked. Officially, Japan chartered Aramis and ten other Vichy French. Japan paid MM 168,346 yen per month for Aramis. On 2 June she was renamed Teia Maru. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries at Yokohama dry docked her from 5 July until 19 November.
On 20 November 1942 the Imperial Japanese Navy requisitioned Teia Maru. From September 1943 she made voyages exchanging interned civilians with the Allies.
Teia Maru at Mormugao in Portuguese India
On 14 September she left Yokohama on the second Japanese–US exchange voyage. She carried 80 US repatriates from Japan. She embarked about 975 repatriates at Shanghai on 19 September, 24 at Hong Kong on 23 September, 130 at San Fernando, Philippines on 26 September, 27 at Saigon on 30 September, and others at Singapore on 5 October. She reached Mormugao in Portuguese India, on 15 October 1943 carrying 1,525 priests, nuns, Protestant missionaries, and businessmen with their families who had been stranded in areas captured by Japan.
The Swedish liner Gripsholm
On 19 October, the neutral Swedish Gripsholm arrived carrying 1,340 Japanese officials and businessmen and their families. They were exchanged for 1,270 US citizens, 120 Canadians, and 15 Chileans, plus as UK citizens, Panamanians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Cubans, Argentinians, and nationals from other Latin American countries. 48,670 Red Cross parcels for interned Allied civilians were transferred from Gripsholm to Teia Maru for Allied prisoners of war and interned civilians in Singapore, Manila and Japan. Teia Maru left Mormugao on 21 October and returned the repatriated Japanese to Yokohama on 14 November.
On 1 January 1944 the Japanese Navy requisitioned Teia Maru again, this time as a troop ship. She sailed to Singapore with convoy Hi-41 in February 1944, and returned to Japan with convoy Hi-48 in March. She sailed again to Singapore with convoy Hi-63 in May 1944, and returned to Japan in June carrying about 1,000 Australian, British, Dutch, and other PoWs who had worked on the Burma Railway. 300 of these POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 6 in Orio, 350 POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 21 in Nakama, 100 Dutch POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 9 Miyata, and 250, including 150 Australian POWs, were assigned to work in Mitsui coal mines at PW Fukuoka Camp 17 in Ōmuta.
On 10 August 1944 Teia Maru left Imari Bay carrying 5,478 soldiers and civilians. Most of her military passengers were Imperial Japanese Army Air Service personnel. She was part of convoy Hi-71 carrying Operation Shō reinforcements to Singapore. On 17 August the convoy entered the South China Sea from Mako naval base in the Pescadores. USS Redfish discovered the convoy that evening, and assembled USS Rasher, Bluefish and Spadefish for a radar-assisted wolfpack attack in typhoon conditions on the night of 18–19 August. Teia Maru was one of several ships torpedoed that night. She sank at position 18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350, killing 2,665 of her passengers and crew.
References
^ "Le Félix Roussel futur–Arosa Sun". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
^ "Le Georges Philippar". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
^ a b c d e "L'Aramis futur–Teia Maru". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
^ a b c Lloyd's Register, 1933
^ Ulanowska, 2017
^ a b c d e f g h Hackett, Bob (2013). "IJN Teia Maru: Combined Fleet tabular record of movement". Combined Fleet.
^ Lloyd's Register, 1934
^ Blair, 1975, pp. 676–680
^ Cressman, 2000, p. 248
Bibliography
Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. 676–680. ISBN 978-0397007530.
Cressman, Robert J (2000). The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. p. 248. ISBN 1-55750-149-1.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping (PDF). Vol. II.–Steamers and Motorships of 300 Tons and Over. London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1933 – via Southampton City Council.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping (PDF). Vol. II.–Steamers and Motorships of 300 Tons and Over. London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1934 – via Southampton City Council.
Miller, William H. Jr (1997). Picture History of the French Line. Dover Publications.
Momigliano, Nicoletta; Farnoux, Alexandre, eds. (2017). Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.
Ulanowska, Agata (30 October 2023). "review of: Nicoletta Momigliano & Alexandre Farnoux (eds), 2017, Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past". Aegeus — Society for Aegean Prehistory. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.. Chapter 7 of the book deals with the ship.
Media related to Teia Maru at Wikimedia Commons
vteShipwrecks and maritime incidents in August 1944Shipwrecks
2 Aug: USS Fiske
3 Aug: HMS Quorn
4 Aug: Tannenfels, Matsu
5 Aug: Mefküre, U-671
6 Aug: Empire City, Sachsenwald, Thétis, U-471, U-736, U-952, U-969, V 215 Oliva
7 Aug: Amsterdam, Empire Day, Nagara
8 Aug: Conte Verde, HMCS Regina, Tama Maru No. 6, V 404 Falke
9 Aug: Spichern
10 Aug: U-608
11 Aug: V 623 Jupiter, U-385, U-967
12 Aug: T-114, T-118, U-198, U-981, V 410 Germania
13 Aug: USS Flier, U-270, V 1101 Preußsen
14 Aug: V 605 Arthur Duncker, Gueydon, U-618
15 Aug: U-741
16 Aug: Trémintin
17 Aug: TA35
18 Aug: La Galissonnière, Natori, Strasbourg, Taiyō, Teia Maru, U-107, U-129, U-621, V 406 Hans Loh
19 Aug: Commandant Teste, Hayasui, Tamatsu Maru, U-123, U-466, V-6112 Friese
20 Aug: Richard Montgomery, U-9, U-413, U-984, U-1229. V 409 August Bösch
21 Aug: HMCS Alberni, HMS Kite, HMS Orchis, U-230, V 402 Dr. Adolf Spilker, Z23
22 Aug: HMS Bickerton, HMS Loyalty, Matsuwa, Tsushima Maru, U-344, V 401 Jan Mayen, V 405 J. Hinrich Wilhelms, V 413 Ferdinand Niedermeyer
23 Aug: Asakaze, U-180
24 Aug: USS Harder, NMS Mihail Kogălniceanu, U-354, U-445, Z37
25 Aug: Sperrbrecher 136, U-18, U-24, U-178, U-667, UIT-21, Yūnagi, Z24
26 Aug: Samidare, U-188, V 404 Baden, V 411 Saarland
27 Aug: HMS Britomart, Clemenceau, HMS Hussar
28 Aug: John Barry, V 407 Dorum
30 Aug: De Grasse, M553
31 Aug: Shirataka
Unknown date: Condorcet, Kulmerland, Marechal Petain, U-925
Other incidents
4 Aug: Maycrest
15 Aug: LST-404
16 Aug: USS S-38
18 Aug: U-1054
20 Aug: Daronia
22 Aug: HMS Nabob
27 Aug: USS Pollack
31 Aug: U-1000
1943 1944 1945 July 1944 September 1944 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Messageries Maritimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messageries_Maritimes"},{"link_name":"ocean liner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_liner"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic"},{"link_name":"sister ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_ship"},{"link_name":"Georges Philippar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS_Georges_Philippar"},{"link_name":"funnels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funnel_(ship)"},{"link_name":"Art Deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Deco"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_architecture"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"armed merchant cruiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_merchantman#Armed_merchant_cruisers"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"angary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angary"},{"link_name":"repatriation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repatriation"},{"link_name":"troop ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troopship"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"}],"text":"Ocean liner that became a French armed merchant cruiser and Japanese troop shipMS Aramis was a Messageries Maritimes ocean liner that was launched in France in 1931. She was a sister ship of Félix Roussel and Georges Philippar. The three sisters were highly unusual in having square funnels. Aramis' interior was an Art Deco interpretation of Minoan design.When France entered the Second World War, Aramis was converted into the armed merchant cruiser X-1. In August 1940 she was decommissioned. In 1942 Japan seized her under angary and renamed her Teia Maru (帝亜丸). She was a repatriation ship in 1943 and a troop ship in 1944, until a United States Navy submarine sank her. About 2,665 of her passengers and crew were killed.","title":"MS Aramis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateliers_et_Chantiers_de_la_Loire"},{"link_name":"Saint-Nazaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Nazaire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Nouvelle_des_Forges_et_Chantiers_de_la_M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"La Seyne-sur-Mer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Seyne-sur-Mer"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EMM-3"},{"link_name":"tonnages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnage"},{"link_name":"GRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_register_tonnage"},{"link_name":"NRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_register_tonnage"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR33-4"},{"link_name":"first class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_class_travel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EMM-3"},{"link_name":"Georges Philippar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Philippar"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Arthur Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Evans"},{"link_name":"Knossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"screws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller"},{"link_name":"Sulzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulzer_(manufacturer)"},{"link_name":"single-acting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-_and_double-acting_cylinders"},{"link_name":"two-stroke diesel engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_diesel_engine"},{"link_name":"NHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower#Nominal_horsepower"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR33-4"},{"link_name":"shp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower#Shaft_horsepower"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EMM-3"},{"link_name":"registered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_registration"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille-Fos_Port"},{"link_name":"code letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_letters"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR33-4"}],"text":"Between 1929 and 1932 Messageries Maritimes (MM) had three new ocean liners built for its routes between France and the Far East. Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint-Nazaire launched Félix Roussel in 1929 and Georges Philippar in 1930.[1][2] The Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée in La Seyne-sur-Mer launched Aramis on 30 June 1931 and completed her in October 1932.[3]Aramis' registered length was 543.5 ft (165.7 m), her beam was 69.6 ft (21.2 m)and her depth was 33.6 ft (10.2 m). Her tonnages were 17,357 GRT and 9,990 NRT.[4] She had berths for 196 passengers in first class, 110 in second class, 60 in third class, and 1,183 to 1,402 \"rationnaires\".[3]The ship's Minoan décor was part of a programme by MM's President, Georges Philippar, to give MM's ships unusual revivalist décors from various ancient cultures, to get away from the usual 19th- and early 20th-century de luxe styles. In this case the designers went on a research trip to Crete. The \"Neo-Aegean\" design, based on Sir Arthur Evans' reconstructions at Knossos mixed with Art Deco, received much publicity. Tours of the ship were arranged at ports she visited on her maiden voyage.[5]The ship had twin screws, each driven by a French-built Sulzer ten-cylinder single-acting two-stroke diesel engine. The combined power of her twin engines was rated at 2,490 NHP[4] or 11,000 shp (8,200 kW), and gave her a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h).[3]MM registered Aramis at Marseille. Her code letters were ORNA.[4]","title":"Design and building"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teia_maru_aramis_1932.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Kobe"},{"link_name":"Suez Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canal"},{"link_name":"Port Said","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Said"},{"link_name":"Djibouti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti"},{"link_name":"Colombo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Colombo"},{"link_name":"Penang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Penang"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"Saigon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saigon"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"Zhoushan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhoushan"},{"link_name":"French cruiser Primauguet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cruiser_Primauguet_(1924)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EMM-3"},{"link_name":"call sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_call_sign"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"supercharged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercharger"},{"link_name":"shp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsepower#Shaft_horsepower"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EMM-3"},{"link_name":"Chantier naval de La Ciotat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chantier_naval_de_La_Ciotat"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"machine guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_gun"},{"link_name":"dry docked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_dock"},{"link_name":"commissioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_commissioning"},{"link_name":"French Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Navy"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)"},{"link_name":"barracks ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barracks_ship"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"}],"text":"Aramis, about 1932On 21 October 1932 Aramis left Marseille on her maiden voyage to Kobe via the Suez Canal. She called at Port Said, Djibouti, Colombo, Penang, Singapore, Saigon, Hong Kong and Shanghai.[6]On 22 June 1933 Aramis ran aground on Zhoushan. She was refloated, and the French cruiser Primauguet towed her to Japan.[3]In 1934 the call sign FOBP superseded her code letters.[7] In 1935–36 Aramis' engines were supercharged. This increased her power to 15,600 shp (11,600 kW) and her speed to 19 knots (35 km/h).[3] At the same time, Chantier naval de La Ciotat built her a new bow, which lengthened her by 30 feet (9 m).[6]On 4 September 1939, work to convert Aramis into an armed merchant cruiser was started in Saigon. She was armed with eight 138 mm (5.4 in) guns, two 75 mm (3.0 in) anti-aircraft guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) anti-aircraft guns, and eight machine guns. On 20 January 1940 she left Saigon, and in February she reached Hong Kong, where she was dry docked. On 1 March she left dry dock, and was commissioned into the French Navy as auxiliary cruiser X-1. She patrolled the South China Sea.[6]On 22 June 1940 France capitulated to Germany and Italy. On 1 August 1940 Aramis returned to Saigon and was disarmed and returned to her owners. In January 1942 became a barracks ship in Saigon.[6]","title":"French service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angary"},{"link_name":"chartered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartering_(shipping)"},{"link_name":"Vichy French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France"},{"link_name":"yen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_yen"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi Heavy Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries"},{"link_name":"Yokohama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Yokohama"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teia-maru-at-mormugao.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mormugao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormugao"},{"link_name":"Portuguese India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_India"},{"link_name":"repatriates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repatriation"},{"link_name":"San Fernando, Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Fernando,_La_Union"},{"link_name":"Mormugao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormugao"},{"link_name":"Portuguese India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_India"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"missionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GRIPSHOLM_utanf%C3%B6r_Tangier_-_Sj%C3%B6fartsmuseet_Akvariet_-_SMGF6906.tif"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Gripsholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS_Gripsholm_(1924)"},{"link_name":"neutral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_country"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Gripsholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS_Gripsholm_(1924)"},{"link_name":"Red Cross parcels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cross_parcel"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"convoy Hi-41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi_convoys"},{"link_name":"Burma Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Railway"},{"link_name":"Orio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orio_(Kitaky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB)"},{"link_name":"Nakama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakama,_Fukuoka"},{"link_name":"Miyata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyata,_Fukuoka"},{"link_name":"Mitsui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsui"},{"link_name":"Ōmuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cmuta,_Fukuoka"},{"link_name":"Imari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imari,_Saga"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Army Air Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service"},{"link_name":"convoy Hi-71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy_Hi-71"},{"link_name":"Mako","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mako_Guard_District"},{"link_name":"Pescadores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescadores"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"},{"link_name":"USS Redfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Redfish_(SS-395)"},{"link_name":"USS Rasher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Rasher"},{"link_name":"Bluefish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bluefish_(SS-222)"},{"link_name":"Spadefish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Spadefish_(SS-411)"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"wolfpack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfpack_(naval_tactic)"},{"link_name":"typhoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=MS_Aramis¶ms=18_16_N_120_21_E_"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hackett-6"}],"text":"On 12 April 1942, Japan seized Aramis under angary. On 2 June her French crew was disembarked. Officially, Japan chartered Aramis and ten other Vichy French. Japan paid MM 168,346 yen per month for Aramis. On 2 June she was renamed Teia Maru. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries at Yokohama dry docked her from 5 July until 19 November.[6]On 20 November 1942 the Imperial Japanese Navy requisitioned Teia Maru. From September 1943 she made voyages exchanging interned civilians with the Allies.Teia Maru at Mormugao in Portuguese IndiaOn 14 September she left Yokohama on the second Japanese–US exchange voyage. She carried 80 US repatriates from Japan. She embarked about 975 repatriates at Shanghai on 19 September, 24 at Hong Kong on 23 September, 130 at San Fernando, Philippines on 26 September, 27 at Saigon on 30 September, and others at Singapore on 5 October. She reached Mormugao in Portuguese India, on 15 October 1943 carrying 1,525 priests, nuns, Protestant missionaries, and businessmen with their families who had been stranded in areas captured by Japan.The Swedish liner GripsholmOn 19 October, the neutral Swedish Gripsholm arrived carrying 1,340 Japanese officials and businessmen and their families. They were exchanged for 1,270 US citizens, 120 Canadians, and 15 Chileans, plus as UK citizens, Panamanians, Spaniards, Portuguese, Cubans, Argentinians, and nationals from other Latin American countries. 48,670 Red Cross parcels for interned Allied civilians were transferred from Gripsholm to Teia Maru for Allied prisoners of war and interned civilians in Singapore, Manila and Japan. Teia Maru left Mormugao on 21 October and returned the repatriated Japanese to Yokohama on 14 November.[6]On 1 January 1944 the Japanese Navy requisitioned Teia Maru again, this time as a troop ship. She sailed to Singapore with convoy Hi-41 in February 1944, and returned to Japan with convoy Hi-48 in March. She sailed again to Singapore with convoy Hi-63 in May 1944, and returned to Japan in June carrying about 1,000 Australian, British, Dutch, and other PoWs who had worked on the Burma Railway. 300 of these POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 6 in Orio, 350 POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 21 in Nakama, 100 Dutch POWs were sent to Fukuoka Camp 9 Miyata, and 250, including 150 Australian POWs, were assigned to work in Mitsui coal mines at PW Fukuoka Camp 17 in Ōmuta.On 10 August 1944 Teia Maru left Imari Bay carrying 5,478 soldiers and civilians. Most of her military passengers were Imperial Japanese Army Air Service personnel. She was part of convoy Hi-71 carrying Operation Shō reinforcements to Singapore. On 17 August the convoy entered the South China Sea from Mako naval base in the Pescadores.[6] USS Redfish discovered the convoy that evening, and assembled USS Rasher, Bluefish and Spadefish for a radar-assisted wolfpack attack in typhoon conditions on the night of 18–19 August.[8] Teia Maru was one of several ships torpedoed that night. She sank at position 18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350,[9] killing 2,665 of her passengers and crew.[6]","title":"Japanese service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blair, Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_Blair"},{"link_name":"Silent Victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai"},{"link_name":"676–680","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai/page/676"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0397007530","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0397007530"},{"link_name":"The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII"},{"link_name":"Naval Institute Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Institute_Press"},{"link_name":"248","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII/page/n247"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55750-149-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-149-1"},{"link_name":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/33/33b0057.pdf"},{"link_name":"Southampton City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton_City_Council"},{"link_name":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/34/34b0061.pdf"},{"link_name":"Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=UigxDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Neo-Aegean%22&pg=PT108"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1472474995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472474995"},{"link_name":"Aegeus — Society for Aegean Prehistory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.aegeussociety.org/en/book_reviews/review-of-nicoletta-momigliano-amp-alexandre-farnoux-eds-2017-cretomania-modern-desires-for-the-minoan-past-bsa-modern-greek-and-byzantine-studies-vol-3-london-amp-new-york-routledge-amp-ecole-francai/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1472474995","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472474995"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Teia 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City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Empire_City"},{"link_name":"Sachsenwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_weather_ship_Sachsenwald"},{"link_name":"Thétis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_submarine_Th%C3%A9tis"},{"link_name":"U-471","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-471"},{"link_name":"U-736","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-736"},{"link_name":"U-952","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-952"},{"link_name":"U-969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-969"},{"link_name":"V 215 Oliva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_1523_Deltra_I"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Amsterdam_(1930)"},{"link_name":"Empire Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Empire_Day"},{"link_name":"Nagara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Nagara"},{"link_name":"Conte Verde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Conte_Verde"},{"link_name":"HMCS Regina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMCS_Regina_(K234)"},{"link_name":"Tama Maru No. 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_minesweeper_Tama_Maru_No._6"},{"link_name":"V 404 Falke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_104_Falke"},{"link_name":"Spichern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_tanker_Spichern"},{"link_name":"U-608","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-608"},{"link_name":"V 623 Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_623_Jupiter"},{"link_name":"U-385","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-385"},{"link_name":"U-967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-967"},{"link_name":"T-114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_minesweeper_T-114"},{"link_name":"T-118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_minesweeper_T-118"},{"link_name":"U-198","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-198"},{"link_name":"U-981","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-981"},{"link_name":"V 410 Germania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_410_Germania"},{"link_name":"USS Flier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Flier"},{"link_name":"U-270","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-270"},{"link_name":"V 1101 Preußsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_1101_Preu%C3%9Fen"},{"link_name":"V 605 Arthur Duncker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_605_Arthur_Duncker"},{"link_name":"Gueydon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cruiser_Gueydon"},{"link_name":"U-618","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-618"},{"link_name":"U-741","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-741"},{"link_name":"Trémintin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cruiser_Montcalm_(1900)"},{"link_name":"TA35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_destroyer_Pilade_Bronzetti"},{"link_name":"La Galissonnière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_cruiser_La_Galissonni%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Natori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Natori"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_battleship_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Taiyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Taiy%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Teia Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"U-107","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-107_(1940)"},{"link_name":"U-129","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-129_(1941)"},{"link_name":"U-621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-621"},{"link_name":"V 406 Hans Loh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_406_Hans_Loh"},{"link_name":"Commandant Teste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_seaplane_carrier_Commandant_Teste"},{"link_name":"Hayasui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_fleet_oiler_Hayasui"},{"link_name":"Tamatsu Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamatsu_Maru"},{"link_name":"U-123","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-123_(1940)"},{"link_name":"U-466","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-466"},{"link_name":"V-6112 Friese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Bradman"},{"link_name":"Richard Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Richard_Montgomery"},{"link_name":"U-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-9_(1935)"},{"link_name":"U-413","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-413"},{"link_name":"U-984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-984"},{"link_name":"U-1229","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-1229"},{"link_name":"V 409 August Bösch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_409_August_B%C3%B6sch"},{"link_name":"HMCS Alberni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMCS_Alberni"},{"link_name":"HMS Kite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Kite_(U87)"},{"link_name":"HMS Orchis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Orchis"},{"link_name":"U-230","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-230"},{"link_name":"V 402 Dr. Adolf Spilker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_402_Dr._Adolf_Spilker"},{"link_name":"Z23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_destroyer_Z23"},{"link_name":"HMS Bickerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Bickerton"},{"link_name":"HMS Loyalty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Loyalty_(J217)"},{"link_name":"Matsuwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_escort_ship_Matsuwa"},{"link_name":"Tsushima Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsushima_Maru"},{"link_name":"U-344","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-344"},{"link_name":"V 401 Jan Mayen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_401_Jan_Mayen"},{"link_name":"V 405 J. Hinrich Wilhelms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_405_J._Hinrich_Wilhelms"},{"link_name":"V 413 Ferdinand Niedermeyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_413_Ferdinand_Niedermeyer"},{"link_name":"Asakaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Asakaze_(1922)"},{"link_name":"U-180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-180"},{"link_name":"USS Harder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Harder_(SS-257)"},{"link_name":"NMS Mihail Kogălniceanu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMS_Mihail_Kog%C4%83lniceanu"},{"link_name":"U-354","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-354"},{"link_name":"U-445","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-445"},{"link_name":"Z37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_destroyer_Z37"},{"link_name":"Sperrbrecher 136","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Ph%C3%B6nix_(1913)"},{"link_name":"U-18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-18_(1935)"},{"link_name":"U-24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-24_(1936)"},{"link_name":"U-178","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-178"},{"link_name":"U-667","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-667"},{"link_name":"UIT-21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvi-class_submarine#Giuseppe_Finzi"},{"link_name":"Yūnagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Y%C5%ABnagi_(1924)"},{"link_name":"Z24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_destroyer_Z24"},{"link_name":"Samidare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_destroyer_Samidare_(1935)"},{"link_name":"U-188","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-188"},{"link_name":"V 404 Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_404_Baden"},{"link_name":"V 411 Saarland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_411_Saarland"},{"link_name":"HMS Britomart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Britomart_(J22)"},{"link_name":"Clemenceau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richelieu-class_battleship"},{"link_name":"HMS Hussar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Hussar_(J82)"},{"link_name":"John Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_John_Barry"},{"link_name":"V 407 Dorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_trawler_V_407_Dorum"},{"link_name":"De Grasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_De_Grasse"},{"link_name":"M553","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HNLMS_Abraham_van_der_Hulst_(1937)"},{"link_name":"Shirataka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_minelayer_Shirataka"},{"link_name":"Condorcet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_battleship_Condorcet"},{"link_name":"Kulmerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulmerland_(ship)"},{"link_name":"Marechal Petain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Bianca_C."},{"link_name":"U-925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-925"},{"link_name":"Maycrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Verdala"},{"link_name":"LST-404","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_LST-404"},{"link_name":"USS S-38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_S-38"},{"link_name":"U-1054","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-1054"},{"link_name":"Daronia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Daronia"},{"link_name":"HMS Nabob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Nabob_(D77)"},{"link_name":"USS Pollack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Pollack_(SS-180)"},{"link_name":"U-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-1000"},{"link_name":"1943","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1943"},{"link_name":"1944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1945"},{"link_name":"1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_1945"},{"link_name":"July 1944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_July_1944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_July_1944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_September_1944"},{"link_name":"September 1944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_in_September_1944"}],"text":"Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. 676–680. ISBN 978-0397007530.\nCressman, Robert J (2000). The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. p. 248. ISBN 1-55750-149-1.\nLloyd's Register of Shipping (PDF). Vol. II.–Steamers and Motorships of 300 Tons and Over. London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1933 – via Southampton City Council.\nLloyd's Register of Shipping (PDF). Vol. II.–Steamers and Motorships of 300 Tons and Over. London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1934 – via Southampton City Council.\nMiller, William H. Jr (1997). Picture History of the French Line. Dover Publications.\nMomigliano, Nicoletta; Farnoux, Alexandre, eds. (2017). Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.\nUlanowska, Agata (30 October 2023). \"review of: Nicoletta Momigliano & Alexandre Farnoux (eds), 2017, Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past\". Aegeus — Society for Aegean Prehistory. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.. Chapter 7 of the book deals with the ship.Media related to Teia Maru at Wikimedia CommonsvteShipwrecks and maritime incidents in August 1944Shipwrecks\n2 Aug: USS Fiske\n3 Aug: HMS Quorn\n4 Aug: Tannenfels, Matsu\n5 Aug: Mefküre, U-671\n6 Aug: Empire City, Sachsenwald, Thétis, U-471, U-736, U-952, U-969, V 215 Oliva\n7 Aug: Amsterdam, Empire Day, Nagara\n8 Aug: Conte Verde, HMCS Regina, Tama Maru No. 6, V 404 Falke\n9 Aug: Spichern\n10 Aug: U-608\n11 Aug: V 623 Jupiter, U-385, U-967\n12 Aug: T-114, T-118, U-198, U-981, V 410 Germania\n13 Aug: USS Flier, U-270, V 1101 Preußsen\n14 Aug: V 605 Arthur Duncker, Gueydon, U-618\n15 Aug: U-741\n16 Aug: Trémintin\n17 Aug: TA35\n18 Aug: La Galissonnière, Natori, Strasbourg, Taiyō, Teia Maru, U-107, U-129, U-621, V 406 Hans Loh\n19 Aug: Commandant Teste, Hayasui, Tamatsu Maru, U-123, U-466, V-6112 Friese\n20 Aug: Richard Montgomery, U-9, U-413, U-984, U-1229. V 409 August Bösch\n21 Aug: HMCS Alberni, HMS Kite, HMS Orchis, U-230, V 402 Dr. Adolf Spilker, Z23\n22 Aug: HMS Bickerton, HMS Loyalty, Matsuwa, Tsushima Maru, U-344, V 401 Jan Mayen, V 405 J. Hinrich Wilhelms, V 413 Ferdinand Niedermeyer\n23 Aug: Asakaze, U-180\n24 Aug: USS Harder, NMS Mihail Kogălniceanu, U-354, U-445, Z37\n25 Aug: Sperrbrecher 136, U-18, U-24, U-178, U-667, UIT-21, Yūnagi, Z24\n26 Aug: Samidare, U-188, V 404 Baden, V 411 Saarland\n27 Aug: HMS Britomart, Clemenceau, HMS Hussar\n28 Aug: John Barry, V 407 Dorum\n30 Aug: De Grasse, M553\n31 Aug: Shirataka\nUnknown date: Condorcet, Kulmerland, Marechal Petain, U-925\nOther incidents\n4 Aug: Maycrest\n15 Aug: LST-404\n16 Aug: USS S-38\n18 Aug: U-1054\n20 Aug: Daronia\n22 Aug: HMS Nabob\n27 Aug: USS Pollack\n31 Aug: U-1000\n1943 1944 1945 July 1944 September 1944","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"Aramis, about 1932","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Teia_maru_aramis_1932.jpg/220px-Teia_maru_aramis_1932.jpg"},{"image_text":"Teia Maru at Mormugao in Portuguese India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Teia-maru-at-mormugao.jpg/220px-Teia-maru-at-mormugao.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Swedish liner Gripsholm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/GRIPSHOLM_utanf%C3%B6r_Tangier_-_Sj%C3%B6fartsmuseet_Akvariet_-_SMGF6906.tif/lossy-page1-220px-GRIPSHOLM_utanf%C3%B6r_Tangier_-_Sj%C3%B6fartsmuseet_Akvariet_-_SMGF6906.tif.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Le Félix Roussel futur–Arosa Sun\". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/felix.htm","url_text":"\"Le Félix Roussel futur–Arosa Sun\""}]},{"reference":"\"Le Georges Philippar\". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/gphilip.htm","url_text":"\"Le Georges Philippar\""}]},{"reference":"\"L'Aramis futur–Teia Maru\". L'Encyclopedie des Messageries Maritimes. Retrieved 9 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/aramis.htm","url_text":"\"L'Aramis futur–Teia Maru\""}]},{"reference":"Hackett, Bob (2013). \"IJN Teia Maru: Combined Fleet tabular record of movement\". Combined Fleet.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.combinedfleet.com/Teia_t.htm","url_text":"\"IJN Teia Maru: Combined Fleet tabular record of movement\""}]},{"reference":"Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. 676–680. ISBN 978-0397007530.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_Blair","url_text":"Blair, Clay"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai","url_text":"Silent Victory"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai/page/676","url_text":"676–680"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0397007530","url_text":"978-0397007530"}]},{"reference":"Cressman, Robert J (2000). The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. p. 248. 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London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1933 – via Southampton City Council.","urls":[{"url":"https://plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/33/33b0057.pdf","url_text":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton_City_Council","url_text":"Southampton City Council"}]},{"reference":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping (PDF). Vol. II.–Steamers and Motorships of 300 Tons and Over. London: Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 1934 – via Southampton City Council.","urls":[{"url":"https://plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/34/34b0061.pdf","url_text":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping"}]},{"reference":"Miller, William H. Jr (1997). Picture History of the French Line. Dover Publications.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Momigliano, Nicoletta; Farnoux, Alexandre, eds. (2017). Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UigxDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Neo-Aegean%22&pg=PT108","url_text":"Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472474995","url_text":"978-1472474995"}]},{"reference":"Ulanowska, Agata (30 October 2023). \"review of: Nicoletta Momigliano & Alexandre Farnoux (eds), 2017, Cretomania. Modern Desires for the Minoan Past\". Aegeus — Society for Aegean Prehistory. BSA – Modern Greek and Byzantine Studies. Vol. 3. London & New York: Routledge & École française d’Athènes. ISBN 978-1472474995.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aegeussociety.org/en/book_reviews/review-of-nicoletta-momigliano-amp-alexandre-farnoux-eds-2017-cretomania-modern-desires-for-the-minoan-past-bsa-modern-greek-and-byzantine-studies-vol-3-london-amp-new-york-routledge-amp-ecole-francai/","url_text":"Aegeus — Society for Aegean Prehistory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472474995","url_text":"978-1472474995"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=MS_Aramis¶ms=18_16_N_120_21_E_","external_links_name":"18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=MS_Aramis¶ms=18_16_N_120_21_E_","external_links_name":"18°16′N 120°21′E / 18.267°N 120.350°E / 18.267; 120.350"},{"Link":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/felix.htm","external_links_name":"\"Le Félix Roussel futur–Arosa Sun\""},{"Link":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/gphilip.htm","external_links_name":"\"Le Georges Philippar\""},{"Link":"https://www.messageries-maritimes.org/aramis.htm","external_links_name":"\"L'Aramis futur–Teia Maru\""},{"Link":"http://www.combinedfleet.com/Teia_t.htm","external_links_name":"\"IJN Teia Maru: Combined Fleet tabular record of movement\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai","external_links_name":"Silent Victory"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai/page/676","external_links_name":"676–680"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII","external_links_name":"The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/TheOfficialChronologyOfTheUSNavyInWorldWarII/page/n247","external_links_name":"248"},{"Link":"https://plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/33/33b0057.pdf","external_links_name":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping"},{"Link":"https://plimsoll.southampton.gov.uk/shipdata/pdfs/34/34b0061.pdf","external_links_name":"Lloyd's Register of Shipping"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UigxDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Neo-Aegean%22&pg=PT108","external_links_name":"Cretomania. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion-exchange_membrane | Ion-exchange membrane | ["1 Structure and composition","2 Selectivity","3 Applications","4 References","5 See also"] | An ion-exchange membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that transports certain dissolved ions, while blocking other ions or neutral molecules.
Ion-exchange membranes are therefore electrically conductive. They are often used in desalination and chemical recovery applications, moving ions from one solution to another with little passage of water.
Important examples of ion-exchange membranes include the proton-exchange membranes, that transport H+ cations, and the anion exchange membranes used in certain alkaline fuel cells to transport OH− anions.
Structure and composition
An ion-exchange membrane is generally made of organic or inorganic polymer with charged (ionic) side groups, such as ion-exchange resins. Anion-exchange membranes contain fixed cationic groups with predominantly mobile anions; because anions are the majority species, most of the conductivity is due to anion transport. The reverse holds for cation-exchange membranes.
The so-called heterogeneous ion-exchange membranes have low cost and a thicker composition with higher resistance and a rough surface that can be subject to fouling. Homogeneous membranes are more expensive, but have a thinner composition with lower resistance and a smooth surface, less susceptible to fouling. Homogeneous membrane surfaces can be modified to alter the membrane permselectivity to protons, monovalent ions, and divalent ions.
Selectivity
The selectivity of an ion-exchange membrane is due to Donnan equilibrium and not due to physically blocking or electrostatically excluding specific charged species.
The selectivity to the transport of ions of opposite charges is called its permselectivity.
Applications
Ion-exchange membranes are traditionally used in electrodialysis or diffusion dialysis by means of an electrical potential or concentration gradient, respectively, to selectively transport cationic and anionic species. When applied in an electrodialysis desalination process, anion- and cation-exchange membranes are typically arranged in an alternating pattern between two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) within the electrodialysis stack. A galvanic potential is supplied as a voltage generated at the electrodes.
A typical industrial electrodialysis stack consists of two chambers: a product-water chamber and a concentrate-reject chamber. During stack operation, salts are transferred from the product to the concentrate. As a result, the reject stream is concentrated up while the product stream is desalted.
Exemplary applications of ion-exchange membranes utilized in electrodialysis and EDR include seawater desalination, industrial wastewater treatment of highly scaling waters, food and beverage production, and other industrial wastewaters.
References
^ Tanaka, Yoshinobu (January 2015). Ion exchange membranes: fundamentals and applications. Japan: Elsevier. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-444-63319-4.
^ Strathmann, Heiner (2004). Membrane Science and Technology Series, 9: Ion Exchange Membrane Separation Processes (First ed.). San Diego, Ca, USA: Elsevier. pp. 90–206. ISBN 0-444-50236-X.
^ a b c d e Davis, T. S. (1990). "Electrodialysis", in Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology (First ed.). New Jersey, USA: Noyes Publication. pp. 40–102. ISBN 9780815512059.
See also
Proton-exchange membrane | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strathmann-2"},{"link_name":"proton-exchange membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane"},{"link_name":"H+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"cations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation"},{"link_name":"anion exchange membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion_exchange_membrane"},{"link_name":"alkaline fuel cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_anion_exchange_membrane_fuel_cell"},{"link_name":"OH−","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl"},{"link_name":"anions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion"}],"text":"Ion-exchange membranes are therefore electrically conductive. They are often used in desalination and chemical recovery applications, moving ions from one solution to another with little passage of water.[2]Important examples of ion-exchange membranes include the proton-exchange membranes, that transport H+ cations, and the anion exchange membranes used in certain alkaline fuel cells to transport OH− anions.","title":"Ion-exchange membrane"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound"},{"link_name":"inorganic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"polymer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"ion-exchange resins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion-exchange_resin"},{"link_name":"Anion-exchange membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion-exchange_membrane"},{"link_name":"cation-exchange membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation-exchange_membrane"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-3"}],"text":"An ion-exchange membrane is generally made of organic or inorganic polymer with charged (ionic) side groups, such as ion-exchange resins. Anion-exchange membranes contain fixed cationic groups with predominantly mobile anions; because anions are the majority species, most of the conductivity is due to anion transport. The reverse holds for cation-exchange membranes.The so-called heterogeneous ion-exchange membranes have low cost and a thicker composition with higher resistance and a rough surface that can be subject to fouling. Homogeneous membranes are more expensive, but have a thinner composition with lower resistance and a smooth surface, less susceptible to fouling. Homogeneous membrane surfaces can be modified to alter the membrane permselectivity to protons, monovalent ions, and divalent ions.[3]","title":"Structure and composition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Donnan equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donnan_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-3"}],"text":"The selectivity of an ion-exchange membrane is due to Donnan equilibrium and not due to physically blocking or electrostatically excluding specific charged species.The selectivity to the transport of ions of opposite charges is called its permselectivity.[3]","title":"Selectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electrodialysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodialysis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-3"},{"link_name":"industrial wastewater treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-3"}],"text":"Ion-exchange membranes are traditionally used in electrodialysis or diffusion dialysis by means of an electrical potential or concentration gradient, respectively, to selectively transport cationic and anionic species. When applied in an electrodialysis desalination process, anion- and cation-exchange membranes are typically arranged in an alternating pattern between two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) within the electrodialysis stack. A galvanic potential is supplied as a voltage generated at the electrodes.[3]A typical industrial electrodialysis stack consists of two chambers: a product-water chamber and a concentrate-reject chamber. During stack operation, salts are transferred from the product to the concentrate. As a result, the reject stream is concentrated up while the product stream is desalted.[3]Exemplary applications of ion-exchange membranes utilized in electrodialysis and EDR include seawater desalination, industrial wastewater treatment of highly scaling waters, food and beverage production, and other industrial wastewaters.[3]","title":"Applications"}] | [] | [{"title":"Proton-exchange membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-exchange_membrane"}] | [{"reference":"Tanaka, Yoshinobu (January 2015). Ion exchange membranes: fundamentals and applications. Japan: Elsevier. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-444-63319-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elsevier.com/books/ion-exchange-membranes/tanaka/978-0-444-63319-4","url_text":"Ion exchange membranes: fundamentals and applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-63319-4","url_text":"978-0-444-63319-4"}]},{"reference":"Strathmann, Heiner (2004). Membrane Science and Technology Series, 9: Ion Exchange Membrane Separation Processes (First ed.). San Diego, Ca, USA: Elsevier. pp. 90–206. ISBN 0-444-50236-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-50236-X","url_text":"0-444-50236-X"}]},{"reference":"Davis, T. S. (1990). \"Electrodialysis\", in Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology (First ed.). New Jersey, USA: Noyes Publication. pp. 40–102. ISBN 9780815512059.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815512059","url_text":"9780815512059"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.elsevier.com/books/ion-exchange-membranes/tanaka/978-0-444-63319-4","external_links_name":"Ion exchange membranes: fundamentals and applications"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealhmund_of_Winchester | Ealhmund of Winchester | [] | 9th-century Bishop of Winchester
For other people with the same name, see Ealhmund.
EalhmundBishop of WinchesterAppointedbetween 801 and 803Term endedbetween 805 and 814PredecessorCyneberhtSuccessorWigthegnOrdersConsecrationbetween 801 and 803Personal detailsDiedbetween 805 and 814DenominationChristian
Ealhmund was a medieval Bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated between 801 and 803. He died between 805 and 814.
Citations
^ Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 223
References
Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). Handbook of British Chronology (Third revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56350-X.
External links
Ealhmund 11 at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
Christian titles
Preceded byCyneberht
Bishop of Winchester c. 802–c. 809
Succeeded byWigthegn
vteBishops of WinchesterEarly Medieval634–1006
Birinus, Bishop of Dorchester
Agilbert, Bishop of Dorchester
Wine
Leuthere
Hædde
Daniel
Hunfrith
Cyneheard
Æthelheard
Ecgbald
Dudd
Cyneberht
Ealhmund
Wigthegn
Herefrith (disputed)
Eadmund (disputed)
Eadhun
Helmstan
Swithun
Ealhferth
Tunbeorht
Denewulf
Frithestan
Beornstan/Byrnstan
Ælfheah I
Ælfsige I
Beorhthelm
Æthelwold I
Ælfheah II
Arms of the Bishop of WinchesterHigh Medieval1006–1304
Cenwulf
Æthelwold II
Ælfsige II
Ælfwine
Stigand
Walkelin
William Giffard
Henry of Blois
Richard of Ilchester
Godfrey de Luci
Richard Poore
Peter des Roches
Ralph Neville
William de Raley
Aymer de Valence
Andrew of London
William de Taunton
John Gervais
Nicholas of Ely
Robert Burnell
Richard de la More
John of Pontoise
Late Medieval1305–1501
Henry Woodlock
John Sandale
Rigaud of Assier
John de Stratford
Adam Orleton
William Edington
William of Wykeham
Henry Beaufort
William Waynflete
Peter Courtenay
Thomas Langton
Early Modern1501–1820
Richard Foxe
Thomas Wolsey
Stephen Gardiner
John Ponet
Stephen Gardiner
John White
Robert Horne
John Watson
Thomas Cooper
William Wickham
William Day
Thomas Bilson
James Montague
Lancelot Andrewes
Richard Neile
Walter Curle
Episcopacy abolished (Commonwealth)
Brian Duppa
George Morley
Peter Mews
Jonathan Trelawny
Charles Trimnell
Richard Willis
Benjamin Hoadly
John Thomas
Brownlow North
Late Modern1820–current
George Pretyman Tomline
Charles Sumner
Samuel Wilberforce
Harold Browne
Anthony Thorold
Randall Davidson
Herbert Ryle
Edward Talbot
Theodore Woods
Cyril Garbett
Mervyn Haigh
Alwyn Williams
Falkner Allison
John Taylor
Colin James
Michael Scott-Joynt
Tim Dakin
Philip Mounstephen
This article about an English bishop or archbishop is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ealhmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealhmund_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Bishop of Winchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Winchester"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Handbook223-1"}],"text":"For other people with the same name, see Ealhmund.Ealhmund was a medieval Bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated between 801 and 803. He died between 805 and 814.[1]","title":"Ealhmund of Winchester"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Handbook223_1-0"}],"text":"^ Fryde, et al. Handbook of British Chronology p. 223","title":"Citations"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). Handbook of British Chronology (Third revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56350-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56350-X","url_text":"0-521-56350-X"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://pase.ac.uk/jsp/persons/CreatePersonFrames.jsp?personKey=14160","external_links_name":"Ealhmund 11"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ealhmund_of_Winchester&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavkazsky_District | Kavkazsky District | ["1 History","2 Administrative and municipal status","3 References","3.1 Notes","3.2 Sources"] | Coordinates: 45°26′12″N 40°34′50″E / 45.43667°N 40.58056°E / 45.43667; 40.58056Not to be confused with North Caucasian Federal District.
District in Krasnodar Krai, RussiaKavkazsky District
Кавказский районDistrictWelcome sign at the entrance to Kavkazsky District
FlagCoat of armsLocation of Kavkazsky District in Krasnodar KraiCoordinates: 45°26′12″N 40°34′50″E / 45.43667°N 40.58056°E / 45.43667; 40.58056CountryRussiaFederal subjectKrasnodar KraiEstablishedJune 2, 1924Administrative centerKavkazskayaArea • Total1,214 km2 (469 sq mi)Population (2010 Census) • Total44,445 • Density37/km2 (95/sq mi) • Urban0% • Rural100%Administrative structure • Administrative divisions8 Rural okrugs • Inhabited localities28 rural localitiesMunicipal structure • Municipally incorporated asKavkazsky Municipal District • Municipal divisions1 urban settlements, 8 rural settlementsTime zoneUTC+3 (MSK )OKTMO ID03618000Websitehttp://www.kavraion.ru/
Kavkazsky District (Russian: Кавка́зский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion), one of the thirty-eight in Krasnodar Krai, Russia. As a municipal division, it is incorporated as Kavkazsky Municipal District. It is located in the east of the krai. The area of the district is 1,214 square kilometers (469 sq mi). Its administrative center is the rural locality (a stanitsa) of Kavkazskaya. Population: 44,445 (2010 Russian census); 45,343 (2002 Census); 43,625 (1989 Soviet census). The population of Kavkazskaya accounts for 25.1% of the district's total population.
History
The district was established on June 2, 1924 as Kropotkinsky District (Кропоткинский район), with the administrative center in the stanitsa of Kavkazskaya. It was given its present name on January 22, 1944. In 1956, the administrative center of the district was transferred to the town of Kropotkin. On February 1, 1963, the district was transformed into a rural district with the administrative center in the town of Gulkevichi. On January 12, 1965, this transformation was reverted. On October 20, 1980, the stanitsa of Kavkazskaya became the administrative center again.
Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, the town of Kropotkin is not a part of the district and is incorporated separately. As a municipal division, however, Kropotkin is incorporated within Kavkazsky Municipal District as Kropotkinskoye Urban Settlement and serves as the municipal district's administrative center.
References
Notes
^ a b c d e f Reference Information #34.01-707/13-03
^ a b c d e f g Bondar and Vertysheva, pp. 173–174
^ a b "General Information" (in Russian). Kavkazsky District. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
^ a b c Russian Federal State Statistics Service (2011). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1 . Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (in Russian). Federal State Statistics Service.
^ a b c d Law #713-KZ
^ "Об исчислении времени". Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации (in Russian). June 3, 2011. Retrieved January 19, 2019.
^ Federal State Statistics Service (May 21, 2004). Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек (XLS). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (in Russian).
^ Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров . Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики . 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly.
Sources
Управление по взаимодействию с органами местного самоуправления Администрации Краснодарского края. Справочная информация №34.01-707/13-03 от 23 мая 2013 г. «Реестр административно-территориальных единиц Краснодарского края». (Department of Cooperation with the Organs of the Local Self-Government of the Administration of Krasnodar Krai. Reference Information #34.01-707/13-03 of May 23, 2013 Registry of the Administrative-Territorial Units of Krasnodar Krai. ).
Законодательное Собрание Краснодарского края. Закон №713-КЗ от 7 июня 2004 г «Об установлении границ муниципального образования Кавказский район, наделении его статусом муниципального района, образовании в его составе муниципальных образований — городского и сельских поселений — и установлении их границ», в ред. Закона №1756-КЗ от 3 июня 2009 г «О внесении изменений в некоторые законодательные акты Краснодарского края об установлении границ муниципальных образований». Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Кубанские новости", №103, 29 июня 2004 г. (Legislative Assembly of Krasnodar Krai. Law #713-KZ of June 7, 2004 On the Establishment of the Borders of the Municipal Formation of Kavkazsky District, on Granting It the Status of a Municipal District, on the Establishment of the Municipal Formations—Urban and Rural Settlements—Within Its Structure and on the Establishment of Their Borders, as amended by the Law #1765-KZ of June 3, 2009 On Amending Several Legislative Acts of Krasnodar Krai on the Establishment of the Borders of the Municipal Formations. Effective as of the day of the official publication.).
Азаренкова, А. С.; И. Ю. Бондарь; Н. С. Вертышева (1986) . Основные административно-территориальные преобразования на Кубани (1793–1985 гг.) (in Russian). Краснодарское книжное издательство.
vteAdministrative divisions of Krasnodar KraiAdministrative center: Krasnodar • Rural localitiesDistricts
Abinsky
Anapsky
Apsheronsky
Beloglinsky
Belorechensky
Bryukhovetsky
Dinskoy
Gulkevichsky
Kalininsky
Kanevskoy
Kavkazsky
Korenovsky
Krasnoarmeysky
Krylovsky
Krymsky
Kurganinsky
Kushchyovsky
Labinsky
Leningradsky
Mostovsky
Novokubansky
Novopokrovsky
Otradnensky
Pavlovsky
Primorsko-Akhtarsky
Seversky
Shcherbinovsky
Slavyansky
Starominsky
Tbilissky
Temryuksky
Tikhoretsky
Timashyovsky
Tuapsinsky
Uspensky
Ust-Labinsky
Vyselkovsky
Yeysky
Cities and towns
Abinsk
Anapa
Apsheronsk
Armavir
Belorechensk
Gelendzhik
Goryachy Klyuch
Gulkevichi
Khadyzhensk
Korenovsk
Krasnodar
Kropotkin
Krymsk
Kurganinsk
Labinsk
Novokubansk
Novorossiysk
Primorsko-Akhtarsk
Slavyansk-on-Kuban
Sochi
Temryuk
Tikhoretsk
Timashevsk
Tuapse
Ust-Labinsk
Yeysk
Urban-type settlements
Afipsky
Akhtyrsky
Chernomorsky
Dzhubga
Girey
Ilsky
Krasnaya Polyana
Krasnoselsky
Mostovskoy
Neftegorsk
Novomikhaylovsky
Psebay
Sirius | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North Caucasian Federal District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasian_Federal_District"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"raion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raion"},{"link_name":"thirty-eight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Krasnodar_Krai"},{"link_name":"Krasnodar Krai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KrasnodarK_admlist-1"},{"link_name":"municipal division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Russia#Municipal_divisions"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KrasnodarKKavkazskyD_mun-5"},{"link_name":"krai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krai"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-3"},{"link_name":"administrative center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_center"},{"link_name":"rural locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_inhabited_localities_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"stanitsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanitsa"},{"link_name":"Kavkazskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavkazskaya_(rural_locality)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KrasnodarK_admlist-1"},{"link_name":"2010 Russian census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Russian_census"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010Census-4"},{"link_name":"2002 Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_Russian_census"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PopCensus-7"},{"link_name":"1989 Soviet census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989_Soviet_census"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census1989-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010Census-4"}],"text":"Not to be confused with North Caucasian Federal District.District in Krasnodar Krai, RussiaKavkazsky District (Russian: Кавка́зский райо́н) is an administrative district (raion), one of the thirty-eight in Krasnodar Krai, Russia.[1] As a municipal division, it is incorporated as Kavkazsky Municipal District.[5] It is located in the east of the krai. The area of the district is 1,214 square kilometers (469 sq mi).[3] Its administrative center is the rural locality (a stanitsa) of Kavkazskaya.[1] Population: 44,445 (2010 Russian census);[4] 45,343 (2002 Census);[7] 43,625 (1989 Soviet census).[8] The population of Kavkazskaya accounts for 25.1% of the district's total population.[4]","title":"Kavkazsky District"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"administrative center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_center"},{"link_name":"stanitsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanitsa"},{"link_name":"Kavkazskaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavkazskaya_(rural_locality)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"},{"link_name":"Kropotkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kropotkin,_Krasnodar_Krai"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"},{"link_name":"Gulkevichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulkevichi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KubanATS-2"}],"text":"The district was established on June 2, 1924 as Kropotkinsky District (Кропоткинский район), with the administrative center in the stanitsa of Kavkazskaya.[2] It was given its present name on January 22, 1944.[2] In 1956, the administrative center of the district was transferred to the town of Kropotkin.[2] On February 1, 1963, the district was transformed into a rural district with the administrative center in the town of Gulkevichi.[2] On January 12, 1965, this transformation was reverted.[2] On October 20, 1980, the stanitsa of Kavkazskaya became the administrative center again.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"framework of administrative divisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Russia#Administrative_divisions"},{"link_name":"Kropotkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kropotkin,_Krasnodar_Krai"},{"link_name":"incorporated separately","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_federal_subject_significance"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KrasnodarK_admlist-1"},{"link_name":"municipal division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Russia#Municipal_divisions"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KrasnodarKKavkazskyD_mun-5"}],"text":"Within the framework of administrative divisions, the town of Kropotkin is not a part of the district and is incorporated separately.[1] As a municipal division, however, Kropotkin is incorporated within Kavkazsky Municipal District as Kropotkinskoye Urban Settlement and serves as the municipal district's administrative center.[5]","title":"Administrative and municipal status"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"General Information\" (in Russian). 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Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года [All-Union Population Census of 1989] (in Russian). Институт демографии Национального исследовательского университета: Высшая школа экономики [Institute of Demography at the National Research University: Higher School of Economics]. 1989 – via Demoscope Weekly.","urls":[{"url":"http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus89_reg.php","url_text":"Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров"}]},{"reference":"Азаренкова, А. С.; И. Ю. Бондарь; Н. С. Вертышева (1986) [1986]. Основные административно-территориальные преобразования на Кубани (1793–1985 гг.) (in Russian). Краснодарское книжное издательство.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kavkazsky_District¶ms=45_26_12_N_40_34_50_E_type:adm2nd_region:RU","external_links_name":"45°26′12″N 40°34′50″E / 45.43667°N 40.58056°E / 45.43667; 40.58056"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kavkazsky_District¶ms=45_26_12_N_40_34_50_E_type:adm2nd_region:RU","external_links_name":"45°26′12″N 40°34′50″E / 45.43667°N 40.58056°E / 45.43667; 40.58056"},{"Link":"http://www.kavraion.ru/","external_links_name":"http://www.kavraion.ru/"},{"Link":"http://www.kavraion.ru/raion2.html","external_links_name":"\"General Information\""},{"Link":"http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm","external_links_name":"Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года. Том 1"},{"Link":"http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&prevDoc=102483854&backlink=1&&nd=102148085","external_links_name":"\"Об исчислении времени\""},{"Link":"http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/1_TOM_01_04.xls","external_links_name":"Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек"},{"Link":"http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus89_reg.php","external_links_name":"Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Dekker | Laura Dekker | ["1 Early life","2 2009 trip to England","3 Plans for a global circumnavigation","4 Government objections","5 Boat","6 2010–2011 solo circumnavigation","7 Later activities","8 Guppy's fate","9 Personal life","10 References","11 External links"] | New Zealand-born Dutch solo sailor
Laura DekkerDekker in 2011Born (1995-09-20) 20 September 1995 (age 28)Whangārei, New ZealandCitizenshipDutchGermanNew ZealanderOccupationSailorKnown forYoungest person to sail solo around the worldSpouse
Daniël Thielmann
(m. 2015; div. 2017)Children2Websitelauradekkerworldsailingfoundation.com
Dekker's solo circumnavigation route
Laura Dekker (Dutch pronunciation: ; born 20 September 1995) is a New Zealand-born Dutch sailor. In 2009, she announced her plan to become the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe single-handed. A Dutch court stepped in, owing to the objections of the local authorities, and prevented Laura from departing while under shared custody of both her parents. In July 2010, a Dutch family court ended this custody arrangement, and the record-breaking attempt finally began on 21 August 2010. Dekker successfully completed the solo circumnavigation in a 12.4-metre (40 ft) two-masted ketch named Guppy, arriving in Simpson Bay, Sint Maarten, 518 days later at the age of 16.
Early life
Dekker was born in the city of Whangārei, New Zealand, during a seven-year sailing trip by her parents. Her father, Dick Dekker, is Dutch and her mother, Babs Müller, is German. Dekker has Dutch, German, and New Zealand citizenship. Her parents divorced in 2002. She lived with her father after the separation of her parents, and her younger sister Kim went to live with her mother.
Dekker spent the first five years of her life at sea and sailed often with her father after the family's return to the Netherlands. She has owned several boats, all named Guppy. The first was an Optimist dinghy she received for her sixth birthday, and which she promptly learned to sail solo, initially accompanied by her father on a windsurfer.
For her eighth birthday (in 2003), she received the book Maiden Voyage, Tania Aebi's memoir of her round-the-world sailing trip.
In the summer of 2006, after assisting her father in a 24-hour sailing race aboard a friend's Hurley 700, she received permission from the boat's owner to borrow it for personal use, in return for cleaning and maintenance. It was just at the 7 m (23 ft) limit below which Dutch law imposes on captains under the age of 16. Sailing it often, she christened this boat Guppy as well. In the summer of 2007, she took it on a more ambitious 6-week sailing tour of the Wadden Sea, accompanied by her dog Spot.
Over the following winter, Dekker searched for her own Hurley 700, and bought one with a loan from her father. This boat was also christened Guppy, and she spent her entire 2008 summer vacation aboard it, cruising around the Netherlands.
2009 trip to England
Over the following school year, she began preparing herself and Guppy for open-ocean sailing, with the goal of a round-the-world tour. In March, her father told her to gain some experience with the open sea by first sailing to England. This was intended to discourage her; the strong currents, rough weather, and heavy shipping make the English Channel notoriously difficult for sailboats.
Dekker spent the next eight weeks preparing Guppy for that trip. On the evening of Friday, 1 May, at the beginning of a 12-day school vacation, she sailed away from Maurik without specifying a destination to her father. She sailed to the coast and arrived in Maassluis Saturday afternoon. Early Sunday morning, she set out across the Channel, but weak winds delayed her arrival until Monday morning. Docking in Lowestoft, she e-mailed word of her success from a local library. Local authorities requested her father to come and accompany her on her return voyage. Her father responded that she could sail back on her own. Local authorities instead placed her in a children's home until he came to retrieve her. He returned her to her boat and then flew home. She left England on Monday, 11 May. With a strong wind this time, up to force 7, the return trip was much faster, reaching Rotterdam by the morning of the 12th and arriving home that evening.
Plans for a global circumnavigation
In August 2009, Dekker announced her plan for a two-year solo sailing voyage around the globe in the Dutch national newspaper, Algemeen Dagblad. Her father was in support of her plans. Dekker planned to sail a seagoing 38 ft (12 m) Jeanneau Gin Fizz ketch, also named Guppy. The boat was equipped for long-distance sailing and adapted for solo-circumnavigation. The planned route started from Portugal westwards, to cruise the Caribbean and then to go through Panama and past Indonesia. She then planned either to go past Somalia to the Mediterranean, or around Africa, should piracy become a serious concern. Her plan was to make around 26 stops. The original plan called for Dekker to be met at some locations by family, which also would help her along difficult spots such as the Panama Canal. In actuality, for cost reasons, people from home (mostly family members) met her only two times, although she was given some assistance by other leisure sailors she met, for example through the Panama Canal. The plan said she would not be sailing for more than three weeks between stops. However, after Australia, she decided to skip some stops, which meant completing two 6- to 7-week-long legs.
An Iridium Communications tracking system onboard allowed the family in the Netherlands to monitor her course closely. She planned to avoid the stormy Roaring Forties, although the South Africa route gave her at least one big storm.
Her education was conducted through the Wereldschool (Worldschool), an educational institution that provided her with material for self-learning.
From the beginning of her solo circumnavigation in late August 2010, Dekker wrote a weekly column for the Algemeen Dagblad of Rotterdam. English and German translations of her columns are available.
Government objections
The local authorities at Wijk bij Duurstede, her place of residence, objected and the Child Welfare Office became involved. A family court judgment was obtained that placed Dekker in shared parental custody with the Council for Child Care who stopped her departure. The shared custody was to last until July 2010, but a successful application by the child protection agency saw that extended until at least August of that year.
Dekker's plan and the intervention by the government received extensive international attention.
According to Dutch inland shipping regulations, it is prohibited for a captain younger than sixteen years to sail a boat longer than seven meters in Dutch waters; thus Dekker would not be allowed to use the boat for any solo excursions within the Netherlands until 2012. She still did so, with the effect that the police required her father to come and sail the boat home together with her. The circumnavigation, however, would not start in the Netherlands, thus Dutch naval regulations do not apply to her voyage.
On 18 December 2009, a member of Dekker's family reported her missing to the police. A farewell letter was left for her father, although her boat remained in the port of Maurik. On 20 December, Dekker was found safely on Sint Maarten. Two days later, she returned to Amsterdam where she was questioned by the police.
On 26 December 2009, it was reported that another court in the Netherlands overruled the objections of the social workers and permitted her to begin her circumnavigation in September of the following year when she turned 15.
On 27 July 2010, the Dutch court ended supervision of Dekker, and decided it was "up to the girl's parents to decide whether she can make the trip." Dekker reported that she would depart "within two weeks".
Dekker later commented about the authorities in an interview, saying "They thought it was dangerous. Well, everywhere is dangerous. They don't sail and they don't know what boats are, and they are scared of them."
While in Australia, Dekker gave an interview in which she admitted that she was not doing much schoolwork since she was busy with sailing, maintenance, customs procedures and other tasks related to her journey. This led to press and other commentators suggesting that she had quit school and thrown the school books overboard. She tried to correct this by saying that she had not stopped studying totally and would continue her academic studies after returning to the Netherlands.
On 14 October 2011, Dekker was nominated for the Conny van Rietschoten Trophy, a very prestigious Dutch sailing award, in the ocean sailing category.
Preceding Dekker's journey, the sailing press appeared rather sceptical, but became more positive during the journey, and acclaimed her after the Indian Ocean crossing and the Cape of Good Hope passage. General media in countries she visited have often also been impressed, at least on later stages. General media in the Netherlands mostly avoided writing about her during the journey, since the journey went mostly as planned. An exception was the newspaper Algemeen Dagblad which had a weekly column about her and displayed a standing link on the front web page to a collection of articles about the teenage sailor. However, on 4 January 2012, Dutch and German press started to write much more about her, both about the fact that she soon was expected to finish the circumnavigation, and about the fact that she did not want to return to the Netherlands, but to settle in New Zealand. After the arrival on 21 January 2012, there were articles in newspapers all over the world.
Boat
Yacht Guppy in Den Osse, Netherlands, on 3 August 2010
Dekker used a French-built 12.3-metre (40 ft) two-masted Jeanneau Gin Fizz ketch, which she named Guppy, same as her earlier boats.
2010–2011 solo circumnavigation
Dekker sailed from Den Osse, Netherlands, on 4 August 2010, headed for Portugal. This segment did not constitute part of the solo circumnavigation, as her father was on board to coach her and test the new boat. The published plan was that the solo voyage would commence from Lisbon. Instead, Dekker and her father sailed to Portimão, arriving on 15 August. She sailed with others from Portimão to Gibraltar on 18–20 August, because according to Portuguese law, she was too young to be formally qualified to captain her ship (Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory subject to British law, though Dekker made her departure from Gibraltar in secret in order to avoid both the press and any maritime police).
2010–2012 solo circumnavigation progress:
Departed Gibraltar on 21 August 2010.
Arrived at Lanzarote on 25 August.
Stayed in the Canary Islands for several weeks because of the Atlantic hurricane season.
Departed Gran Canaria on 10 November for Cape Verde.
Commenced Atlantic crossing from Cape Verde to Sint Maarten—a distance of 2,200 nautical miles (4,100 km; 2,500 mi)—on 2 December; finished when she reached Simpson Bay Lagoon on 19 December; having encountered calm weather on this leg of her journey, used the engine for two days in order to arrive on time.
Served as crew member for ten days on the tall ship Stad Amsterdam, departing from Sint Maarten on 5 January 2011.
Departed Sint Maarten on 20 January; visited the islands of Îles des Saintes, Dominica, Bonaire and San Blas Islands, all located in the Caribbean.
Flew home on 27 February; stayed to 10 March to speak at a boat show and other places, now a figure of considerable media attention in the Netherlands.
Completed the passage of the Panama Canal on 11 April 2011; visited Pearl Islands thereafter.
Crossed the Equator on the evening of 25 April; reached the Galápagos Islands the following day.
Departed the Galápagos Islands on 7 May and arrived at Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands on 25 May, having sailed about 2,960 nautical miles (5,480 km; 3,410 mi) in 18 days, the longest leg so far; encountered open sea only, with no islands near the route.
Sailed from Marquesas Islands to Tahiti between 1 and 8 June, a journey of 770 nautical miles (1,430 km; 890 mi); demanding leg of the journey with shifting winds, many reefs, ships, and little sleep.
Visited Moorea and Bora Bora, and then sailed the 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km; 1,600 mi) journey to Vavaʻu, Tonga in 12 days, where she arrived 8 July.
Arrived 17 July 2011 at Suva, Fiji, having sailed for four days, and on 30 July at Port Vila, Vanuatu after having sailed for three days.
Sailed from Vanuatu on 8 August, heading for Darwin, Australia; arrived in Darwin on 25 August after one of the toughest legs of her journey, which included passage through Torres Strait, filled with reefs, islands and large ships; father visited her in Darwin, their first meeting since she had visited the Netherlands in March 2011; together, undertook a major overhaul of the boat; celebrated Dekker's 16th birthday.
Departed Darwin on 25 September, heading west; published information about this leg of her journey in her blog following about two weeks delay, because of security concerns regarding Indian Ocean pirates.
Sailed to Durban, South Africa, arriving 12 November, after 47 days at sea non-stop; reported wind varying from dead calm to hard wind that often shifted direction; sometimes encountered rough waves (distance Darwin–Durban is 5,540 nautical miles (10,260 km; 6,380 mi)).
Arrived at Port Elizabeth, South Africa, on 18 November.
Passed Cape Agulhas, South Africa, on 26 November, southernmost point on the African continent, and southernmost point of her journey; sailed thereafter a northerly course for the first time on her journey from the Netherlands.
Passed the Cape of Good Hope on 27 November in rough weather; reached Cape Town the same day; father and journalists and the boats of the Volvo Ocean Race met her there.
Sailed from Cape Town on 12 December, heading northwest.
Reached the longitude of her unofficial starting point in the Netherlands on 20 December; had already crossed all longitudes in the course of her circumnavigation; faced another 4,800 nautical miles (8,900 km; 5,500 mi) for her official completion.
Arrived in Simpson Bay on Sint Maarten on 21 January 2012 at approximately 3 p.m. local time, after a non-stop journey of 5,600 nautical miles (10,400 km; 6,400 mi) from Cape Town, thus completing her full circumnavigation of the world, at the age of 16 years, 123 days.
The trip took 518 days or 74 weeks or 1 year, 5 months.
Maidentrip (2013), mostly shot by Dekker and directed by Jillian Schlesinger, is an 82-minute documentary video about this trip.
Later activities
In March 2013, Maidentrip, a film about Dekker's circumnavigation had its premiere at the South by Southwest Film Festival in the United States.
During the summer of 2013, she took part in the recording (in Morocco) of the reality television show Atlas, which was broadcast in the Netherlands in August–October 2013.
In autumn 2014, she took part in the Dutch reality show nl: Expeditie Poolcirkel in north Scandinavia (broadcast 2015), which she won.
In November 2014, Dekker's book One Girl, One Dream was published.
On 20 February 2015, she obtained a Yachtmaster Ocean Certificate (also becoming the youngest person to do so in the process).
She has been working towards doing long-distance educational sailings with children. She founded Laura Dekker World Sailing Foundation. She obtained a 21 meter long ship (named Guppy). In November 2020 Dekker and a young crew took away from Spain, heading for the Caribbean islands, and back.
Guppy's fate
A February 2018 interview with the American Sailing Association announced "Dekker has donated her beloved Guppy, the very boat she did the trip on, to LifeSail." LifeSail is a Los Angeles non-profit organisation that uses sailing as a vehicle to teach life lessons to children.
On 20 August 2018, Dekker announced that Guppy was wrecked on a reef in the Pacific Ocean by LifeSail during its trip to Los Angeles. The boat was a total loss.
LifeSail released a public statement in March 2019 with a timeline of events that stated Dekker originally donated Guppy as a requirement to receive funds from a third party. Those funds would be used for her new boat, Guppy XL. Dekker blames LifeSail and Matt Schulz, alleging they broke their contract by sailing the vessel with inexperienced crew and mooring in unsafe locations. She claimed compensation for the loss of Guppy, as the donation contract with LifeSail specified that in the case of a total loss all insurance compensation would go to her, less any value added by LifeSail.
Personal life
On 28 March 2015, when she was 19, Dekker married Daniel Thielmann, also resident in New Zealand. They have since divorced. She is now in a relationship with boat builder Sander Vogelenzang, with whom she has a son born in 2018. They had a second child in June 2022.
References
^ "Zeilmeisje Laura Dekker getrouwd" (in Dutch), De Telegraaf, 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
^ "Laura Dekker close to completion of solo round-the-world sail". The Christian Science Monitor. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ a b "youngest sailor to complete solo trip around the world". Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2012.(registration required). The Globe & Mail (AP), 21 January 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
^ "Dutch teen completes historic, controversial solo sail around the globe". CNN. 21 January 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "Solozeiler Laura (13): 'Alles is rond'". Het Parool (in Dutch). 24 August 2009. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016.
^ a b c "Gemeente wil Laura Dekker nog niet uitschrijven". Binnenlands Bestuur (in Dutch). 25 August 2009.
^ "LauraDekker.nl de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ About Laura ◦". www.lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
^ "Mutter absolut gegen Weltumsegelung". Spiegel (in German). 5 September 2009. Archived from the original on 6 December 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
^ a b c d Manson, Bess (25 October 2014). "A Girl, A Boat, A Dream". Your Weekend (supplement to The Press). pp. 10–14.
^ Dekker, Laura (29 May 2015). "Winter Jobs..." Archived from the original on 30 January 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2015. The first couple of times that I sailed out in my Optimist, dad would sail along me on a windsurf-board. He would capsize the boat in moments when I would least expect it. I often landed under the sail, which was what he wanted, so that he could see how I would react. It was – I realize now – the best preparation that he could have given me for my trip and other adventures.
^ a b c d e f g h Dekker, Laura (July 2009), "Not a Crazy Action", Zeilen (7), Translated by Thomas Weber & 45N73W: 32–35, retrieved 10 April 2015
^ a b c d Kievit, Rob (29 August 2009). "Dreams scuppered for Dutch sailor girl". BBC News. Radio Netherlands Worldwide.
^ Swift, Mary (22 July 2001). "Sailing Across The English Channel". Retrieved 2 July 2015. Notorious as being one of the most heavily trafficked shipping lanes in the world, with a large tidal range and fast currents, you really do need to keep your wits about you.
^ a b "Dutch teen who sought solo sailing trip disappears". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 20 December 2009. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012.
^ "The Jeanneau Gin Fizz 37 Sailboat". Bluewaterboats.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "Laura Dekker warned to steer clear of the Gulf of Aden". Rnw.nl. 9 February 2011. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ a b "Op koers". lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ a b "Laura, mag ik met je mee op wereldreis?". AD. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "Zeilmeisje Laura Dekker". Retrieved 24 January 2012.
^ a b "Weltumseglerin Laura Dekker verschwunden". Spiegel (in German). 20 December 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
^ "Dutch court halts girl's solo sailing plans". CNN. 28 August 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
^ "Teen solo sailor Laura made a ward of court". Dutchnews.nl. 30 October 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ "Dutch court delays schoolgirl's round-the-world bid". Google News. Agence France-Presse. 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
^ Adam, Karla (30 August 2009). "Dutch Delay 13-Year-Old's Dream of Sailing the World". The Washington Post.
^ Whipple, Tom (29 August 2009). "Court bans teen sailor Laura Dekker from record-breaking voyage". The Times. London. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
^ "MainSail Social workers threaten to thwart teen sailor's record bid". CNN. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
^ "Laura Dekker, 13, must wait before trying to sail around the world alone". Los Angeles Times. 29 August 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
^ "wetten.nl – Wet- en regelgeving – Binnenvaartpolitiereglement – BWBR0003628". Wetten.overheld.nl. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "Zeilmeisje-Laura-Dekker-vermist". Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
^ "Update – BNO News reports that teen Dutch sailor Laura Dekker is found safe on Saint Martin". BNO News. 20 December 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
^ "Solo sailor girl found on Caribbean island". Dutchnews.nl. 21 December 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Corder, Mike (22 December 2009). "Teenage Dutch sailor Laura Dekker sees life unravel after court blocks dream voyage". Associated Press.
^ "14-year-old given permission to sail around world". NZ Herald. 26 December 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
^ Stanglin, Douglas (27 July 2010). "Dutch court OKs bid by 14-year-old to sail solo around the world". Content.usatoday.com. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
^ "SpitsNieuws : Laura gaat rond de wereld zeilen". Spitsnieuws.nl. Archived from the original on 30 July 2010. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
^ "15 Year Old Laura Dekker Crosses Atlantic". Allatsea.net. February 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ "The boat is more important". Jeugdjournaal.nl. 20 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "Laura Dekker gestopt met school (Laura Dekker dropped out of school)". Static.nos.nl. 19 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "Schulbücher über Bord (School books overboard)". Der Spiegel. Spiegel.de. 20 September 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ ""De boot is even belangrijker" (The boat is more important)". Jeugdjournaal.nl. 20 September 2011. Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "genomineerden Conny van Rietschoten Trofee". Vanrietschotentrofee.nl. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "Laura Dekker, 16-year-old super solo sailor, on her final leg (Sail World, 16 Dec 2011)". Sail-world.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ "Laura Dekker Sets Out on Last Leg of Circumnavigation". Blue Water Sailing. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ Dolley, Caryn (28 November 2011). "Courageous Laura braves Cape of Storms (Cape Times, 28 Nov 2011)". Sundaytribune.co.za. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ "Zeilmeisje Laura Dekker: Algemeen Dagblad – English". Zeilmeisje-lauradekker.blogspot.de. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "AD Laura's zeilreis". Ad.nl. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ "News search on 4–5 Jan 2012". Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ "Dutch teen sailor nears end of round-the-world voyage". Dutchnews.nl. 4 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ "Sailing girl Laura Dekker does not want to live in the Netherlands anymore". Dutchdailynews.com. 5 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ "News search on 21–25 Jan 2012". Retrieved 31 March 2012.
^ "LauraDekker.nl de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ About Guppy ◦". www.lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
^ Gourmelen, Jean-Luc (April 2012). "The Young girl and the old Gin Fizz". Voiles et Voiliers (494). Translated by Thomas Weber and 45N73W. Retrieved 10 April 2015. A detailed description of Guppy as fitted for the trip.
^ Durham, Richard (22 March 2010). "Dutch girl, 14, planning world cruise | Sailing news". Yachting Monthly. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
^ "Youtube video, departure from Den Osse". Youtube.com. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
^ Schabner, Dean (21 August 2010). "Laura Dekker, 14, Sets Off on Round-the-World Sail". ABC News. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
^ Fitzpatrick, Judy (19 December 2010). "Teenage sailor on solo voyage reaches St. Maarten". Washington Post. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
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^ "de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ News ◦". Lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 15 November 2011. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "Courageous Laura, 16, braves Cape of Storms". Cape Times.
^ "LauraDekker.nl de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ News ◦". Lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 15 November 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ "Laura Dekker, Teen Ends Globe-Circling Voyage In St. Maarten". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
^ Mark Olsen: SXSW 2013: 'Short Term 12' and 'The Short Game' Los Angeles Times, 16 March 2013
^ Laura Dekker wint Expeditie Poolcirkel 2015 (in Dutch)
^ "Laura Dekker 'One Girl, One Dream' Author Tour". Eventfinda. 5 November 2014.
^ Photograph of Yachtmaster certificate, including date of issue 20/02/2015.
^ "About World Sailing Foundation".
^ "Atlantic Roundtrip".
^ "LifeSail". www.lifesail.org.
^ Reynolds, Pat (7 February 2018). "Laura Dekker Interview, Part 1". www.asa.com. American Sailing Association. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
^ "Zeilster Laura Dekker rouwt om haar zeilboot Guppy". Archived from the original on 22 August 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
^ Dekker, Laura. "Laura's blog 11-09-2018". Archived from the original on 15 November 2011. Retrieved 3 June 2011. Picture's from three weeks ago.. by now she is fully submerged and confirmed a total loss :'(
^ "Delivery and Loss of Guppy". website. 22 March 2019.
^ Dekker, Laura. "About Guppy XL". lauradekkerworldsailingfoundation.com.
^ "A report of the stranding of Sailing Vessel Guppy early August 2018 on a reef in Manihiki Island, Cook Islands" (PDF). 25 March 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
^ "Laura Dekker Married!". Jetsetting Magazine. 22 May 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
^ a b "A new chapter in my life :)". Laura Dekker World Sailing Foundation. 30 March 2019.
^ "The Crew". Laura Dekker World Sailing Foundation.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Laura Dekker.
Official website of Laura Dekker
Radio interview, 11 minutes, in January 2011
Laura Dekker's boat, the Jeanneau Gin Fizz 37
The latest interview with Laura Dekker, SailingEurope, 2019
Books by Laura Dekker: Een meisje, een droom (in Dutch) ISBN 90-5961-089-X, Ein Mädchen, ein Traum (in German) ISBN 3-7688-3546-4, One Girl, One Dream (in English) ISBN 1-77554-045-6.
vteYouth solo sailing circumnavigationsCompleted circumnavigations
Robin Lee Graham
Tania Aebi
Brian Caldwell
David Dicks
Jesse Martin
Zac Sunderland
Michael Perham
Jessica Watson
Laura Dekker
Authority control databases International
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ISNI
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Poland | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LauraDekkerJourney.svg"},{"link_name":"[ˈlʌuraː ˈdɛkər]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch"},{"link_name":"circumnavigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumnavigation"},{"link_name":"single-handed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-handed_sailing"},{"link_name":"family court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_court"},{"link_name":"ketch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketch"},{"link_name":"Simpson Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_Bay_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sint Maarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Maarten"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simpson-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Dekker's solo circumnavigation routeLaura Dekker (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈlʌuraː ˈdɛkər]; born 20 September 1995) is a New Zealand-born Dutch sailor. In 2009, she announced her plan to become the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe single-handed. A Dutch court stepped in, owing to the objections of the local authorities, and prevented Laura from departing while under shared custody of both her parents. In July 2010, a Dutch family court ended this custody arrangement, and the record-breaking attempt finally began on 21 August 2010. Dekker successfully completed the solo circumnavigation in a 12.4-metre (40 ft) two-masted ketch named Guppy, arriving in Simpson Bay,[2] Sint Maarten, 518 days later at the age of 16.[3][4]","title":"Laura Dekker"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Whangārei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whang%C4%81rei"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alles_is_rond-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-binnenlandsbestuur1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-binnenlandsbestuur1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-binnenlandsbestuur1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spiegel20090905-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Your_Weekend-9"},{"link_name":"Optimist dinghy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimist_(dinghy)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"Tania Aebi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tania_Aebi"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Your_Weekend-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"Wadden Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadden_Sea"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scuppered-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"cruising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruising_(maritime)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"}],"text":"Dekker was born in the city of Whangārei, New Zealand, during a seven-year sailing trip by her parents.[5] Her father, Dick Dekker,[6] is Dutch and her mother, Babs Müller,[6] is German. Dekker has Dutch, German, and New Zealand citizenship.[6][7] Her parents divorced in 2002.[8] She lived with her father after the separation of her parents, and her younger sister Kim went to live with her mother.[9]Dekker spent the first five years of her life at sea and sailed often with her father after the family's return to the Netherlands. She has owned several boats, all named Guppy. The first was an Optimist dinghy she received for her sixth birthday, and which she promptly learned to sail solo, initially accompanied by her father on a windsurfer.[10][11]For her eighth birthday (in 2003), she received the book Maiden Voyage, Tania Aebi's memoir of her round-the-world sailing trip.[9]In the summer of 2006, after assisting her father in a 24-hour sailing race aboard a friend's Hurley 700, she received permission from the boat's owner to borrow it for personal use, in return for cleaning and maintenance.[11] It was just at the 7 m (23 ft) limit below which Dutch law imposes on captains under the age of 16. Sailing it often, she christened this boat Guppy as well. In the summer of 2007, she took it on a more ambitious 6-week sailing tour of the Wadden Sea,[12] accompanied by her dog Spot.[11]Over the following winter, Dekker searched for her own Hurley 700, and bought one with a loan from her father. This boat was also christened Guppy, and she spent her entire 2008 summer vacation aboard it, cruising around the Netherlands.[11]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scuppered-12"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Maurik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurik"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Your_Weekend-9"},{"link_name":"Maassluis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maassluis"},{"link_name":"Lowestoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowestoft"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scuppered-12"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Your_Weekend-9"},{"link_name":"children's home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_child_care_community"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scuppered-12"},{"link_name":"force 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_scale"},{"link_name":"Rotterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zeilen09-11"}],"text":"Over the following school year, she began preparing herself and Guppy for open-ocean sailing, with the goal of a round-the-world tour. In March, her father told her to gain some experience with the open sea by first sailing to England.[11] This was intended to discourage her;[12] the strong currents, rough weather, and heavy shipping make the English Channel notoriously difficult for sailboats.[13]Dekker spent the next eight weeks preparing Guppy for that trip. On the evening of Friday, 1 May, at the beginning of a 12-day school vacation, she sailed away from Maurik[11] without specifying a destination to her father.[9] She sailed to the coast and arrived in Maassluis Saturday afternoon. Early Sunday morning, she set out across the Channel, but weak winds delayed her arrival until Monday morning. Docking in Lowestoft, she e-mailed word of her success from a local library.[11] Local authorities requested her father to come and accompany her on her return voyage.[12] Her father responded that she could sail back on her own.[9] Local authorities instead placed her in a children's home until he came to retrieve her. He returned her to her boat and then flew home.[12] She left England on Monday, 11 May. With a strong wind this time, up to force 7, the return trip was much faster, reaching Rotterdam by the morning of the 12th and arriving home that evening.[11]","title":"2009 trip to England"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algemeen Dagblad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algemeen_Dagblad"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wp-14"},{"link_name":"Jeanneau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanneau"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nato-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-17"},{"link_name":"Panama Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ad.nl-18"},{"link_name":"Iridium Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridium_Communications"},{"link_name":"Roaring Forties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaring_Forties"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ad.nl-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"In August 2009, Dekker announced her plan for a two-year solo sailing voyage around the globe in the Dutch national newspaper, Algemeen Dagblad. Her father was in support of her plans.[14] Dekker planned to sail a seagoing 38 ft (12 m) Jeanneau Gin Fizz ketch,[15] also named Guppy. The boat was equipped for long-distance sailing and adapted for solo-circumnavigation. The planned route started from Portugal westwards, to cruise the Caribbean and then to go through Panama and past Indonesia. She then planned either to go past Somalia to the Mediterranean, or around Africa, should piracy become a serious concern.[16] Her plan was to make around 26 stops.[17] The original plan called for Dekker to be met at some locations by family, which also would help her along difficult spots such as the Panama Canal.[18] In actuality, for cost reasons, people from home (mostly family members) met her only two times, although she was given some assistance by other leisure sailors she met, for example through the Panama Canal. The plan said she would not be sailing for more than three weeks between stops. However, after Australia, she decided to skip some stops, which meant completing two 6- to 7-week-long legs.An Iridium Communications tracking system onboard allowed the family in the Netherlands to monitor her course closely. She planned to avoid the stormy Roaring Forties, although the South Africa route gave her at least one big storm.[18]Her education was conducted through the Wereldschool (Worldschool), an educational institution that provided her with material for self-learning.From the beginning of her solo circumnavigation in late August 2010, Dekker wrote a weekly column for the Algemeen Dagblad of Rotterdam. English[19] and German translations of her columns are available.","title":"Plans for a global circumnavigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wijk bij Duurstede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wijk_bij_Duurstede"},{"link_name":"family court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_court"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spiegel-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-17"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spiegel-20"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wp-14"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Sint Maarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Maarten"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twitter-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Conny van Rietschoten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conny_van_Rietschoten"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Cape of Good Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"The local authorities at Wijk bij Duurstede, her place of residence, objected and the Child Welfare Office became involved. A family court judgment was obtained that placed Dekker in shared parental custody with the Council for Child Care who stopped her departure.[20][21][22] The shared custody was to last until July 2010, but a successful application by the child protection agency saw that extended until at least August of that year.[23]Dekker's plan and the intervention by the government received extensive international attention.[24][25][26][27]According to Dutch inland shipping regulations, it is prohibited for a captain younger than sixteen years to sail a boat longer than seven meters in Dutch waters; thus Dekker would not be allowed to use the boat for any solo excursions within the Netherlands until 2012.[28] She still did so, with the effect that the police required her father to come and sail the boat home together with her. The circumnavigation, however, would not start in the Netherlands, thus Dutch naval regulations do not apply to her voyage.[17]On 18 December 2009, a member of Dekker's family reported her missing to the police.[20] A farewell letter was left for her father,[14] although her boat remained in the port of Maurik.[29] On 20 December, Dekker was found safely on Sint Maarten.[30][31] Two days later, she returned to Amsterdam where she was questioned by the police.[32]On 26 December 2009, it was reported that another court in the Netherlands overruled the objections of the social workers and permitted her to begin her circumnavigation in September of the following year when she turned 15.[33]On 27 July 2010, the Dutch court ended supervision of Dekker, and decided it was \"up to the girl's parents to decide whether she can make the trip.\"[34] Dekker reported that she would depart \"within two weeks\".[35]Dekker later commented about the authorities in an interview, saying \"They thought it was dangerous. Well, everywhere is dangerous. They don't sail and they don't know what boats are, and they are scared of them.\"[36]While in Australia, Dekker gave an interview[37] in which she admitted that she was not doing much schoolwork since she was busy with sailing, maintenance, customs procedures and other tasks related to her journey. This led to press and other commentators suggesting that she had quit school and thrown the school books overboard.[38][39] She tried to correct this by saying that she had not stopped studying totally and would continue her academic studies after returning to the Netherlands.[40]On 14 October 2011, Dekker was nominated for the Conny van Rietschoten Trophy, a very prestigious Dutch sailing award, in the ocean sailing category.[41]Preceding Dekker's journey, the sailing press appeared rather sceptical, but became more positive during the journey, and acclaimed her after the Indian Ocean crossing and the Cape of Good Hope passage.[42][43] General media in countries she visited have often also been impressed, at least on later stages.[44] General media in the Netherlands mostly avoided writing about her during the journey, since the journey went mostly as planned. An exception was the newspaper Algemeen Dagblad which had a weekly column about her[45] and displayed a standing link on the front web page to a collection of articles about the teenage sailor.[46] However, on 4 January 2012, Dutch and German press started to write much more about her,[47] both about the fact that she soon was expected to finish the circumnavigation,[48] and about the fact that she did not want to return to the Netherlands, but to settle in New Zealand.[49] After the arrival on 21 January 2012, there were articles in newspapers all over the world.[50]","title":"Government objections"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Segeljacht_Guppy_in_Den_Osse.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jeanneau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanneau"},{"link_name":"ketch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketch"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"text":"Yacht Guppy in Den Osse, Netherlands, on 3 August 2010Dekker used a French-built 12.3-metre (40 ft) two-masted Jeanneau Gin Fizz ketch,[51][52] which she named Guppy, same as her earlier boats.[53]","title":"Boat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Den Osse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_Osse"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Lisbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon"},{"link_name":"Portimão","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portim%C3%A3o"},{"link_name":"Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Lanzarote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanzarote"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"Atlantic hurricane season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_hurricane_season"},{"link_name":"Gran Canaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Canaria"},{"link_name":"Cape Verde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Verde"},{"link_name":"Sint Maarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Maarten"},{"link_name":"Simpson Bay Lagoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_Bay_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19December2010-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weblog_van_Laura-57"},{"link_name":"Stad Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stad_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Îles des Saintes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Eles_des_Saintes"},{"link_name":"Dominica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica"},{"link_name":"Bonaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaire"},{"link_name":"San Blas Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Blas_Islands"},{"link_name":"Panama Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Pearl Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Islands"},{"link_name":"Equator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator"},{"link_name":"Galápagos Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands"},{"link_name":"Hiva Oa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiva_Oa"},{"link_name":"Marquesas Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquesas_Islands"},{"link_name":"Tahiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahiti"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Moorea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%27orea"},{"link_name":"Bora Bora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bora_Bora"},{"link_name":"Vavaʻu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vava%CA%BBu"},{"link_name":"Tonga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga"},{"link_name":"Suva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suva"},{"link_name":"Fiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji"},{"link_name":"Port Vila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Vila"},{"link_name":"Vanuatu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatu"},{"link_name":"Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory"},{"link_name":"Torres Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torres_Strait"},{"link_name":"Durban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durban"},{"link_name":"Port Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Elizabeth"},{"link_name":"Cape Agulhas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Agulhas"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Cape of Good Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope"},{"link_name":"Cape Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Volvo Ocean Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%932012_Volvo_Ocean_Race"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"circumnavigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumnavigation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simpson-3"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Jillian Schlesinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jillian_Schlesinger"},{"link_name":"documentary video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_film"}],"text":"Dekker sailed from Den Osse, Netherlands, on 4 August 2010, headed for Portugal.[54] This segment did not constitute part of the solo circumnavigation, as her father was on board to coach her and test the new boat. The published plan was that the solo voyage would commence from Lisbon. Instead, Dekker and her father sailed to Portimão, arriving on 15 August. She sailed with others from Portimão to Gibraltar on 18–20 August, because according to Portuguese law, she was too young to be formally qualified to captain her ship[55] (Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory subject to British law, though Dekker made her departure from Gibraltar in secret in order to avoid both the press and any maritime police).2010–2012 solo circumnavigation progress:Departed Gibraltar on 21 August 2010.[citation needed]\nArrived at Lanzarote on 25 August.\nStayed in the Canary Islands for several weeks because of the Atlantic hurricane season.\nDeparted Gran Canaria on 10 November for Cape Verde.\nCommenced Atlantic crossing from Cape Verde to Sint Maarten—a distance of 2,200 nautical miles (4,100 km; 2,500 mi)—on 2 December; finished when she reached Simpson Bay Lagoon on 19 December;[56] having encountered calm weather on this leg of her journey, used the engine for two days in order to arrive on time.[57]\nServed as crew member for ten days on the tall ship Stad Amsterdam, departing from Sint Maarten on 5 January 2011.\nDeparted Sint Maarten on 20 January; visited the islands of Îles des Saintes, Dominica, Bonaire and San Blas Islands, all located in the Caribbean.\nFlew home on 27 February; stayed to 10 March to speak at a boat show and other places, now a figure of considerable media attention in the Netherlands.\nCompleted the passage of the Panama Canal on 11 April 2011;[58] visited Pearl Islands thereafter.\nCrossed the Equator on the evening of 25 April; reached the Galápagos Islands the following day.\nDeparted the Galápagos Islands on 7 May and arrived at Hiva Oa, Marquesas Islands on 25 May, having sailed about 2,960 nautical miles (5,480 km; 3,410 mi) in 18 days, the longest leg so far; encountered open sea only, with no islands near the route.\nSailed from Marquesas Islands to Tahiti between 1 and 8 June, a journey of 770 nautical miles (1,430 km; 890 mi); demanding leg of the journey with shifting winds, many reefs, ships, and little sleep.[59]\nVisited Moorea and Bora Bora, and then sailed the 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km; 1,600 mi) journey to Vavaʻu, Tonga in 12 days, where she arrived 8 July.\nArrived 17 July 2011 at Suva, Fiji, having sailed for four days, and on 30 July at Port Vila, Vanuatu after having sailed for three days.\nSailed from Vanuatu on 8 August, heading for Darwin, Australia; arrived in Darwin on 25 August after one of the toughest legs of her journey, which included passage through Torres Strait, filled with reefs, islands and large ships; father visited her in Darwin, their first meeting since she had visited the Netherlands in March 2011; together, undertook a major overhaul of the boat; celebrated Dekker's 16th birthday.\nDeparted Darwin on 25 September, heading west; published information about this leg of her journey in her blog following about two weeks delay, because of security concerns regarding Indian Ocean pirates.\nSailed to Durban, South Africa, arriving 12 November, after 47 days at sea non-stop; reported wind varying from dead calm to hard wind that often shifted direction; sometimes encountered rough waves (distance Darwin–Durban is 5,540 nautical miles (10,260 km; 6,380 mi)).\nArrived at Port Elizabeth, South Africa, on 18 November.\nPassed Cape Agulhas, South Africa, on 26 November, southernmost point on the African continent, and southernmost point of her journey; sailed thereafter a northerly course for the first time on her journey from the Netherlands.\nPassed the Cape of Good Hope on 27 November in rough weather; reached Cape Town the same day; father and journalists[60] and the boats of the Volvo Ocean Race met her there.\nSailed from Cape Town on 12 December, heading northwest.\nReached the longitude of her unofficial starting point in the Netherlands on 20 December; had already crossed all longitudes in the course of her circumnavigation; faced another 4,800 nautical miles (8,900 km; 5,500 mi) for her official completion.[61]\nArrived in Simpson Bay on Sint Maarten on 21 January 2012 at approximately 3 p.m. local time, after a non-stop journey of 5,600 nautical miles (10,400 km; 6,400 mi) from Cape Town, thus completing her full circumnavigation of the world, at the age of 16 years, 123 days.[3][62]\nThe trip took 518 days or 74 weeks or 1 year, 5 months.Maidentrip (2013), mostly shot by Dekker and directed by Jillian Schlesinger, is an 82-minute documentary video about this trip.","title":"2010–2011 solo circumnavigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South by Southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_by_Southwest"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"reality television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_television"},{"link_name":"Atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(Nederlands_televisieprogramma)"},{"link_name":"nl: Expeditie Poolcirkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expeditie_Poolcirkel"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Yachtmaster Ocean Certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachtmaster"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"text":"In March 2013, Maidentrip, a film about Dekker's circumnavigation had its premiere at the South by Southwest Film Festival in the United States.[63]\nDuring the summer of 2013, she took part in the recording (in Morocco) of the reality television show Atlas, which was broadcast in the Netherlands in August–October 2013.\nIn autumn 2014, she took part in the Dutch reality show nl: Expeditie Poolcirkel in north Scandinavia (broadcast 2015), which she won.[64]\nIn November 2014, Dekker's book One Girl, One Dream was published.[65]\nOn 20 February 2015, she obtained a Yachtmaster Ocean Certificate (also becoming the youngest person to do so in the process).[66]\nShe has been working towards doing long-distance educational sailings with children. She founded Laura Dekker World Sailing Foundation.[67] She obtained a 21 meter long ship (named Guppy). In November 2020 Dekker and a young crew took away from Spain, heading for the Caribbean islands, and back.[68]","title":"Later activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Sailing Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sailing_Association"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"text":"A February 2018 interview with the American Sailing Association announced \"Dekker has donated her beloved Guppy, the very boat she did the trip on, to LifeSail.\" LifeSail is a Los Angeles non-profit organisation that uses sailing as a vehicle to teach life lessons to children.[69][70]On 20 August 2018, Dekker announced that Guppy was wrecked on a reef in the Pacific Ocean by LifeSail during its trip to Los Angeles.[71] The boat was a total loss.[72]LifeSail released a public statement in March 2019 with a timeline of events[73] that stated Dekker originally donated Guppy as a requirement to receive funds from a third party. Those funds would be used for her new boat, Guppy XL.[74] Dekker blames LifeSail and Matt Schulz, alleging they broke their contract by sailing the vessel with inexperienced crew and mooring in unsafe locations. She claimed compensation for the loss of Guppy, as the donation contract with LifeSail specified that in the case of a total loss all insurance compensation would go to her, less any value added by LifeSail.[75]","title":"Guppy's fate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"text":"On 28 March 2015, when she was 19, Dekker married Daniel Thielmann, also resident in New Zealand.[76] They have since divorced.[77] She is now in a relationship with boat builder Sander Vogelenzang, with whom she has a son born in 2018.[77] They had a second child in June 2022.[78]","title":"Personal life"}] | [{"image_text":"Dekker's solo circumnavigation route","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/LauraDekkerJourney.svg/220px-LauraDekkerJourney.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Yacht Guppy in Den Osse, Netherlands, on 3 August 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Segeljacht_Guppy_in_Den_Osse.jpg/220px-Segeljacht_Guppy_in_Den_Osse.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Laura Dekker close to completion of solo round-the-world sail\". The Christian Science Monitor. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Latest-News-Wires/2012/0111/Laura-Dekker-close-to-completion-of-solo-round-the-world-sail","url_text":"\"Laura Dekker close to completion of solo round-the-world sail\""}]},{"reference":"\"youngest sailor to complete solo trip around the world\". Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120124021357/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/youngest-sailor-to-complete-solo-trip-around-the-world/article2310517/","url_text":"\"youngest sailor to complete solo trip around the world\""},{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/youngest-sailor-to-complete-solo-trip-around-the-world/article2310517/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Dutch teen completes historic, controversial solo sail around the globe\". CNN. 21 January 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/21/world/americas/st--maarten-teen-solo-voyage/?iref=obinsite","url_text":"\"Dutch teen completes historic, controversial solo sail around the globe\""}]},{"reference":"\"Solozeiler Laura (13): 'Alles is rond'\". Het Parool (in Dutch). 24 August 2009. Archived from the original on 23 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160223232504/https://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/224/BINNENLAND/article/detail/259756/2009/08/24/Solozeiler-Laura-13-Alles-is-rond.dhtml","url_text":"\"Solozeiler Laura (13): 'Alles is rond'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het_Parool","url_text":"Het Parool"},{"url":"https://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/224/BINNENLAND/article/detail/259756/2009/08/24/Solozeiler-Laura-13-Alles-is-rond.dhtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Gemeente wil Laura Dekker nog niet uitschrijven\". Binnenlands Bestuur (in Dutch). 25 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.binnenlandsbestuur.nl/sociaal/nieuws/nieuws/gemeente-wil-laura-dekker-nog-niet-uitschrijven.126260.lynkx","url_text":"\"Gemeente wil Laura Dekker nog niet uitschrijven\""}]},{"reference":"\"LauraDekker.nl de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ About Laura ◦\". www.lauradekker.nl. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200901062705/http://www.lauradekker.nl/English/About_Laura.html","url_text":"\"LauraDekker.nl de Jongste solozeiler ter wereld! – ◦ About Laura ◦\""},{"url":"http://www.lauradekker.nl/English/About_Laura.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mutter absolut gegen Weltumsegelung\". Spiegel (in German). 5 September 2009. Archived from the original on 6 December 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091206054404/http://www.spiegel.de/schulspiegel/ausland/0,1518,647201,00.html","url_text":"\"Mutter absolut gegen Weltumsegelung\""},{"url":"http://www.spiegel.de/schulspiegel/ausland/0,1518,647201,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Manson, Bess (25 October 2014). \"A Girl, A Boat, A Dream\". Your Weekend (supplement to The Press). pp. 10–14.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/sport/10660391/A-girl-a-boat-a-dream","url_text":"\"A Girl, A Boat, A Dream\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Press","url_text":"The Press"}]},{"reference":"Dekker, Laura (29 May 2015). \"Winter Jobs...\" Archived from the original on 30 January 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2015. The first couple of times that I sailed out in my Optimist, dad would sail along me on a windsurf-board. He would capsize the boat in moments when I would least expect it. I often landed under the sail, which was what he wanted, so that he could see how I would react. It was – I realize now – the best preparation that he could have given me for my trip and other adventures.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200130070943/http://www.lauradekker.nl/Basis.aspx?Tid=5019&Lid=13&Lit=VIEW","url_text":"\"Winter Jobs...\""},{"url":"http://www.lauradekker.nl/Basis.aspx?Tid=5019&Lid=13&Lit=VIEW","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dekker, Laura (July 2009), \"Not a Crazy Action\", Zeilen (7), Translated by Thomas Weber & 45N73W: 32–35, retrieved 10 April 2015","urls":[{"url":"http://zeilmeisjelauradekkerarchive.blogspot.com/p/zeilen-magazine-issue-7-july-2009.html","url_text":"\"Not a Crazy Action\""}]},{"reference":"Kievit, Rob (29 August 2009). \"Dreams scuppered for Dutch sailor girl\". BBC News. Radio Netherlands Worldwide.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8227250.stm","url_text":"\"Dreams scuppered for Dutch sailor girl\""}]},{"reference":"Swift, Mary (22 July 2001). \"Sailing Across The English Channel\". Retrieved 2 July 2015. Notorious as being one of the most heavily trafficked shipping lanes in the world, with a large tidal range and fast currents, you really do need to keep your wits about you.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sailboat-cruising.com/sailing-across-the-english-channel.html","url_text":"\"Sailing Across The English Channel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dutch teen who sought solo sailing trip disappears\". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 20 December 2009. Archived from the original on 23 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120123073729/http://www.bostonherald.com/news/international/europe/view.bg?articleid=1220125&srvc=next_article","url_text":"\"Dutch teen who sought solo sailing trip disappears\""},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/20/AR2009122000642.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Jeanneau Gin Fizz 37 Sailboat\". Bluewaterboats.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006114844/http://bluewaterboats.org/jeanneau-gin-fizz-37/","url_text":"\"The Jeanneau Gin Fizz 37 Sailboat\""},{"url":"http://bluewaterboats.org/jeanneau-gin-fizz-37/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Laura Dekker warned to steer clear of the Gulf of Aden\". Rnw.nl. 9 February 2011. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. 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Retrieved 20 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/08/28/dutch.teen.sailor.court/","url_text":"\"Dutch court halts girl's solo sailing plans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"}]},{"reference":"\"Teen solo sailor Laura made a ward of court\". Dutchnews.nl. 30 October 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2009/10/teen_solo_sailor_laura_made_a.php/","url_text":"\"Teen solo sailor Laura made a ward of court\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dutch court delays schoolgirl's round-the-world bid\". Google News. Agence France-Presse. 17 June 2010. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 17 June 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100714062755/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jlK4vRIJORlJ_94Gf16EISGSkiaw","url_text":"\"Dutch court delays schoolgirl's round-the-world bid\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agence_France-Presse","url_text":"Agence France-Presse"},{"url":"https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jlK4vRIJORlJ_94Gf16EISGSkiaw","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Adam, Karla (30 August 2009). \"Dutch Delay 13-Year-Old's Dream of Sailing the World\". The Washington Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/29/AR2009082902297.html","url_text":"\"Dutch Delay 13-Year-Old's Dream of Sailing the World\""}]},{"reference":"Whipple, Tom (29 August 2009). \"Court bans teen sailor Laura Dekker from record-breaking voyage\". The Times. London. Retrieved 7 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article6813281.ece","url_text":"\"Court bans teen sailor Laura Dekker from record-breaking voyage\""}]},{"reference":"\"MainSail Social workers threaten to thwart teen sailor's record bid\". CNN. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/08/27/dutch.teen.sailing.bid/index.html","url_text":"\"MainSail Social workers threaten to thwart teen sailor's record bid\""}]},{"reference":"\"Laura Dekker, 13, must wait before trying to sail around the world alone\". Los Angeles Times. 29 August 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/outposts/2009/08/laura-dekker-has-to-wait-before-sailing-around-the-world-alone.html","url_text":"\"Laura Dekker, 13, must wait before trying to sail around the world alone\""}]},{"reference":"\"wetten.nl – Wet- en regelgeving – Binnenvaartpolitiereglement – BWBR0003628\". Wetten.overheld.nl. Retrieved 3 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0003628/geldigheidsdatum_21-11-2011","url_text":"\"wetten.nl – Wet- en regelgeving – Binnenvaartpolitiereglement – BWBR0003628\""}]},{"reference":"\"Zeilmeisje-Laura-Dekker-vermist\". Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131109144145/http://www.omroepgelderland.nl/web/Nieuws/nieuwsartikel/454211/Zeilmeisje-Laura-Dekker-vermist.htm","url_text":"\"Zeilmeisje-Laura-Dekker-vermist\""},{"url":"http://www.omroepgelderland.nl/web/Nieuws/nieuwsartikel/454211/Zeilmeisje-Laura-Dekker-vermist.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Update – BNO News reports that teen Dutch sailor Laura Dekker is found safe on Saint Martin\". BNO News. 20 December 2009. 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Associated Press.","urls":[{"url":"http://law.gaeatimes.com/2009/12/22/teenage-dutch-sailor-laura-dekker-sees-life-unravel-after-court-blocks-dream-voyage-19170/","url_text":"\"Teenage Dutch sailor Laura Dekker sees life unravel after court blocks dream voyage\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press","url_text":"Associated Press"}]},{"reference":"\"14-year-old given permission to sail around world\". NZ Herald. 26 December 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10617456","url_text":"\"14-year-old given permission to sail around world\""}]},{"reference":"Stanglin, Douglas (27 July 2010). \"Dutch court OKs bid by 14-year-old to sail solo around the world\". Content.usatoday.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_League_pennant_winners | List of National League pennant winners | ["1 Key","2 Single table era (1876–1968)","3 League Championship Series era (1969–present)","3.1 Notes","4 NL pennants won by franchise","4.1 Notes","5 See also","6 References","6.1 General","6.2 Inline citations","7 External links"] | The Philadelphia Phillies won their second consecutive pennant in 2009 and lost to the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 NLCS.
Part of a series on theMajor League Baseball postseason
Wild Card Series
ALWCS
NLWCS
Division Series
ALDS
NLDS
League Championship Series
ALCS (Winners list)NLCS (Winners list)
World Series
List of World Series champions
Commissioner's Trophy
Teams
Appearances
Series
Streaks
Droughts
vte
The National League pennant winner of a given Major League Baseball season is the team that wins the championship—the pennant—of MLB's National League (NL). This team receives the Warren C. Giles Trophy and the right to play in the World Series against the champion of the American League (AL). The current NL pennant winners are the Arizona Diamondbacks, who beat out the Philadelphia Phillies to win the NL pennant in October 2023.
The trophy is named for Warren Giles, the league president from 1951 to 1969, and is presented immediately after each NL Championship Series (NLCS) by Warren's son Bill Giles, the honorary league president and former owner of the Philadelphia Phillies.
From 1876 through 1968, the pennant was awarded to the team with the best regular-season record. Beginning in 1969, the league was divided into East and West divisions, with the champions of each playing for the pennant in the League Championship Series (NLCS). Since 1995, there have been three divisions and a two-round playoff bracket which begins with two Division Series (NLDS).
The pennant has been awarded every year since 1876, except for 1994, when a players' strike forced the cancellation of the postseason. Until 1969, the pennant was presented to the team with the best win–loss record at the end of the season. In 1969, the league split into two divisions, and the teams with the best records in each division played one another in the NLCS to determine the pennant winner. The format of the NLCS was changed from a best-of-five to a best-of-seven format for the 1985 postseason. In 1995, an additional playoff series was added when MLB restructured the two divisions in each league into three. As of 2010, the winners of the Eastern, Central, and Western Divisions, as well as one wild card team, play in the NL Division Series, a best-of-five playoff to determine the opponents who will play for the pennant.
By pennants, the Los Angeles Dodgers (formerly the Brooklyn Dodgers; 24 pennants, 31 playoff appearances) are the winningest team in NL history. The San Francisco Giants (formerly the New York Giants; 23 pennants, 27 playoff appearances) are in second place, with the St. Louis Cardinals (19 pennants and 28 playoff appearances), in third place, followed by the Atlanta Braves (18 pennants and 23 postseason appearances between their three home cities of Atlanta, Milwaukee, and Boston) in fourth place and the Chicago Cubs (17 pennants and 20 playoff appearances as the Cubs and White Stockings) in fifth. The Philadelphia Phillies were NL champions in back-to-back seasons in 2008 and 2009, becoming the first NL team to do so since the Braves in 1995 and 1996. The Dodgers were also league champions in back-to-back seasons in 2017 and 2018. The modern World Series began in 1903, when the National League recognized the upstart American League, founded in 1901. There was an earlier "World's Championship Series" played between the pennant winners of the NL and the American Association 1884–1890; from 1894 to 1897 the NL's first- and second-place teams played a postseason series for the Temple Cup, which was considered to be the league championship. As of 2021, the Dodgers have the most modern-era World Series appearances at 21, followed by the San Francisco Giants with 20.
The team with the best record to win the NL pennant was the 1906 Cubs, who won 116 of 152 games during that season and finished 20 games ahead of the New York Giants. The best record by a pennant winner in the Championship Series era is 108–54, which was achieved by the Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and the New York Mets in 1986; both of these teams went on to win the World Series.
NL champions have gone on to win the World Series 51 times, most recently in 2021. Pennant winners have also won the Temple Cup and the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup, two pre-World Series league championships, although second-place teams won three of the four Temple Cup meetings. The largest margin of victory for a pennant winner, before the league split into two divisions in 1969, is 27+1⁄2 games; the Pittsburgh Pirates led the Brooklyn Superbas (now the Dodgers) by that margin on the final day of the 1902 season.
The only currently existing National League franchise to have never won an NL pennant are the Milwaukee Brewers; however, they did win a pennant during their time in the American League.
Key
Year
Links to the corresponding "year in baseball" (1876–1900) or "Major League Baseball season" (1901–present) article
Team
Links to the corresponding season in which each team played
Series
Links to the corresponding "National League Championship Series" article
Record
Regular season win–loss record
GA
Games ahead of the second-place team (pre-NLCS era)
WW
Wins by the winning team (NLCS era)
LW
Wins by the losing team (NLCS era)
Ref
Reference
Won World Series (1884–1890, 1892)
Won Temple Cup (1894–1897)
Won Chronicle-Telegraph Cup (1900)
Won World Series (1903–present)
E
National League East division member (1969–present)
C
National League Central division member (1995–present)
W
National League West division member (1969–present)
†
Wild card team (1995–present)
Single table era (1876–1968)
The Pittsburgh Pirates (back row) won the National League pennant in 1903, and played in the first modern World Series in baseball history.
The New York Giants won their first World Series appearance in 1905 after their owner refused to take part in the 1904 World Series.
Year
Team
Manager
Record
GA
Ahead of
Manager
Ref
1876
Chicago ("White Stockings")
Albert Spalding
52–14
6
St. Louis ("Brown Stockings/Browns")
George McManus
1877
Boston ("Red Stockings/Red Caps")
Harry Wright
42–18
7
Louisville ("Grays")
Jack Chapman
1878
41–19
4
Cincinnati ("Reds")
1879
Providence ("Grays")
George Wright
59–25
5
Boston ("Red Stockings/Red Caps")
Cal McVey
1880
Chicago ("White Stockings")
Cap Anson
67–17
15
Providence ("Grays")
Mike Dorgan
1881
56–28
9
Tom York
1882
55–29
3
Harry Wright
1883
Boston ("Beaneaters")
John Morrill
63–35
4
Chicago ("White Stockings")
Cap Anson
1884
Providence ("Grays")
Frank Bancroft
84–28
10+1⁄2
Boston ("Beaneaters")
John Morrill
1885
Chicago ("White Stockings")
Cap Anson
87–25
2
New York ("Giants")
Jim Mutrie
1886
90–34
2+1⁄2
Detroit ("Wolverines")
Bill Watkins
1887
Detroit ("Wolverines")
Bill Watkins
79–45
3+1⁄2
Philadelphia ("Quakers")
Harry Wright
1888
New York ("Giants")
Jim Mutrie
84–47
9
Chicago ("White Stockings")
Cap Anson
1889
83–43
1
Boston ("Beaneaters")
Jim Hart
1890
Brooklyn ("Bridegrooms")
Bill McGunnigle
86–43
6+1⁄2
Chicago ("Colts/Infants")
Cap Anson
1891
Boston ("Beaneaters")
Frank Selee
87–51
3+1⁄2
Chicago ("Colts")
1892
102–48
8+1⁄2
Cleveland ("Spiders")
Patsy Tebeau
1893
86–43
5
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Al Buckenberger
1894
Baltimore Orioles
Ned Hanlon
89–39
3
New York ("Giants")
John Montgomery Ward
1895
87–43
Cleveland ("Spiders")
Patsy Tebeau
1896
90–39
9+1⁄2
1897
Boston ("Beaneaters")
Frank Selee
93–39
2
Baltimore Orioles
Ned Hanlon
1898
102–47
6
1899
Brooklyn ("Superbas")
Ned Hanlon
101–47
8
Boston ("Beaneaters")
Frank Selee
1900
82–54
4+1⁄2
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Fred Clarke
1901
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Fred Clarke
90–49
7+1⁄2
Philadelphia ("Phillies")
Bill Shettsline
1902
103–36
27+1⁄2
Brooklyn ("Superbas")
Ned Hanlon
1903
91–49
6+1⁄2
New York ("Giants")
John McGraw
1904
New York ("Giants")
John McGraw
106–47
13
Chicago ("Colts/Cubs")
Frank Selee
1905
106–47
9
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Fred Clarke
1906
Chicago ("Cubs")
Frank Chance
116–36
20
New York ("Giants")
John McGraw
1907
Chicago Cubs
107–45
17
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Fred Clarke
1908
99–55
1
1909
Pittsburgh ("Pirates")
Fred Clarke
110–42
6+1⁄2
Chicago Cubs
Frank Chance
1910
Chicago Cubs
Frank Chance
104–50
13
New York ("Giants")
John McGraw
1911
New York Giants
John McGraw
99–54
7+1⁄2
Chicago Cubs
Frank Chance
1912
103–48
10
Pittsburgh Pirates
Fred Clarke
1913
101–51
12+1⁄2
Philadelphia Phillies
Red Dooin
1914
Boston Braves
George Stallings
94–59
10+1⁄2
New York Giants
John McGraw
1915
Philadelphia Phillies
Pat Moran
90–62
7
Boston Braves
George Stallings
1916
Brooklyn Dodgers
Wilbert Robinson
94–60
2+1⁄2
Philadelphia Phillies
Pat Moran
1917
New York Giants
John McGraw
98–56
10
1918
Chicago Cubs
Fred Mitchell
84–45
10+1⁄2
New York Giants
John McGraw
1919
Cincinnati Reds
Pat Moran
96–44
9
1920
Brooklyn Dodgers
Wilbert Robinson
93–61
7
New York Giants
George Gibson
1921
New York Giants
John McGraw
94–59
4
Pittsburgh Pirates
George Gibson
1922
93–61
7
Cincinnati Reds
Pat Moran
1923
95–58
4+1⁄2
1924
93–60
1+1⁄2
Brooklyn Dodgers
Wilbert Robinson
1925
Pittsburgh Pirates
Bill McKechnie
95–58
8+1⁄2
New York Giants
John McGraw
1926
St. Louis Cardinals
Rogers Hornsby
89–65
2
Cincinnati Reds
Jack Hendricks
1927
Pittsburgh Pirates
Donie Bush
94–60
1+1⁄2
St. Louis Cardinals
Bob O'Farrell
1928
St. Louis Cardinals
Bill McKechnie
95–59
2
New York Giants
John McGraw
1929
Chicago Cubs
Joe McCarthy
98–54
Pittsburgh Pirates
Jewel Ens
1930
St. Louis Cardinals
Gabby Street
92–62
Chicago Cubs
Rogers Hornsby
1931
101–53
13
New York Giants
John McGraw
1932
Chicago Cubs
Charlie Grimm
90–64
4
Pittsburgh Pirates
George Gibson
1933
New York Giants
Bill Terry
91–61
5
1934
St. Louis Cardinals
Frankie Frisch
95–58
2
New York Giants
Bill Terry
1935
Chicago Cubs
Charlie Grimm
100–54
4
St. Louis Cardinals
Frankie Frisch
1936
New York Giants
Bill Terry
92–62
5
St. Louis Cardinals
Frankie Frisch
1937
95–57
3
Chicago Cubs
Charlie Grimm
1938
Chicago Cubs
Charlie Grimm
89–63
2
Pittsburgh Pirates
Pie Traynor
1939
Cincinnati Reds
Bill McKechnie
97–57
4+1⁄2
St. Louis Cardinals
Ray Blades
1940
100–53
12
Brooklyn Dodgers
Leo Durocher
1941
Brooklyn Dodgers
Leo Durocher
100–54
2+1⁄2
St. Louis Cardinals
Billy Southworth
1942
St. Louis Cardinals
Billy Southworth
106–48
2
Brooklyn Dodgers
Leo Durocher
1943
105–49
18
Cincinnati Reds
Bill McKechnie
1944
105–49
14+1⁄2
Pittsburgh Pirates
Frankie Frisch
1945
Chicago Cubs
Charlie Grimm
98–56
3
St. Louis Cardinals
Billy Southworth
1946
St. Louis Cardinals
Eddie Dyer
98–58
2
Brooklyn Dodgers
Leo Durocher
1947
Brooklyn Dodgers
Burt Shotton
94–60
5
St. Louis Cardinals
Eddie Dyer
1948
Boston Braves
Billy Southworth
91–62
6+1⁄2
1949
Brooklyn Dodgers
Burt Shotton
97–57
1
1950
Philadelphia Phillies
Eddie Sawyer
91–63
2
Brooklyn Dodgers
Burt Shotton
1951
New York Giants
Leo Durocher
98–59
1
Brooklyn Dodgers
Chuck Dressen
1952
Brooklyn Dodgers
Chuck Dressen
96–57
4+1⁄2
New York Giants
Leo Durocher
1953
105–49
13
Milwaukee Braves
Charlie Grimm
1954
New York Giants
Leo Durocher
97–57
5
Brooklyn Dodgers
Walter Alston
1955
Brooklyn Dodgers
Walter Alston
98–55
13+1⁄2
Milwaukee Braves
Charlie Grimm
1956
93–61
1
Fred Haney
1957
Milwaukee Braves
Fred Haney
95–59
8
St. Louis Cardinals
Fred Hutchinson
1958
92–62
Pittsburgh Pirates
Danny Murtaugh
1959
Los Angeles Dodgers
Walter Alston
88–68
2
Milwaukee Braves
Fred Haney
1960
Pittsburgh Pirates
Danny Murtaugh
95–59
7
Chuck Dressen
1961
Cincinnati Reds
Fred Hutchinson
93–61
4
Los Angeles Dodgers
Walter Alston
1962
San Francisco Giants
Alvin Dark
103–62
1
1963
Los Angeles Dodgers
Walter Alston
99–63
6
St. Louis Cardinals
Johnny Keane
1964
St. Louis Cardinals
Johnny Keane
93–69
1
Philadelphia Phillies
Gene Mauch
1965
Los Angeles Dodgers
Walter Alston
97–65
2
San Francisco Giants
Herman Franks
1966
95–67
1+1⁄2
1967
St. Louis Cardinals
Red Schoendienst
101–60
10+1⁄2
1968
97–65
9
League Championship Series era (1969–present)
See also: National League Championship Series and League Championship Series MVP Award
The 2006 St. Louis Cardinals won the World Series after capturing the National League pennant.
In 2008, the Philadelphia Phillies and the Los Angeles Dodgers faced off in the National League championship series for the pennant; the Phillies won, four games to one.
Year
Series
Winning team
Record
Games
Losing team
Record
Ref
1969
1969
New York MetsE
100–62
3–0
Atlanta BravesW
93–69
1970
1970
Cincinnati RedsW
102–60
3–0
Pittsburgh PiratesE
87–63
1971
1971
Pittsburgh PiratesE
97–65
3–1
San Francisco GiantsW
90–72
1972
1972
Cincinnati RedsW
95–59
3–2
Pittsburgh PiratesE
96–59
1973
1973
New York MetsE
82–79
3–2
Cincinnati RedsW
99–63
1974
1974
Los Angeles DodgersW
102–60
3–1
Pittsburgh PiratesE
88–74
1975
1975
Cincinnati RedsW
108–54
3–0
92–69
1976
1976
102–60
3–0
Philadelphia PhilliesE
101–61
1977
1977
Los Angeles DodgersW
98–64
3–1
101–61
1978
1978
95–67
3–1
90–72
1979
1979
Pittsburgh PiratesE
98–64
3–0
Cincinnati RedsW
90–71
1980
1980
Philadelphia PhilliesE
91–71
3–2
Houston AstrosW
93–70
1981
1981
Los Angeles DodgersW
63–47
3–2
Montréal ExposE
60–48
1982
1982
St. Louis CardinalsE
92–70
3–0
Atlanta BravesW
89–73
1983
1983
Philadelphia PhilliesE
90–72
3–1
Los Angeles DodgersW
91–71
1984
1984
San Diego PadresW
92–70
3–2
Chicago CubsE
96–65
1985
1985
St. Louis CardinalsE
101–61
4–2
Los Angeles DodgersW
95–67
1986
1986
New York MetsE
108–54
4–2
Houston AstrosW
96–66
1987
1987
St. Louis CardinalsE
95–67
4–3
San Francisco Giants
90–72
1988
1988
Los Angeles DodgersW
94–67
4–3
New York MetsE
100–60
1989
1989
San Francisco GiantsW
92–70
4–1
Chicago CubsE
93–69
1990
1990
Cincinnati RedsW
91–71
4–2
Pittsburgh PiratesE
95–67
1991
1991
Atlanta BravesW
94–68
4–3
98–64
1992
1992
98–64
4–3
96–66
1993
1993
Philadelphia PhilliesE
97–65
4–2
Atlanta BravesW
104–58
1994
Not held due to players' strike.
1995
1995
Atlanta BravesE
90–54
4–0
Cincinnati RedsC
85–59
1996
1996
96–66
4–3
St. Louis CardinalsC
88–74
1997
1997
Florida MarlinsE†
92–70
4–2
Atlanta BravesE
101–61
1998
1998
San Diego PadresW
98–64
4–2
106–56
1999
1999
Atlanta BravesE
103–59
4–2
New York MetsE†
97–66
2000
2000
New York MetsE†
94–68
4–1
St. Louis CardinalsC
95–67
2001
2001
Arizona DiamondbacksW
92–70
4–1
Atlanta BravesE
88–74
2002
2002
San Francisco GiantsW†
95–66
4–1
St. Louis CardinalsC
97–65
2003
2003
Florida MarlinsE†
91–71
4–3
Chicago CubsC
88–74
2004
2004
St. Louis CardinalsC
105–57
4–3
Houston AstrosC†
92–70
2005
2005
Houston AstrosC†
89–73
4–2
St. Louis CardinalsC
100–62
2006
2006
St. Louis CardinalsC
83–78
4–3
New York MetsE
97–65
2007
2007
Colorado RockiesW†
90–73
4–0
Arizona DiamondbacksW
90–72
2008
2008
Philadelphia PhilliesE
92–70
4–1
Los Angeles DodgersW
84–78
2009
2009
93–69
4–1
95–67
2010
2010
San Francisco GiantsW
92–70
4–2
Philadelphia PhilliesE
97–65
2011
2011
St. Louis CardinalsC†
90–72
4–2
Milwaukee BrewersC
96–66
2012
2012
San Francisco GiantsW
94–68
4–3
St. Louis CardinalsC†
88–74
2013
2013
St. Louis CardinalsC
97–65
4–2
Los Angeles DodgersW
92–70
2014
2014
San Francisco GiantsW†
88–74
4–1
St. Louis CardinalsC
90–72
2015
2015
New York MetsE
90–72
4–0
Chicago CubsC†
97–65
2016
2016
Chicago CubsC
103–58
4–2
Los Angeles DodgersW
91–71
2017
2017
Los Angeles DodgersW
104–58
4–1
Chicago CubsC
92–70
2018
2018
92–71
4–3
Milwaukee BrewersC
96–67
2019
2019
Washington NationalsE†
93–69
4–0
St. Louis CardinalsC
91–71
2020
2020
Los Angeles DodgersW
43–17
4–3
Atlanta BravesE
35–25
2021
2021
Atlanta BravesE
88–73
4–2
Los Angeles DodgersW†
106–56
2022
2022
Philadelphia PhilliesE†
87–75
4–1
San Diego PadresW†
89–73
2023
2023
Arizona DiamondbacksW†
84–78
4–3
Philadelphia PhilliesE†
90–72
Notes
a A mid-season labor stoppage split the season into two halves. The winner of the first half played the winner of the second half in each division in the 1981 National League Division Series. The winners played in the 1981 NLCS for the National League pennant.
b The leagues were re-aligned in 1994 to three divisions and a wild card was added to the playoffs, but the labor stoppage cancelled the postseason. Wild cards were first used in the 1995 playoffs.
NL pennants won by franchise
The 19th century Baltimore Orioles team won three National League pennants, one of three defunct teams to have won the league.
The Detroit Wolverines won their only pennant in 1887, followed by a victory in the World's Championship Series.
Italics represent a franchise that is defunct in Major League Baseball as of the 2023 season.
Team
Pennants won
Postseason appearances
Ref
Los Angeles Dodgers
24
37
San Francisco Giants
23
27
St. Louis Cardinals
19
32
Atlanta Braves
18
29
Chicago Cubs
17
21
Pittsburgh Pirates
9
17
Philadelphia Phillies
8
16
Cincinnati Reds
9
16
New York Mets
5
10
Baltimore Orioles (NL)
3
5
San Diego Padres
2
5
Miami Marlins
2
3
Providence Grays
2
5
Houston Astros
1
9
Arizona Diamondbacks
2
7
Washington Nationals
1
6
Colorado Rockies
1
5
Detroit Wolverines
1
2
Milwaukee Brewers
0
5
Notes
a Previously known as Brooklyn Dodgers, Brooklyn Robins, Brooklyn Superbas, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Brooklyn Grooms, Brooklyn Grays and Brooklyn Atlantics. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1889
b Previously known as New York Giants and New York Gothams
c Previously known as St. Louis Perfectos, St. Louis Browns, and St. Louis Brown Stockings. Does not include four American Association pennants won in 1885–1888
d Previously known as Milwaukee Braves, Boston Braves, Boston Bees, Boston Rustlers, Boston Doves, Boston Beaneaters and Boston Red Caps
e Previously known as Chicago Orphans, Chicago Colts and Chicago White Stockings
f Previously known as Pittsburgh Alleghenys
g Previously known as Cincinnati Redlegs and Cincinnati Red Stockings. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1882
h Previously known as Philadelphia Quakers and unofficially as Philadelphia Blue Jays
i The 19th-century Baltimore Orioles who played in the National League are no longer in existence; two current American League franchises later used the Orioles name (New York Yankees and Baltimore Orioles).
j Previously known as Houston Colt .45s Does not include four American League pennants.
k Previously known as Montreal Expos. In 1994, the Expos led the National League East and had the best win–loss record in the league when the season was cut short by a labor dispute.
l The Brewers were members of the American League through the 1997 season after which they switched to the National League. This table records only the Brewers' National League accomplishments. They won the American League pennant in 1982.
See also
Baseball portal
American League Championship Series – the American League counterpart to the NLCS
List of American League pennant winners
National League Division Series – has preceded this series since 1994
References
General
"Playoff and World Series Stats and Results". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 9, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
Inline citations
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^ "2006 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "2007 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "2008 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "2009 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "2010 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
^ "2011 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 13, 2011. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
^ "2012 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 3, 2012. Retrieved October 22, 2012.
^ "2013 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
^ "2014 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2014.
^ "2015 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 16, 2015.
^ "2016 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 23, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2016.
^ "2017 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 1, 2017. Retrieved October 19, 2017.
^ "2018 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. Retrieved October 19, 2018.
^ "2019 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 9, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "2020 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020. Retrieved October 18, 2020.
^ "2021 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 22, 2021. Retrieved October 23, 2021.
^ "2022 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 25, 2022. Retrieved October 23, 2022.
^ "2023 National League Team Statistics and Standings". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 27, 2023. Retrieved October 25, 2023.
^ a b "Pittsburgh Pirates Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ a b "Philadelphia Phillies Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 1, 2009. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ a b "Cincinnati Reds Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ "New York Mets Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Baltimore Orioles (NL) Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "San Diego Padres Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Florida Marlins Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Providence Grays Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ a b "Houston Astros Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Arizona Diamondbacks Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ a b "Washington Nationals Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ "Colorado Rockies Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Detroit Wolverines Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on July 31, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
^ "Milwaukee Brewers Team History & Encyclopedia". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 21, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ "Complete Baseball Team and Baseball Team Encyclopedias". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2010.
^ "Brewers switch leagues, join Reds in NL Central". The Kentucky Post. Associated Press. November 6, 1997. Archived from the original on May 5, 2005.
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Mets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Mets"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brefpostseason-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brefpostseason-2"},{"link_name":"Temple Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Cup"},{"link_name":"Chronicle-Telegraph Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle-Telegraph_Cup"},{"link_name":"pre-World Series league championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-World_Series_baseball_champions"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Milwaukee Brewers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee_Brewers"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-World_Series_Club_History-22"}],"text":"The Philadelphia Phillies won their second consecutive pennant in 2009 and lost to the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 NLCS.The National League pennant winner of a given Major League Baseball season is the team that wins the championship—the pennant—of MLB's National League (NL). This team receives the Warren C. Giles Trophy and the right to play in the World Series against the champion of the American League (AL). The current NL pennant winners are the Arizona Diamondbacks, who beat out the Philadelphia Phillies to win the NL pennant in October 2023.The trophy is named for Warren Giles, the league president from 1951 to 1969, and is presented immediately after each NL Championship Series (NLCS) by Warren's son Bill Giles, the honorary league president and former owner of the Philadelphia Phillies.[1]From 1876 through 1968, the pennant was awarded to the team with the best regular-season record. Beginning in 1969, the league was divided into East and West divisions, with the champions of each playing for the pennant in the League Championship Series (NLCS). Since 1995, there have been three divisions and a two-round playoff bracket which begins with two Division Series (NLDS).The pennant has been awarded every year since 1876, except for 1994, when a players' strike forced the cancellation of the postseason.[2][3] Until 1969, the pennant was presented to the team with the best win–loss record at the end of the season.[4] In 1969, the league split into two divisions,[5] and the teams with the best records in each division played one another in the NLCS to determine the pennant winner. The format of the NLCS was changed from a best-of-five to a best-of-seven format for the 1985 postseason.[6] In 1995, an additional playoff series was added when MLB restructured the two divisions in each league into three.[7] As of 2010[update], the winners of the Eastern, Central, and Western Divisions, as well as one wild card team, play in the NL Division Series, a best-of-five playoff to determine the opponents who will play for the pennant.[8]By pennants, the Los Angeles Dodgers (formerly the Brooklyn Dodgers; 24 pennants, 31 playoff appearances)[9] are the winningest team in NL history. The San Francisco Giants (formerly the New York Giants; 23 pennants, 27 playoff appearances)[10] are in second place, with the St. Louis Cardinals (19 pennants and 28 playoff appearances),[11] in third place, followed by the Atlanta Braves (18 pennants and 23 postseason appearances between their three home cities of Atlanta, Milwaukee, and Boston)[12] in fourth place and the Chicago Cubs (17 pennants and 20 playoff appearances as the Cubs and White Stockings) in fifth.[13] The Philadelphia Phillies were NL champions in back-to-back seasons in 2008 and 2009, becoming the first NL team to do so since the Braves in 1995 and 1996.[14] The Dodgers were also league champions in back-to-back seasons in 2017 and 2018. The modern World Series began in 1903, when the National League recognized the upstart American League, founded in 1901. There was an earlier \"World's Championship Series\" played between the pennant winners of the NL and the American Association 1884–1890; from 1894 to 1897 the NL's first- and second-place teams played a postseason series for the Temple Cup, which was considered to be the league championship. As of 2021, the Dodgers have the most modern-era World Series appearances at 21, followed by the San Francisco Giants with 20.The team with the best record to win the NL pennant was the 1906 Cubs, who won 116 of 152 games during that season[15] and finished 20 games ahead of the New York Giants.[16] The best record by a pennant winner in the Championship Series era is 108–54, which was achieved by the Cincinnati Reds in 1975[17] and the New York Mets in 1986;[18] both of these teams went on to win the World Series.[2]NL champions have gone on to win the World Series 51 times, most recently in 2021.[2] Pennant winners have also won the Temple Cup and the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup, two pre-World Series league championships, although second-place teams won three of the four Temple Cup meetings.[19][20] The largest margin of victory for a pennant winner, before the league split into two divisions in 1969, is 27+1⁄2 games; the Pittsburgh Pirates led the Brooklyn Superbas (now the Dodgers) by that margin on the final day of the 1902 season.[21]The only currently existing National League franchise to have never won an NL pennant are the Milwaukee Brewers; however, they did win a pennant during their time in the American League.[22]","title":"List of National League pennant winners"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Key"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1903_World_Series_-_Boston_Americans.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_York_Giants_team_picture.jpg"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"The Pittsburgh Pirates (back row) won the National League pennant in 1903, and played in the first modern World Series in baseball history.The New York Giants won their first World Series appearance in 1905 after their owner refused to take part in the 1904 World Series.[23]","title":"Single table era (1876–1968)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National League Championship Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_League_Championship_Series"},{"link_name":"League Championship Series MVP Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_Championship_Series_MVP_Award"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cardinals_at_White_House.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NLCSAnthem.JPG"}],"text":"See also: National League Championship Series and League Championship Series MVP AwardThe 2006 St. Louis Cardinals won the World Series after capturing the National League pennant.In 2008, the Philadelphia Phillies and the Los Angeles Dodgers faced off in the National League championship series for the pennant; the Phillies won, four games to one.","title":"League Championship Series era (1969–present)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_1981NLa"},{"link_name":"1981 National League Division Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981_National_League_Division_Series"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1981NL-129"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_1995alignmentb"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-realign-7"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"a A mid-season labor stoppage split the season into two halves. The winner of the first half played the winner of the second half in each division in the 1981 National League Division Series. The winners played in the 1981 NLCS for the National League pennant.[129]\nb The leagues were re-aligned in 1994 to three divisions and a wild card was added to the playoffs, but the labor stoppage cancelled the postseason. Wild cards were first used in the 1995 playoffs.[7]","title":"League Championship Series era (1969–present)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1896_Baltimore_Orioles.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1888_Detroit_Wolverines.jpg"}],"text":"The 19th century Baltimore Orioles team won three National League pennants, one of three defunct teams to have won the league.The Detroit Wolverines won their only pennant in 1887, followed by a victory in the World's Championship Series.Italics represent a franchise that is defunct in Major League Baseball as of the 2023 season.","title":"NL pennants won by franchise"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_LADa"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LAD-9"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_SFGb"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFG-10"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_STLc"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STL-11"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_ATLd"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATL-12"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_CHCe"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHC-13"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_PITf"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PIT-172"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_CINg"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIN-174"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_PHIh"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PHI-173"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_BLNi"},{"link_name":"New York Yankees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Yankees"},{"link_name":"Baltimore Orioles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_HOUj"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HOU-180"},{"link_name":"k","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_WSNk"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSN-182"},{"link_name":"l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_MILl"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"a Previously known as Brooklyn Dodgers, Brooklyn Robins, Brooklyn Superbas, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, Brooklyn Grooms, Brooklyn Grays and Brooklyn Atlantics. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1889[9]\nb Previously known as New York Giants and New York Gothams[10]\nc Previously known as St. Louis Perfectos, St. Louis Browns, and St. Louis Brown Stockings. Does not include four American Association pennants won in 1885–1888[11]\nd Previously known as Milwaukee Braves, Boston Braves, Boston Bees, Boston Rustlers, Boston Doves, Boston Beaneaters and Boston Red Caps[12]\ne Previously known as Chicago Orphans, Chicago Colts and Chicago White Stockings[13]\nf Previously known as Pittsburgh Alleghenys[172]\ng Previously known as Cincinnati Redlegs and Cincinnati Red Stockings. Does not include American Association pennant won in 1882[174]\nh Previously known as Philadelphia Quakers and unofficially as Philadelphia Blue Jays[173]\ni The 19th-century Baltimore Orioles who played in the National League are no longer in existence; two current American League franchises later used the Orioles name (New York Yankees and Baltimore Orioles).[186]\nj Previously known as Houston Colt .45s[180] Does not include four American League pennants.\nk Previously known as Montreal Expos. In 1994, the Expos led the National League East and had the best win–loss record in the league when the season was cut short by a labor dispute.[182]\nl The Brewers were members of the American League through the 1997 season after which they switched to the National League.[187] This table records only the Brewers' National League accomplishments. They won the American League pennant in 1982.","title":"NL pennants won by franchise"}] | [{"image_text":"The Philadelphia Phillies won their second consecutive pennant in 2009 and lost to the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 NLCS.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Phillies_NLCS_2009.jpg/280px-Phillies_NLCS_2009.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Pittsburgh Pirates (back row) won the National League pennant in 1903, and played in the first modern World Series in baseball history.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/1903_World_Series_-_Boston_Americans.jpg/220px-1903_World_Series_-_Boston_Americans.jpg"},{"image_text":"The New York Giants won their first World Series appearance in 1905 after their owner refused to take part in the 1904 World Series.[23]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/New_York_Giants_team_picture.jpg/220px-New_York_Giants_team_picture.jpg"},{"image_text":"The 2006 St. Louis Cardinals won the World Series after capturing the National League pennant.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Cardinals_at_White_House.jpg/220px-Cardinals_at_White_House.jpg"},{"image_text":"In 2008, the Philadelphia Phillies and the Los Angeles Dodgers faced off in the National League championship series for the pennant; the Phillies won, four games to one.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/NLCSAnthem.JPG/220px-NLCSAnthem.JPG"},{"image_text":"The 19th century Baltimore Orioles team won three National League pennants, one of three defunct teams to have won the league.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/1896_Baltimore_Orioles.jpg/220px-1896_Baltimore_Orioles.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Detroit Wolverines won their only pennant in 1887, followed by a victory in the World's Championship Series.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1888_Detroit_Wolverines.jpg/220px-1888_Detroit_Wolverines.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Baseball portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Baseball"},{"title":"American League Championship Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_League_Championship_Series"},{"title":"List of American League pennant winners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_League_pennant_winners"},{"title":"National League Division Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_League_Division_Series"}] | [{"reference":"\"Playoff and World Series Stats and Results\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 9, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/","url_text":"\"Playoff and World Series Stats and Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100109123742/http://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jensen, Mike (October 16, 2008). \"'Fantastic feeling' for Bill Giles\". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on October 19, 2008. Retrieved August 20, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philly.com/philly/sports/phillies/20081016__Fantastic_feeling__for_Bill_Giles.html","url_text":"\"'Fantastic feeling' for Bill Giles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer","url_text":"The Philadelphia Inquirer"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081019110033/http://www.philly.com/philly/sports/phillies/20081016__Fantastic_feeling__for_Bill_Giles.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Playoff and World Series Stats and Results\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 9, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/","url_text":"\"Playoff and World Series Stats and Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100109123742/http://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Season interrupted\". Sports Illustrated. August 26, 2002. Archived from the original on June 1, 2009. Retrieved January 2, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/news/2002/08/25/1994_strike_victims_ap/","url_text":"\"Season interrupted\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090601233417/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/news/2002/08/25/1994_strike_victims_ap/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gillette, Gary; Gammons, Peter (2007). The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia. Palmer, Pete. Sterling. p. 1723. ISBN 978-1-4027-4771-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=62ntg9bMH4AC&q=national+league+pennant&pg=PT1723","url_text":"The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-4771-7","url_text":"978-1-4027-4771-7"}]},{"reference":"Koppett, Leonard; Koppett, Dave (2004). Koppett's concise history of major league baseball. Carroll & Graf. p. 300. ISBN 0-7867-1286-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cjrbVkGAsHcC&q=major+league+baseball+split+divisions&pg=PA300","url_text":"Koppett's concise history of major league baseball"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-1286-4","url_text":"0-7867-1286-4"}]},{"reference":"\"League Championship Series Results\". Baseball Digest. Vol. 60, no. 10. Lakeside. October 2001. p. 74. ISSN 0005-609X.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2SsDAAAAMBAJ&q=baseball+digest+national+league+championship+series+1969&pg=PA74","url_text":"\"League Championship Series Results\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0005-609X","url_text":"0005-609X"}]},{"reference":"\"Pirates agree to move to new division\". Ocala Star-Banner. September 16, 1993. Retrieved October 15, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6-YTAAAAIBAJ&pg=6390,4161911&dq=phillies+mets+rivalry&hl=en","url_text":"\"Pirates agree to move to new division\""}]},{"reference":"Formosa, Dan; Hamburger, Paul (2006). Baseball field guide: an in-depth illustrated guide to the complete rules of baseball. Thunder's Mouth Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 1-56025-700-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ca_PpP9fVbsC&q=major+league+baseball+postseason&pg=PA24","url_text":"Baseball field guide: an in-depth illustrated guide to the complete rules of baseball"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56025-700-8","url_text":"1-56025-700-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Los Angeles Dodgers Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/LAD/","url_text":"\"Los Angeles Dodgers Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110223063011/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/LAD/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"San Francisco Giants Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved March 3, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/SFG/","url_text":"\"San Francisco Giants Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110406113048/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/SFG/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"St. Louis Cardinals Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/STL","url_text":"\"St. Louis Cardinals Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141008180721/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/STL/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Atlanta Braves Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on March 3, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/ATL/","url_text":"\"Atlanta Braves Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110303113109/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/ATL/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Cubs Team History & Encyclopedia\". baseball-reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved October 24, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHC/","url_text":"\"Chicago Cubs Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110406112908/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHC/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nightengale, Bob (October 27, 2009). \"Phillies hoping for a rare back-to-back Series title\". USA Today. Archived from the original on October 30, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/phillies/2009-10-26-phillies-can-repeat_N.htm","url_text":"\"Phillies hoping for a rare back-to-back Series title\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091030115018/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/phillies/2009-10-26-phillies-can-repeat_N.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1906 Chicago Cubs Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 3 April 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHC/1906.shtml","url_text":"\"1906 Chicago Cubs Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090403135118/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHC/1906.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1906 New York Giants Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/NYG/1906.shtml","url_text":"\"1906 New York Giants Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090525151737/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/NYG/1906.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1975 Cincinnati Reds Batting, Pitching, & Fielding Statistics\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 17 June 2022. 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George Routledge and Sons. p. 93.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CZoEAAAAYAAJ&q=temple+cup&pg=PA93","url_text":"Baseball"}]},{"reference":"Good roads: devoted to the construction and maintenance of roads and streets. Vol. 31. Burton Publishing Company. 1900. p. 15.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ShXWAAAAMAAJ&q=chronicle-telegraph+cup&pg=PT182","url_text":"Good roads: devoted to the construction and maintenance of roads and streets"}]},{"reference":"\"National League\". Baseball Digest. Vol. 40, no. 1. Lakeside. January 1981. p. 14. ISSN 0005-609X.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9jMDAAAAMBAJ&q=national+league+pennant+pirates+1902&pg=PA14","url_text":"\"National League\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0005-609X","url_text":"0005-609X"}]},{"reference":"\"World Series Club History\". Baseball Almanac. Archived from the original on September 19, 2011. Retrieved August 6, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.baseball-almanac.com/ws/teamworldseriesappearances.shtml","url_text":"\"World Series Club History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110919104920/http://www.baseball-almanac.com/ws/teamworldseriesappearances.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the World Series – 1904\". The Sporting News. Archived from the original on December 3, 2009. Retrieved January 2, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091203130127/http://www.sportingnews.com/archives/worldseries/1904.html","url_text":"\"History of the World Series – 1904\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sporting_News","url_text":"The Sporting News"},{"url":"http://www.sportingnews.com/archives/worldseries/1904.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"1876 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1876.shtml","url_text":"\"1876 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105091228/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1876.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1877 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1877.shtml","url_text":"\"1877 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111055835/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1877.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1878 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1878.shtml","url_text":"\"1878 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212172428/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1878.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1879 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1879.shtml","url_text":"\"1879 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100108034344/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1879.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1880 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on March 2, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1880.shtml","url_text":"\"1880 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100302095934/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1880.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1881 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 15, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1881.shtml","url_text":"\"1881 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100115062320/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1881.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1882 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1882.shtml","url_text":"\"1882 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111225945/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1882.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1883 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1883.shtml","url_text":"\"1883 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111180508/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1883.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1884 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1884.shtml","url_text":"\"1884 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105092404/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1884.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1885 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1885.shtml","url_text":"\"1885 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111180513/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1885.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1886 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 9, 2009. 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Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1888.shtml","url_text":"\"1888 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150219060951/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1888.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1889 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1889.shtml","url_text":"\"1889 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111055840/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1889.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1890 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 30, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1890.shtml","url_text":"\"1890 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090530152756/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1890.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1891 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 31, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1891.shtml","url_text":"\"1891 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221031050257/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1891.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1892 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1892.shtml","url_text":"\"1892 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212072324/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1892.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1893 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 17, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1893.shtml","url_text":"\"1893 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100217105702/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1893.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1894 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 18, 2010. 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Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1898.shtml","url_text":"\"1898 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090524010645/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1898.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1899 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1899.shtml","url_text":"\"1899 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105092756/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1899.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1900 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1900.shtml","url_text":"\"1900 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190512151559/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1900.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1901 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 13, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1901.shtml","url_text":"\"1901 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090913195005/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1901.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1902 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1902.shtml","url_text":"\"1902 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105085813/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1902.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1903 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1903.shtml","url_text":"\"1903 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090810172241/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1903.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1904 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1904.shtml","url_text":"\"1904 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090810162910/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1904.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1905 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on December 23, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1905.shtml","url_text":"\"1905 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091223002811/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1905.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1906 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1906.shtml","url_text":"\"1906 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090905070101/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1906.shtml?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1907 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 21, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1907.shtml","url_text":"\"1907 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100221023835/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1907.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1908 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 5, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1908.shtml","url_text":"\"1908 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090905063647/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1908.shtml?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1909 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1909.shtml","url_text":"\"1909 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100222083433/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1909.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1910 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on December 22, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1910.shtml","url_text":"\"1910 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091222223628/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1910.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1911 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 27, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1911.shtml","url_text":"\"1911 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100227012145/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1911.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1912 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1912.shtml","url_text":"\"1912 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105091528/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1912.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1913 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1913.shtml","url_text":"\"1913 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105090202/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1913.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1914 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1914.shtml","url_text":"\"1914 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090418214125/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1914.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1915 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1915.shtml","url_text":"\"1915 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090419094910/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1915.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1916 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 24, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1916.shtml","url_text":"\"1916 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091024091028/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1916.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1917 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1917.shtml","url_text":"\"1917 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100208231516/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1917.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1918 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1918.shtml","url_text":"\"1918 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105032714/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1918.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1919 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 31, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1919.shtml","url_text":"\"1919 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100131051148/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1919.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1920 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 22, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1920.shtml","url_text":"\"1920 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100122015127/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1920.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1921 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1921.shtml","url_text":"\"1921 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100208214657/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1921.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1922 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1922.shtml","url_text":"\"1922 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100106204900/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1922.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1923 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 25, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1923.shtml","url_text":"\"1923 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100125052615/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1923.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1924 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1924.shtml","url_text":"\"1924 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100208214625/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1924.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1925 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1925.shtml","url_text":"\"1925 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100223222123/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1925.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1926 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 17, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1926.shtml","url_text":"\"1926 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100117100117/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1926.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1927 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1927.shtml","url_text":"\"1927 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100222034706/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1927.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1928 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1928.shtml","url_text":"\"1928 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090815185254/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1928.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1929 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1929.shtml","url_text":"\"1929 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090415134004/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1929.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1930 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 21, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1930.shtml","url_text":"\"1930 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090521115854/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1930.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1931 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 2, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1931.shtml","url_text":"\"1931 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220102100615/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1931.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1932 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1932.shtml","url_text":"\"1932 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210309030029/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1932.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1933 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1933.shtml","url_text":"\"1933 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100222051545/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1933.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1934 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1934.shtml","url_text":"\"1934 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105032403/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1934.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1935 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1935.shtml","url_text":"\"1935 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210308234034/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1935.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1936 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1936.shtml","url_text":"\"1936 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100222034713/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1936.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1937 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1937.shtml","url_text":"\"1937 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212072716/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1937.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1938 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1938.shtml","url_text":"\"1938 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090815185301/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1938.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1939 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1939.shtml","url_text":"\"1939 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212072721/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1939.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1940 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 26, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1940.shtml","url_text":"\"1940 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090426200403/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1940.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1941 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1941.shtml","url_text":"\"1941 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090810172246/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1941.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1942 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1942.shtml","url_text":"\"1942 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100223205202/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1942.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1943 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1943.shtml","url_text":"\"1943 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100111055845/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1943.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1944 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 23, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1944.shtml","url_text":"\"1944 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100223222128/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1944.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1945 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 6, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1945.shtml","url_text":"\"1945 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100806195212/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1945.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1946 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 31, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1946.shtml","url_text":"\"1946 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200831002259/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1946.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1947 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 18, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1947.shtml","url_text":"\"1947 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100218010937/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1947.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1948 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 21, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1948.shtml","url_text":"\"1948 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090621054854/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1948.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1949 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1949.shtml","url_text":"\"1949 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090522004209/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1949.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1950 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 15, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1950.shtml","url_text":"\"1950 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091015073449/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1950.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1951 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1951.shtml","url_text":"\"1951 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100215170734/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1951.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1952 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 16, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1952.shtml","url_text":"\"1952 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100216215005/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1952.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1953 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1953.shtml","url_text":"\"1953 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212172433/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1953.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1954 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1954.shtml","url_text":"\"1954 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090417185408/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1954.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1955 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 15, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1955.shtml","url_text":"\"1955 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091015073457/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1955.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1956 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 26, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1956.shtml","url_text":"\"1956 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091026201644/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1956.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1957 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1957.shtml","url_text":"\"1957 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211223161627/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1957.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1958 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 17, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1958.shtml","url_text":"\"1958 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220517002848/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1958.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1959 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1959.shtml","url_text":"\"1959 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100206032227/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1959.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1960 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 21, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1960.shtml","url_text":"\"1960 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090821123641/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1960.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1961 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 15, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1961.shtml","url_text":"\"1961 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190415052122/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1961.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1962 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1962.shtml","url_text":"\"1962 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100208165237/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1962.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1963 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 28, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1963.shtml","url_text":"\"1963 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110428233859/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1963.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1964 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on July 17, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1964.shtml","url_text":"\"1964 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090717151539/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1964.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1965 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1965.shtml","url_text":"\"1965 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100212113041/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1965.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1966 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1966.shtml","url_text":"\"1966 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090831104122/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1966.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1967 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1967.shtml","url_text":"\"1967 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180922173828/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1967.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1968 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1968.shtml","url_text":"\"1968 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201028234012/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1968.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1969 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2018. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1969.shtml","url_text":"\"1969 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180506045945/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1969.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1970 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 28, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1970.shtml","url_text":"\"1970 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110428180928/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1970.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1971 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1971.shtml","url_text":"\"1971 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090805125913/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1971.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1972 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1972.shtml","url_text":"\"1972 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110629073520/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1972.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1973 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1973.shtml","url_text":"\"1973 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230604143958/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1973.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1974 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 31, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1974.shtml","url_text":"\"1974 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090831122926/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1974.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1975 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1975.shtml","url_text":"\"1975 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110429051329/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1975.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1976 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1976.shtml","url_text":"\"1976 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110429183812/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1976.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1977 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1977.shtml","url_text":"\"1977 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090607115102/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1977.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1978 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 4, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1978.shtml","url_text":"\"1978 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100104230216/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1978.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1979 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1979.shtml","url_text":"\"1979 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090607073958/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1979.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1980 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on August 14, 2018. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1980.shtml","url_text":"\"1980 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180814150607/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1980.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1981 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 14, 2017. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1981.shtml","url_text":"\"1981 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171014175211/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1981.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1982 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 22, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1982.shtml","url_text":"\"1982 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090422203105/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1982.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1983 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 30, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1983.shtml","url_text":"\"1983 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090430080854/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1983.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1984 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 25, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1984.shtml","url_text":"\"1984 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100125192013/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1984.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1985 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1985.shtml","url_text":"\"1985 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090630062809/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1985.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1986 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 4, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1986.shtml","url_text":"\"1986 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100104224808/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1986.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1987 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on July 18, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1987.shtml","url_text":"\"1987 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090718153102/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1987.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1988 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1988.shtml","url_text":"\"1988 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230520212611/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1988.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1989 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1989.shtml","url_text":"\"1989 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230604144035/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1989.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1990 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 26, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1990.shtml","url_text":"\"1990 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091026201649/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1990.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1991 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1991.shtml","url_text":"\"1991 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091110084355/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1991.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1992 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 24, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1992.shtml","url_text":"\"1992 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091124114924/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1992.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1993 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 7, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1993.shtml","url_text":"\"1993 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101007211706/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1993.shtml?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1994 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 15, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1994.shtml","url_text":"\"1994 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100915041519/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1994.shtml?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1995 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 11, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1995.shtml","url_text":"\"1995 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090511193100/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1995.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1996 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1996.shtml","url_text":"\"1996 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091110084400/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1996.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1997 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 19, 2021. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1997.shtml","url_text":"\"1997 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210619150352/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1997.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1998 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 18, 2020. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1998.shtml","url_text":"\"1998 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201118043740/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1998.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1999 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 22, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1999.shtml","url_text":"\"1999 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090422162702/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/1999.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2000 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2000.shtml","url_text":"\"2000 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090406111337/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2000.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2001 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2001.shtml","url_text":"\"2001 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230604143948/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2001.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2002 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on January 22, 2014. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2002.shtml","url_text":"\"2002 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140122065259/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2002.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2003 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2003.shtml","url_text":"\"2003 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110719233552/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2003.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2004 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2004.shtml","url_text":"\"2004 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180920045508/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2004.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2005 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2005.shtml","url_text":"\"2005 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121004092550/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2005.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2006 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 8, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2006.shtml","url_text":"\"2006 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091008045902/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2006.shtml?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2007 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 8, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2007.shtml","url_text":"\"2007 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100208192038/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2007.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2008 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2008.shtml","url_text":"\"2008 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090406075951/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2008.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2009 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 21, 2009. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2009.shtml","url_text":"\"2009 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090421162845/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2009.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2010 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on December 4, 2010. Retrieved October 23, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2010.shtml","url_text":"\"2010 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101204140527/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2010.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2011 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 13, 2011. Retrieved October 17, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2011.shtml","url_text":"\"2011 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111013185130/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2011.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2012 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 3, 2012. Retrieved October 22, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2012.shtml","url_text":"\"2012 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121003234446/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2012.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2013 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2013.shtml","url_text":"\"2013 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131014044422/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2013.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2014 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2014. Retrieved October 16, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2014.shtml","url_text":"\"2014 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141016003340/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2014.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2015 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved October 16, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2015.shtml","url_text":"\"2015 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002603/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2015.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2016 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 23, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2016.shtml","url_text":"\"2016 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161023101203/http://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2016.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2017 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on November 1, 2017. Retrieved October 19, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2017.shtml","url_text":"\"2017 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171101211255/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2017.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2018 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. Retrieved October 19, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2018.shtml","url_text":"\"2018 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181018101918/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2018.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2019 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 9, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2019.shtml","url_text":"\"2019 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191009065839/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2019.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2020 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020. Retrieved October 18, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2020.shtml","url_text":"\"2020 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201016031922/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2020.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2021 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 22, 2021. Retrieved October 23, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2021.shtml","url_text":"\"2021 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211022211159/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2021.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2022 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 25, 2022. Retrieved October 23, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2022.shtml","url_text":"\"2022 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221025075425/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2022.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2023 National League Team Statistics and Standings\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 27, 2023. Retrieved October 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2023.shtml","url_text":"\"2023 National League Team Statistics and Standings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231027083456/https://www.baseball-reference.com/leagues/NL/2023.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Pittsburgh Pirates Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. 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Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CIN/","url_text":"\"Cincinnati Reds Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110406112842/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CIN/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"New York Mets Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2019. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/NYM/","url_text":"\"New York Mets Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190520235450/https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/NYM/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Baltimore Orioles (NL) Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/BLO/","url_text":"\"Baltimore Orioles (NL) Team History & Encyclopedia\""}]},{"reference":"\"San Diego Padres Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/SDP/","url_text":"\"San Diego Padres Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110406113011/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/SDP/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Florida Marlins Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2022. Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/FLA/","url_text":"\"Florida Marlins Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220506144946/https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/FLA/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Providence Grays Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2010. 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Retrieved January 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/ARI/","url_text":"\"Arizona Diamondbacks Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110406113036/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/ARI/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Washington Nationals Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on February 22, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/WSN/","url_text":"\"Washington Nationals Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110222032439/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/WSN/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Colorado Rockies Team History & Encyclopedia\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. 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Retrieved October 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/MIL/","url_text":"\"Milwaukee Brewers Team History & Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110221055724/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/MIL/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Complete Baseball Team and Baseball Team Encyclopedias\". Baseball-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/","url_text":"\"Complete Baseball Team and Baseball Team Encyclopedias\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100808123843/http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brewers switch leagues, join Reds in NL Central\". The Kentucky Post. Associated Press. November 6, 1997. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carioca_River | Carioca River | ["1 See also","2 References"] | Coordinates: 22°56′S 43°12′W / 22.933°S 43.200°W / -22.933; -43.200River in Brazil
Carioca RiverCarioca River (Rio Carioca) in the Cosme Velho neighbourhood, Rio de JaneiroLocationCountryBrazilPhysical characteristicsSource • locationTijuca Forest in Cosme Velho, Laranjeiras, and Catete of Rio de Janeiro
MouthAtlantic Ocean • locationFlamengo, Rio de Janeiro • coordinates22°56′S 43°12′W / 22.933°S 43.200°W / -22.933; -43.200
The Carioca River (Portuguese: Rio Carioca) is a river in the state of Rio de Janeiro state in southeastern Brazil. It emerges from two springs on the southeast slopes of the Tijuca Massif in the protected Mata Atlantica forest of Tijuca National Park. The river then leaves Tijuca Forest into the Guararapes favela, then into the high-income Cosme Velho neighborhood, and then it is buried completely underground. The river reemerges in Flamengo Park to empty into Guanabara Bay at Flamengo Beach.
Research by the Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica in 2015 confirmed that every river in the City of Rio de Janeiro is polluted, including the Carioca River. The river, once the primary source of fresh water in the city, is now one of its most polluted. Untreated sewage is the primary source of pollution of the Carioca; the 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) stretch of the river in Guararapes and Cosme Velho are a great sources of unregulated sewage. The water of the Carioca carries pollutants that cause diarrhea, hepatitis, and leptospirosis. The river has a single wastewater treatment facility near its mouth before emptying into Guanabara Bay. It was installed by the State of Rio de Janeiro in 2001. Biochemical evaluation of the river began in 1991 and water quality decreases annually.
See also
List of rivers of Rio de Janeiro
References
^ "Rio Carioca" (in Portuguese). São Paulo, Brazil: Folha de S.Paulo. 2016. Retrieved 2016-07-04.
^ a b "Pesquisa aponta para aumento da poluição nos rios do Rio". O Globo/G1 (in Portuguese). Globo Comunicação e Participações S.A. 2015-03-21. Retrieved 2016-07-04.
^ a b Schlee, Mônica Bahia; Tamminga, Kenneth R.; Tangari, Vera Regina (2012). "A Method for Gauging Landscape Change as a Prelude to Urban Watershed Regeneration: The Case of the Carioca River, Rio de Janeiro". Sustainability. 4 (12): 2054–2098. doi:10.3390/su4092054. ISSN 2071-1050.
This article related to a river in Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Tijuca Massif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijuca_Massif"},{"link_name":"Mata Atlantica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mata_Atlantica"},{"link_name":"Tijuca National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijuca_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Tijuca Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijuca_Forest"},{"link_name":"favela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favela"},{"link_name":"Cosme Velho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosme_Velho"},{"link_name":"Flamengo Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamengo_Park"},{"link_name":"Guanabara Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanabara_Bay"},{"link_name":"Flamengo Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flamengo_Beach&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-f-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-s-3"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"diarrhea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea"},{"link_name":"hepatitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis"},{"link_name":"leptospirosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis"},{"link_name":"wastewater treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater_treatment"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-g-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-s-3"}],"text":"River in BrazilThe Carioca River (Portuguese: Rio Carioca) is a river in the state of Rio de Janeiro state in southeastern Brazil. It emerges from two springs on the southeast slopes of the Tijuca Massif in the protected Mata Atlantica forest of Tijuca National Park. The river then leaves Tijuca Forest into the Guararapes favela, then into the high-income Cosme Velho neighborhood, and then it is buried completely underground. The river reemerges in Flamengo Park to empty into Guanabara Bay at Flamengo Beach.[1][2][3]Research by the Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica in 2015 confirmed that every river in the City of Rio de Janeiro is polluted, including the Carioca River. The river, once the primary source of fresh water in the city, is now one of its most polluted. Untreated sewage is the primary source of pollution of the Carioca; the 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) stretch of the river in Guararapes and Cosme Velho are a great sources of unregulated sewage. The water of the Carioca carries pollutants that cause diarrhea, hepatitis, and leptospirosis. The river has a single wastewater treatment facility near its mouth before emptying into Guanabara Bay. It was installed by the State of Rio de Janeiro in 2001. Biochemical evaluation of the river began in 1991 and water quality decreases annually.[2][3]","title":"Carioca River"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of rivers of Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"}] | [{"reference":"\"Rio Carioca\" (in Portuguese). São Paulo, Brazil: Folha de S.Paulo. 2016. Retrieved 2016-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://arte.folha.uol.com.br/tudo-sobre/rio-em-transformacao/rio-carioca/","url_text":"\"Rio Carioca\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pesquisa aponta para aumento da poluição nos rios do Rio\". O Globo/G1 (in Portuguese). Globo Comunicação e Participações S.A. 2015-03-21. Retrieved 2016-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2015/03/pesquisa-aponta-para-aumento-da-poluicao-nos-rios-do-rio.html","url_text":"\"Pesquisa aponta para aumento da poluição nos rios do Rio\""}]},{"reference":"Schlee, Mônica Bahia; Tamminga, Kenneth R.; Tangari, Vera Regina (2012). \"A Method for Gauging Landscape Change as a Prelude to Urban Watershed Regeneration: The Case of the Carioca River, Rio de Janeiro\". Sustainability. 4 (12): 2054–2098. doi:10.3390/su4092054. ISSN 2071-1050.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu4092054","url_text":"\"A Method for Gauging Landscape Change as a Prelude to Urban Watershed Regeneration: The Case of the Carioca River, Rio de Janeiro\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu4092054","url_text":"10.3390/su4092054"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-1050","url_text":"2071-1050"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Carioca_River¶ms=22_56_S_43_12_W_type:river","external_links_name":"22°56′S 43°12′W / 22.933°S 43.200°W / -22.933; -43.200"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Carioca_River¶ms=22_56_S_43_12_W_type:river","external_links_name":"22°56′S 43°12′W / 22.933°S 43.200°W / -22.933; -43.200"},{"Link":"http://arte.folha.uol.com.br/tudo-sobre/rio-em-transformacao/rio-carioca/","external_links_name":"\"Rio Carioca\""},{"Link":"http://g1.globo.com/rio-de-janeiro/noticia/2015/03/pesquisa-aponta-para-aumento-da-poluicao-nos-rios-do-rio.html","external_links_name":"\"Pesquisa aponta para aumento da poluição nos rios do Rio\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu4092054","external_links_name":"\"A Method for Gauging Landscape Change as a Prelude to Urban Watershed Regeneration: The Case of the Carioca River, Rio de Janeiro\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu4092054","external_links_name":"10.3390/su4092054"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-1050","external_links_name":"2071-1050"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carioca_River&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Chulis | Matt Chulis | ["1 Youth and college","2 Professional","3 National teams","4 References","5 External links"] | Matt ChulisPersonal informationFull name
Matthew ChulisDate of birth
(1977-08-29) August 29, 1977 (age 46)Place of birth
Central Islip, New York, United StatesHeight
5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)Position(s)
DefenderYouth career1995–1998
University of VirginiaSenior career*Years
Team
Apps
(Gls)1999–2000
Columbus Crew
10
(0)1999
→ MLS Pro 40 (loan)
16
(0)2000
→ MLS Pro 40 (loan)
9
(0)2001
Chicago Fire
1
(0)2001
Portland Timbers
23
(0)2002–2004
Pittsburgh Riverhounds
61
(2)2005
Long Island Roughriders
16
(1)International career1996–1997
U.S. U-20
1998–2000
U.S. U-23
8
(0)Managerial career2006–
Virginia Cavaliers (assistant)
*Club domestic league appearances and goals
Matt Chulis (born August 29, 1977, in Central Islip, New York) is a retired U.S. soccer defender who is currently associate head coach with the University of Virginia men's soccer team. He was the captain of the U.S. U-20 national team at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship. He later played two seasons in Major League Soccer, three seasons in the USL A-League and two in the USL Second Division.
Youth and college
Chulis grew up in Central Islip, New York, playing on the boys’ soccer team at Central Islip High School. During his high school career, he was named both the New York State and New England Regional Player of the Year. He then attended the University of Virginia where he played on the men's soccer team from 1995 to 1998. He started 93 games during his four seasons as a Cavaliers. He was a 1996 and 1997 second team All American. In 1998, he was selected as a first team All American. He was also the 1998 NSCAA Defender of the Year. He graduated in 2005 with a bachelor's degree in sociology.
Professional
In 1999, the Columbus Crew selected Chulis in the first round (ninth overall) of the 1999 MLS College Draft. He spent two seasons in Columbus, seeing time in only ten games. In March 2001, the Crew waived Chulis and he was signed by the Chicago Fire where he played the first game of the season before being waived in April. On May 4, 2001, the Portland Timbers of the USL First Division signed Chulis. On December 7, 2001, the Timbers released Chulis. In April 2002, he signed with the Pittsburgh Riverhounds, playing three seasons there. He finished his career with the Long Island Rough Riders of the USL Second Division in 2005. In 2005, he was selected to the USL-2 second team All Star team.
National teams
In 1996, Chulis joined the U.S. U-20 national team as it prepared for CONCACAF's 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship qualification tournament. The U.S. qualified, and Chulis and his teammates traveled to Malaysia where they were knocked out of the tournament in the second round. Later that year, he played five of six games for the U.S. soccer team which took third place at the 1997 World University Games. He then joined the U.S. U-23 national team. He appeared regularly with the team through 2000, but was not selected to the U.S. team which played in the 2000 Summer Olympics.
References
^ "Matt Chulis Bio". VirginiaSports.com. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
^ 1996 All Americans. nscaa.com
^ 1997 All Americans. nscaa.com
^ 1998 All Americans. nscaa.com
^ Timbers sign Scottish Premier League midfielder, Michael O'Neill, and U.S. Olympic defender, Matt Chulis, to multi-year deals. a-league.com. May 4, 2001
^ December 7, 2001 Transactions. New York Times (December 7, 2001). Retrieved on December 12, 2013.
^ Long Island Rough Riders All Time Stats Archived February 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Liroughriders.com. Retrieved on December 12, 2013.
^ Only five players earn repeat honors. USL News Release. August 25, 2005.
^ Matthew CHULIS. Fifa.com. Retrieved on December 12, 2013.
External links
Virginia Cavaliers coaching profile
Timberlog profile
2001 Portland Timbers
vte1999 MLS College Draft first-round selections
Jason Moore
Jay Heaps
Richard Mulrooney
Lazo Alavanja
Chris Brown
Bobby Rhine
John Wolyniec
Andrew Mittendorf
Matt Chulis
Tony Soto
Evan Whitfield
Paul Broome
vteColumbus Crew first-round draft picks
Cozier
Jachym
Cunningham
Chulis
Oughton
Martino
Walsh
Marshall
Garey
Kamara
Iro
Duka
Dike
Balchan
Meram
Finlay
Finley
Sweat
Campbell
Saravia
Abubakar
Hansen
Lundgaard
Williams
Berry
Malou
Schulte
Quinton
Arfsten
Zengue | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Central Islip, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Islip,_New_York"},{"link_name":"soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soccer"},{"link_name":"defender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defender_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"University of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"U.S. U-20 national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_under-20_soccer_team"},{"link_name":"1997 FIFA World Youth Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_FIFA_World_Youth_Championship"},{"link_name":"Major League Soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Soccer"},{"link_name":"USL A-League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL_A-League"},{"link_name":"USL Second Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL_Second_Division"}],"text":"Matt Chulis (born August 29, 1977, in Central Islip, New York) is a retired U.S. soccer defender who is currently associate head coach with the University of Virginia men's soccer team. 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During his high school career, he was named both the New York State and New England Regional Player of the Year. He then attended the University of Virginia where he played on the men's soccer team from 1995 to 1998. He started 93 games during his four seasons as a Cavaliers.[1] He was a 1996 and 1997 second team All American.[2][3] In 1998, he was selected as a first team All American.[4] He was also the 1998 NSCAA Defender of the Year. He graduated in 2005 with a bachelor's degree in sociology.","title":"Youth and college"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Columbus Crew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_Crew"},{"link_name":"1999 MLS College Draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999_MLS_College_Draft"},{"link_name":"Chicago Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Fire_Soccer_Club"},{"link_name":"Portland Timbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Timbers_(2001%E2%80%9310)"},{"link_name":"USL First Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL_First_Division"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Riverhounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Riverhounds"},{"link_name":"Long Island Rough Riders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island_Rough_Riders"},{"link_name":"USL Second Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USL_Second_Division"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In 1999, the Columbus Crew selected Chulis in the first round (ninth overall) of the 1999 MLS College Draft. He spent two seasons in Columbus, seeing time in only ten games. In March 2001, the Crew waived Chulis and he was signed by the Chicago Fire where he played the first game of the season before being waived in April. On May 4, 2001, the Portland Timbers of the USL First Division signed Chulis.[5] On December 7, 2001, the Timbers released Chulis.[6] In April 2002, he signed with the Pittsburgh Riverhounds, playing three seasons there. He finished his career with the Long Island Rough Riders of the USL Second Division in 2005.[7] In 2005, he was selected to the USL-2 second team All Star team.[8]","title":"Professional"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. U-20 national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_under-20_soccer_team"},{"link_name":"1997 FIFA World Youth Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_FIFA_World_Youth_Championship"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"1997 World University Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_World_University_Games"},{"link_name":"U.S. U-23 national team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_men%27s_national_under-23_soccer_team"},{"link_name":"2000 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics"}],"text":"In 1996, Chulis joined the U.S. U-20 national team as it prepared for CONCACAF's 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship qualification tournament. The U.S. qualified, and Chulis and his teammates traveled to Malaysia where they were knocked out of the tournament in the second round.[9] Later that year, he played five of six games for the U.S. soccer team which took third place at the 1997 World University Games. He then joined the U.S. U-23 national team. He appeared regularly with the team through 2000, but was not selected to the U.S. team which played in the 2000 Summer Olympics.","title":"National teams"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Matt Chulis Bio\". VirginiaSports.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canned_Film_Festival | Canned Film Festival | ["1 Plot summary","2 Cast and characters","3 Production","4 Popular culture influences","5 Episode list","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | American comedy television series
Canned Film FestivalCanned Film Festival logo as used by the Dr Pepper Company in 1986GenreComedyCreated byYoung & RubicamDirected byJonathan HeapStarringLaraine NewmanF. Richards FordLaura GalushaPatrick GarnerPhilip Nee Katheryn RossetterCountry of originUnited StatesOriginal languageEnglishNo. of seasons1No. of episodes13ProductionExecutive producersJeff LawendaMichael YudinProducersJohn GilroyMargot BreierRunning timeapprox. 92 minutesOriginal releaseNetworkSyndicated
The Canned Film Festival is a comedy-based motion picture television series that was nationally syndicated during the late night hours in the United States for a single season in the summer of 1986. With only a one-letter difference in the spelling, the name is an intentional play on the name for the Cannes Film Festival, the annual world-renowned film-screening celebration in Cannes, France. Not to be confused with the latter, the Canned Film Festival featured B movies as the centerpiece for each television episode, and was composed of short vignettes interwoven throughout the films. Boasting the tagline "late night with the best of the worst", the series was promoted and sponsored by the Dr. Pepper Company, whose then-tagline "out-of-the-ordinary" echoed the show's collection of odd and strange movies. The series was created by Young & Rubicam, developed for television by Chelsea Communications, and distributed by LBS Communications.
Although similar in style to the successful Mystery Science Theater 3000 series that aired a few years later, the Canned Film Festival differed in that its comedy scenes occurred strictly during the commercial intermissions instead of adding peanut gallery type satire during the actual run of the movies. In addition, the script, although comedic in nature, often reflected upon the serious contextual and cultural subjects contained in the featured movies, sometimes providing historical insight into their production. An example is seen during the episode featuring Project Moonbase, where female spaceship commanders were discussed as an accurate future prediction by the 1950s era movie, as were cordless telephones and big screen televisions. The featured B movies of the series were not full-length, and edited to fit the show's approximately two-hour timeframe per episode.
Plot summary
The series plot was built around the fictional town of Limekirk, Texas, where the local Ritz theater was undergoing economic and cultural decline due to lack of a customer base. The owner and sole usherette, Laraine (Laraine Newman), took extreme measures to attract moviegoers by adding laundry facilities to the lobby and stocking a large collection of unusual confections. With the exception of popcorn and Dr. Pepper, these confections were completely fictional, with names like "Butter Lumps", "Chocolate Covered Lug Nuts", and "Diet-Free Nutra-Cal Bars", and were occasionally the source for minor script material.
As the story maintains during the opening sequence of each episode, the most successful of Laraine's business ventures to rejuvenate the Ritz was, by far, the screening of strange and unusual films that resulted in the series' namesake. Laraine, together with her mother who ran the projector booth, succeeded in attracting several new customers who became regular characters throughout the rest of the series run.
Cast and characters
Publicity photograph of the cast ensemble for the Canned Film Festival. From left to right: Jack (F. Richards Ford), Doris (Kathryn Rossetter), Chan (Philip Nee), Laraine (Laraine Newman), Becky (Laura Galusha), and Fitzy (Patrick Garner).
The series starred Laraine Newman of Saturday Night Live fame, whose main character, Laraine the usherette, wore an old-fashioned maroon ushers uniform and ran the Ritz with such strict organization as to assign every patron a seat despite the theater's constant near-empty attendance. Laraine ensured that each movie started exactly on time as scheduled, cuing her mother in the production booth via a microphone. Laraine's mother was never actually named nor completely seen during any of the episodes, but sometimes communicated by pounding on the walls or playing musical tunes (presumably with an instrument or a sound device in the booth and transmitted through the theater's sound system).
The supporting characters, five in all, were split roughly along gender lines, with three men and two women. The women included Doris (Kathryn Rossetter), a middle-aged aficionado of romantic drama stories, and Becky (Laura Galusha) a girl in her early twenties who offered a young feminist perspective to the movies. The men included Jack (F. Richards Ford), Fitzy (Patrick Garner), and Chan (Philip Nee). Jack, as well as the being the love interest of Becky, was also Limekirk's newspaper reporter who was required to review the movies. Together with the middle-aged Fitzy, the two manifested the stereotypical male-oriented fascinations for lowbrow action, crude sexual innuendos, and took morbid pleasure in making fun of some of the movies' more macabre themes (such as nuclear warfare in the feature Rocket Attack U.S.A.).
Chan, in addition to being of Asian descent (as opposed to the rest of the cast being Caucasian), was a mute who never spoke except during the episode featuring the movie The Slime People where Laraine dreamt that Chan was possessed. What role Chan's character brought to the series is less clear, although he sometimes provided a childlike response to the episode plots, such as taking a spin in one of the lobby's clothes driers after being inspired by the outer-space setting of the featured movie Project Moonbase. Chan's muteness in the show was only implied, leaving it up to the audience to decide whether or not he could physically speak (although he did laugh on occasion), or if his condition was simply a language barrier written into the script.
Production
Prior to merging with the Seven Up Company in May 1986, Dr Pepper brand development conceived The Canned Film Festival as means to reach a target audience of consumers between ages 12 and 24 by promoting the soft drink as a novel and unconventional refreshment that stood out against the larger cola rivals of the time. David Millheiser, manager of brand development for Dr Pepper at the time, hoped to attract a young audience who would view the featured films as "wonderfully bad". However, the effort was short-lived, as the series lasted for only one season in the summer of 1986. Although plans were made for a second season as evidenced by the first season end credits that solicited viewers to submit their favorite "best of the worst" movies via mail correspondence, it was not known how far these plans had progressed when the series was cancelled.
Although the fictional setting for the show was in Texas, according to Rick Ford's biography in IMDb, scenes within the Ritz theatre were actually filmed inside an old movie house in Elizabeth, New Jersey.
Popular culture influences
A screenshot of the fictional Ritz theater used as a commercial bumper for selected commercial breaks.
Overall, the Canned Film Festival can best be described as a curtailed advertising experiment by the Dallas-based Dr Pepper Company to break into the late night television market in 1986, as the anticipated second season never materialized. It never gained the cult status that Mystery Science Theater 3000 did, nor did it match the Max Headroom advertising campaign that the rival Coca-Cola Company ran in the 1980s (although coincidentally, Max Headroom itself was also a television series that lasted only a short time in the 1980s).
Those that remember the Canned Film Festival might recall the numerous Dr. Pepper television commercials that aired concurrently with the show. These included the post-apocalyptic and cyberpunk-toned "Planet Dullzon" and "Cola Wars" ads that alluded to (but never directly addressed) the Coke/Pepsi rivalry, mentioning only an Orwellian syndicate that manufactured a soft drink named "Clone Cola". At least two of the "Planet Dullzon" commercials contained alien bar scenes reminiscent of the famous "cantina scene" from Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, and most of them contained a Han Solo-like main character wearing a cowboy hat and who was accompanied by a short alien sidekick. Also aired were the Japanese-inspired Godzilla commercials, where the famous B movie creature and his female counterpart craved giant, billboard-sized cans of Dr. Pepper as a libation against destroying the city they were attacking. Perhaps motivated by the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey (or its more recent 1984 sequel, 2010), a Diet Dr. Pepper commercial was aired during the series that included a monolithic-type alien spacecraft visiting a rural trailer-home couple in search of intelligent life. Insulted by the country-folks' offer of a simple diet cola, a flash of light from the alien converted them to English-accented intellectuals wielding Diet Dr. Pepper bottles, and transformed their tasteless lawn ornaments to modern abstract art sculptures. Aside from providing advertisement for the show's main sponsor, the subtle movie references contained in these commercials may be another reason why they were aired alongside the Canned Film Festival.
The series may also be remembered as one of the many little-known works of Laraine Newman's acting career. While she performed in countless supporting roles throughout Hollywood following her tenure on NBC's Saturday Night Live, her work with the Canned Film Festival is rarely ever credited. The careers of other noteworthy stars also include this show, such as Kathryn Rossetter who played support roles in movies, electronic media (video games), and television shows such as Law & Order, Cosby, Touched by an Angel, L.A. Law, and Kate & Allie. Patrick Garner, in addition to appearing in a myriad of TV commercial ads, also made cameos in television shows such as Monsters, Chappelle's Show, and Law & Order, and more recently in theatre, starred as Mr. Cunningham in the Broadway version of Happy Days The Musical. Rick Ford (identified as F. Richards Ford in the series credits) made appearances in episodes of Married... with Children and Mama's Family as well as movies like The Tattoo Chase and the Oscar-nominated 12:01 PM, and is also very active in regional and professional theatre. Laura Galusha's acting career seemed to be brief, as she is recorded to have appeared on screen only once in an episode of CBS Schoolbreak Special in 1985, whereas Phil Nee (identified as Philip Nee in the series credits), in addition to working behind the camera as a writer and technical crew, has performed several cameos over the years following the series in both movies and television.
The Canned Film Festival's genre-based similarity to Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) did not stop with the show format. Following its 1988 debut, MST3K featured many of the same films as the Canned Film Festival did two years earlier in 1986. While this coincidence might suggest that the Canned Film Festival was a source of inspiration for MST3Ks creator, Joel Hodgson, such assertions would be false. In fact, Hodgson states that his vision for MST3K actually came from the 1978 CBS Children's Film Festival instead. Either way, due its 11-season run (as opposed to the single season Canned Film Festival) it is clear that MST3K was much more successful in the B movie satire genre despite the lack of a large sponsor like the Dr Pepper Company. However, it is also possible that its success over the Canned Film Festival was due to it reaching a wider audience through the then-nascent cable TV market, and aired at more suitable hours for its intended audience.
Episode list
The following is an episode list for The Canned Film Festival. 13 episodes were produced, and due to the nationally syndicated nature of the program, exact air dates for local television broadcasts are not precisely known. Generally, the program aired on the weekends during the late night time slot on both independent stations and network affiliates from June through September 1986. The list below is in order of the original air date listed on the Internet Movie Database using the name of the featured B movie as the episode title, as no other naming format was suggested during the program run.
#
Title
Original air date
01"The Terror of Tiny Town"June 21, 1986 (1986-06-21)
02"Doctor of Doom"June 28, 1986 (1986-06-28)
03"Ski Fever"July 5, 1986 (1986-07-05)
04"Santa Claus Conquers the Martians"July 12, 1986 (1986-07-12)
05"Robot Monster"July 19, 1986 (1986-07-19)
Laraine prints movie fliers for the featured film while theater patrons mistakenly expect a film called Dog of Norway.
06"The Crawling Hand"July 26, 1986 (1986-07-26)
07"They Saved Hitler's Brain"August 2, 1986 (1986-08-02)
08"Untamed Women"August 9, 1986 (1986-08-09)
09"Bride of the Monster"August 16, 1986 (1986-08-16)
With Jack absent, Becky re-thinks their relationship while the group collectively dons Tor Johnson masks after getting a rare glimpse of Laraine's mother.
10"The Las Vegas Hillbillys"August 23, 1986 (1986-08-23)
11"Project Moonbase"August 30, 1986 (1986-08-30)
Becky, inspired by the feature film's female lead, spurns Jack's advances while Chan takes a spin in a lobby clothes dryer.
12"Rocket Attack U.S.A."September 6, 1986 (1986-09-06)
Laraine and Doris track down mysteriously missing socks that disappeared during laundry cycles, but Fitzy and the others blame Laraine's mom.
13"The Slime People"September 13, 1986 (1986-09-13)
See also
Disasterpiece Theatre
Svengoolie
References
^ a b c Pardi, Robert J. (August 23, 1986). "'Canned Festival' spoofs TV's worst". Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina). Retrieved December 7, 2010.
^ a b Bark, Ed (June 4, 1986). "Dr Pepper has film duds bottled up". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved December 6, 2010.
^ a b c Margulies, Lee (June 10, 1986). "'Canned Film Festival' on TV, Worst of the Big Screen On Its Way". Los Angeles Times. p. 10. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2010.
^ Television Obscurities. "Q & A: The Canned Film Festival; Mr. Smith". July 26th, 2010.
^ LBS Communications (us). Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 24 January 2016.
^ a b Schweid, Mark (June 3, 1986). "Television In Review". Durant Daily Democrat. p. 2. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
^ Rick Ford Biography. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 26 January 2016.
^ Barbara, Lippert (20 January 1986). "Dr Pepper fights cola wars with Godzilla". St. Petersburg Times. St. Petersburg.
^ Laraine Newman. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 17 October 2007.
^ Laraine Newman. The New York Times. Retrieved on 17 February 2008.
^ "Credits". Laraine Newman. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
^ Kathryn Rossetter. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 17 October 2007.
^ Patrick Garner. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 24 August 2008.
^ Happy Days The Musical. BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved on 24 August 2008.
^ Patrick Garner. BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved on 24 August 2008.
^ www.RickFordActor.com. Retrieved on 7 September 2008.
^ Rick Ford. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 24 August 2008.
^ Laura Galusha. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 17 October 2007.
^ Philip Nee. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 24 August 2008.
^ "20 Questions Only Joel Hodgson Can Answer about MST3K". Satellite News. Retrieved on 17 October 2007.
^ Mystery Science Theater 3000 premiered on KTMA-TV Channel 23 at 6:00 PM on Thanksgiving Day, 24 November 1988.
^ An episode of the Canned Film Festival was aired on WKBD-TV Channel 50 at 3:00 AM on Saturday, 30 August 1986.
External links
"The Canned Film Festival" at Bad Movie Planet's "3B Theater"
"Canned Film Festival" at TV Guide.com
Canned Film Festival at IMDb | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy"},{"link_name":"syndicated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_syndication"},{"link_name":"late night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_night_television"},{"link_name":"Cannes Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Cannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes"},{"link_name":"B movies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_movies"},{"link_name":"vignettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketch_comedy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-htn860823-1"},{"link_name":"tagline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagline"},{"link_name":"Dr. Pepper Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr_Pepper/Seven_Up"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dmn860604-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat860610-3"},{"link_name":"Young & Rubicam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_%26_Rubicam"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"LBS Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington_Broadcast_Services_Company"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Mystery Science Theater 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Science_Theater_3000"},{"link_name":"peanut gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_gallery"},{"link_name":"Project Moonbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Moonbase"},{"link_name":"cordless telephones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordless_telephone"},{"link_name":"big screen televisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large-screen_television_technology"}],"text":"The Canned Film Festival is a comedy-based motion picture television series that was nationally syndicated during the late night hours in the United States for a single season in the summer of 1986. With only a one-letter difference in the spelling, the name is an intentional play on the name for the Cannes Film Festival, the annual world-renowned film-screening celebration in Cannes, France. Not to be confused with the latter, the Canned Film Festival featured B movies as the centerpiece for each television episode, and was composed of short vignettes interwoven throughout the films.[1] Boasting the tagline \"late night with the best of the worst\", the series was promoted and sponsored by the Dr. Pepper Company, whose then-tagline \"out-of-the-ordinary\" echoed the show's collection of odd and strange movies.[2][3] The series was created by Young & Rubicam, developed for television by Chelsea Communications,[4] and distributed by LBS Communications.[5]Although similar in style to the successful Mystery Science Theater 3000 series that aired a few years later, the Canned Film Festival differed in that its comedy scenes occurred strictly during the commercial intermissions instead of adding peanut gallery type satire during the actual run of the movies. In addition, the script, although comedic in nature, often reflected upon the serious contextual and cultural subjects contained in the featured movies, sometimes providing historical insight into their production. An example is seen during the episode featuring Project Moonbase, where female spaceship commanders were discussed as an accurate future prediction by the 1950s era movie, as were cordless telephones and big screen televisions. The featured B movies of the series were not full-length, and edited to fit the show's approximately two-hour timeframe per episode.","title":"Canned Film Festival"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"confections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confectionery"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dd860603-6"},{"link_name":"Dr. Pepper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Pepper"}],"text":"The series plot was built around the fictional town of Limekirk, Texas, where the local Ritz theater was undergoing economic and cultural decline due to lack of a customer base. The owner and sole usherette, Laraine (Laraine Newman), took extreme measures to attract moviegoers by adding laundry facilities to the lobby and stocking a large collection of unusual confections.[6] With the exception of popcorn and Dr. Pepper, these confections were completely fictional, with names like \"Butter Lumps\", \"Chocolate Covered Lug Nuts\", and \"Diet-Free Nutra-Cal Bars\", and were occasionally the source for minor script material.As the story maintains during the opening sequence of each episode, the most successful of Laraine's business ventures to rejuvenate the Ritz was, by far, the screening of strange and unusual films that resulted in the series' namesake. Laraine, together with her mother who ran the projector booth, succeeded in attracting several new customers who became regular characters throughout the rest of the series run.","title":"Plot summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CFF_cast.jpg"},{"link_name":"Laraine Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laraine_Newman"},{"link_name":"Saturday Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"nor completely seen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unseen_character"},{"link_name":"Rocket Attack U.S.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_Attack_U.S.A."},{"link_name":"mute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muteness"},{"link_name":"The Slime People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Slime_People"},{"link_name":"Project Moonbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Moonbase"}],"text":"Publicity photograph of the cast ensemble for the Canned Film Festival. From left to right: Jack (F. Richards Ford), Doris (Kathryn Rossetter), Chan (Philip Nee), Laraine (Laraine Newman), Becky (Laura Galusha), and Fitzy (Patrick Garner).The series starred Laraine Newman of Saturday Night Live fame, whose main character, Laraine the usherette, wore an old-fashioned maroon ushers uniform and ran the Ritz with such strict organization as to assign every patron a seat despite the theater's constant near-empty attendance. Laraine ensured that each movie started exactly on time as scheduled, cuing her mother in the production booth via a microphone. Laraine's mother was never actually named nor completely seen during any of the episodes, but sometimes communicated by pounding on the walls or playing musical tunes (presumably with an instrument or a sound device in the booth and transmitted through the theater's sound system).The supporting characters, five in all, were split roughly along gender lines, with three men and two women. The women included Doris (Kathryn Rossetter), a middle-aged aficionado of romantic drama stories, and Becky (Laura Galusha) a girl in her early twenties who offered a young feminist perspective to the movies. The men included Jack (F. Richards Ford), Fitzy (Patrick Garner), and Chan (Philip Nee). Jack, as well as the being the love interest of Becky, was also Limekirk's newspaper reporter who was required to review the movies. Together with the middle-aged Fitzy, the two manifested the stereotypical male-oriented fascinations for lowbrow action, crude sexual innuendos, and took morbid pleasure in making fun of some of the movies' more macabre themes (such as nuclear warfare in the feature Rocket Attack U.S.A.).Chan, in addition to being of Asian descent (as opposed to the rest of the cast being Caucasian), was a mute who never spoke except during the episode featuring the movie The Slime People where Laraine dreamt that Chan was possessed. What role Chan's character brought to the series is less clear, although he sometimes provided a childlike response to the episode plots, such as taking a spin in one of the lobby's clothes driers after being inspired by the outer-space setting of the featured movie Project Moonbase. Chan's muteness in the show was only implied, leaving it up to the audience to decide whether or not he could physically speak (although he did laugh on occasion), or if his condition was simply a language barrier written into the script.","title":"Cast and characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Seven Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Up"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat860610-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat860610-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-htn860823-1"},{"link_name":"IMDb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Prior to merging with the Seven Up Company in May 1986, Dr Pepper brand development conceived The Canned Film Festival as means to reach a target audience of consumers between ages 12 and 24 by promoting the soft drink as a novel and unconventional refreshment that stood out against the larger cola rivals of the time.[3] David Millheiser, manager of brand development for Dr Pepper at the time, hoped to attract a young audience who would view the featured films as \"wonderfully bad\".[3] However, the effort was short-lived, as the series lasted for only one season in the summer of 1986. Although plans were made for a second season as evidenced by the first season end credits that solicited viewers to submit their favorite \"best of the worst\" movies via mail correspondence, it was not known how far these plans had progressed when the series was cancelled.[1]Although the fictional setting for the show was in Texas, according to Rick Ford's biography in IMDb, scenes within the Ritz theatre were actually filmed inside an old movie house in Elizabeth, New Jersey.[7]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CFF_ritz.jpg"},{"link_name":"commercial bumper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_bumper"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-htn860823-1"},{"link_name":"Max Headroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Headroom_(character)"},{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"},{"link_name":"television series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Headroom_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"commercials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_advertisement"},{"link_name":"post-apocalyptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction"},{"link_name":"cyberpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpunk"},{"link_name":"Coke/Pepsi rivalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cola_wars"},{"link_name":"Orwellian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orwellian"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars_Episode_IV:_A_New_Hope"},{"link_name":"Han Solo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Solo"},{"link_name":"Godzilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godzilla"},{"link_name":"billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(advertising)"},{"link_name":"libation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libation"},{"link_name":"2001: A Space Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_(film)"},{"link_name":"monolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith_(Space_Odyssey)"},{"link_name":"abstract art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_art"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Law & Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order"},{"link_name":"Cosby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosby_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Touched by an Angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touched_by_an_Angel"},{"link_name":"L.A. Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.A._Law"},{"link_name":"Kate & Allie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_%26_Allie"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Monsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsters_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Chappelle's Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappelle%27s_Show"},{"link_name":"Law & Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_%26_Order"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Happy Days The Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Days_(musical)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Married... with Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Married..._with_Children"},{"link_name":"Mama's Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mama%27s_Family"},{"link_name":"12:01 PM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12:01_PM_(1990_film)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"CBS Schoolbreak Special","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_school_special"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Mystery Science Theater 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Science_Theater_3000"},{"link_name":"Joel Hodgson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Hodgson"},{"link_name":"CBS Children's Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Children%27s_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"cable TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"A screenshot of the fictional Ritz theater used as a commercial bumper for selected commercial breaks.Overall, the Canned Film Festival can best be described as a curtailed advertising experiment by the Dallas-based Dr Pepper Company to break into the late night television market in 1986, as the anticipated second season never materialized.[1] It never gained the cult status that Mystery Science Theater 3000 did, nor did it match the Max Headroom advertising campaign that the rival Coca-Cola Company ran in the 1980s (although coincidentally, Max Headroom itself was also a television series that lasted only a short time in the 1980s).Those that remember the Canned Film Festival might recall the numerous Dr. Pepper television commercials that aired concurrently with the show. These included the post-apocalyptic and cyberpunk-toned \"Planet Dullzon\" and \"Cola Wars\" ads that alluded to (but never directly addressed) the Coke/Pepsi rivalry, mentioning only an Orwellian syndicate that manufactured a soft drink named \"Clone Cola\".[8] At least two of the \"Planet Dullzon\" commercials contained alien bar scenes reminiscent of the famous \"cantina scene\" from Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, and most of them contained a Han Solo-like main character wearing a cowboy hat and who was accompanied by a short alien sidekick. Also aired were the Japanese-inspired Godzilla commercials, where the famous B movie creature and his female counterpart craved giant, billboard-sized cans of Dr. Pepper as a libation against destroying the city they were attacking. Perhaps motivated by the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey (or its more recent 1984 sequel, 2010), a Diet Dr. Pepper commercial was aired during the series that included a monolithic-type alien spacecraft visiting a rural trailer-home couple in search of intelligent life. Insulted by the country-folks' offer of a simple diet cola, a flash of light from the alien converted them to English-accented intellectuals wielding Diet Dr. Pepper bottles, and transformed their tasteless lawn ornaments to modern abstract art sculptures. Aside from providing advertisement for the show's main sponsor, the subtle movie references contained in these commercials may be another reason why they were aired alongside the Canned Film Festival.The series may also be remembered as one of the many little-known works of Laraine Newman's acting career.[9][10] While she performed in countless supporting roles throughout Hollywood following her tenure on NBC's Saturday Night Live, her work with the Canned Film Festival is rarely ever credited.[11] The careers of other noteworthy stars also include this show, such as Kathryn Rossetter who played support roles in movies, electronic media (video games), and television shows such as Law & Order, Cosby, Touched by an Angel, L.A. Law, and Kate & Allie.[12] Patrick Garner, in addition to appearing in a myriad of TV commercial ads, also made cameos in television shows such as Monsters, Chappelle's Show, and Law & Order,[13] and more recently in theatre, starred as Mr. Cunningham in the Broadway version of Happy Days The Musical.[14][15] Rick Ford (identified as F. Richards Ford in the series credits) made appearances in episodes of Married... with Children and Mama's Family as well as movies like The Tattoo Chase and the Oscar-nominated 12:01 PM, and is also very active in regional and professional theatre.[16][17] Laura Galusha's acting career seemed to be brief, as she is recorded to have appeared on screen only once in an episode of CBS Schoolbreak Special in 1985,[18] whereas Phil Nee (identified as Philip Nee in the series credits), in addition to working behind the camera as a writer and technical crew, has performed several cameos over the years following the series in both movies and television.[19]The Canned Film Festival's genre-based similarity to Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) did not stop with the show format. Following its 1988 debut, MST3K featured many of the same films as the Canned Film Festival did two years earlier in 1986. While this coincidence might suggest that the Canned Film Festival was a source of inspiration for MST3Ks creator, Joel Hodgson, such assertions would be false. In fact, Hodgson states that his vision for MST3K actually came from the 1978 CBS Children's Film Festival instead.[20] Either way, due its 11-season run (as opposed to the single season Canned Film Festival) it is clear that MST3K was much more successful in the B movie satire genre despite the lack of a large sponsor like the Dr Pepper Company. However, it is also possible that its success over the Canned Film Festival was due to it reaching a wider audience through the then-nascent cable TV market, and aired at more suitable hours for its intended audience.[21][22]","title":"Popular culture influences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"independent stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_station_(North_America)"},{"link_name":"network affiliates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_affiliate"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dd860603-6"},{"link_name":"Internet Movie Database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database"}],"text":"The following is an episode list for The Canned Film Festival. 13 episodes were produced, and due to the nationally syndicated nature of the program, exact air dates for local television broadcasts are not precisely known. Generally, the program aired on the weekends during the late night time slot on both independent stations and network affiliates from June through September 1986.[6] The list below is in order of the original air date listed on the Internet Movie Database using the name of the featured B movie as the episode title, as no other naming format was suggested during the program run.","title":"Episode list"}] | [{"image_text":"Publicity photograph of the cast ensemble for the Canned Film Festival. From left to right: Jack (F. Richards Ford), Doris (Kathryn Rossetter), Chan (Philip Nee), Laraine (Laraine Newman), Becky (Laura Galusha), and Fitzy (Patrick Garner).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a7/CFF_cast.jpg/400px-CFF_cast.jpg"},{"image_text":"A screenshot of the fictional Ritz theater used as a commercial bumper for selected commercial breaks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6b/CFF_ritz.jpg/200px-CFF_ritz.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Disasterpiece Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disasterpiece_Theatre"},{"title":"Svengoolie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svengoolie"}] | [{"reference":"Pardi, Robert J. (August 23, 1986). \"'Canned Festival' spoofs TV's worst\". Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina). Retrieved December 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2eweAAAAIBAJ&pg=5191,5599096&dq=rocket-attack-usa&hl=en","url_text":"\"'Canned Festival' spoofs TV's worst\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times-News_(Hendersonville,_North_Carolina)","url_text":"Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)"}]},{"reference":"Bark, Ed (June 4, 1986). \"Dr Pepper has film duds bottled up\". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved December 6, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3CE68E4F15BE8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM","url_text":"\"Dr Pepper has film duds bottled up\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dallas_Morning_News","url_text":"The Dallas Morning News"}]},{"reference":"Margulies, Lee (June 10, 1986). \"'Canned Film Festival' on TV, Worst of the Big Screen On Its Way\". Los Angeles Times. p. 10. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121104151010/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/58617354.html?dids=58617354:58617354&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT","url_text":"\"'Canned Film Festival' on TV, Worst of the Big Screen On Its Way\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"},{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/58617354.html?dids=58617354:58617354&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schweid, Mark (June 3, 1986). \"Television In Review\". Durant Daily Democrat. p. 2. Retrieved December 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RURbAAAAIBAJ&pg=1286,3290847&dq=rocket-attack-usa&hl=en","url_text":"\"Television In Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durant_Daily_Democrat","url_text":"Durant Daily Democrat"}]},{"reference":"Barbara, Lippert (20 January 1986). \"Dr Pepper fights cola wars with Godzilla\". St. Petersburg Times. St. Petersburg.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Credits\". Laraine Newman. Retrieved 17 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://wp.larainenewman.com/credits-2/","url_text":"\"Credits\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2eweAAAAIBAJ&pg=5191,5599096&dq=rocket-attack-usa&hl=en","external_links_name":"\"'Canned Festival' spoofs TV's worst\""},{"Link":"http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3CE68E4F15BE8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM","external_links_name":"\"Dr Pepper has film duds bottled up\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121104151010/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/58617354.html?dids=58617354:58617354&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT","external_links_name":"\"'Canned Film Festival' on TV, Worst of the Big Screen On Its Way\""},{"Link":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/58617354.html?dids=58617354:58617354&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.tvobscurities.com/2010/07/q-and-a-the-canned-film-festival-mr-smith/","external_links_name":"Television Obscurities"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/company/co0083950/","external_links_name":"LBS Communications (us)"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RURbAAAAIBAJ&pg=1286,3290847&dq=rocket-attack-usa&hl=en","external_links_name":"\"Television In Review\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0285640/bio?ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm","external_links_name":"Rick Ford Biography"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0628170/","external_links_name":"Laraine Newman"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110519225940/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/52422/Laraine-Newman/biography","external_links_name":"Laraine Newman"},{"Link":"http://wp.larainenewman.com/credits-2/","external_links_name":"\"Credits\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0744073/","external_links_name":"Kathryn Rossetter"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0307744/","external_links_name":"Patrick Garner"},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/viewcolumn.cfm?colid=21886","external_links_name":"Happy Days The Musical"},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/","external_links_name":"BroadwayWorld.com"},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/people/gallery-person.php?personid=3172","external_links_name":"Patrick Garner"},{"Link":"http://www.broadwayworld.com/","external_links_name":"BroadwayWorld.com"},{"Link":"http://www.rickfordactor.com/","external_links_name":"www.RickFordActor.com"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0285640/","external_links_name":"Rick Ford"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1184943/","external_links_name":"Laura Galusha"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm2952794/","external_links_name":"Philip Nee"},{"Link":"http://www.mst3kinfo.com/satnews/brains/20q.html","external_links_name":"\"20 Questions Only Joel Hodgson Can Answer about MST3K\""},{"Link":"http://www.mst3kinfo.com/","external_links_name":"Satellite News"},{"Link":"http://www.bmp.stomptokyo.com/3btheater/culttv/Canned%20Film%20Festival/cannedfilmfestival.html","external_links_name":"\"The Canned Film Festival\""},{"Link":"http://www.badmovieplanet.com/","external_links_name":"Bad Movie Planet's"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060528190112/http://www.badmovieplanet.com/3btheater/","external_links_name":"\"3B Theater\""},{"Link":"https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/canned-film-festival/200346","external_links_name":"\"Canned Film Festival\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080630085548/http://www.tvguide.com/","external_links_name":"TV Guide.com"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0302080/","external_links_name":"Canned Film Festival"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Advent_(AM-83) | USS Advent | ["1 World War II Pacific Theatre operations","2 Return to Stateside","3 Post-war deactivation","4 References","5 External links"] | Minesweeper of the United States Navy
History
United States
NameUSS Advent
BuilderCommercial Iron Works, Portland, Oregon
Laid down18 August 1941
Launched12 March 1942
Commissioned19 August 1942
RenamedUSS PC-1587, 1 June 1944
Decommissioned22 January 1946
Stricken25 February 1946
FateTransferred to the Maritime Commission for disposal, 18 March 1948
General characteristics
Class and typeAdroit-class minesweeper
Displacement295 long tons (300 t)
Length173 ft 8 in (52.93 m)
Beam23 ft (7.0 m)
Draft6 ft 6 in (1.98 m)
Propulsion
2 × 1,770 bhp (1,320 kW) Cooper Bessemer GNB8 diesel engines
Farrel-Birmingham single reduction gear
2 shafts
Speed16 knots (30 km/h)
Complement65
Armament
1 × 3"/50 caliber gun
1 × 40 mm gun
USS Advent (AM-83) was an Adroit-class minesweeper of the United States Navy. The ship was laid down on 18 August 1941 at Portland, Oregon, by the Commercial Iron Works; launched on 12 March 1942; and commissioned on 19 August 1942.
World War II Pacific Theatre operations
Advent served on escort and patrol duty in the South and West Pacific throughout World War II. From 2 May until 8 October 1943, she operated out of Noumea, New Caledonia, on convoy screening duty. Her ports of call included Espiritu Santo; Sydney, Australia; Tongatapu; Efate, New Hebrides; and Guadalcanal.
The ship changed her base of operations to Guadalcanal in mid-October 1943. She made numerous runs to Espiritu Santo; the Treasury Islands; Noumea; Efate; Bougainville, Solomon Islands; Sydney; and Ulithi. On 1 June 1944, the name Advent was dropped, and the ship was designated as submarine chaser USS PC-1587.
Between late August and mid-October 1944, PC-1587 was based at Espiritu Santo. The highlight of her service during this period was her rescue on 11 October of the crew of a downed PBY aircraft. During November, the patrol craft operated from Guadalcanal; and, on 4 December, she shifted to Ulithi. By April 1945, PC-1587 had completed five convoy runs to Kossol Roads, Palau Islands, and one to Guam.
Return to Stateside
In April, PC-1587 assumed patrol duty at Saipan. The ship also escorted convoys to Iwo Jima, the Bonin Islands, Guam, and Tinian. On 17 October, she set a course for the California coast, sailing via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor. She dropped anchor in San Francisco Bay on 13 November 1945.
Post-war deactivation
Preparations for her deactivation were begun soon after reaching the west coast, and PC-1587 was decommissioned on 22 January 1946. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 25 February 1946, and she was transferred to the Maritime Commission on 18 March 1948 for disposal.
References
This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here.
External links
Photo gallery of USS Advent (AM-83)/PC-1587 at NavSource Naval History
Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940–1945 – PC-1587 USS Advent
Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940–1945 Minecraft
vteAdroit-class minesweepers
Adroit
Advent
Annoy
Conflict
Constant
Daring
Dash
Despite
Direct
Dynamic
Effective
Engage
Excel
Exploit
Fidelity
Fierce
Firm
Force
List of mine warfare vessels of the United States Navy | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adroit-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adroit-class_minesweeper"},{"link_name":"minesweeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minesweeper"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Portland, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Commercial Iron Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Iron_Works"}],"text":"USS Advent (AM-83) was an Adroit-class minesweeper of the United States Navy. The ship was laid down on 18 August 1941 at Portland, Oregon, by the Commercial Iron Works; launched on 12 March 1942; and commissioned on 19 August 1942.","title":"USS Advent"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Noumea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noumea"},{"link_name":"New Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia"},{"link_name":"convoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy"},{"link_name":"Espiritu Santo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espiritu_Santo"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"Tongatapu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongatapu"},{"link_name":"Efate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efate"},{"link_name":"New Hebrides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hebrides"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"Treasury Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_Islands"},{"link_name":"Noumea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noumea"},{"link_name":"Bougainville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_Island"},{"link_name":"Ulithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulithi"},{"link_name":"submarine chaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_chaser"},{"link_name":"PBY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBY_Catalina"},{"link_name":"patrol craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrol_boat"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"convoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoy"},{"link_name":"Kossol Roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kossol_Roads"},{"link_name":"Palau Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau_Islands"},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam"}],"text":"Advent served on escort and patrol duty in the South and West Pacific throughout World War II. From 2 May until 8 October 1943, she operated out of Noumea, New Caledonia, on convoy screening duty. Her ports of call included Espiritu Santo; Sydney, Australia; Tongatapu; Efate, New Hebrides; and Guadalcanal.The ship changed her base of operations to Guadalcanal in mid-October 1943. She made numerous runs to Espiritu Santo; the Treasury Islands; Noumea; Efate; Bougainville, Solomon Islands; Sydney; and Ulithi. On 1 June 1944, the name Advent was dropped, and the ship was designated as submarine chaser USS PC-1587.Between late August and mid-October 1944, PC-1587 was based at Espiritu Santo. The highlight of her service during this period was her rescue on 11 October of the crew of a downed PBY aircraft. During November, the patrol craft operated from Guadalcanal; and, on 4 December, she shifted to Ulithi. By April 1945, PC-1587 had completed five convoy runs to Kossol Roads, Palau Islands, and one to Guam.","title":"World War II Pacific Theatre operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saipan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saipan"},{"link_name":"convoys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convoys"},{"link_name":"Iwo Jima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwo_Jima"},{"link_name":"Bonin Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonin_Islands"},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam"},{"link_name":"Tinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinian"},{"link_name":"Eniwetok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eniwetok"},{"link_name":"Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay"}],"text":"In April, PC-1587 assumed patrol duty at Saipan. The ship also escorted convoys to Iwo Jima, the Bonin Islands, Guam, and Tinian. On 17 October, she set a course for the California coast, sailing via Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor. She dropped anchor in San Francisco Bay on 13 November 1945.","title":"Return to Stateside"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"west coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._West_Coast"},{"link_name":"Navy list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_list"},{"link_name":"Maritime Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Commission"}],"text":"Preparations for her deactivation were begun soon after reaching the west coast, and PC-1587 was decommissioned on 22 January 1946. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 25 February 1946, and she was transferred to the Maritime Commission on 18 March 1948 for disposal.","title":"Post-war deactivation"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/a3/advent.htm","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"http://www.navsource.org/archives/11/02083.htm","external_links_name":"Photo gallery"},{"Link":"http://ftp.metalab.unc.edu/hyperwar/USN/ships/PC/PC-1587.html","external_links_name":"Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940–1945 – PC-1587 USS Advent"},{"Link":"http://www.ibiblio.net/hyperwar/USN/ships/ships-dm.html","external_links_name":"Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940–1945 Minecraft"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiago_Guedes | Tiago Guedes | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Portuguese film director and editor (born 1971)
Tiago Guedes (born 20 June 1971) is a Portuguese film director and editor. Guedes' film credits include Entre os Dedos, Blood Curse and Acordar. His television credits include The Domain, Odisseia and Os Boys.
Guedes is a frequent collaborator with director Frederico Serra. He was born in Porto and is married to actress Isabel Abreu.
References
^ "Interview with Tiago Guedes". neweurope.eu. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
^ "Tiago Guedes • Director of The Domain". cineuropa.org. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
^ "'The Domain': Film Review". variety.com. 5 September 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
External links
Tiago Guedes at IMDb
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
United States
Portugal
Other
IdRef
This article about a Portuguese film director is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Entre os Dedos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Entre_os_Dedos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Blood Curse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_Curse_(film)"},{"link_name":"Acordar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acordar&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"The Domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Domain_(film)"},{"link_name":"Odisseia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisseia_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Os Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Os_Boys&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Frederico Serra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederico_Serra&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Porto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porto"},{"link_name":"Isabel Abreu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Abreu"}],"text":"Tiago Guedes (born 20 June 1971) is a Portuguese film director and editor.[1][2] Guedes' film credits include Entre os Dedos, Blood Curse and Acordar. His television credits include The Domain, Odisseia and Os Boys.[3]Guedes is a frequent collaborator with director Frederico Serra. He was born in Porto and is married to actress Isabel Abreu.","title":"Tiago Guedes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Interview with Tiago Guedes\". neweurope.eu. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.neweurope.eu/article/interview-with-tiago-guedes/","url_text":"\"Interview with Tiago Guedes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tiago Guedes • Director of The Domain\". cineuropa.org. Retrieved 19 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cineuropa.org/en/interview/377889/","url_text":"\"Tiago Guedes • Director of The Domain\""}]},{"reference":"\"'The Domain': Film Review\". variety.com. 5 September 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2019/film/reviews/the-domain-review-1203324610/","url_text":"\"'The Domain': Film Review\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.neweurope.eu/article/interview-with-tiago-guedes/","external_links_name":"\"Interview with Tiago Guedes\""},{"Link":"https://www.cineuropa.org/en/interview/377889/","external_links_name":"\"Tiago Guedes • Director of The Domain\""},{"Link":"https://variety.com/2019/film/reviews/the-domain-review-1203324610/","external_links_name":"\"'The Domain': Film Review\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0345743/","external_links_name":"Tiago Guedes"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/000000007813793X","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/120634326","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjXmwYP4kMdrxPPRqxdQq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1213060494","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2016128157","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1152450","external_links_name":"Portugal"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/158256107","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiago_Guedes&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_Bud%C4%9Bjovice | List of bishops of České Budějovice | ["1 References"] | František Schönborn
Bishop of České Budějovice is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of České Budějovice, which covers the south of Bohemia and small tail of southwest Moravia.
Jan Prokop Schaaffgotsche (1785–1813)
Arnošt Konstantin Růžička (1815–1845)
Josef Ondřej Lindauer (1845–1850)
Jan Valerián Jirsík (1851–1883)
: Karel Průcha (he was appointed 1883, but did not undertake dioceses for illness, died closely after appointing)
František Schönborn (1883–1885; 1985–1899 Archbishop of Prague)
Martin Josef Říha (1885–1907)
Josef Antonín Hůlka (1907–1920)
Šimon Bárta (1920–1940)
: Antonín Eltschkner (appointed 1940, for resistance of Germany occupational power could not undertake diocese)
Josef Hlouch (1947–1972, did not manage diocese on 1950–1968 for repression from communistic authority, 1952–1963 was interned outside diocese)
Miloslav Vlk (1990–1991; from 1991 Archbishop of Prague)
Antonín Liška (1991–2002)
Jiří Paďour (2002–2014)
Vlastimil Kročil (2015–present)
References
Encyklopedie Českých Budějovic; NEBE, České Budějovice 2006, ISBN 80-239-6706-1 S 46–47
Jaroslav V. Polc: Stručný přehled dějin českých a moravských diecézí po třicetileté válce; KTF UK, Praha 1995; S. 67–74 | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Franti%C5%A1ek_Sch%C3%B6nborn.jpg"},{"link_name":"František Schönborn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Sch%C3%B6nborn"},{"link_name":"diocesan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioceses"},{"link_name":"bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop"},{"link_name":"Diocese of České Budějovice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_Bud%C4%9Bjovice"},{"link_name":"Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravia"},{"link_name":"Jan Prokop Schaaffgotsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Prokop_Schaaffgotsche"},{"link_name":"Arnošt Konstantin Růžička","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno%C5%A1t_Konstantin_R%C5%AF%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka"},{"link_name":"Josef Ondřej Lindauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Ond%C5%99ej_Lindauer"},{"link_name":"Jan Valerián Jirsík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Valeri%C3%A1n_Jirs%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"František Schönborn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franziskus_von_Paula_Graf_von_Sch%C3%B6nborn"},{"link_name":"Archbishop of Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Prague"},{"link_name":"Martin Josef Říha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Josef_%C5%98%C3%ADha"},{"link_name":"Josef Antonín Hůlka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Anton%C3%ADn_H%C5%AFlka"},{"link_name":"Šimon Bárta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0imon_B%C3%A1rta"},{"link_name":"Antonín Eltschkner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Eltschkner"},{"link_name":"Josef Hlouch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Hlouch"},{"link_name":"Miloslav Vlk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miloslav_Vlk"},{"link_name":"Archbishop of Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Prague"},{"link_name":"Antonín Liška","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Li%C5%A1ka"},{"link_name":"Jiří Paďour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Pa%C4%8Four"},{"link_name":"Vlastimil Kročil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlastimil_Kro%C4%8Dil"}],"text":"František SchönbornBishop of České Budějovice is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of České Budějovice, which covers the south of Bohemia and small tail of southwest Moravia.Jan Prokop Schaaffgotsche (1785–1813)\nArnošt Konstantin Růžička (1815–1845)\nJosef Ondřej Lindauer (1845–1850)\nJan Valerián Jirsík (1851–1883)\n: Karel Průcha (he was appointed 1883, but did not undertake dioceses for illness, died closely after appointing)\nFrantišek Schönborn (1883–1885; 1985–1899 Archbishop of Prague)\nMartin Josef Říha (1885–1907)\nJosef Antonín Hůlka (1907–1920)\nŠimon Bárta (1920–1940)\n: Antonín Eltschkner (appointed 1940, for resistance of Germany occupational power could not undertake diocese)\nJosef Hlouch (1947–1972, did not manage diocese on 1950–1968 for repression from communistic authority, 1952–1963 was interned outside diocese)\nMiloslav Vlk (1990–1991; from 1991 Archbishop of Prague)\nAntonín Liška (1991–2002)\nJiří Paďour (2002–2014)\nVlastimil Kročil (2015–present)","title":"List of bishops of České Budějovice"}] | [{"image_text":"František Schönborn","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Franti%C5%A1ek_Sch%C3%B6nborn.jpg/220px-Franti%C5%A1ek_Sch%C3%B6nborn.jpg"}] | null | [] | [] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazar_Te%C5%A1anovi%C4%87 | Lazar Tešanović | ["1 World War II","2 See also","3 References"] | Lazar TešanovićBornJavorani, Condominium of Bosnia and HerzegovinaDiedMarch 1947FPR YugoslaviaAllegiance Kingdom of Yugoslavia (–1941) Chetniks (1941–45) Independent State of Croatia (1942) Government of National Salvation (1943–45)Years of service1941–1942RankMajorCommands heldObilić Detachment (1941–1943)Middle-Bosnian Corps (1943–1946)Battles/warsWorld War II
World War II in Yugoslavia
Lazar Tešanović (Serbian Cyrillic: Лазар Тешановић) was a Serbian schoolteacher and military officer. He was a reserve lieutenant of Royal Yugoslav Army and, later, the Chetniks military officer during World War II.
World War II
During the War, Tešanović founded the Obilić Detachment which operated between two rivers, Vrbas and Vrbanja, and south to mount Vlašić. Detachment took a main part in the Lipovac ambush on the Partisans Company led by Mladen Stojanović, who was badly wounded in the fight.
On 23 May 1942, Tešanović entered into an agreement with the Independent State of Croatia, asking arms and ammunition to fight against the Partisans. In addition, he has collaborated with the Nazi Germans.
On 8 July 1943, Obilić Detachment has become a part of the Middle-Bosnian Chetniks Corps and Tešanović became commander of that corps.
See also
Mile Mećava
Mladen Stojanović
References
^ Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
^ NAW, T-314, Roll 566, 000359-1: Prijevod sporazuma postignutog na sastanku komandanata četničkih odreda „Obilić“ i „Mrkonjić“ sa predstavnicima vlasti NDH u Banja Luci na dan 23. maja 1942.
^ NAW, T-314, Roll 563, 001130: Poruka četničke grupe Tešanović (30. decembar 1943.).
This Yugoslav biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serbian Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Royal Yugoslav Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Yugoslav_Army"},{"link_name":"Chetniks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chetniks"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"Lazar Tešanović (Serbian Cyrillic: Лазар Тешановић) was a Serbian schoolteacher and military officer. He was a reserve lieutenant of Royal Yugoslav Army and, later, the Chetniks military officer during World War II.","title":"Lazar Tešanović"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"Obilić","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Obili%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Detachment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detachment_(military)"},{"link_name":"Vrbas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrbas_(river)"},{"link_name":"Vrbanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrbanja_(river)"},{"link_name":"Vlašić","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vla%C5%A1i%C4%87_(Bosnian_mountain)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Lipovac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipovac_(%C4%8Celinac)"},{"link_name":"Partisans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans"},{"link_name":"Mladen Stojanović","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mladen_Stojanovi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Independent State of Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"collaborated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Middle-Bosnian Chetniks Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Army_in_the_Fatherland_order_of_battle"}],"text":"During the War, Tešanović founded the Obilić Detachment which operated between two rivers, Vrbas and Vrbanja, and south to mount Vlašić.[1] Detachment took a main part in the Lipovac ambush on the Partisans Company led by Mladen Stojanović, who was badly wounded in the fight.On 23 May 1942, Tešanović entered into an agreement with the Independent State of Croatia, asking arms and ammunition to fight against the Partisans.[2] In addition, he has collaborated with the Nazi Germans.[3]On 8 July 1943, Obilić Detachment has become a part of the Middle-Bosnian Chetniks Corps and Tešanović became commander of that corps.","title":"World War II"}] | [] | [{"title":"Mile Mećava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mile_Me%C4%87ava"},{"title":"Mladen Stojanović","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mladen_Stojanovi%C4%87"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yoCaAAAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lazar_Te%C5%A1anovi%C4%87&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_and_David | Harry & David | ["1 History","1.1 Bear Creek Orchards","1.2 Harry and David","2 Operations","2.1 Naming rights","3 See also","4 References","5 Bibliography","6 External links"] | American premium food and gift company
Harry and David, LLCTrade nameHarry & DavidFormerlyBear Creek Orchards (1910–1946)Company typeSubsidiaryIndustryFood and giftsFounded
1910; 114 years ago (1910) in Medford, Oregon (as Bear Creek Orchards)
1946; 78 years ago (1946) (as Harry and David)
FounderSamuel RosenbergHeadquartersMedford, Oregon, U.S.Number of locations1 retail location (flagship store in Medford, Oregon)Two operational locations:Medford, Oregon (headquarters, orchards, manufacturing and distribution);Hebron, Ohio (distribution center)Area servedUnited StatesKey people
Joseph Rowland (president)
ProductsGift basketsHoliday and special occasions giftsPears and fruitFlowers and plantsChocolates and sweetsNumber of employees8,000 including seasonal employees (2013)Parent1-800-Flowers.com (2014–present)Websiteharryanddavid.com
Harry and David, LLC (Harry and David) is an American-based premium food and gift producer and retailer. The company sells its products through direct mail, online, corporate gifting, and in their flagship location in Medford, Oregon, and operates the brands Harry & David, Wolferman's, and Vital Choice.
Harry & David was founded in 1910 by Samuel Rosenberg as Bear Creek Orchards in Medford, Oregon, as a premium fruit company.
As of 2014, it has been owned by 1-800-Flowers.com.
History
Bear Creek Orchards
The company first began operations in 1910, when Samuel Rosenberg purchased Comice pear orchards in Southern Oregon after encountering the orchard's pears at the previous year's Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition. Located in Medford, Oregon, the pear orchards themselves dated from 1885, and were named Bear Creek Orchards after Bear Creek, which ran through the property.
In 1914, Rosenberg's sons Harry and David Rosenberg took over the management of the property, after their father's death and the completion of their agricultural degrees at Cornell University. The brothers named the pears "Royal Riviera," and focused on selling them to customers in Europe. As their business continued to grow in the 1920s, the brothers built a packing house and a pre-cooling plant to prepare the pears to be shipped long distances.
When the Great Depression reduced the demand for their pears in Europe, the brothers began to market their products to customers in the United States, first to businessmen in Seattle, and by 1934, to customer7s in San Francisco and New York City.
The company officially began to sell its products to customers via mail order in 1934. The brothers advertised in magazines and newspapers, with their first ad appearing in Fortune in 1936. Other ads appeared in National Geographic, The New York Times and Time.
In 1937, the company introduced its "Box of the Month" plan. This was later renamed the "Rare Fruit Club" and eventually the "Fruit of the Month" club.
In the late 1930s, Harry and David adopted their stepfather's last name, Holmes, due to concerns about rising antisemitism as World War II approached.
Harry and David
In 1946, the name Bear Creek Orchards was replaced, when the company incorporated under the name Harry and David. Following David Holmes Sr.'s death in 1950, the company was handed down to his son, David H. Holmes Jr., who served as president of Harry & David from 1955 to 1970. Harry Holmes died in 1959. While David H. Holmes Jr. was president, Harry & David acquired the rose company Jackson & Perkins. After 9 years, David H. Holmes Jr. (son of David Sr.) passed the business to his cousin, John R. H. Holmes (son of Harry Holmes).
In 1972, David H. Holmes Jr. created Bear Creek Corporation (a name similar to the original 1885–1914 names) as a parent company to Harry & David, as well as other subsidiaries. Bear Creek Corporation went public in 1976, and remained public until its purchase by RJR Nabisco in 1984. Two years later, the company was acquired by the Shaklee Corporation. Shaklee was then purchased in 1989 (along with its newly acquired subsidiary Bear Creek) by the Japanese firm Yamanouchi Pharmaceutical. During the 1990s, Harry & David expanded its retail locations, opening more than 119 stores. Bear Creek Corporation launched its website in 1996 to sell all of its product lines, including Harry & David.
In June 2004, approximately 97% ownership of Harry & David was acquired by two investment firms in the United States: Wasserstein & Co. of New York, which purchased 63% of the company's stock; and Highfields Capital Management of Boston, which acquired 34%. In 2007, Harry & David sold the rose business Jackson & Perkins, to focus solely on its gift and premium food business. The next year the company acquired two online and catalog retailers: Wolferman's, which specializes in English muffins and breakfast foods; and Cushman's, a Florida-based fruit company specializing in a tangerine-grapefruit hybrid.
After the private-equity buyout in 2004, and the efforts at diversification through acquisitions, the financial downturn of the late 2000s hurt Harry & David's revenues and sales. The company's debt from its 2004 acquisition was part of the reason the recession hurt the company. In March 2011, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Harry & David remained operational while in bankruptcy and, in May 2011, filed a reorganization plan in bankruptcy court. The company emerged from bankruptcy in September 2011. Following its exit from bankruptcy, Harry & David increased its profitability and revenue and, in September 2012, was named the "large company turnaround of the year" by the Turnaround Management Association.
In November 2012, the company established a winery using Oregon grapes; the white and red wines were developed in partnership with a local winemaker. The company began selling its winery wines through its website that same year. Harry & David was sold in August 2014 to internet retailer 1-800-Flowers for $142.5 million. Harry & David is a wholly owned subsidiary of 1-800-Flowers.com Inc. and Harry & David Operations, Inc. The company's CEO from October 2011 through February 2015 was Craig Johnson. Steven Lightman (briefly CEO of The Sharper Image from 2007 to 2008) became CEO of Harry & David in March 2015.
At the end of April 2020, Harry & David permanently closed nearly all of its brick-and-mortar retail stores, except for its flagship Country Village store in Medford.
Operations
Harry & David's Medford store
Harry & David produces and sells premium food and gifts under three brands: Harry & David; Wolferman's; and Stockyards. Harry & David's product lines include gift baskets, flowers and plants, fresh fruit, chocolate and sweets, and wine. Wolferman's main products include gourmet English muffins and other breakfast foods, and Stockyards is primarily known for selling USDA Prime and Choice quality meats and chops.
The company operates three individual websites for its brands on the 1800flowers.com multi-brand portal, HarryAndDavid.com, Wolfermans.com and Stockyards.com. In addition to selling online and through mail order, Harry & David's brands are sold in its retail stores nationwide. As of 2013, there were approximately fifty permanent retail locations and thirty temporary stores open for the holiday season. Cashflow is highly cyclical; Harry & David earns the majority of its profits in the fall and winter as a result of holiday-related orders.
Harry & David is headquartered in Medford, Oregon, where as of 2015 the company is the Rogue Valley's largest non-medical employer. As of 2007, the company operated 2,000 acres of orchards, manufacturing facilities and a distribution center in Medford. In 1997, Harry & David opened a second office in Hebron, Ohio, called the Hopewell Campus, which handles distribution. The company employed more than 8,000 employees in 2013, including temporary seasonal workers. As of 2015, the company has begun planting orchards as part of their long-term corporate strategy.
Naming rights
The company owns the naming rights to Medford's main baseball park, Harry & David Field.
See also
List of companies based in Oregon
References
^ a b c d e "Search and replace – Medford News, Weather, Sports, Breaking News | Mail Tribune".
^ a b Nathaniel Popper (28 September 2010). "Harry & David is in turmoil". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "A brief history of Bear Creek Corp". Mail Tribune. 3 April 2004. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 13.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 20.
^ a b Snyder 2009, p. 23.
^ a b c d e John Kennedy (15 December 1981). "Harry and David would be proud". Associated Press. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Snyder 2009, pp. 22–23.
^ Snyder 2009, pp. 28–30.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 31.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 33.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 37.
^ a b c "Son of Harry and David founder Holmes dies at 79". Mail Tribune. 21 August 2002. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b Snyder 2009, p. 45.
^ a b "Harry & David sells Jackson & Perkins". Portland Business Journal. 2 April 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 47.
^ a b Snyder 2009, p. 51.
^ Jay P. Pederson (2001). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. p. 38. ISBN 1-55862-445-7.
^ a b Merri Rosenberg (12 May 2002). "Harry and David Comes to a Mall Near You". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 57.
^ David Preszler (9 March 2000). "Company expects online sales to rise 150 percent a year". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 74.
^ Desilver, Drew (5 August 2005). "Oregon's Harry & David decides to go public again". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
^ Ovide, Shira (28 March 2011). "Harry & David Bankruptcy: Everything You Need to Know". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
^ a b Greg Stiles (15 May 2007). "Loss reflects gain for Harry & David". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b Greg Stiles (16 January 2008). "Harry and David branches out with muffin business". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ "Harry & David reports year-end loss of nearly $20 million as sales decline more than 10 percent". Portland Business Journal. 17 September 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2013.
^ "Harry & David acquires Cushman Fruit Co". Direct Marketing News. 12 August 2008. Retrieved 20 November 2013.
^ a b c Bruce Horovitz (28 March 2011). "Harry & David needs image upgrade, experts say". USA Today. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b c d Nathaniel Popper (29 March 2011). "Harry & David files for bankruptcy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Greg Stiles (23 May 2011). "Harry and David eyes late summer exit from bankruptcy". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Robert Goldfield (14 September 2011). "Harry & David emerges from bankruptcy". Portland Business Journal. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b "Harry & David gets $100 million credit line". Mail Tribune. 5 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b c Nicole Friedman (4 October 2013). "Harry & David reports higher incomes, fewer year-round stores post-bankruptcy". The Oregonian. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ a b c Suzanne Stevens (2 November 2012). "Harry & David launches winery". Portland Business Journal. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ "Harry & David Introduces New Signature Wines for 2013" (Press release). Marketwired. 16 October 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ Peter Mitham (19 December 2012). "Oregon Wines Expand Reach". Wines & Vines. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
^ a b Giegerich, Andy (September 2, 2014). "Harry & David sold to Internet retailing giant". Portland Business Journal. Retrieved 4 September 2014.
^ "Company Overview of Bear Creek Orchards, Inc". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on April 15, 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ "Company Overview of Harry & David Operations Corp". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on April 15, 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ "Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements" (PDF). Harry & David Holdings, Inc. 29 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 April 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ Michael Liedtke (14 February 2008). "Troubled Sharper Image Replaces CEO". USA Today. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
^ Streit, Katie (30 April 2020). "Harry & David closing the majority of retail stores". KOBI-TV NBC5 / KOTI-TV NBC2. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
^ a b "Court approves Harry and David reorganization plan". Associated Press. 30 August 2011. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Katie Evans (18 September 2009). "Harry and David's annual web sales decline, but not as fast as total sales". InternetRetailer.com. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Greg Stiles (9 May 2008). "Harry and David loses $21 million in quarter". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
^ Randa Gore (19 September 2013). "Harry and David's Sees Success". KDRV. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ Greg Stiles (28 August 2007). "Pear harvest under way". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
^ Snyder 2009, p. 55.
^ Greg Stiles (8 May 2012). "Getting Moose Munch to mom, but how?". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
https://corporateofficeheadquarters.org/harry-and-david/
Bibliography
Snyder, Gail (2009). First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David. Bookhouse Group. ISBN 9780615316451. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
Jay P. Pederson (2001). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. p. 38. ISBN 1-55862-445-7.
External links
Official website
vteLarge companies formerly based in OregonPeak annual revenues of $100 million or moreMoved out of state
Georgia-Pacific
Integra Telecom (2014)
JELD-WEN (2015)
Louisiana-Pacific
Banfield
Acquired by out-of-state entities
Camera World (2002)
Cascade Microtech (2016)
Electro Scientific Industries (2019)
Fred Meyer
Freightliner
Harry & David (2014)
J. K. Gill (1980)
LaCrosse Footwear (2012)
Les Schwab (2020)
MathStar (2010)
McCormick & Schmick's (2012)
Meier & Frank
Mentor Graphics (2017)
Merix (2010)
Oregon Steel Mills
Planar Systems (2015)
Sawyer's (1966)
Sequent Computer Systems (1999)
StanCorp Financial (2016)
Tektronix (2007)
U.S. Bancorp
West Coast Bank (2012)
Willamette Industries (2002)
Defunct or out of business
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Emporium (2003)
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National
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bankruptcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_11,_Title_11,_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popper11-30"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20150410mailTrib-1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horovitz11-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popper11-30"},{"link_name":"bankruptcy court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_bankruptcy_court"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles11-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldfield11-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MailTrib13-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Friedman13-34"},{"link_name":"winery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winery"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens12-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MarketWired13-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mitham12-37"},{"link_name":"1-800-Flowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-800-Flowers"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pbjsold-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pbjsold-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BloombergBW1-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BloombergBW2-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HD12-41"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens12-35"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20150410mailTrib-1"},{"link_name":"The Sharper Image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sharper_Image"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liedtke-42"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20150410mailTrib-1"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Streit-43"}],"sub_title":"Harry and David","text":"In 1946, the name Bear Creek Orchards was replaced, when the company incorporated under the name Harry and David.[3][7][12] Following David Holmes Sr.'s death in 1950, the company was handed down to his son, David H. Holmes Jr., who served as president of Harry & David from 1955 to 1970. Harry Holmes died in 1959.[3][13][14] While David H. Holmes Jr. was president, Harry & David acquired the rose company Jackson & Perkins.[13][14][15] After 9 years, David H. Holmes Jr. (son of David Sr.) passed the business to his cousin, John R. H. Holmes (son of Harry Holmes).[16]In 1972, David H. Holmes Jr. created Bear Creek Corporation (a name similar to the original 1885–1914 names) as a parent company to Harry & David, as well as other subsidiaries.[13][17] Bear Creek Corporation went public in 1976, and remained public until its purchase by RJR Nabisco in 1984.[3][17] Two years later, the company was acquired by the Shaklee Corporation. Shaklee was then purchased in 1989 (along with its newly acquired subsidiary Bear Creek) by the Japanese firm Yamanouchi Pharmaceutical.[2][3][18] During the 1990s, Harry & David expanded its retail locations, opening more than 119 stores.[19] Bear Creek Corporation launched its website in 1996 to sell all of its product lines, including Harry & David.[20][21]In June 2004, approximately 97% ownership of Harry & David was acquired by two investment firms in the United States: Wasserstein & Co. of New York, which purchased 63% of the company's stock; and Highfields Capital Management of Boston, which acquired 34%.[22][23][24] In 2007, Harry & David sold the rose business Jackson & Perkins, to focus solely on its gift and premium food business.[15][25] The next year the company acquired two online and catalog retailers: Wolferman's, which specializes in English muffins and breakfast foods; and Cushman's, a Florida-based fruit company specializing in a tangerine-grapefruit hybrid.[26][27][28]After the private-equity buyout in 2004, and the efforts at diversification through acquisitions, the financial downturn of the late 2000s hurt Harry & David's revenues and sales. The company's debt from its 2004 acquisition was part of the reason the recession hurt the company.[29][30] In March 2011, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.[30][1] Harry & David remained operational while in bankruptcy[29][30] and, in May 2011, filed a reorganization plan in bankruptcy court.[31] The company emerged from bankruptcy in September 2011.[32] Following its exit from bankruptcy, Harry & David increased its profitability and revenue and, in September 2012, was named the \"large company turnaround of the year\" by the Turnaround Management Association.[33][34]In November 2012, the company established a winery using Oregon grapes; the white and red wines were developed in partnership with a local winemaker.[35] The company began selling its winery wines through its website that same year.[36][37] Harry & David was sold in August 2014 to internet retailer 1-800-Flowers for $142.5 million.[38] Harry & David is a wholly owned subsidiary of 1-800-Flowers.com Inc.[38][39] and Harry & David Operations, Inc.[40][41] The company's CEO from October 2011 through February 2015 was Craig Johnson.[35][1] Steven Lightman (briefly CEO of The Sharper Image from 2007 to 2008[42]) became CEO of Harry & David in March 2015.[1]At the end of April 2020, Harry & David permanently closed nearly all of its brick-and-mortar retail stores, except for its flagship Country Village store in Medford.[43]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harryanddavidmedfordstore.jpg"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP11-44"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horovitz11-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popper11-30"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens12-35"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans09-45"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosenberg02-19"},{"link_name":"holiday season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_and_holiday_season"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Friedman13-34"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP11-44"},{"link_name":"Cashflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashflow"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MailTrib13-33"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles07A-25"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles08May-46"},{"link_name":"Medford, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medford,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Rogue Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_Valley"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gore13-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles07-48"},{"link_name":"Hebron, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebron,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles08-26"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder200955-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stiles12-50"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Friedman13-34"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20150410mailTrib-1"}],"text":"Harry & David's Medford storeHarry & David produces and sells premium food and gifts under three brands: Harry & David; Wolferman's; and Stockyards.[44] Harry & David's product lines include gift baskets, flowers and plants, fresh fruit, chocolate and sweets, and wine.[29][30][35] Wolferman's main products include gourmet English muffins and other breakfast foods, and Stockyards is primarily known for selling USDA Prime and Choice quality meats and chops.The company operates three individual websites for its brands on the 1800flowers.com multi-brand portal, HarryAndDavid.com, Wolfermans.com and Stockyards.com.[45] In addition to selling online and through mail order,[19] Harry & David's brands are sold in its retail stores nationwide. As of 2013, there were approximately fifty permanent retail locations and thirty temporary stores open for the holiday season.[34][44] Cashflow is highly cyclical;[33] Harry & David earns the majority of its profits in the fall and winter as a result of holiday-related orders.[25][46]Harry & David is headquartered in Medford, Oregon, where as of 2015 the company is the Rogue Valley's largest non-medical employer.[47] As of 2007, the company operated 2,000 acres of orchards, manufacturing facilities and a distribution center in Medford.[48] In 1997, Harry & David opened a second office in Hebron, Ohio, called the Hopewell Campus, which handles distribution.[26][49][50] The company employed more than 8,000 employees in 2013, including temporary seasonal workers.[34] As of 2015, the company has begun planting orchards as part of their long-term corporate strategy.[1]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harry & David Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_%26_David_Field"}],"sub_title":"Naming rights","text":"The company owns the naming rights to Medford's main baseball park, Harry & David Field.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xjmqYgEACAAJ&q=%22First+Names+in+Gifting%22"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780615316451","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780615316451"},{"link_name":"International Directory of Company Histories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38"},{"link_name":"38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55862-445-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55862-445-7"}],"text":"Snyder, Gail (2009). First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David. Bookhouse Group. ISBN 9780615316451. Retrieved 19 November 2013.\nJay P. Pederson (2001). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. p. 38. ISBN 1-55862-445-7.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"Harry & David's Medford store","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Harryanddavidmedfordstore.jpg/220px-Harryanddavidmedfordstore.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of companies based in Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_companies_based_in_Oregon"}] | [{"reference":"\"Search and replace – Medford News, Weather, Sports, Breaking News | Mail Tribune\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mailtribune.com/article/20150410/NEWS/150419973/0/SEARCH","url_text":"\"Search and replace – Medford News, Weather, Sports, Breaking News | Mail Tribune\""}]},{"reference":"Nathaniel Popper (28 September 2010). \"Harry & David is in turmoil\". Los Angeles Times. 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KOBI-TV NBC5 / KOTI-TV NBC2. Retrieved 15 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://kobi5.com/news/local-news/harry-david-closing-the-majority-of-retail-stores-127626/","url_text":"\"Harry & David closing the majority of retail stores\""}]},{"reference":"\"Court approves Harry and David reorganization plan\". Associated Press. 30 August 2011. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001117/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PEG5400.htm","url_text":"\"Court approves Harry and David reorganization plan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press","url_text":"Associated Press"},{"url":"http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PEG5400.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Katie Evans (18 September 2009). \"Harry and David's annual web sales decline, but not as fast as total sales\". InternetRetailer.com. Retrieved 19 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.internetretailer.com/2009/09/18/harry-and-david-s-annual-web-sales-decline-but-not-as-fast-as","url_text":"\"Harry and David's annual web sales decline, but not as fast as total sales\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=InternetRetailer.com&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"InternetRetailer.com"}]},{"reference":"Greg Stiles (9 May 2008). \"Harry and David loses $21 million in quarter\". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 19 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080509/BIZ/805090332/-1/rss05","url_text":"\"Harry and David loses $21 million in quarter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Tribune","url_text":"Mail Tribune"}]},{"reference":"Randa Gore (19 September 2013). \"Harry and David's Sees Success\". KDRV. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140423061702/http://www.kdrv.com/tag/harry-and-david-oregon/","url_text":"\"Harry and David's Sees Success\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDRV","url_text":"KDRV"},{"url":"http://www.kdrv.com/tag/harry-and-david-oregon/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Greg Stiles (28 August 2007). \"Pear harvest under way\". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 8 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070828/BIZ/708280301&cid=sitesearch","url_text":"\"Pear harvest under way\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Tribune","url_text":"Mail Tribune"}]},{"reference":"Greg Stiles (8 May 2012). \"Getting Moose Munch to mom, but how?\". Mail Tribune. Retrieved 8 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20120508/BIZ/205080305/-1/biz","url_text":"\"Getting Moose Munch to mom, but how?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Tribune","url_text":"Mail Tribune"}]},{"reference":"Snyder, Gail (2009). First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David. Bookhouse Group. ISBN 9780615316451. Retrieved 19 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xjmqYgEACAAJ&q=%22First+Names+in+Gifting%22","url_text":"First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780615316451","url_text":"9780615316451"}]},{"reference":"Jay P. Pederson (2001). International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. p. 38. ISBN 1-55862-445-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","url_text":"International Directory of Company Histories"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","url_text":"38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55862-445-7","url_text":"1-55862-445-7"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://harryanddavid.com/","external_links_name":"harryanddavid.com"},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/article/20150410/NEWS/150419973/0/SEARCH","external_links_name":"\"Search and replace – Medford News, Weather, Sports, Breaking News | Mail Tribune\""},{"Link":"http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2013020684_harrydavid29.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David is in turmoil\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040403/BIZ/304039997","external_links_name":"\"A brief history of Bear Creek Corp\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=okFYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=U_kDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4362,4429280&dq=harry-and-david&hl=en","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David would be proud\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20020821/BIZ/308219997","external_links_name":"\"Son of Harry and David founder Holmes dies at 79\""},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/portland/stories/2007/04/02/daily4.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David sells Jackson & Perkins\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","external_links_name":"International Directory of Company Histories"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","external_links_name":"38"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/12/nyregion/in-business-harry-and-david-comes-to-a-mall-near-you.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David Comes to a Mall Near You\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20000309/NEWS/303099991&cid=sitesearch","external_links_name":"\"Company expects online sales to rise 150 percent a year\""},{"Link":"http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2002421590_harrydavid05.html","external_links_name":"\"Oregon's Harry & David decides to go public again\""},{"Link":"https://blogs.wsj.com/deals/2011/03/28/harry-david-bankruptcy-everything-you-need-to-know/","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David Bankruptcy: Everything You Need to Know\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070515/BIZ/705150304","external_links_name":"\"Loss reflects gain for Harry & David\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080116/BIZ/801160311","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David branches out with muffin business\""},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/portland/stories/2009/09/14/daily42.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David reports year-end loss of nearly $20 million as sales decline more than 10 percent\""},{"Link":"http://www.dmnews.com/harry-david-acquires-cushman-fruit-co/article/113740/","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David acquires Cushman Fruit Co\""},{"Link":"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/retail/2011-03-28-harry-david-bankruptcy.htm","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David needs image upgrade, experts say\""},{"Link":"http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/29/business/la-fi-harry-and-david-20110329","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David files for bankruptcy\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20110523/NEWS07/110529992/-1/NEWSMAP","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David eyes late summer exit from bankruptcy\""},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/portland/news/2011/09/14/harry-david-emerges-from-bankruptcy.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David emerges from bankruptcy\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20131005/BIZ/310050301","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David gets $100 million credit line\""},{"Link":"http://www.oregonlive.com/window-shop/index.ssf/2013/10/harry_david_reports_higher_inc.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David reports higher incomes, fewer year-round stores post-bankruptcy\""},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/portland/morning_call/2012/11/harry-david-launches-winery.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David launches winery\""},{"Link":"http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/harry-david-introduces-new-signature-wines-for-2013-1841636.htm","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David Introduces New Signature Wines for 2013\""},{"Link":"http://www.winesandvines.com/template.cfm?section=news&content=109165","external_links_name":"\"Oregon Wines Expand Reach\""},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/portland/morning_call/2014/09/harry-david-sold-to-internet-retailing-giant.html","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David sold to Internet retailing giant\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20140415182038/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=29978116","external_links_name":"\"Company Overview of Bear Creek Orchards, Inc\""},{"Link":"http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=29978116","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20140415182131/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=4205225","external_links_name":"\"Company Overview of Harry & David Operations Corp\""},{"Link":"http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=4205225","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140422232032/http://www.harryanddavid.com/content/Hand/include/investor-relations/financial/HD-Holdings-Inc-Consolidated-Financial-Statements-2nd-Qtr-PeriodEnded-December29-2012.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements\""},{"Link":"https://www.harryanddavid.com/content/Hand/include/investor-relations/financial/HD-Holdings-Inc-Consolidated-Financial-Statements-2nd-Qtr-PeriodEnded-December29-2012.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/economy/2008-02-14-2237529912_x.htm","external_links_name":"\"Troubled Sharper Image Replaces CEO\""},{"Link":"https://kobi5.com/news/local-news/harry-david-closing-the-majority-of-retail-stores-127626/","external_links_name":"\"Harry & David closing the majority of retail stores\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001117/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PEG5400.htm","external_links_name":"\"Court approves Harry and David reorganization plan\""},{"Link":"http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PEG5400.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.internetretailer.com/2009/09/18/harry-and-david-s-annual-web-sales-decline-but-not-as-fast-as","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David's annual web sales decline, but not as fast as total sales\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080509/BIZ/805090332/-1/rss05","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David loses $21 million in quarter\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140423061702/http://www.kdrv.com/tag/harry-and-david-oregon/","external_links_name":"\"Harry and David's Sees Success\""},{"Link":"http://www.kdrv.com/tag/harry-and-david-oregon/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070828/BIZ/708280301&cid=sitesearch","external_links_name":"\"Pear harvest under way\""},{"Link":"http://www.mailtribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20120508/BIZ/205080305/-1/biz","external_links_name":"\"Getting Moose Munch to mom, but how?\""},{"Link":"https://corporateofficeheadquarters.org/harry-and-david/","external_links_name":"https://corporateofficeheadquarters.org/harry-and-david/"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xjmqYgEACAAJ&q=%22First+Names+in+Gifting%22","external_links_name":"First Names in Gifting: The Story of Harry and David"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","external_links_name":"International Directory of Company Histories"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/internationaldir0040unse/page/38","external_links_name":"38"},{"Link":"https://harryanddavid.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000097062371","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/143483650","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2010088898","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Koch_(footballer) | Michael Koch (footballer) | ["1 References"] | German footballer
Michael KochPersonal informationDate of birth
(1969-09-27) 27 September 1969 (age 54)Height
1.80 m (5 ft 11 in)Senior career*Years
Team
Apps
(Gls)1989–1990
Altona 93
1990–1991
Hamburger SV
1991–1993
Hannover 96
1993–1994
Stuttgarter Kickers
1994–1998
Lübeck
1998–2004
Schönberg 95
*Club domestic league appearances and goals
Michael Koch (born 27 September 1969) is a German former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.
References
^ Michael Koch at WorldFootball.net
This biographical article relating to German football is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"footballer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"midfielder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midfielder"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Michael Koch (born 27 September 1969) is a German former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.[1]","title":"Michael Koch (footballer)"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.worldfootball.net/player_summary/michael-koch/#wac_660x40_top","external_links_name":"Michael Koch"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Koch_(footballer)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China-Russia_relations | China–Russia relations | ["1 History","1.1 Russian invasion of Ukraine","2 Border","2.1 Rival claims over Vladivostok settled","3 Economic relations","3.1 Trade in national currencies","3.2 Tourism and cultural exchanges","4 Energy relations","4.1 History","4.2 Russian Far East (RFE)","4.3 Central Asia","5 Military relations","5.1 Military exercises and joint patrols","6 Media communication agreements","7 Mutual perceptions","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Further reading"] | "Sino-Russian relations since 1991" redirects here. For the state of Sino-Russian relations before 1991, see History of Sino-Russian relations.
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vte
China and Russia established diplomatic relations after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
American scholar Joseph Nye states:
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, that de facto US-China alliance ended, and a China–Russia rapprochement began. In 1992, the two countries declared that they were pursuing a "constructive partnership"; in 1996, they progressed toward a "strategic partnership"; and in 2001, they signed a treaty of "friendship and cooperation".
The two countries share a land border which was demarcated in 1991, and they signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation in 2001, which was renewed in June 2021 for five more years. On the eve of a 2013 state visit to Moscow by Chinese leader Xi Jinping, Russian President Vladimir Putin remarked that the two nations were forging a special relationship. China and Russia have enjoyed close relations militarily, economically, and politically, while supporting each other on various global issues. Commentators have debated whether the bilateral strategic partnership constitutes an alliance. Russia and China officially declared their relations "Not allies, but better than allies". Ties have continued to deepen after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with Russia increasingly becoming dependent on China since it was hit with large-scale international sanctions. Russian coal exports came under particular pressure in Europe due to the combination of energy transition and sanctions over Ukraine, causing Russia to double down on coal exports to China and other Asian countries.
History
Main articles: History of Sino-Russian relations and China–Soviet Union relations
Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria (later Russian Manchuria) and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent loss of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red).
The relations between China and Russia go back to the 17th-century, when the Qing dynasty tried to drive Russian settlers out of Manchuria, ended by the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Russian Empire consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century, after the annexation of part of Chinese Manchuria (1858–1860).
During the Cold War, China and the USSR were rivals after the Sino-Soviet split in 1961, competing for control of the worldwide Communist movement. There was a serious possibility of a major war between the two nations in the early 1960s; a brief border war took place in 1969. This enmity began to lessen after the death of Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong in 1976, but relations were poor until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
On December 23, 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin made his first official visit to China, where he met with CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin and Chinese president Yang Shangkun. In December 1996, at the end of Chinese Premier Li Peng's visit to Moscow, Russia and China issued a joint communique pledging to build an "equal and reliable partnership."
During the 1990s, cooperation between China and Russia was facilitated by the two countries' mutual desires to balance the influence of the United States and establish a multi-polar international system.: 248
Chinese Paramount leader Xi Jinping presented two pandas to Moscow Zoo at a ceremony with Vladimir Putin on 5 June 2019
In 2001, the close relations between the two countries were formalized with the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, a twenty-year strategic, economic, and – controversially and arguably – an implicit military treaty. A month before the treaty was signed, the two countries joined with junior partners Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Still active as of 2022, the organization is expected to counter the growing influence of the United States military outreach program in Central Asia. The PRC is currently a key purchaser and licensee of Russian military equipment, some of which have been instrumental in the modernization of the People's Liberation Army. The PRC is also a main beneficiary of the Russian Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.
During the 2008 Russo-Georgian war, China opposed Russia's infringement on Georgia's sovereignty.: 347 Citing principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and global order, China used its influence in the SCO to prevent the organization from supporting Russia.: 347
When China attempted to build closer relations with Russia in 2013, the Russian government initially had reservations. However, the United States sanctions against Russia for its 2014 annexation of Crimea helped push Russia to a warmer relationship with China. Although some Chinese banks and companies refused to fully cooperate with Russia because of the concern that secondary sanctions might be applied to them, Russian-Chinese economic ties grew once China itself faced sanctions concerns.: 65
Liam Carson, an emerging European economist at Capital Economics, said in 2019:
Policymakers in both countries have actively tried to strengthen trade ties in recent years. And it's no coincidence that this surge in Russia-China trade has come at the same time that the US has tightened sanctions on Russia and concerns about the US-China trade war have intensified.
By 2019, both nations had serious grievances with the United States. For China, the issues were control of the South China Sea, trade policies, and technology policy. For Russia, the main issue was severe economic penalties imposed by the U.S. and Europe to punish its seizure of Crimea from Ukraine. China and Russia do, however, differ on some policies. China does not recognize Russia's annexation of Crimea,: 4 and Russia does not support China's claims in the South China Sea. Nevertheless, China and Russia currently enjoy the best relations they have had since the late 1950s. Although they have no formal alliance, the two countries do have an informal agreement to coordinate diplomatic and economic moves, and build up an alliance against the United States. Yaroslav Trofimov, the chief foreign-affairs correspondent of The Wall Street Journal, argued in 2019:
Though there is no overt ideological alignment between Russia and China today, the two governments share a hostility to dissent, deep suspicion of Western interference and a strong desire to impose tighter controls over their own societies. Mr. Xi has presided over a push to stamp out corruption and bolster the Communist party's role in the economy and the society at large—a campaign akin to Mr. Putin's earlier effort to tame Russian oligarchs and crush political opposition. China was inspired by Russia's legislation cracking down on nongovernmental organizations, while Russian officials have expressed admiration for China's comprehensive internet censorship and "social credit" plan to rank citizens based on their loyalty and behavior.
Xi continued to meet Putin via videoconference during the Covid-19 crisis
During the COVID-19 pandemic, some tensions arose within the Chinese-Russian relationship.: 71–72 For example, in October 2020, relying on the pretext of coronavirus allegedly found on the exterior of fish packaging, China greatly reduced the import of Russian seafood, causing a substantial price decrease in Russian seafood.: 72 Chinese restrictions on Russian cargo traffic at border crossings also led to tensions, including a drivers' strike.: 72
In February 2024, Foreign ministry spokesperson Mao Ning declined to comment on the death of Russian opposition politician and political prisoner Alexei Navalny, describing it as "Russia's internal affair".
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Further information: Russian invasion of Ukraine and China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Putin visited China and met with Xi Jinping on 4 February 2022
Xi and Putin met on February 4, 2022, during a massive Russian build-up of force on the Ukrainian border, with the two expressing that the two countries are nearly united in their anti-US alignment and that both nations shared "no limits" to their commitments. Western Intelligence reports said that China had asked Russia to wait to invade Ukraine until after the Beijing Olympics ended on February 20. Shortly before the invasion, Chinese media would repeat Russian statements that Russia's troops were being pulled away from the border with Ukraine.
On February 22, two days prior to the invasion of Ukraine, a leaked post The Beijing News' Horizon News on Weibo detailed instructions on how to report on a crisis in Ukraine; the post asked editors to monitor unfavorable comments, to only use tags shared by Chinese state media and stated "Do not post anything unfavorable to Russia or pro-Western. Let me review your words before posting". On February 25, 2022, one day following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Putin told Xi during a phone call that Russia is eager to engage in high-level negotiations with Ukraine, according to China's foreign ministry.
According to the Associated Press in April 2022, China refused to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine, repeated Russian propaganda about the war, opposed economic sanctions against Russia, and abstained or sided with Russia in UN votes on the war in Ukraine.
In March 2022, Russia added Taiwan to a list of foreign states and territories that commit "unfriendly actions" against its military invasion of Ukraine. Chinese leader Xi Jinping has assured Vladimir Putin of China's support on Russian "sovereignty and security" in June.
In April 2022, in an interview with the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, Russian political scientist Sergey Karaganov, who is considered close to Vladimir Putin, said that Russia "will be more integrated and more dependent on China", further stating that "Chinese are our close allies and friends and the biggest source of Russian strength after Russian people themselves."
In June 2022, Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping had a call with Putin where he reaffirmed support for Russia on security issues while saying that "all parties should responsibly push for a proper settlement of the Ukraine crisis".
Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy said that China has the economic leverage to pressure Putin to end the war, adding "I'm sure that without the Chinese market for the Russian Federation, Russia would be feeling complete economic isolation. That's something that China can do – to limit the trade until the war is over." In August 2022, Zelenskyy said that since the beginning of the war in Ukraine, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping had refused all his requests for direct talks with him.
Putin welcomes Xi in Moscow during Xi's visit to Russia in March 2023
In February 2023, Putin's spokesperson Dmitry Peskov rejected the Chinese peace proposal, saying that "for now, we don't see any of the conditions that are needed to bring this whole story towards peace."
In March 2023, Politico reported that Chinese state-owned weapons manufacturer Norinco shipped assault rifles, drone parts, and body armor to Russia between June and December 2022, with some of the shipments going through via third-countries including Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. According to the US Department of Defense, Chinese ammunition has been used on battlefields in Ukraine.
On 20–22 March 2023, Xi Jinping visited Russia and met with Vladimir Putin both in official and unofficial capacity. It was the first international meeting of Vladimir Putin since the International Criminal Court issued a warrant for his arrest.
In May 2023, the EU identified that Chinese and UAE firms were supplying weapon components to Russia. The EU banned export of dual-use goods targeting 8 Chinese firms.
On 20 July 2023, the Chinese general consulate in Odesa, Ukraine was damaged in a Russian attack on a grain terminal in a nearby port, plus other parts of the city. China has been the largest importer of grains from Ukraine.
In July 2023, the US Office of the Director of National Intelligence published a report stating that the Chinese government is assisting Russia to evade sanctions and providing it with dual-use technology. In October 2023, the US Department of Commerce added 42 Chinese companies to the Entity List for supplying Russia with microelectronics for missile and drone guidance systems.
In February 2024, the European Union proposed sanctions that would target Chinese companies aiding Russia's war effort in Ukraine.
Border
Main article: China–Russia border
See also: Sino-Soviet border conflict
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On May 29, 1994, during the visit of Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin to Beijing, Russian and Chinese officials signed an agreement on the Sino-Russian Border Management System intended to facilitate border trade and hinder criminal activity. On September 3 of that year, a demarcation agreement was signed, fixing the boundary along a previously–disputed 55-km stretch of the western Sino-Russian border. After the final demarcation carried out in the early 2000s, it measures 4,209.3 kilometres (2,615.5 mi), and is the world's sixth-longest international border.
The 2004 Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China–Russia Boundary stated that Russia agrees to transfer a part of Abagaitu Islet, all of Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island, about a half of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island, along with some adjacent islets, to China. A border dispute between Russia and China, standing since Japanese invasion of Manchuria of 1931, was thus resolved. These Amur River islands were, until then, administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma. The official transfer ceremony occurred on-site on October 14, 2008.
Rival claims over Vladivostok settled
See also: Convention of Peking and Tannu Uriankhai
Territories that have become part of Russia under the Aigun Treaty and the Beijing Treaty of 1860
In 2005, Beijing and Moscow ratified an agreement that ended more than three and half centuries of their struggle over territory and for dominance. Russia is the only country that still controls the territory it acquired from Qing dynasty China via the unequal treaties.: 249–250
Economic relations
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Putin and Xi Jinping at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit
Economic relations between Russia and China demonstrate mixed trends. Trade between the two countries was running between $5 billion and $8 billion per year in the 1990s, but grew steadily from then onwards. It was on course to hit $100 billion – the previous goal – until the 2008 crisis interceded. Trade slumped back to around $60 billion in 2015 and 2016 but started to recover again in 2017. Both countries are expecting to raise the trade volume to $200 billion by 2024.
Between 2008 and 2009, when Russia experienced a financial crisis, there was a sharp increase in borrowing from China. This trend, however, did not last. Starting in 2013, borrowing started to grow steadily.
The main form of cooperation in the complex economic relations between Russia and China is trade. From 2003 until 2013, mutual trade increased 7.7 times; in 2014 the scale of bilateral operations increased even more. The aggravation of relations between Russia and Western countries contributed to the expansion of economic ties with China. By 2020, the parties planned to increase bilateral trade to $200 billion. According to the Federal Сustoms Service (FCS) of the Russian Federation, in 2016 the foreign trade turnover of Russia and China amounted to $66.1 billion (in 2015 – $63.6 billion). Russia has a negative trade balance with China: in 2016 exports amounted to 28 billion, whereas imports totaled 38.1 billion (in 2015, 28.6 and 35.9 billion, resoectively). The share of China in foreign trade with Russia grew from 12.1% in 2015 to 14.1% in 2016. Since 2010, China is the largest trading partner of Russia.
Most of Russia's exports to China originate from the mining and petrochemicals sectors. More than half of Russia's exports to China come from mineral fuels, oil, and petroleum products (60.7%), followed by wood and wood products (9.4%), non-ferrous metals (9%), fish and seafood (3.5%), and chemical products (3.3%). China is also gradually becoming a major consumer of Russian agricultural products.: 64
The main categories of imports to Russia from China are machinery and equipment (35.9%), clothing (13.7%), chemical products (9.1%), fur and fur products (5.6%), footwear (5.3%), and furniture (3%). Chinese electronics are steadily expanding their presence in Russian.: 64
According to the General Сustoms Administration of China, bilateral trade in January–May 2017 increased by 26.1% in annual terms, amounting to $32.3 billion, and mutual trade in 2017 may exceed $80 billion According to the Ministry of Commerce of China, as of January 1, 2016, the volume of accumulated direct Russian investments in China amounted to $946.9 million and Chinese investments totaled ten times more, estimated at $8.94 billion.
Meeting of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) foreign ministers in New York City on 22 September 2022
Participation in such organizations as BRICS and RIC (Russia-India-China) has significant importance for Russian-Chinese economic relations. At the Russian-Chinese summit held in Shanghai, Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping stressed that "Russia and China stand for the transformation of BRICS into a mechanism of cooperation and coordination on a wide range of global financial, economic and international political problems, including the establishment of a closer economic partnership, the early establishment of the BRICS development Bank and the formation of a; for the expansion of joint efforts of representation and voting rights of States with emerging markets and developing countries in the system of global economic governance, for the formation of an open world economy; for the deepening of cooperation in the field of foreign policy, including in the settlement of regional conflicts".
To facilitate financial transactions in the regions, China and Russia will conduct a currency swap. Central banks, with whom China has signed currency swaps, are able to issue loans to their banks in yuan. A currency swap agreement was signed with Russia in the amount of 150 billion yuan ($25 billion). Currency swaps will make the ruble and the yuan more stable, which in turn will have a positive impact on the stability of the global financial system. Additionally, the expansion of currency trading may facilitate investment processes. By investing in an economy that is now facing certain problems due to the fall of the ruble and oil prices, China is carrying out soft expansion and supports one of its main partners. China and Russia have long advocated reducing the role of the dollar in international trade, and both aim to create conditions for the development of bilateral trade and mutual investment. The rate of de-dollarization chosen by the countries is due to the rapid growth of the RMB's share in international payments and settlements (Oct. 2013. – 0.84%, Dec. 2014. – 2.17%, Feb. 2015. – 1.81%). The conclusion of a currency swap makes it possible to facilitate payments, as there is an imitation of the internal currency, which speeds up the transfer procedure and minimizes the cost of conversion.
In 2013, China initiated the creation of a new economic initiative – the "New silk road" or the Belt and Road Initiative. This project is designed primarily to strengthen economic ties and cooperation and to attract investors from Asia and other parts of the world to actively participate in the creation of the "silk road economic belt of the XXI century". The zone should extend from China to Europe through Central Asia and Russia, as it is an important transit logistical link between China and Europe, in which the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank may play a significant role. In recent years, China and Russia have stepped up cooperation in the construction of cross-border infrastructure. New Eurasian transport routes are being built as well, including the "Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe" railway and the "Western Europe – Western China" route, which will pass through Russia. In northeast China and the Russian far East, both countries are actively promoting the construction of bridges, ports, and other projects. It is planned to increase the volume of bilateral trade between China and Russia to $200 billion by the end of 2020.
Chinese Premier Li Qiang and Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin in Beijing, China on 24 May 2023
Russia has also shown interest in cooperating with the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The creation of the EAEU is posed to serve as an important platform for multilateral cooperation in the region, as all participants are friendly neighbors and partners with Russia, as well as traditional partners with China. Russia is interested in creating a free trade zone of the EAEU and China, as well as the use of the national currency in this region.
Following the implementation of international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, China provided economic relief to Russia. China's total trade with Russia was a record $190 billion in 2022. In the same year, China accounted for 40% of Russia's imports. In the first half of 2023, models from Chinese car companies accounted for more than a third of all sales in Russia.
In May 2023, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin and Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak visited Beijing and met with Chinese President Xi Jinping. Novak said that Russian energy supplies to China will increase by 40 percent year-on-year in 2023. Chinese Premier Li Qiang hailed the "comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership between China and Russia in the new era", saying that bilateral trade between China and Russia had increased by more than 40% over the past year.
On 18 October 2023, Chinese leader Xi Jinping emphasized the deepening "political mutual trust" with Russian President Vladimir Putin, lauding their strong strategic coordination and record-high bilateral trade volume.
In December 2023, Xi Jinping said that bilateral trade between China and Russia exceeded $200 billion in the first 11 months of 2023. On 31 December 2023, Xi Jinping said China's ties with Russia had grown stronger in 2023. The largest trade increases are seen in Chinese made cars and trucks. Increasing trade volume between the two countries is particularly visible in Heihe.
Trade in national currencies
On November 23, 2010, at a meeting of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and the Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, it was announced that Russia and China have decided to use their own national currencies for bilateral trade, instead of the U.S. dollar. The move was aimed to further improve the relations between Beijing and Moscow and to protect their domestic economies during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The trading of the Chinese yuan against the Russian ruble started in the Chinese interbank market, while the yuan's trading against the ruble started on the Russian foreign exchange market in December 2010.
In coordination with other emerging economies, the 2010 BRIC summit was held in Brasília in April 2010.
In 2014, Beijing and Moscow signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement to avoid and counter American sanctions.
In December 2014, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi pledged to offer financial support to Russia and support the Ruble, if needed, in light of the currency's depreciation.
Russia's dependence on the Chinese yuan increased heavily after its invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The share of Russian exports paid in yuan rose to 16% by December 2022, compared to 0.4% before the invasion, while share of imports paid in yuan increased to 23%, up from 4% before. Yuan's share of stock market trading in Russia increased from 3% to 33% Nearly 50 financial institutions were offering yuan saving accounts by 2023, and households were holding around $6 billion worth of yuan in Russian banks by the end of 2022.
By the end of 2023, more than 90% of the trade between China and Russia was done with either the yuan or the ruble. Furthermore, Russia is using Chinese yuan for more than 25% of its international trade with other countries than China.
Tourism and cultural exchanges
Tourism, especially from China to Russia, has seen a massive spike over the years. More than 2 million Chinese tourists visited Russia in 2019, compared to 158,000 a decade ago. China is one of the most important tourist markets for Russia. Support for cooperation between Russian and Chinese investment organizations in tourism industry is provided in the context of the Joint Action Plan by the Russian Federal Agency for Tourism and China's State Administration of Tourism. More than 2.3 million Chinese tourists flew into Moscow's Sheremetyevo – Alexander S. Pushkin international airport in 2019, including 1.26 million who transferred via the airport. Sheremetyevo, which offers flights to 29 Chinese cities served by eight Chinese airlines, expects their number to grow by 30 per cent a year in the years to come. Russia has played into this tourism boom by expanding capacity of Moscow's largest airport. "Russia has also allowed more flights from regional Chinese air companies to Moscow, which helps to turn the Russian capital into an air hub for Europe-bound Chinese tourism." Sheremetyevo is looking to capitalise on that growth. Pǔtōnghuà or standard Chinese is among the languages displayed on Sheremetyevo's signs and announcements, while duty-free stores accept popular Chinese payment methods, including UnionPay cards and online systems WeChat Pay and Alipay. As many as 70 per cent of tax-free receipts handed out at Russia's airports go to Chinese citizens. By 2019, Russia has become among the top 3 travel destinations for Chinese tourists.
Energy relations
On 21 May 2014, China and Russia signed a $400 billion gas deal. Starting 2019, Russia plans to provide natural gas to China for the next 30 years.
Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, energy relations between China and Russia have been generally marked by cooperation and regard for mutual geopolitical and strategic interests. China's fast-growing economy places increasing pressure on itself to secure energy imports, while Russia's economy is largely driven by the demand for the export of natural resources. China became a petroleum importer for the first time in 1993, had become the world's second-largest oil-consuming country as of 2011, and the world's largest overall energy consumer as of 2010. In a report released in January 2012, the China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation estimated that the country's crude oil consumption would increase to 480 million tonnes in 2012, or 9.6 million barrels per day. The group also forecast that natural gas consumption would rise 15.3 percent to 148.2 billion cubic meters (bcd). Given its geographical proximity to China and position as one of the world's largest oil producers and natural gas exporters, Russia has been an obvious candidate for meeting this increased demand. While energy relations have primarily related to oil, gas, and coal, there have also been partnerships with regard to nuclear and renewable (wind and water) energy technology.
From the mid-1990s, when the tightening of global energy markets coincided with his rise to power, Russian President Vladimir Putin signaled the importance of, oil and particularly natural gas, for Russia's emergence as a global power. Long-term prospects for Russian gas exports to China will be affected by several global pricing trends. Surges in liquefied natural gas (LNG) capacity, the increasingly competitive nature of Central Asian gas supplies, advances in shale gas technology, and potential greenhouse gas policies may all impact Chinese consumption.
Despite frequent declarations of goodwill and bilateral energy cooperation, Chinese-Russian energy relations since 1991 have been limited by mutual suspicions, pricing concerns, inadequate transportation infrastructure, and competition for influence in Eurasia.
Russian oil exports by destination in 2020.
In 2014, Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion. Deliveries to China started in late 2019. The Power of Siberia pipeline is designed to reduce China's dependence on coal, which is more carbon intensive and causes more pollution than natural gas. For Russia, the pipeline allows another economic partnership in the face of resistance to the Nord Stream 2 pipeline. The proposed western gas route from Russia's West Siberian petroleum basin to North-Western China is known as Power of Siberia 2 (Altai gas pipeline).
In 2022, China's imports of discounts of up to 30% oil from Russia rose 55% in May, Russia displaced Saudi Arabia as China's biggest oil provider in recent months.
History
The official relationship between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation has been upgraded three times since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1991. Beginning as "good-neighborly and mutually beneficial" in December 1992, it evolved into a "constructive partnership" in September 1994, and finally a "strategic partnership of coordination" in April 1996. In September 1999, the two countries began joint construction of a nuclear power station at Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province with an installed capacity of 2 million kW, one of the first situations of mutual energy cooperation.
The late 1990s also marked the beginning of feasibility studies for natural gas and oil pipeline projects in Western and Eastern Siberia. In 2001, Russian company Yukos proposed the unprecedented Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean (ESPO) Oil Pipeline Project, which would link Yukos's oil refinery in Angarsk to Daqing, in northern China. At the time, rail routes were the only means of transporting oil into the growing Chinese market. The project stalled in October 2003 when Yukos chief executive Mikhail Khodorkovsky was arrested on charges including tax evasion and fraud, and the Russian government launched an immediate investigation into the company. Many speculated that the series of events were politically motivated, given that Mr. Khodorkovsky had been a vocal opponent of President Putin. A week after Mr. Khodorkovsky's arrest, China Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Zhang Qiyue publicly announced that the Kremlin investigation would not impact the proposed China-Russia oil pipeline project.
In September 2004, Chinese premier Wen Jiabao met with Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov in Moscow, where the two heads of government signed agreements affirming Russia's promise to set the route of a proposed pipeline from Eastern Siberia to the Pacific, with priority given to laying a pipeline spur to China, as well as increasing rail oil exports to China to 10 million tons (200,000 b/d) in 2005 and 15 million tons (300,000 b/d) in 2006. Four days before Wen's visit, Yukos, then the largest supplier of Russian oil to China and Russia's biggest oil producer, publicly announced that rail shipments of crude oil to the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) would end beginning on September 28, 2004. The Kremlin had begun auctioning off the troubled company's operating assets a month prior in August.
Gazprom, Soyuzneftegaz and the Chinese Embassy in Moscow all expressed interest in Yuganskneftegaz, a main arm of Yukos. The subsidiary was ultimately acquired by Russia's state-owned oil company Rosneft for roughly $9.3 billion. In February 2005, Russian Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin revealed that Chinese banks provided $6 billion in financing the Rosneft acquisition. This financing was reportedly secured by long-term oil delivery contracts between Rosneft and the CNPC. In the same month, the Chinese Foreign Ministry denied that China provided "funds" for the deal. The Foreign Ministry could not confirm whether there were any "loans" involved, ministry spokesman Kong Quan said.
State-owned Lukoil became China's largest Russian oil supplier when CNPC reached a strategic cooperation agreement with the company in September 2006. As promised during Premier Wen's visit to Moscow in 2004, construction on a direct pipeline spur to China began in March 2006, when CNPC signed an agreement providing state oil producer Transneft $400 million for constructing a pipeline from Skovorodino, about 70 km (43 mi) from the Chinese border. In the same month, CNPC agreed to a set of principles establishing future joint ventures with Rosneft.
In 2006, Gazprom was made responsible for all exports of gas from Russia's eastern Siberian fields, outside of sales made through production sharing agreements (PSAs). This was another move widely seen to be politically motivated, since successful commercial development of these fields and export to Asian markets would be impossible without Gazprom – and therefore Kremlin – involvement. In an annual shareholder report two years prior, Gazprom acknowledged a plan for supplying natural gas to China. Two routes, roughly equal in capacity, would be constructed, with a total volume of 68 billion cubic meters of gas per annum. An Altai pipeline would link West Siberian fields with the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China, while the eastern pipeline would run from Yakutia into northeastern China.
Chinese domestic natural gas consumption roughly matched domestic production in 2004. Since then, however, its rate of growth and more sustainable energy profile compared to oil inevitably led to a surge in Chinese natural gas imports. In March 2006, CNPC signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Gazprom for the delivery of natural gas to China, which officially began pricing negotiations between Gazprom chief executive Alexei Miller and Chen Geng, then head of the CNPC. In September 2007, the Russian Federation Industry and Energy Ministry approved a development plan for an integrated gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, taking into account potential gas exports to China and other Asia-Pacific countries. Gazprom was appointed by the Russian Government as the Eastern Gas Program execution coordinator.
Russia's desire to diversify its export markets has been matched by China's willingness to invest in Russian energy production and infrastructure. Russian policymakers, however, have expressed reserve about increased Chinese influence in the energy sector. In 2002, CNPC attempted to bid for Russian oil firm Slavneft, but withdrew just weeks later. International news sources suggested the bid failed partly due to anti-foreign sentiment in the Duma, Russia's lower parliamentary house. Slavneft was privatized by parity owners TNK (later OAO TNK-BP) and Sibneft (later OAO Gazprom Neft) soon afterwards. In 2004, Slavneft was then acquired by TNK-BP, the product of a merger between the Alfa Access Renova Consortium (AAR, Alfa Group) and British Petroleum (BP). In 2006, Russia denied CNPC a significant stake in OAO Rosneft. When the Russian company went public, CNPC was allowed to purchase $500 million worth of shares, one-sixth of the $3 billion it had sought. The financial crisis triggered in 2008 gave China its opportunity to invest in Russia on a grander scale through a loans for oil program. In 2009 and 2010, China's long-term energy-backed loans (EBL) extended large sums of capital to companies and entities not only in Russia, but also in Brazil, Ecuador, Turkmenistan and Venezuela.
Growing Chinese investment is speculated to be about more than energy security for China. Chinese news agency Xinhua reported in 2010 that many Chinese enterprises believe the Russian market will allow them to become truly global. Gao Jixiang, Associate Research Fellow of the Russian Economy Research Office of the Russia, East Europe, and Central Asia Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, reported that China's investments in Russia totaled $1.374 billion as of 2007, and were projected to reach $12 billion by 2020. In 2008–09 alone, total investments rose 25.4% to $2.24 billion and direct investment went from $240 million to $410 million.
Meeting between Dmitry Medvedev and Hu Jintao at the 2009 APEC Summit.
2009 marked the 60th anniversary of established diplomatic relations between Moscow and Beijing, and also coincided with the signing of over 40 contracts worth roughly $3 billion. Chinese leader Hu Jintao and President Dmitry Medvedev of Russia conferred three times in four days during mid-June at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Yekaterinburg, at the first-ever heads-of-state meeting of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), and again when Hu made a state visit to Moscow from June 16–18, representing what many saw to be a high-water mark in Chinese-Russian relations.
Growing economic closeness also seemed to suggest a growing political alliance. A joint statement released by the two heads of state expanded upon how the two governments usually pledge mutual support for their sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Russian government explicitly affirmed that Tibet, along with Taiwan, are "inalienable parts of the Chinese territory", while the Chinese supported "Russia's efforts in maintaining peace and stability in the region of Caucasus." During Hu's visit, however, Gazprom announced it could not begin delivering natural gas to China in 2011 as planned because of pricing disagreements. Construction of the Western Siberian Altai pipeline, which could deliver over 30 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually to China, was originally scheduled to begin in 2008.
September 27, 2010 marked the completion of the 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Russia-China Crude Pipeline. Stretching from Russia's Skovorodino station to China's Mohe station, it was the first pipeline ever built between China and Russia. In April 2009, Rosneft and Transneft had signed deals with CNPC guaranteeing the pipeline's production of 300,000 barrels of crude oil per day for twenty years as part of a $25 billion loan-for-oil agreement. Upon the pipeline's completion in 2010, CNPC also signed a general agreement with Transneft over the operation of the pipeline, a framework agreement with Gazprom to import natural gas to China from 2015 onwards, an agreement with Rosneft on extending oil supply to the Russia-China Crude Pipeline, and an agreement with Lukoil on expanding strategic cooperation. Both sides hailed the series of agreements as a "new era" in cooperation, and Russia's Deputy Prime Minister Igor Sechin told reporters in Beijing that Russia was "ready to meet China's full demand in gas" going forward.
Putin's close associate Vyacheslav Volodin, Speaker of the State Duma, with Chinese President Xi Jinping in Beijing on 22 November 2023
In September 2010, President Putin reaffirmed the potential nuclear future of Russia and China's energy relations, saying "Of course, our cooperation with China is not limited to just hydrocarbons ... Russia is China's main partner in the field of peaceful use of nuclear energy, and equipment supplies here amount to billions of dollars". As of 2011, however, Russian officials have remained reluctant to transfer nuclear energy technologies and other knowledge products to Chinese partners. Industry experts have pointed out that while proprietary technology would protect Russian exports from being displaced by lower-cost Chinese products in third-party markets, such an approach may reinforce Chinese doubts about Russia's reliability as a long-term energy partner.
The Russian oil industry has not only been burdened by corporate struggles such as with Yukos and political disagreements between the countries, but also by the reoccurring breaches in safety. Some difficulties stem from the Kazakh riots to endless environmental concerns, but most recently the capsizing of an oil platform that was allowed to operate in the north late in the season, while towed under adverse maritime conditions. Incidents such as these cannot help but give potential foreign investment, which the region needs, pause as to the reliability of Russian energy supplies.
Russian Far East (RFE)
In 1996, the Russian Federation completed two production sharing agreements (PSA) for oil and gas exploration off the northeast coast of the Sakhalin Islands. The Sakhalin-I project, operated by Exxon Neftegas (EN), has estimated potential recoverable reserves at 307 million tons of oil (2.3 billion bbn) and 485 billion cubic meters of gas as of 2002. EN, a subsidiary of US-based ExxonMobil, holds a 30 percent interest in the project, while Rosneft holds 20 percent via its affiliates RN-Astra (8.5 percent) and Sakhalinmorneftegas-Shelf (11.5 percent). Japanese consortium SODECO and the Indian state-owned oil company ONGC Videsh Ltd. holds the remaining 50 percent (30 and 20 percent, respectively).
The Sakhalin-II project is managed by the Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd. (Sakhalin Energy). As of 2011, Russian state monopoly Gazprom holds 50% plus 1 share, RoyalDutch Shell 27.5%, Mitsui 12.5% and Mitsubishi 10%. Gazprom purchased its majority stake from Sakhalin-2 operator Royal Dutch Shell in 2006. The project had been placed permanently on hold by environmental regulators, but moved forward after the sale. The series of events led to widespread speculation that environmental violations may have been used as a bargaining chip in the deal. Sakhalin-II consists of two 800-km pipelines running from the northeast of the island to Prigorodnoye (Prigorodnoe) in Aniva Bay at the southern end. The consortium built Russia's first liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant at Prigorodnoye. Industry sources speculated that "some in Russia hope to sell China gas from Sakhalin-2's or other facilities' future LNG holdings now that it has mastered the technology".
In December 2003, CNPC and Sakhalin Energy signed a frame agreement on exploration and development in Russia's Sakhalin oilfield. ExxonMobil also looked towards the Chinese market, making preliminary agreements on supplying Sakhalin-I gas to China as early as 2002. On November 2, 2004, CNPC began negotiations with ExxonMobil for possible long-term gas deliveries from Sakhalin-1. Negotiations were then concluded in October 2006, when Exxon and CNPC officially announced an agreement. Under the deal, Sakhalin-1 could sell up to 10 billion cubic meters of gas to China over 20 years by pipeline. The plan met strong opposition from Gazprom, which has a rival pipeline project and controls all Russian gas exports apart from sales through PSAs such as Sakhalin-1. In August 2006, Sakhalin-I's De-Kastri oil terminal began exporting processed petroleum to markets including China, Japan, and South Korea.
The influence of Russia's regional energy trade has led to a sense of local uneasiness about foreign countries' influence in the sector. In 2000, President Putin warned a Siberian audience that unless Russia intensified the region's development, the Russian Far East would end up speaking Chinese, Japanese and Korean. In 2002, the Deputy Secretary of the Russian Security Council, Vladimir Potapov, expressed serious concerns about the region's combined remoteness, weak infrastructure, declining population, and wealth "in very diverse resources". Political figures like Viktor Ozerov, Chairman of the Federation Council's Defense and Security Committee, warned of military threats in the Far East and decried the predatory use of the region's resources, and large-scale illegal immigration, though scholars pointed out that no imminent threat was visible. Dmitri Trenin stated that, 'the principal domestic reason is the situation of eastern Russia, especially East Siberia and the Russian Far East. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the territories have been going through a deep crisis. The former model of their development is inapplicable; a new model is yet to be devised and implemented. Meanwhile, the vast region has been going through depopulation, deindustrialization, and general degradation. ... The quality of Moscow's statesmanship will be tested by whether it can rise up to the challenge in the East." The RFE has been one of the most difficult areas to transition between the structure of the Soviet Union and the still developing Russian state due to the lack of economic self-sufficiency in the region or any prospects of stable growth.
In September 2005, the Minister of Economic Development and Trade German Gref promised a doubling of state support for the RFE to $612 million in 2006, and the consideration of allocating a new $2.5 billion infrastructure fund for projects in the region. A year later, at the end of 2006, Putin reiterated that the socio-economic isolation of the RFE represented a threat to national security, and advocated yet another new socioeconomic commission and regional development strategy to be formed. He specifically pointed to the perceived threat of foreign immigration in the Far East. Scholars and regional experts have suggested that China's rapid economic growth (especially relative to Russia's GDP growth rate) lies at the root of anxieties concerning the RFE. While the Russian and Chinese economies were roughly the same size in 1993, China's grew to over 3.5 times larger than Russia's by 2008. Even since 1998, when Russia began a rapid economic recovery, China has grown at a faster rate; the gap has only widened since the global economic crisis and falling energy prices of the late 2000s. China's growth has led to the creation of new productive capacity, whereas Russia's recovery has been based largely on reutilizing Soviet-era capacity that had idled in the early 1990s.
Russian officials have repeatedly reiterated their opposition to being merely China's natural resources storehouse. As early as 2001, Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister Aleksei Kudrin warned that if Russia failed to become "a worthy economic partner" for Asia and the Pacific Rim, "China and the Southeast Asian countries will steamroll Siberia and the Far East." At the start of his presidency in September 2008, Dmitri Medvedev echoed similar concerns, warning a Kamchatka audience that if Russia fails to develop the RFE, it could turn into a raw material base for more developed Asian countries and "unless we speed up our efforts, we can lose everything." Regional experts have pointed out that despite these increasingly vocal concerns, the local economy of the RFE has become increasingly reliant on Chinese goods, services, and labor over the past decade; furthermore, local out-migration shows little sign of reversing. For all the early promises under Putin, Moscow's policy towards the RFE has not seemed effective as of 2008.
Dmitri Trenin of the Moscow branch of the Carnegie Endowment has argued that Siberia's development could become Russia's most urgent challenge.
Russia's plans for this region have revolved around building energy infrastructure to leverage exports and attracting investment so that the capital will be available for modernizing regional infrastructure. These plans largely depend on foreign investments, which Russian companies have grudgingly acknowledged. In 2008, a consortium of Chinese engineering firms led by Harbin Turbine signed an agreement with Russian power producer OGK to produce coal-fired turbines in the RFE, adding 41,000 megawatts of new generating capacity by 2011. Stanislav Nevynitsyn, executive director of OGK, admitted, "It is simply a necessity for us to work with the Chinese – we will not get the capacity built otherwise." Through loans to Russia's Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs, Vnesheconombank (VEB), China became a major stockholder in Lukoil in 2009. In the same year, after having excluded foreign firms from bidding on the huge Udokan copper mine in Southeast Siberia, Moscow welcomed Chinese, South Korean, and Kazakh miners and refiners back into the bidding process.
As part of the 'Russia's Energy Strategy till 2020' program, the Russian government launched a program of creating a unified gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the RFE in 2006. The program would ultimately provide affirmation of an all-Russia gas system from the Baltic Sea up to the Pacific Ocean." Russian policymakers have also suggested building an international center for spent fuel and nuclear energy in the RFE, hoping to raise the profile in the export of nuclear energy to the global market.
In 2009, Gazprom was awarded subsurface licenses for the Kirinsky, Vostochno-Odoptinsky and Ayashsky blocks to begin the Sakhalin-III project. Geological exploration has been underway at the Kirinskoye field and, as of 2009, natural gas production is scheduled for 2014. The field will become one of the natural gas sources for the Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok gas transmission system (GTS). The first GTS start-up complex will be 1,350 km, with a capacity of 6 billion cubic meters (bcm) per year.
Central Asia
China and Russia generally cooperate with each other regarding Central Asia affairs. While they sometimes compete in Central Asia, those competitions are typically focused on economic matters and proceed in an orderly way within established norms. Where competition in Central Asia does occur between the two powers, it typically arises as a product of the circumstances rather than as an intentional effort to contain the other country.
In 1996, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan formed the Shanghai Five, a collaborative body that was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) with the addition of Uzbekistan in 2001. As members of the SCO, China and Russia have cooperated in military exercises, such as counterterrorism drills in Kyrgyzstan in 2002 and similar exercises in Kazakhstan and China in 2003.
Russian and Chinese leaders regularly call for greater cooperation and coordination through the SCO between their two countries in the context of their broader goal of promoting multilateral diplomacy. In a joint statement issued on May 23, 2008, Russia and China asserted that "International security is comprehensive and inalienable, and some countries' security cannot be guaranteed at the cost of some others', including expanding military and political allies." Zhao Huasheng, Director of Russian and Central Asian Studies at Fudan University's Shanghai Cooperation Center, has argued that economic cooperation will ensure the long-term relevance of the SCO, as current security threats recede. While China and Russia do enjoy some bilateral energy cooperation, which experts predict will continue to grow in the future, the two countries have emerged as rivals for Central Asian oil and gas supplies. With the rising oil prices in the mid-2000s, Russia has sought to renew its influence in Central Asia, in particular the region's southern flank, to guarantee access to gas supplies for reexport to Europe and for its own domestic needs. As China's energy needs have grown and its policymakers have sought to develop its western provinces, China, too, has sought to expand its influence in Central Asia.
In 2007, at a meeting of SCO prime ministers in Tashkent, Russian Premier Viktor Zubkov reiterated Moscow's desire to forge a Central Asian energy "club" within the SCO, comprising Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The SCO energy club could be set up as soon as 2008, Russian Deputy Industry and Energy Minister Ivan Materov announced in Tashkent. Materov insisted, however, that the club would not amount to a sort of mini-OPEC. Political and economic analysts in Moscow believe the Kremlin is keen to establish an energy club as a means to prevent a possible clash with China over Central Asia's energy resources.
At a May 2007 SCO summit in Turkmenbashi, Russian, Kazakh and Turkmen leaders announced the expansion of the Prikaspiisky gas pipeline from Turkmenistan into Russia. The plan has stalled due to several obstacles, including price disagreements and the economic recession of the late 2000s.
Uncertainty over the Prikaspiisky route has given China an opening into the region, especially in Turkmenistan. During a brief visit to Ashgabat, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao called for efforts "to step up bilateral trade cooperation to a new level." Berdymukhamedov, in turn, expressed interest in "working closely" with China on a natural gas pipeline project, Xinhua News Agency reported. In December 2005, Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev inaugurated the Atasu-Alashankou pipeline to ship oil to China. The $800 million Atasu-Alashankou route still needs Russian crude oil from Western Siberia, transported via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Shymkent pipeline, to reach its full annual capacity of 20 million tons by 2010. Although China and its Central Asian partners view their expanding cooperation as a means of diversifying their energy partnerships, Russia has enjoyed success in other major energy projects. In November 2007, two Russian companies (TNK-BP and GazpromNeft) signed an agreement with KazTransOil to ship up to 5 million tons of oil annually to China via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Atasu-Alanshakou pipeline. In the first quarter of 2008, 300,000 tons of Russian crude oil were exported to China along this route. Moreover, a Russian engineering company, Stroytransgaz, won a tender to build Turkmenistan's section of the gas pipeline to China.
China and Russia announced in May 2014 that they had reached a 30-year gas deal where "Russia would supply 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas each year to China".
Military relations
After the EU arms embargo on China imposed as a consequence of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, China became a reliable client for Russian military exports, making up 25–50% of all foreign military sales. On November 9, 1993, Russian Defence Minister Pavel Grachev and Chinese Defence Minister Chi Haotian signed a five-year defense cooperation agreement paving the way for an increase in the number of military attachés stationed in their respective capitals. On July 12, 1994, the Russian and Chinese defence ministers signed a border security agreement designed to prevent potentially dangerous military incidents, such as unintentional radar jamming and airspace violations. In December 1996, Russia finalized "the sale of SU-27 fighters and related production technology to China."
On October 19, 1999, Defence Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defence Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, flew directly to Israel and met with Ehud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defence Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1 billion Israeli-Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.
By the early 2000s, Russia was a major supplier of military equipment to China.: 95 Economically, Russia was motivated by the weakness of its own economy and the need to pursue revenue streams where they were available.: 95 In Russia's geopolitical considerations, Russia assumed that a well-equipped Chinese military was a greater risk to the interests of the United States and European countries than to its own interests.: 95–96
In 2004, the Russian Foreign Ministry blocked both the sale of the Su-35 and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers to China over concerns about the arrangements for Chinese production of the Sukhoi Su-27SK (known as the Shenyang J-11).
Currently, China focuses on domestic weapon designs and manufacturing, while still importing certain military products from Russia, such as jet engines. China sought to become independent in its defence sector and become competitive in global arms markets; its defence sector is rapidly developing and maturing. Gaps in certain capabilities remain, including development of electronic and reliable propulsion systems, although China's defense industry production has improved significantly, providing an advantage over other militaries in the Asia-Pacific region. China's 2015 Defense White Paper called for "independent innovation" and the "sustainable development" of advanced weaponry and equipment.
In September 2018, Russia hosted the militaries of China and Mongolia as a part of the Vostok 2018 military exercise to improve ties between the countries, making them the first two countries outside of the former Soviet Union to join the exercise.
Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu visited the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia on 17 April 2023
In December 2019, Rostec officials accused China of intellectual property theft of a range of military technologies. In June 2020, Russia charged one of its Arctic scientists of passing sensitive information to China.
As early as February 2022, according to US authorities, Russia asked China for advanced military weaponry, in particular, armed drones for use in their invasion of Ukraine. China and Russia have both denied these allegations.
On 17 April 2023, Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu made his first overseas visit to Russia. As part of his four-day visit, he met with Russian president Vladimir Putin and Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow. During his meeting, he stated the ties between China and Russia "surpass military-political alliances of the cold war era".
Military exercises and joint patrols
In July 2019, and again in December 2020, Russia and China flew joint bomber patrols over the Pacific.
In November 2022, Russian and Chinese warplanes including the Tupolev-95 and XIAN H-6K long range strategic bombers conducted joint patrols over the Sea of Japan and East China sea.
In September 2022, Russia hosted the military of China as a part of the Vostok-2022 military exercise.
Media communication agreements
In March 2013, the Voice of Russia and the People's Daily Online signed a news sharing agreement as Xi and Putin presided. On October 13, 2014, Russia Today and the People's Daily signed a cooperation agreement. In July 2021, the Russian-Chinese Commission for Humanitarian Cooperation agreed to mass-media cooperation.
Mutual perceptions
Since 1995, Russians have consistently held positive views of China. As of September 2022, 88% of Russians surveyed by the Levada Center view China favorably, with only 5% expressing a negative opinion.
According to a 2017 BBC World Service poll, 74% of the Chinese view Russia's influence positively, with 18% expressing a negative view, while 44% of Russians view China's influence positively and 23% negatively.
According to a 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 71% of Russians have a favorable view of China, with 18% expressing an unfavorable view. A YouGov survey conducted in the same year found that 71% of the Chinese think Russia has a positive effect on world affairs, while 15% view it negatively.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many social media users in China showed sympathy for Russian narratives due in part to distrust of US foreign policy. According to a Carter Center China Focus survey conducted in April 2022, approximately 75% of Chinese respondents agreed that supporting Russia in the Ukraine war was in China's best interest. Chinese company NetEase has published videos critical of Russia from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China.
According to a Genron NPO poll released in November 2022 asking about Chinese peoples' views on the Russian invasion, 39.5% of respondents said the Russian actions "are not wrong", 21.5% said "the Russian actions are a violation of the U.N. Charter and international laws, and should be opposed", and 29% said "the Russian actions are wrong, but the circumstances should be considered."
See also
China portalRussia portalPolitics portal
Foreign relations of China
Foreign relations of Russia
Embassy of China, Moscow
Ambassadors of China to Russia
Ambassadors of Russia to China
China–Soviet Union relations
Russia–Taiwan relations
History of Sino-Russian relations
Russia's turn to the East
China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (book)
Ethnic Chinese in Russia
Russians in China
Notes
^ Territories under the control of the Republic of China (ROC): Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands are recognised by the Russian Federation as part of the PRC.
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Further reading
Library resources about China–Russia relations
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Bernstein, Thomas P. and Hua-Yu Li, eds. China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present (2010).
Blank, Stephen. "Is Russia a great power in Asia?." in Great Powers and Geopolitics (Springer, Cham, 2015) pp. 161–182. online
Blank, Stephen. "Russo-Chinese relations in strategic perspective." in International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) pp. 93–108.
Blank, Stephen, and Younkyoo Kim. "Does Russo-Chinese partnership threaten America's interests in Asia?." Orbis 60.1 (2016): 112–127.
Contessi, Nicola P. "China, Russia and the Leadership of the SCO: A Tacit Deal Scenario" China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 8, 4 (2010): 101–123.
Efremenko D. "New Russian Government's Foreign Policy towards East Asia and the Pacific" Journal of East Asian Affairs (2012) 26#2 (Seoul: Institute for National Security ) metaCode=en_m_pub&boardId=a57b3ef8b2bff73bb9e00084&pkey=1 online
Fravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton University Press, 2019) online reviews
Garver, John W. Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China (1992) online
Herbst, John. "The Coming Russian-Chinese Clash" The National Interest Aug. 21, 2020.
Hsu, Jing-Yun, and Jenn-Jaw Soong. "Development of China-Russia Relations (1949–2011) Limits, Opportunities, and Economic Ties." Chinese economy 47.3 (2014): 70–87. online Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine
Jersild, Austin. The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History (U of North Carolina Press, 2014).
Kim, Younkyoo, and Stephen Blank. "Rethinking Russo-Chinese Relations in Asia: Beyond Russia's Chinese Dilemma." China: An International Journal(2013) 11#3 pp: 136–148. online
Kim, Younkyoo; Indeo, Fabio (2013). "The new great game in Central Asia post 2014: The US "New Silk Road" strategy and Sino-Russian rivalry". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 46 (2): 275–286. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.005.
Korolev, Alexander. "The Strategic Alignment between Russia and China: Myths and Reality." Singapore: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Research Paper #15–19 (2015). online
Kuliabin A. Semine S. Russia — a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. Zavtra Rossii, #28, 17 July 1997. RUSSIA IN THE PACIFIC REGION SYSTEM:
March, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific (1996) online
Marsh, Christopher. Unparalleled Reforms. China's Rise, Russia's Fall and the Interdependence of Transition (2005).
Maxwell. Neville. "How the Sino-Russian boundary conflict was finally settled: From Nerchinsk 1689 to Vladivostok 2005 via Zhenbao Island 1969." Critical Asian Studies 39.2 (2007): 229–253. online
Moshes, Arkady and Matti Nojonen, eds. Russia-China relations: Current state, alternative futures, and implications for the West FIIA Report 30, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs (September 2011)
Nye, Joseph. "A New Sino-Russian Alliance?" Project Syndicate 12 January 2015
Quested, Rosemary K.I. Sino-Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014) online
Rozman, Gilbert. The Sino-Russian Challenge to the World Order: National Identities, Bilateral Relations, and East versus West in the 2010s (2014) online review
Rozman, Gilbert. The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978–1985 (Princeton UP, 1987).
Rozman, Gilbert and Sergey Radchenko, eds. International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) excerpt
Shen, Zhihua. A Short History of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991 (Springer Singapore;Palgrave Macmillan, 2020)
Snow, Philip. China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (Yale UP, 2023) excerpt at Amazon
Tian, Hao. "Sino-Russian Relations: Conflict and Cooperation." (Lehigh University, 2016), bibliography pp 55–60; online
Trenin, Dmitri. Challenges and Opportunities: Russia and the Rise of China and India in Strategic Asia 2011–12: Asia Responds to Its Rising Powers – China and India (September 2011)
Urbansky, Sören. Beyond the Steppe Frontier: A History of the Sino-Russian Border (2020) a comprehensive history; excerpt
Weitz, Richard. China-Russia security relations: strategic parallelism without partnership or passion? (Maroon Ebooks, 2015)
Wishnick, Elizabeth. Mending Fences. The Evolution of Moscow's China Policy from Brezhnev to Yeltsin (2001)
Zubok, Vladislav. "The Soviet Union and China in the 1980s: reconciliation and divorce." Cold War History 17.2 (2017): 121–141.
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New Development Bank | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of Sino-Russian relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sino-Russian_relations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_70-%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_-_15.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"state visit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_visit"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"dissolution of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Joseph Nye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Nye"},{"link_name":"undue weight?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:China%E2%80%93Russia_relations#undue"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"demarcated in 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Sino-Soviet_Border_Agreement"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Sino-Russian_Treaty_of_Friendship"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"state visit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_visit"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Chinese leader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_leader"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"Russian President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"special relationship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relationship_(international_relations)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"large-scale international sanctions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overland_103150-16"}],"text":"\"Sino-Russian relations since 1991\" redirects here. For the state of Sino-Russian relations before 1991, see History of Sino-Russian relations.Bilateral relationsVladimir Putin with Xi Jinping during a state visit to Moscow in May 2015.China and Russia established diplomatic relations after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[a]American scholar Joseph Nye states:[undue weight? – discuss]With the collapse of the Soviet Union, that de facto US-China alliance ended, and a China–Russia rapprochement began. In 1992, the two countries declared that they were pursuing a \"constructive partnership\"; in 1996, they progressed toward a \"strategic partnership\"; and in 2001, they signed a treaty of \"friendship and cooperation\".[2]The two countries share a land border which was demarcated in 1991, and they signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation in 2001, which was renewed in June 2021 for five more years.[3] On the eve of a 2013 state visit to Moscow by Chinese leader Xi Jinping, Russian President Vladimir Putin remarked that the two nations were forging a special relationship.[4] China and Russia have enjoyed close relations militarily, economically, and politically, while supporting each other on various global issues.[5][6][7] Commentators have debated whether the bilateral strategic partnership constitutes an alliance.[8][9][10] Russia and China officially declared their relations \"Not allies, but better than allies\".[11] Ties have continued to deepen after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with Russia increasingly becoming dependent on China since it was hit with large-scale international sanctions.[12][13][14] Russian coal exports came under particular pressure in Europe due to the combination of energy transition and sanctions over Ukraine, causing Russia to double down on coal exports to China and other Asian countries.[15]","title":"China–Russia relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg"},{"link_name":"Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Russian Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Manchuria_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"treaties of Aigun 1858","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun"},{"link_name":"Peking 1860","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_Peking"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Nerchinsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk"},{"link_name":"Russian Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_East"},{"link_name":"annexation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_Annexation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"China and the USSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_relations"},{"link_name":"Sino-Soviet split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split"},{"link_name":"border war took place in 1969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Mao Zedong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong"},{"link_name":"Boris Yeltsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin"},{"link_name":"Jiang Zemin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiang_Zemin"},{"link_name":"Yang Shangkun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Shangkun"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chronology-18"},{"link_name":"Li Peng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Peng"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parrish-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:92222-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Xi_Jinping_(2019-06-05)_57.jpg"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"two pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panda_diplomacy"},{"link_name":"Moscow Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Zoo"},{"link_name":"Vladimir 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Russo-Georgian war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-22"},{"link_name":"United States sanctions against Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War"},{"link_name":"2014 annexation of Crimea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Annexation_of_Crimea"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"Capital Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Economics"},{"link_name":"sanctions on Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countering_America%27s_Adversaries_Through_Sanctions_Act"},{"link_name":"US-China trade war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"China's claims in the South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_disputes_in_the_South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Yaroslav Trofimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslav_Trofimov"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xi-Putin_meeting_(2021-06-28)_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Covid-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covid-19"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"Mao Ning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Ning_(diplomat)"},{"link_name":"death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Alexei_Navalny"},{"link_name":"Alexei Navalny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Navalny"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria (later Russian Manchuria) and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent loss of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red).The relations between China and Russia go back to the 17th-century, when the Qing dynasty tried to drive Russian settlers out of Manchuria, ended by the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Russian Empire consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century, after the annexation of part of Chinese Manchuria (1858–1860).[16]During the Cold War, China and the USSR were rivals after the Sino-Soviet split in 1961, competing for control of the worldwide Communist movement. There was a serious possibility of a major war between the two nations in the early 1960s; a brief border war took place in 1969. This enmity began to lessen after the death of Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong in 1976, but relations were poor until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.On December 23, 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin made his first official visit to China, where he met with CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin and Chinese president Yang Shangkun.[17] In December 1996, at the end of Chinese Premier Li Peng's visit to Moscow, Russia and China issued a joint communique pledging to build an \"equal and reliable partnership.\"[18]During the 1990s, cooperation between China and Russia was facilitated by the two countries' mutual desires to balance the influence of the United States and establish a multi-polar international system.[19]: 248Chinese Paramount leader Xi Jinping presented two pandas to Moscow Zoo at a ceremony with Vladimir Putin on 5 June 2019In 2001, the close relations between the two countries were formalized with the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, a twenty-year strategic, economic, and – controversially and arguably – an implicit military treaty. A month before the treaty was signed, the two countries joined with junior partners Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Still active as of 2022, the organization is expected to counter the growing influence of the United States military outreach program in Central Asia. The PRC is currently a key purchaser and licensee of Russian military equipment, some of which have been instrumental in the modernization of the People's Liberation Army. The PRC is also a main beneficiary of the Russian Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.During the 2008 Russo-Georgian war, China opposed Russia's infringement on Georgia's sovereignty.[20]: 347 Citing principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and global order, China used its influence in the SCO to prevent the organization from supporting Russia.[20]: 347When China attempted to build closer relations with Russia in 2013, the Russian government initially had reservations.[21] However, the United States sanctions against Russia for its 2014 annexation of Crimea helped push Russia to a warmer relationship with China.[21] Although some Chinese banks and companies refused to fully cooperate with Russia because of the concern that secondary sanctions might be applied to them, Russian-Chinese economic ties grew once China itself faced sanctions concerns.[22]: 65Liam Carson, an emerging European economist at Capital Economics, said in 2019:Policymakers in both countries have actively tried to strengthen trade ties in recent years. And it's no coincidence that this surge in Russia-China trade has come at the same time that the US has tightened sanctions on Russia and concerns about the US-China trade war have intensified.[23]By 2019, both nations had serious grievances with the United States. For China, the issues were control of the South China Sea, trade policies, and technology policy. For Russia, the main issue was severe economic penalties imposed by the U.S. and Europe to punish its seizure of Crimea from Ukraine. China and Russia do, however, differ on some policies. China does not recognize Russia's annexation of Crimea,[24]: 4 and Russia does not support China's claims in the South China Sea[citation needed]. Nevertheless, China and Russia currently enjoy the best relations they have had since the late 1950s. Although they have no formal alliance, the two countries do have an informal agreement to coordinate diplomatic and economic moves, and build up an alliance against the United States.[25][26] Yaroslav Trofimov, the chief foreign-affairs correspondent of The Wall Street Journal, argued in 2019:Though there is no overt ideological alignment between Russia and China today, the two governments share a hostility to dissent, deep suspicion of Western interference and a strong desire to impose tighter controls over their own societies. Mr. Xi has presided over a push to stamp out corruption and bolster the Communist party's role in the economy and the society at large—a campaign akin to Mr. Putin's earlier effort to tame Russian oligarchs and crush political opposition. China was inspired by Russia's legislation cracking down on nongovernmental organizations, while Russian officials have expressed admiration for China's comprehensive internet censorship and \"social credit\" plan to rank citizens based on their loyalty and behavior.[27]Xi continued to meet Putin via videoconference during the Covid-19 crisisDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, some tensions arose within the Chinese-Russian relationship.[22]: 71–72 For example, in October 2020, relying on the pretext of coronavirus allegedly found on the exterior of fish packaging, China greatly reduced the import of Russian seafood, causing a substantial price decrease in Russian seafood.[22]: 72 Chinese restrictions on Russian cargo traffic at border crossings also led to tensions, including a drivers' strike.[22]: 72In February 2024, Foreign ministry spokesperson Mao Ning declined to comment on the death of Russian opposition politician and political prisoner Alexei Navalny, describing it as \"Russia's internal affair\".[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_and_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_met_with_Xi_Jinping_in_advance_of_2022_Beijing_Winter_Olympics_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-31"},{"link_name":"Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence"},{"link_name":"Beijing Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-32"},{"link_name":"The Beijing News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beijing_News"},{"link_name":"Weibo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibo_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Associated Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"list of foreign states and territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfriendly_Countries_List"},{"link_name":"its military invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Corriere della Sera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera"},{"link_name":"Sergey Karaganov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Karaganov"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Volodymyr Zelenskyy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Putin-Xi_press_conference_(2023).jpg"},{"link_name":"visit to Russia in March 2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_visit_by_Xi_Jinping_to_Russia"},{"link_name":"Dmitry Peskov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Peskov"},{"link_name":"Chinese peace proposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War#Peace_proposal"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Politico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politico"},{"link_name":"Norinco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norinco"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"met with Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_visit_by_Xi_Jinping_to_Russia"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"International Criminal Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Court"},{"link_name":"warrant for his arrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICC_arrest_warrants_for_Vladimir_Putin_and_Maria_Lvova-Belova"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"EU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU"},{"link_name":"UAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Director of National Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Entity List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity_List"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"sanctions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"sub_title":"Russian invasion of Ukraine","text":"Further information: Russian invasion of Ukraine and China and the Russian invasion of UkrainePutin visited China and met with Xi Jinping on 4 February 2022Xi and Putin met on February 4, 2022, during a massive Russian build-up of force on the Ukrainian border, with the two expressing that the two countries are nearly united in their anti-US alignment and that both nations shared \"no limits\" to their commitments.[29][30] Western Intelligence reports said that China had asked Russia to wait to invade Ukraine until after the Beijing Olympics ended on February 20.[30] Shortly before the invasion, Chinese media would repeat Russian statements that Russia's troops were being pulled away from the border with Ukraine.[31]On February 22, two days prior to the invasion of Ukraine, a leaked post The Beijing News' Horizon News on Weibo detailed instructions on how to report on a crisis in Ukraine; the post asked editors to monitor unfavorable comments, to only use tags shared by Chinese state media and stated \"Do not post anything unfavorable to Russia or pro-Western. Let me review your words before posting\".[31][32] On February 25, 2022, one day following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Putin told Xi during a phone call that Russia is eager to engage in high-level negotiations with Ukraine, according to China's foreign ministry.[33]According to the Associated Press in April 2022, China refused to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine, repeated Russian propaganda about the war, opposed economic sanctions against Russia, and abstained or sided with Russia in UN votes on the war in Ukraine.[34]In March 2022, Russia added Taiwan to a list of foreign states and territories that commit \"unfriendly actions\" against its military invasion of Ukraine.[35] Chinese leader Xi Jinping has assured Vladimir Putin of China's support on Russian \"sovereignty and security\" in June.[36][37]In April 2022, in an interview with the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, Russian political scientist Sergey Karaganov, who is considered close to Vladimir Putin, said that Russia \"will be more integrated and more dependent on China\", further stating that \"Chinese are our close allies and friends and the biggest source of Russian strength after Russian people themselves.\"[38]In June 2022, Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping had a call with Putin where he reaffirmed support for Russia on security issues while saying that \"all parties should responsibly push for a proper settlement of the Ukraine crisis\".[39][40]Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy said that China has the economic leverage to pressure Putin to end the war, adding \"I'm sure that without the Chinese market for the Russian Federation, Russia would be feeling complete economic isolation. That's something that China can do – to limit the trade [with Russia] until the war is over.\" In August 2022, Zelenskyy said that since the beginning of the war in Ukraine, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping had refused all his requests for direct talks with him.[41]Putin welcomes Xi in Moscow during Xi's visit to Russia in March 2023In February 2023, Putin's spokesperson Dmitry Peskov rejected the Chinese peace proposal, saying that \"for now, we don't see any of the conditions that are needed to bring this whole story towards peace.\"[42]In March 2023, Politico reported that Chinese state-owned weapons manufacturer Norinco shipped assault rifles, drone parts, and body armor to Russia between June and December 2022, with some of the shipments going through via third-countries including Turkey and the United Arab Emirates.[43] According to the US Department of Defense, Chinese ammunition has been used on battlefields in Ukraine.[44]On 20–22 March 2023, Xi Jinping visited Russia and met with Vladimir Putin both in official and unofficial capacity.[45] It was the first international meeting of Vladimir Putin since the International Criminal Court issued a warrant for his arrest.[46]In May 2023, the EU identified that Chinese and UAE firms were supplying weapon components to Russia. The EU banned export of dual-use goods targeting 8 Chinese firms.[47]On 20 July 2023, the Chinese general consulate in Odesa, Ukraine was damaged in a Russian attack on a grain terminal in a nearby port, plus other parts of the city.[48][49] China has been the largest importer of grains from Ukraine.[50]In July 2023, the US Office of the Director of National Intelligence published a report stating that the Chinese government is assisting Russia to evade sanctions and providing it with dual-use technology.[51] In October 2023, the US Department of Commerce added 42 Chinese companies to the Entity List for supplying Russia with microelectronics for missile and drone guidance systems.[52]In February 2024, the European Union proposed sanctions that would target Chinese companies aiding Russia's war effort in Ukraine.[53]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sino-Soviet border conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict"},{"link_name":"Viktor Chernomyrdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Chernomyrdin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chronology-18"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Abagaitu Islet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abagaitu_Islet"},{"link_name":"Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinlong_Island"},{"link_name":"Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshoy_Ussuriysky_Island"},{"link_name":"Japanese invasion of Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Amur River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_River"},{"link_name":"National People's Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress"},{"link_name":"State Duma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Duma"}],"text":"See also: Sino-Soviet border conflictOn May 29, 1994, during the visit of Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin to Beijing, Russian and Chinese officials signed an agreement on the Sino-Russian Border Management System intended to facilitate border trade and hinder criminal activity.[17] On September 3 of that year, a demarcation agreement was signed, fixing the boundary along a previously–disputed 55-km stretch of the western Sino-Russian border. After the final demarcation carried out in the early 2000s, it measures 4,209.3 kilometres (2,615.5 mi), and is the world's sixth-longest international border.[54]The 2004 Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China–Russia Boundary[55] stated that Russia agrees to transfer a part of Abagaitu Islet, all of Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island, about a half of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island, along with some adjacent islets, to China. A border dispute between Russia and China, standing since Japanese invasion of Manchuria of 1931, was thus resolved. These Amur River islands were, until then, administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma. The official transfer ceremony occurred on-site on October 14, 2008.","title":"Border"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Convention of Peking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_Peking"},{"link_name":"Tannu Uriankhai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannu_Uriankhai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"unequal treaties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unequal_treaty"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:92222-20"}],"sub_title":"Rival claims over Vladivostok settled","text":"See also: Convention of Peking and Tannu UriankhaiTerritories that have become part of Russia under the Aigun Treaty and the Beijing Treaty of 1860In 2005, Beijing and Moscow ratified an agreement that ended more than three and half centuries of their struggle over territory and for dominance.[56] Russia is the only country that still controls the territory it acquired from Qing dynasty China via the unequal treaties.[19]: 249–250","title":"Border"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SCO_meeting_(2022-09-16).jpg"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Cooperation Organisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-23"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-61"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:9YAN_5350_(52766002359).jpg"},{"link_name":"BRICS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"BRICS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Belt and Road Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_and_Road_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mikhail_Mishustin_and_Li_Qiang_(2023-05-24)_10.jpg"},{"link_name":"Li Qiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qiang"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Mishustin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin"},{"link_name":"Eurasian Economic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-32"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Mishustin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin"},{"link_name":"Alexander Novak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Novak"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"Russian energy supplies to China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Energy_relations"},{"link_name":"Li Qiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Qiang"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Heihe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heihe"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"}],"text":"Putin and Xi Jinping at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summitEconomic relations between Russia and China demonstrate mixed trends. Trade between the two countries was running between $5 billion and $8 billion per year in the 1990s, but grew steadily from then onwards. It was on course to hit $100 billion – the previous goal – until the 2008 crisis interceded. Trade slumped back to around $60 billion in 2015 and 2016 but started to recover again in 2017.[57] Both countries are expecting to raise the trade volume to $200 billion by 2024.[58]Between 2008 and 2009, when Russia experienced a financial crisis, there was a sharp increase in borrowing from China. This trend, however, did not last. Starting in 2013, borrowing started to grow steadily.[59]The main form of cooperation in the complex economic relations between Russia and China is trade. From 2003 until 2013, mutual trade increased 7.7 times; in 2014 the scale of bilateral operations increased even more. The aggravation of relations between Russia and Western countries contributed to the expansion of economic ties with China. By 2020, the parties planned to increase bilateral trade to $200 billion. According to the Federal Сustoms Service (FCS) of the Russian Federation, in 2016 the foreign trade turnover of Russia and China amounted to $66.1 billion (in 2015 – $63.6 billion). Russia has a negative trade balance with China: in 2016 exports amounted to 28 billion, whereas imports totaled 38.1 billion (in 2015, 28.6 and 35.9 billion, resoectively). The share of China in foreign trade with Russia grew from 12.1% in 2015 to 14.1% in 2016. Since 2010, China is the largest trading partner of Russia.[60]Most of Russia's exports to China originate from the mining and petrochemicals sectors.[61] More than half of Russia's exports to China come from mineral fuels, oil, and petroleum products (60.7%), followed by wood and wood products (9.4%), non-ferrous metals (9%), fish and seafood (3.5%), and chemical products (3.3%). China is also gradually becoming a major consumer of Russian agricultural products.[22]: 64The main categories of imports to Russia from China are machinery and equipment (35.9%), clothing (13.7%), chemical products (9.1%), fur and fur products (5.6%), footwear (5.3%), and furniture (3%). Chinese electronics are steadily expanding their presence in Russian.[22]: 64According to the General Сustoms Administration of China, bilateral trade in January–May 2017 increased by 26.1% in annual terms, amounting to $32.3 billion, and mutual trade in 2017 may exceed $80 billion According to the Ministry of Commerce of China, as of January 1, 2016, the volume of accumulated direct Russian investments in China amounted to $946.9 million and Chinese investments totaled ten times more, estimated at $8.94 billion.[60]Meeting of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) foreign ministers in New York City on 22 September 2022Participation in such organizations as BRICS and RIC (Russia-India-China) has significant importance for Russian-Chinese economic relations. At the Russian-Chinese summit held in Shanghai[when?], Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping stressed that \"Russia and China stand for the transformation of BRICS into a mechanism of cooperation and coordination on a wide range of global financial, economic and international political problems, including the establishment of a closer economic partnership, the early establishment of the BRICS development Bank and the formation of a; for the expansion of joint efforts of representation and voting rights of States with emerging markets and developing countries in the system of global economic governance, for the formation of an open world economy; for the deepening of cooperation in the field of foreign policy, including in the settlement of regional conflicts\".[62]To facilitate financial transactions in the regions, China and Russia will conduct a currency swap. Central banks, with whom China has signed currency swaps, are able to issue loans to their banks in yuan. A currency swap agreement was signed with Russia in the amount of 150 billion yuan ($25 billion). Currency swaps will make the ruble and the yuan more stable, which in turn will have a positive impact on the stability of the global financial system. Additionally, the expansion of currency trading may facilitate investment processes. By investing in an economy that is now facing certain problems due to the fall of the ruble and oil prices, China is carrying out soft expansion and supports one of its main partners. China and Russia have long advocated reducing the role of the dollar in international trade, and both aim to create conditions for the development of bilateral trade and mutual investment. The rate of de-dollarization chosen by the countries is due to the rapid growth of the RMB's share in international payments and settlements (Oct. 2013. – 0.84%, Dec. 2014. – 2.17%, Feb. 2015. – 1.81%).[63] The conclusion of a currency swap makes it possible to facilitate payments, as there is an imitation of the internal currency, which speeds up the transfer procedure and minimizes the cost of conversion.[citation needed]In 2013, China initiated the creation of a new economic initiative – the \"New silk road\" or the Belt and Road Initiative. This project is designed primarily to strengthen economic ties and cooperation and to attract investors from Asia and other parts of the world to actively participate in the creation of the \"silk road economic belt of the XXI century\". The zone should extend from China to Europe through Central Asia and Russia, as it is an important transit logistical link between China and Europe, in which the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank may play a significant role.[64] In recent years, China and Russia have stepped up cooperation in the construction of cross-border infrastructure. New Eurasian transport routes are being built as well, including the \"Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe\" railway and the \"Western Europe – Western China\" route, which will pass through Russia. In northeast China and the Russian far East, both countries are actively promoting the construction of bridges, ports, and other projects. It is planned to increase the volume of bilateral trade between China and Russia to $200 billion by the end of 2020.Chinese Premier Li Qiang and Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin in Beijing, China on 24 May 2023Russia has also shown interest in cooperating with the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The creation of the EAEU is posed to serve as an important platform for multilateral cooperation in the region, as all participants are friendly neighbors and partners with Russia, as well as traditional partners with China. Russia is interested in creating a free trade zone of the EAEU and China, as well as the use of the national currency in this region.[65]Following the implementation of international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, China provided economic relief to Russia.[31] China's total trade with Russia was a record $190 billion in 2022.[66] In the same year, China accounted for 40% of Russia's imports.[67] In the first half of 2023, models from Chinese car companies accounted for more than a third of all sales in Russia.[68]In May 2023, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin and Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak visited Beijing and met with Chinese President Xi Jinping. Novak said that Russian energy supplies to China will increase by 40 percent year-on-year in 2023. Chinese Premier Li Qiang hailed the \"comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership between China and Russia in the new era\", saying that bilateral trade between China and Russia had increased by more than 40% over the past year.[69]On 18 October 2023, Chinese leader Xi Jinping emphasized the deepening \"political mutual trust\" with Russian President Vladimir Putin, lauding their strong strategic coordination and record-high bilateral trade volume.[70]In December 2023, Xi Jinping said that bilateral trade between China and Russia exceeded $200 billion in the first 11 months of 2023.[71] On 31 December 2023, Xi Jinping said China's ties with Russia had grown stronger in 2023.[72] The largest trade increases are seen in Chinese made cars and trucks. Increasing trade volume between the two countries is particularly visible in Heihe.[73]","title":"Economic relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Prime_Minister"},{"link_name":"Chinese Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Wen Jiabao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wen_Jiabao"},{"link_name":"national currencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_currency"},{"link_name":"bilateral trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateral_trade"},{"link_name":"U.S. dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._dollar"},{"link_name":"financial crisis of 2007–2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008"},{"link_name":"Chinese yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_yuan"},{"link_name":"Russian ruble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_ruble"},{"link_name":"foreign exchange market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_exchange_market"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"2010 BRIC summit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_BRIC_summit"},{"link_name":"Brasília","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia"},{"link_name":"central bank liquidity swap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_bank_liquidity_swap"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Wang Yi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Yi_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-68"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-68"},{"link_name":"yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renminbi"},{"link_name":"ruble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_ruble"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renminbi"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Trade in national currencies","text":"On November 23, 2010, at a meeting of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and the Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, it was announced that Russia and China have decided to use their own national currencies for bilateral trade, instead of the U.S. dollar. The move was aimed to further improve the relations between Beijing and Moscow and to protect their domestic economies during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. The trading of the Chinese yuan against the Russian ruble started in the Chinese interbank market, while the yuan's trading against the ruble started on the Russian foreign exchange market in December 2010.[74][75]In coordination with other emerging economies, the 2010 BRIC summit was held in Brasília in April 2010.In 2014, Beijing and Moscow signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement to avoid and counter American sanctions.[76]In December 2014, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi pledged to offer financial support to Russia and support the Ruble, if needed, in light of the currency's depreciation.[77]Russia's dependence on the Chinese yuan increased heavily after its invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The share of Russian exports paid in yuan rose to 16% by December 2022, compared to 0.4% before the invasion, while share of imports paid in yuan increased to 23%, up from 4% before.[78][79] Yuan's share of stock market trading in Russia increased from 3% to 33%[67] Nearly 50 financial institutions were offering yuan saving accounts by 2023, and households were holding around $6 billion worth of yuan in Russian banks by the end of 2022.[67]By the end of 2023, more than 90% of the trade between China and Russia was done with either the yuan or the ruble.[80][81] Furthermore, Russia is using Chinese yuan for more than 25% of its international trade with other countries than China.[82]","title":"Economic relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Sheremetyevo – Alexander S. Pushkin international airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheremetyevo_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"UnionPay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UnionPay"},{"link_name":"WeChat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WeChat"},{"link_name":"Alipay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alipay"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Tourism and cultural exchanges","text":"Tourism, especially from China to Russia, has seen a massive spike over the years. More than 2 million Chinese tourists visited Russia in 2019, compared to 158,000 a decade ago. China is one of the most important tourist markets for Russia. Support for cooperation between Russian and Chinese investment organizations in tourism industry is provided in the context of the Joint Action Plan by the Russian Federal Agency for Tourism and China's State Administration of Tourism.[83] More than 2.3 million Chinese tourists flew into Moscow's Sheremetyevo – Alexander S. Pushkin international airport in 2019, including 1.26 million who transferred via the airport. Sheremetyevo, which offers flights to 29 Chinese cities served by eight Chinese airlines, expects their number to grow by 30 per cent a year in the years to come. Russia has played into this tourism boom by expanding capacity of Moscow's largest airport. \"Russia has also allowed more flights from regional Chinese air companies to Moscow, which helps to turn the Russian capital into an air hub for Europe-bound Chinese tourism.\" Sheremetyevo is looking to capitalise on that growth. Pǔtōnghuà or standard Chinese is among the languages displayed on Sheremetyevo's signs and announcements, while duty-free stores accept popular Chinese payment methods, including UnionPay cards and online systems WeChat Pay and Alipay. As many as 70 per cent of tax-free receipts handed out at Russia's airports go to Chinese citizens. By 2019, Russia has become among the top 3 travel destinations for Chinese tourists.[84]","title":"Economic relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russia_and_China_sign_major_gas_deal.jpeg"},{"link_name":"gas deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"provide natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overland_103150-16"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overland_103150-16"},{"link_name":"liquefied natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas"},{"link_name":"shale gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Eurasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-95"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_oil_exports_destination.webp"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Power of Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_Siberia"},{"link_name":"more carbon intensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-98"},{"link_name":"Nord Stream 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord_Stream_2"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-98"},{"link_name":"West Siberian petroleum basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Siberian_petroleum_basin"},{"link_name":"Altai gas pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_gas_pipeline"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_Oil_and_Energy_Resources"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"text":"On 21 May 2014, China and Russia signed a $400 billion gas deal. Starting 2019, Russia plans to provide natural gas to China for the next 30 years.Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, energy relations between China and Russia have been generally marked by cooperation and regard for mutual geopolitical and strategic interests. China's fast-growing economy places increasing pressure on itself to secure energy imports, while Russia's economy is largely driven by the demand for the export of natural resources. China became a petroleum importer for the first time in 1993, had become the world's second-largest oil-consuming country as of 2011, and the world's largest overall energy consumer as of 2010.[85][86] In a report released in January 2012, the China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation estimated that the country's crude oil consumption would increase to 480 million tonnes in 2012, or 9.6 million barrels per day. The group also forecast that natural gas consumption would rise 15.3 percent to 148.2 billion cubic meters (bcd).[87] Given its geographical proximity to China and position as one of the world's largest oil producers and natural gas exporters, Russia has been an obvious candidate for meeting this increased demand.[88] While energy relations have primarily related to oil, gas, and coal,[15] there have also been partnerships with regard to nuclear and renewable (wind and water) energy technology.[89]From the mid-1990s, when the tightening of global energy markets coincided with his rise to power, Russian President Vladimir Putin signaled the importance of, oil and particularly natural gas, for Russia's emergence as a global power.[90] Long-term prospects for Russian gas exports to China will be affected by several global pricing trends.[91][15] Surges in liquefied natural gas (LNG) capacity, the increasingly competitive nature of Central Asian gas supplies, advances in shale gas technology, and potential greenhouse gas policies may all impact Chinese consumption.[92]Despite frequent declarations of goodwill and bilateral energy cooperation, Chinese-Russian energy relations since 1991 have been limited by mutual suspicions, pricing concerns, inadequate transportation infrastructure, and competition for influence in Eurasia.[93][94]Russian oil exports by destination in 2020.[95]In 2014, Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion. Deliveries to China started in late 2019.[96] The Power of Siberia pipeline is designed to reduce China's dependence on coal, which is more carbon intensive and causes more pollution than natural gas.[97] For Russia, the pipeline allows another economic partnership in the face of resistance to the Nord Stream 2 pipeline.[97] The proposed western gas route from Russia's West Siberian petroleum basin to North-Western China is known as Power of Siberia 2 (Altai gas pipeline).[98]In 2022, China's imports of discounts of up to 30% oil from Russia rose 55% in May, Russia displaced Saudi Arabia as China's biggest oil provider in recent months.[99][100]","title":"Energy relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Lianyungang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lianyungang"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Yukos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukos"},{"link_name":"Daqing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daqing"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Khodorkovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Khodorkovsky"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"Zhang Qiyue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qiyue"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Fradkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Fradkov"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"China National Petroleum Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Petroleum_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Gazprom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazprom"},{"link_name":"Soyuzneftegaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuzneftegaz"},{"link_name":"Yuganskneftegaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuganskneftegaz"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Rosneft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosneft"},{"link_name":"Alexei Kudrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Kudrin"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Lukoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukoil"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atimes.com-120"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atimes.com-120"},{"link_name":"memorandum of understanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding"},{"link_name":"Alexei Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Miller"},{"link_name":"Chen Geng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Geng"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Duma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duma"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"TNK-BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNK-BP"},{"link_name":"Sibneft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibneft"},{"link_name":"Gazprom Neft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazprom_Neft"},{"link_name":"Alfa Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfa_Group"},{"link_name":"British Petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Petroleum"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dmitry_Medvedev_APEC_Summit_14-15_November_2009-8.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dmitry Medvedev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev"},{"link_name":"Hu Jintao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Jintao"},{"link_name":"2009 APEC Summit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Singapore_2009"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hu Jintao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_Jintao"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"Altai pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_pipeline"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Igor Sechin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Sechin"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vyacheslav_Volodin_%26_Xi_Jinping_-_2023.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vyacheslav Volodin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyacheslav_Volodin"},{"link_name":"Xi Jinping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-95"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"according to whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"The official relationship between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation has been upgraded three times since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1991. Beginning as \"good-neighborly and mutually beneficial\" in December 1992, it evolved into a \"constructive partnership\" in September 1994, and finally a \"strategic partnership of coordination\" in April 1996.[101] In September 1999, the two countries began joint construction of a nuclear power station at Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province with an installed capacity of 2 million kW, one of the first situations of mutual energy cooperation.[102]The late 1990s also marked the beginning of feasibility studies for natural gas and oil pipeline projects in Western and Eastern Siberia. In 2001, Russian company Yukos proposed the unprecedented Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean (ESPO) Oil Pipeline Project, which would link Yukos's oil refinery in Angarsk to Daqing, in northern China.[103] At the time, rail routes were the only means of transporting oil into the growing Chinese market. The project stalled in October 2003 when Yukos chief executive Mikhail Khodorkovsky was arrested on charges including tax evasion and fraud, and the Russian government launched an immediate investigation into the company.[104][105] Many speculated that the series of events were politically motivated, given that Mr. Khodorkovsky had been a vocal opponent of President Putin.[106] A week after Mr. Khodorkovsky's arrest, China Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Zhang Qiyue publicly announced that the Kremlin investigation would not impact the proposed China-Russia oil pipeline project.[107]In September 2004, Chinese premier Wen Jiabao met with Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov in Moscow, where the two heads of government signed agreements affirming Russia's promise to set the route of a proposed pipeline from Eastern Siberia to the Pacific, with priority given to laying a pipeline spur to China, as well as increasing rail oil exports to China to 10 million tons (200,000 b/d) in 2005 and 15 million tons (300,000 b/d) in 2006.[108] Four days before Wen's visit, Yukos, then the largest supplier of Russian oil to China and Russia's biggest oil producer, publicly announced that rail shipments of crude oil to the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) would end beginning on September 28, 2004. The Kremlin had begun auctioning off the troubled company's operating assets a month prior in August.[109]Gazprom, Soyuzneftegaz and the Chinese Embassy in Moscow all expressed interest in Yuganskneftegaz, a main arm of Yukos.[110] The subsidiary was ultimately acquired by Russia's state-owned oil company Rosneft for roughly $9.3 billion. In February 2005, Russian Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin revealed that Chinese banks provided $6 billion in financing the Rosneft acquisition. This financing was reportedly secured by long-term oil delivery contracts between Rosneft and the CNPC.[111] In the same month, the Chinese Foreign Ministry denied that China provided \"funds\" for the deal. The Foreign Ministry could not confirm whether there were any \"loans\" involved, ministry spokesman Kong Quan said.[112]State-owned Lukoil became China's largest Russian oil supplier when CNPC reached a strategic cooperation agreement with the company in September 2006.[113] As promised during Premier Wen's visit to Moscow in 2004, construction on a direct pipeline spur to China began in March 2006, when CNPC signed an agreement providing state oil producer Transneft $400 million for constructing a pipeline from Skovorodino, about 70 km (43 mi) from the Chinese border. In the same month, CNPC agreed to a set of principles establishing future joint ventures with Rosneft.[114][115]In 2006, Gazprom was made responsible for all exports of gas from Russia's eastern Siberian fields, outside of sales made through production sharing agreements (PSAs). This was another move widely seen to be politically motivated, since successful commercial development of these fields and export to Asian markets would be impossible without Gazprom – and therefore Kremlin – involvement.[116][117] In an annual shareholder report two years prior, Gazprom acknowledged a plan for supplying natural gas to China. Two routes, roughly equal in capacity, would be constructed, with a total volume of 68 billion cubic meters of gas per annum. An Altai pipeline would link West Siberian fields with the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China, while the eastern pipeline would run from Yakutia into northeastern China.[118][119]Chinese domestic natural gas consumption roughly matched domestic production in 2004. Since then, however, its rate of growth and more sustainable energy profile compared to oil inevitably led to a surge in Chinese natural gas imports.[119] In March 2006, CNPC signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Gazprom for the delivery of natural gas to China, which officially began pricing negotiations between Gazprom chief executive Alexei Miller and Chen Geng, then head of the CNPC. In September 2007, the Russian Federation Industry and Energy Ministry approved a development plan for an integrated gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, taking into account potential gas exports to China and other Asia-Pacific countries. Gazprom was appointed by the Russian Government as the Eastern Gas Program execution coordinator.[120]Russia's desire to diversify its export markets has been matched by China's willingness to invest in Russian energy production and infrastructure. Russian policymakers, however, have expressed reserve about increased Chinese influence in the energy sector. In 2002, CNPC attempted to bid for Russian oil firm Slavneft, but withdrew just weeks later.[121][122] International news sources suggested the bid failed partly due to anti-foreign sentiment in the Duma, Russia's lower parliamentary house.[123][124][125][126] Slavneft was privatized by parity owners TNK (later OAO TNK-BP) and Sibneft (later OAO Gazprom Neft) soon afterwards. In 2004, Slavneft was then acquired by TNK-BP, the product of a merger between the Alfa Access Renova Consortium (AAR, Alfa Group) and British Petroleum (BP).[127] In 2006, Russia denied CNPC a significant stake in OAO Rosneft. When the Russian company went public, CNPC was allowed to purchase $500 million worth of shares, one-sixth of the $3 billion it had sought. The financial crisis triggered in 2008 gave China its opportunity to invest in Russia on a grander scale through a loans for oil program.[128] In 2009 and 2010, China's long-term energy-backed loans (EBL) extended large sums of capital to companies and entities not only in Russia, but also in Brazil, Ecuador, Turkmenistan and Venezuela.[129][130]Growing Chinese investment is speculated to be about more than energy security for China. Chinese news agency Xinhua reported in 2010 that many Chinese enterprises believe the Russian market will allow them to become truly global.[131] Gao Jixiang, Associate Research Fellow of the Russian Economy Research Office of the Russia, East Europe, and Central Asia Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, reported that China's investments in Russia totaled $1.374 billion as of 2007, and were projected to reach $12 billion by 2020.[132] In 2008–09 alone, total investments rose 25.4% to $2.24 billion and direct investment went from $240 million to $410 million.[133]Meeting between Dmitry Medvedev and Hu Jintao at the 2009 APEC Summit.2009 marked the 60th anniversary of established diplomatic relations between Moscow and Beijing, and also coincided with the signing of over 40 contracts worth roughly $3 billion.[citation needed] Chinese leader Hu Jintao and President Dmitry Medvedev of Russia conferred three times in four days during mid-June at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Yekaterinburg, at the first-ever heads-of-state meeting of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), and again when Hu made a state visit to Moscow from June 16–18, representing what many saw to be a high-water mark in Chinese-Russian relations.[134]Growing economic closeness also seemed to suggest a growing political alliance. A joint statement released by the two heads of state expanded upon how the two governments usually pledge mutual support for their sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Russian government explicitly affirmed that Tibet, along with Taiwan, are \"inalienable parts of the Chinese territory\", while the Chinese supported \"Russia's efforts in maintaining peace and stability in the region of Caucasus.\"[135] During Hu's visit, however, Gazprom announced it could not begin delivering natural gas to China in 2011 as planned because of pricing disagreements. Construction of the Western Siberian Altai pipeline, which could deliver over 30 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually to China, was originally scheduled to begin in 2008.[citation needed]September 27, 2010 marked the completion of the 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Russia-China Crude Pipeline. Stretching from Russia's Skovorodino station to China's Mohe station, it was the first pipeline ever built between China and Russia.[136] In April 2009, Rosneft and Transneft had signed deals with CNPC guaranteeing the pipeline's production of 300,000 barrels of crude oil per day for twenty years as part of a $25 billion loan-for-oil agreement.[137] Upon the pipeline's completion in 2010, CNPC also signed a general agreement with Transneft over the operation of the pipeline, a framework agreement with Gazprom to import natural gas to China from 2015 onwards, an agreement with Rosneft on extending oil supply to the Russia-China Crude Pipeline, and an agreement with Lukoil on expanding strategic cooperation. Both sides hailed the series of agreements as a \"new era\" in cooperation, and Russia's Deputy Prime Minister Igor Sechin told reporters in Beijing that Russia was \"ready to meet China's full demand in gas\" going forward.[138]Putin's close associate Vyacheslav Volodin, Speaker of the State Duma, with Chinese President Xi Jinping in Beijing on 22 November 2023In September 2010, President Putin reaffirmed the potential nuclear future of Russia and China's energy relations, saying \"Of course, our cooperation with China is not limited to just hydrocarbons ... Russia is China's main partner in the field of peaceful use of nuclear energy, and equipment supplies here amount to billions of dollars\".[139] As of 2011, however, Russian officials have remained reluctant to transfer nuclear energy technologies and other knowledge products to Chinese partners. Industry experts have pointed out that while proprietary technology would protect Russian exports from being displaced by lower-cost Chinese products in third-party markets, such an approach may reinforce Chinese doubts about Russia's reliability as a long-term energy partner.[94]The Russian oil industry has not only been burdened by corporate struggles such as with Yukos and political disagreements between the countries, but also by the reoccurring breaches in safety. Some difficulties stem from the Kazakh riots[140] to endless environmental concerns,[141][142][143] but most recently the capsizing of an oil platform that was allowed to operate in the north late in the season, while towed under adverse maritime conditions.[144] Incidents such as these cannot help but give potential foreign investment, which the region needs, pause as to the reliability of Russian energy supplies.[according to whom?]","title":"Energy relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"production sharing agreements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_sharing_agreements"},{"link_name":"Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"Exxon Neftegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Neftegas"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"ExxonMobil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil"},{"link_name":"ONGC Videsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ONGC_Videsh"},{"link_name":"Sakhalin Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakhalin_Energy"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"Royal Dutch Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Potapov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Potapov"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"Viktor Ozerov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Ozerov"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"Dmitri Trenin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Trenin"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"German Gref","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Gref"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"Aleksei Kudrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_Kudrin"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Endowment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"Vnesheconombank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vnesheconombank"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"}],"sub_title":"Russian Far East (RFE)","text":"In 1996, the Russian Federation completed two production sharing agreements (PSA) for oil and gas exploration off the northeast coast of the Sakhalin Islands. The Sakhalin-I project, operated by Exxon Neftegas (EN), has estimated potential recoverable reserves at 307 million tons of oil (2.3 billion bbn) and 485 billion cubic meters of gas as of 2002.[145][146] EN, a subsidiary of US-based ExxonMobil, holds a 30 percent interest in the project, while Rosneft holds 20 percent via its affiliates RN-Astra (8.5 percent) and Sakhalinmorneftegas-Shelf (11.5 percent). Japanese consortium SODECO and the Indian state-owned oil company ONGC Videsh Ltd. holds the remaining 50 percent (30 and 20 percent, respectively).The Sakhalin-II project is managed by the Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd. (Sakhalin Energy). As of 2011, Russian state monopoly Gazprom holds 50% plus 1 share, RoyalDutch Shell 27.5%, Mitsui 12.5% and Mitsubishi 10%.[147] Gazprom purchased its majority stake from Sakhalin-2 operator Royal Dutch Shell in 2006. The project had been placed permanently on hold by environmental regulators, but moved forward after the sale.[148] The series of events led to widespread speculation that environmental violations may have been used as a bargaining chip in the deal.[149] Sakhalin-II consists of two 800-km pipelines running from the northeast of the island to Prigorodnoye (Prigorodnoe) in Aniva Bay at the southern end. The consortium built Russia's first liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant at Prigorodnoye. Industry sources speculated that \"some in Russia hope to sell China gas from Sakhalin-2's or other facilities' future LNG holdings now that it has mastered the technology\".[150]In December 2003, CNPC and Sakhalin Energy signed a frame agreement on exploration and development in Russia's Sakhalin oilfield.[151] ExxonMobil also looked towards the Chinese market, making preliminary agreements on supplying Sakhalin-I gas to China as early as 2002. On November 2, 2004, CNPC began negotiations with ExxonMobil for possible long-term gas deliveries from Sakhalin-1.[152] Negotiations were then concluded in October 2006, when Exxon and CNPC officially announced an agreement. Under the deal, Sakhalin-1 could sell up to 10 billion cubic meters of gas to China over 20 years by pipeline. The plan met strong opposition from Gazprom, which has a rival pipeline project and controls all Russian gas exports apart from sales through PSAs such as Sakhalin-1.[153] In August 2006, Sakhalin-I's De-Kastri oil terminal began exporting processed petroleum to markets including China, Japan, and South Korea.[154]The influence of Russia's regional energy trade has led to a sense of local uneasiness about foreign countries' influence in the sector. In 2000, President Putin warned a Siberian audience that unless Russia intensified the region's development, the Russian Far East would end up speaking Chinese, Japanese and Korean.[155][156] In 2002, the Deputy Secretary of the Russian Security Council, Vladimir Potapov, expressed serious concerns about the region's combined remoteness, weak infrastructure, declining population, and wealth \"in very diverse resources\".[157][158] Political figures like Viktor Ozerov, Chairman of the Federation Council's Defense and Security Committee, warned of military threats in the Far East and decried the predatory use of the region's resources, and large-scale illegal immigration, though scholars pointed out that no imminent threat was visible.[159] Dmitri Trenin stated that, 'the principal domestic reason is the situation of eastern Russia, especially East Siberia and the Russian Far East. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the territories have been going through a deep crisis. The former model of their development is inapplicable; a new model is yet to be devised and implemented. Meanwhile, the vast region has been going through depopulation, deindustrialization, and general degradation. ... The quality of Moscow's statesmanship will be tested by whether it can rise up to the challenge in the East.\"[160] The RFE has been one of the most difficult areas to transition between the structure of the Soviet Union and the still developing Russian state due to the lack of economic self-sufficiency in the region or any prospects of stable growth.In September 2005, the Minister of Economic Development and Trade German Gref promised a doubling of state support for the RFE to $612 million in 2006, and the consideration of allocating a new $2.5 billion infrastructure fund for projects in the region.[161] A year later, at the end of 2006, Putin reiterated that the socio-economic isolation of the RFE represented a threat to national security, and advocated yet another new socioeconomic commission and regional development strategy to be formed. He specifically pointed to the perceived threat of foreign immigration in the Far East.[162] Scholars and regional experts have suggested that China's rapid economic growth (especially relative to Russia's GDP growth rate) lies at the root of anxieties concerning the RFE. While the Russian and Chinese economies were roughly the same size in 1993, China's grew to over 3.5 times larger than Russia's by 2008. Even since 1998, when Russia began a rapid economic recovery, China has grown at a faster rate; the gap has only widened since the global economic crisis and falling energy prices of the late 2000s. China's growth has led to the creation of new productive capacity, whereas Russia's recovery has been based largely on reutilizing Soviet-era capacity that had idled in the early 1990s.[163][164]Russian officials have repeatedly reiterated their opposition to being merely China's natural resources storehouse.[165] As early as 2001, Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister Aleksei Kudrin warned that if Russia failed to become \"a worthy economic partner\" for Asia and the Pacific Rim, \"China and the Southeast Asian countries will steamroll Siberia and the Far East.\"[166][167] At the start of his presidency in September 2008, Dmitri Medvedev echoed similar concerns, warning a Kamchatka audience that if Russia fails to develop the RFE, it could turn into a raw material base for more developed Asian countries and \"unless we speed up our efforts, we can lose everything.\"[168][169] Regional experts have pointed out that despite these increasingly vocal concerns, the local economy of the RFE has become increasingly reliant on Chinese goods, services, and labor over the past decade; furthermore, local out-migration shows little sign of reversing. For all the early promises under Putin, Moscow's policy towards the RFE has not seemed effective as of 2008.[170]Dmitri Trenin of the Moscow branch of the Carnegie Endowment has argued that Siberia's development could become Russia's most urgent challenge.[171]Russia's plans for this region have revolved around building energy infrastructure to leverage exports and attracting investment so that the capital will be available for modernizing regional infrastructure.[172][173] These plans largely depend on foreign investments, which Russian companies have grudgingly acknowledged. In 2008, a consortium of Chinese engineering firms led by Harbin Turbine signed an agreement with Russian power producer OGK to produce coal-fired turbines in the RFE, adding 41,000 megawatts of new generating capacity by 2011. Stanislav Nevynitsyn, executive director of OGK, admitted, \"It is simply a necessity for us to work with the Chinese – we will not get the capacity built otherwise.\"[174] Through loans to Russia's Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs, Vnesheconombank (VEB), China became a major stockholder in Lukoil in 2009.[175] In the same year, after having excluded foreign firms from bidding on the huge Udokan copper mine in Southeast Siberia, Moscow welcomed Chinese, South Korean, and Kazakh miners and refiners back into the bidding process.[176][177]As part of the 'Russia's Energy Strategy till 2020' program, the Russian government launched a program of creating a unified gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the RFE in 2006. The program would ultimately provide affirmation of an all-Russia gas system from the Baltic Sea up to the Pacific Ocean.\"[178] Russian policymakers have also suggested building an international center for spent fuel and nuclear energy in the RFE, hoping to raise the profile in the export of nuclear energy to the global market.[179]In 2009, Gazprom was awarded subsurface licenses for the Kirinsky, Vostochno-Odoptinsky and Ayashsky blocks to begin the Sakhalin-III project.[180] Geological exploration has been underway at the Kirinskoye field and, as of 2009, natural gas production is scheduled for 2014. The field will become one of the natural gas sources for the Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok gas transmission system (GTS). The first GTS start-up complex will be 1,350 km, with a capacity of 6 billion cubic meters (bcm) per year.[181]","title":"Energy relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-183"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-183"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-183"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wishnick,_2009-185"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wishnick,_2009-185"},{"link_name":"Viktor Zubkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Zubkov"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"}],"sub_title":"Central Asia","text":"China and Russia generally cooperate with each other regarding Central Asia affairs.[182] While they sometimes compete in Central Asia, those competitions are typically focused on economic matters and proceed in an orderly way within established norms.[182] Where competition in Central Asia does occur between the two powers, it typically arises as a product of the circumstances rather than as an intentional effort to contain the other country.[182]In 1996, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan formed the Shanghai Five, a collaborative body that was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) with the addition of Uzbekistan in 2001.[183] As members of the SCO, China and Russia have cooperated in military exercises, such as counterterrorism drills in Kyrgyzstan in 2002 and similar exercises in Kazakhstan and China in 2003.[184]Russian and Chinese leaders regularly call for greater cooperation and coordination through the SCO between their two countries in the context of their broader goal of promoting multilateral diplomacy.[185][186][187] In a joint statement issued on May 23, 2008, Russia and China asserted that \"International security is comprehensive and inalienable, and some countries' security cannot be guaranteed at the cost of some others', including expanding military and political allies.\"[188] Zhao Huasheng, Director of Russian and Central Asian Studies at Fudan University's Shanghai Cooperation Center, has argued that economic cooperation will ensure the long-term relevance of the SCO, as current security threats recede.[189] While China and Russia do enjoy some bilateral energy cooperation, which experts predict will continue to grow in the future, the two countries have emerged as rivals for Central Asian oil and gas supplies.[190] With the rising oil prices in the mid-2000s, Russia has sought to renew its influence in Central Asia, in particular the region's southern flank, to guarantee access to gas supplies for reexport to Europe and for its own domestic needs. As China's energy needs have grown and its policymakers have sought to develop its western provinces, China, too, has sought to expand its influence in Central Asia.[184]In 2007, at a meeting of SCO prime ministers in Tashkent, Russian Premier Viktor Zubkov reiterated Moscow's desire to forge a Central Asian energy \"club\" within the SCO, comprising Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The SCO energy club could be set up as soon as 2008, Russian Deputy Industry and Energy Minister Ivan Materov announced in Tashkent. Materov insisted, however, that the club would not amount to a sort of mini-OPEC. Political and economic analysts in Moscow believe the Kremlin is keen to establish an energy club as a means to prevent a possible clash with China over Central Asia's energy resources.[191]At a May 2007 SCO summit in Turkmenbashi, Russian, Kazakh and Turkmen leaders announced the expansion of the Prikaspiisky gas pipeline from Turkmenistan into Russia.[192] The plan has stalled due to several obstacles, including price disagreements and the economic recession of the late 2000s.[193][194]Uncertainty over the Prikaspiisky route has given China an opening into the region, especially in Turkmenistan. During a brief visit to Ashgabat, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao called for efforts \"to step up bilateral trade cooperation to a new level.\" Berdymukhamedov, in turn, expressed interest in \"working closely\" with China on a natural gas pipeline project, Xinhua News Agency reported. In December 2005, Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev inaugurated the Atasu-Alashankou pipeline to ship oil to China. The $800 million Atasu-Alashankou route still needs Russian crude oil from Western Siberia, transported via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Shymkent pipeline, to reach its full annual capacity of 20 million tons by 2010.[195] Although China and its Central Asian partners view their expanding cooperation as a means of diversifying their energy partnerships, Russia has enjoyed success in other major energy projects. In November 2007, two Russian companies (TNK-BP and GazpromNeft) signed an agreement with KazTransOil to ship up to 5 million tons of oil annually to China via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Atasu-Alanshakou pipeline. In the first quarter of 2008, 300,000 tons of Russian crude oil were exported to China along this route.[196] Moreover, a Russian engineering company, Stroytransgaz, won a tender to build Turkmenistan's section of the gas pipeline to China.[197]China and Russia announced in May 2014 that they had reached a 30-year gas deal where \"Russia would supply 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas each year to China\".[198]","title":"Energy relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EU arms embargo on China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_arms_embargo_on_China"},{"link_name":"Tiananmen Square protests of 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diplomat-200"},{"link_name":"Russian Defence Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Defence_Minister"},{"link_name":"Pavel Grachev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Grachev"},{"link_name":"Chi Haotian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_Haotian"},{"link_name":"military attachés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parrish-19"},{"link_name":"Mustafa Tlass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Tlass"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Ehud Barak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehud_Barak"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-202"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-202"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-202"},{"link_name":"Su-35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-35"},{"link_name":"Tupolev Tu-22M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-22M"},{"link_name":"Sukhoi Su-27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27"},{"link_name":"Shenyang J-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenyang_J-11"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jongrevatt,specialtocnn-204"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jongrevatt,specialtocnn-204"},{"link_name":"Vostok 2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_2018"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-205"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_military_delegation_visits_the_Military_Academy_of_the_General_Staff_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces_(2023-04-17)_04.jpg"},{"link_name":"Li Shangfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Shangfu"},{"link_name":"Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Academy_of_the_General_Staff_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Rostec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostec"},{"link_name":"intellectual property theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_theft"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-208"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"Li Shangfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Shangfu"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Sergei Shoigu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Shoigu"},{"link_name":"cold war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_war"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"}],"text":"After the EU arms embargo on China imposed as a consequence of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, China became a reliable client for Russian military exports, making up 25–50% of all foreign military sales.[199] On November 9, 1993, Russian Defence Minister Pavel Grachev and Chinese Defence Minister Chi Haotian signed a five-year defense cooperation agreement paving the way for an increase in the number of military attachés stationed in their respective capitals. On July 12, 1994, the Russian and Chinese defence ministers signed a border security agreement designed to prevent potentially dangerous military incidents, such as unintentional radar jamming and airspace violations. In December 1996, Russia finalized \"the sale of SU-27 fighters and related production technology to China.\"[18]On October 19, 1999, Defence Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defence Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, flew directly to Israel and met with Ehud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defence Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1 billion Israeli-Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.[200]By the early 2000s, Russia was a major supplier of military equipment to China.[201]: 95 Economically, Russia was motivated by the weakness of its own economy and the need to pursue revenue streams where they were available.[201]: 95 In Russia's geopolitical considerations, Russia assumed that a well-equipped Chinese military was a greater risk to the interests of the United States and European countries than to its own interests.[201]: 95–96In 2004, the Russian Foreign Ministry blocked both the sale of the Su-35 and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers to China over concerns about the arrangements for Chinese production of the Sukhoi Su-27SK (known as the Shenyang J-11).[202]Currently, China focuses on domestic weapon designs and manufacturing, while still importing certain military products from Russia, such as jet engines. China sought to become independent in its defence sector and become competitive in global arms markets; its defence sector is rapidly developing and maturing. Gaps in certain capabilities remain, including development of electronic and reliable propulsion systems, although China's defense industry production has improved significantly, providing an advantage over other militaries in the Asia-Pacific region.[203] China's 2015 Defense White Paper called for \"independent innovation\" and the \"sustainable development\" of advanced weaponry and equipment.[203]In September 2018, Russia hosted the militaries of China and Mongolia as a part of the Vostok 2018 military exercise to improve ties between the countries, making them the first two countries outside of the former Soviet Union to join the exercise.[204][205]Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu visited the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia on 17 April 2023In December 2019, Rostec officials accused China of intellectual property theft of a range of military technologies.[206] In June 2020, Russia charged one of its Arctic scientists of passing sensitive information to China.[207]As early as February 2022, according to US authorities, Russia asked China for advanced military weaponry, in particular, armed drones for use in their invasion of Ukraine.[208][209] China and Russia have both denied these allegations.[210]On 17 April 2023, Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu made his first overseas visit to Russia. As part of his four-day visit, he met with Russian president Vladimir Putin and Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow. During his meeting, he stated the ties between China and Russia \"surpass military-political alliances of the cold war era\".[211][212]","title":"Military relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"},{"link_name":"Tupolev-95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupolev_Tu-95"},{"link_name":"XIAN H-6K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xian_H-6"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"Vostok-2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vostok-2022&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA-2022"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"}],"sub_title":"Military exercises and joint patrols","text":"In July 2019, and again in December 2020, Russia and China flew joint bomber patrols over the Pacific.[213][214]In November 2022, Russian and Chinese warplanes including the Tupolev-95 and XIAN H-6K long range strategic bombers conducted joint patrols over the Sea of Japan and East China sea.[215]In September 2022, Russia hosted the military of China as a part of the Vostok-2022 [ru] military exercise.[216]","title":"Military relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Voice of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"People's Daily Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Daily"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bandurski_2022-218"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wu_Di_Qu_2014-219"},{"link_name":"Russia Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_Today"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wu_Di_Qu_2014-219"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hvistendahl_2022-220"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"}],"text":"In March 2013, the Voice of Russia and the People's Daily Online signed a news sharing agreement as Xi and Putin presided.[217][218] On October 13, 2014, Russia Today and the People's Daily signed a cooperation agreement.[218] In July 2021, the Russian-Chinese Commission for Humanitarian Cooperation agreed to mass-media cooperation.[219][220]","title":"Media communication agreements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Levada Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levada_Center"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"},{"link_name":"BBC World Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_World_Service"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"},{"link_name":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"},{"link_name":"YouGov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"US foreign policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"},{"link_name":"Carter Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Center"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-228"},{"link_name":"NetEase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetEase"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"Genron NPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genron_NPO"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"}],"text":"Since 1995, Russians have consistently held positive views of China. As of September 2022, 88% of Russians surveyed by the Levada Center view China favorably, with only 5% expressing a negative opinion.[221]According to a 2017 BBC World Service poll, 74% of the Chinese view Russia's influence positively, with 18% expressing a negative view, while 44% of Russians view China's influence positively and 23% negatively.[222]According to a 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 71% of Russians have a favorable view of China, with 18% expressing an unfavorable view.[223] A YouGov survey conducted in the same year found that 71% of the Chinese think Russia has a positive effect on world affairs, while 15% view it negatively.[224]During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many social media users in China showed sympathy for Russian narratives due in part to distrust of US foreign policy.[225][226] According to a Carter Center China Focus survey conducted in April 2022, approximately 75% of Chinese respondents agreed that supporting Russia in the Ukraine war was in China's best interest.[227] Chinese company NetEase has published videos critical of Russia from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China.[228][229]According to a Genron NPO poll released in November 2022 asking about Chinese peoples' views on the Russian invasion, 39.5% of respondents said the Russian actions \"are not wrong\", 21.5% said \"the Russian actions are a violation of the U.N. Charter and international laws, and should be opposed\", and 29% said \"the Russian actions are wrong, but the circumstances should be considered.\"[230][231]","title":"Mutual perceptions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"under the control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Penghu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penghu"},{"link_name":"Kinmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinmen"},{"link_name":"Matsu Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsu_Island"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"^ Territories under the control of the Republic of China (ROC): Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands are recognised by the Russian Federation as part of the PRC.[1]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=China%E2%80%93Russia+relations"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=China%E2%80%93Russia+relations&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ir101.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/klieman-great-powers-and-geopolitics.pdf#page=169"},{"link_name":"metaCode=en_m_pub&boardId=a57b3ef8b2bff73bb9e00084&pkey=1 online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20101127071711/http://www.inss.re.kr/app/board/view.act"},{"link_name":"online 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Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations"},{"link_name":"Leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_BRICS_leaders"},{"link_name":"Lula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva"},{"link_name":"Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Modi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi"},{"link_name":"Xi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_Jinping"},{"link_name":"Ramaphosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Ramaphosa"},{"link_name":"Madbouly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mostafa_Madbouly"},{"link_name":"Ahmed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiy_Ahmed"},{"link_name":"Mokhber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Mokhber"},{"link_name":"Al Nahyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan"},{"link_name":"BRICS U-17 Football Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup"},{"link_name":"2016 Goa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup"},{"link_name":"2018 Johannesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_BRICS_U-17_Football_Cup"},{"link_name":"BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Contingent_Reserve_Arrangement"},{"link_name":"BRICS Cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Cable"},{"link_name":"BRICS Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Games"},{"link_name":"BRICS Universities League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS_Universities_League"},{"link_name":"New Development Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Development_Bank"}],"text":"Library resources about China–Russia relations \n\nResources in your library\nResources in other librariesBernstein, Thomas P. and Hua-Yu Li, eds. China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present (2010).\nBlank, Stephen. \"Is Russia a great power in Asia?.\" in Great Powers and Geopolitics (Springer, Cham, 2015) pp. 161–182. online\nBlank, Stephen. \"Russo-Chinese relations in strategic perspective.\" in International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) pp. 93–108.\nBlank, Stephen, and Younkyoo Kim. \"Does Russo-Chinese partnership threaten America's interests in Asia?.\" Orbis 60.1 (2016): 112–127.\nContessi, Nicola P. \"China, Russia and the Leadership of the SCO: A Tacit Deal Scenario\" China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 8, 4 (2010): 101–123.\nEfremenko D. \"New Russian Government's Foreign Policy towards East Asia and the Pacific\" Journal of East Asian Affairs (2012) 26#2 (Seoul: Institute for National Security ) metaCode=en_m_pub&boardId=a57b3ef8b2bff73bb9e00084&pkey=1 online\nFravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton University Press, 2019) online reviews\nGarver, John W. Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China (1992) online\nHerbst, John. \"The Coming Russian-Chinese Clash\" The National Interest Aug. 21, 2020.\nHsu, Jing-Yun, and Jenn-Jaw Soong. \"Development of China-Russia Relations (1949–2011) Limits, Opportunities, and Economic Ties.\" Chinese economy 47.3 (2014): 70–87. online Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine\nJersild, Austin. The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History (U of North Carolina Press, 2014).\nKim, Younkyoo, and Stephen Blank. \"Rethinking Russo-Chinese Relations in Asia: Beyond Russia's Chinese Dilemma.\" China: An International Journal(2013) 11#3 pp: 136–148. online\nKim, Younkyoo; Indeo, Fabio (2013). \"The new great game in Central Asia post 2014: The US \"New Silk Road\" strategy and Sino-Russian rivalry\". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 46 (2): 275–286. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.005.\nKorolev, Alexander. \"The Strategic Alignment between Russia and China: Myths and Reality.\" Singapore: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Research Paper #15–19 (2015). online\nKuliabin A. Semine S. Russia — a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. Zavtra Rossii, #28, 17 July 1997. RUSSIA IN THE PACIFIC REGION SYSTEM:\nMarch, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific (1996) online\nMarsh, Christopher. Unparalleled Reforms. China's Rise, Russia's Fall and the Interdependence of Transition (2005).\nMaxwell. Neville. \"How the Sino-Russian boundary conflict was finally settled: From Nerchinsk 1689 to Vladivostok 2005 via Zhenbao Island 1969.\" Critical Asian Studies 39.2 (2007): 229–253. online\nMoshes, Arkady and Matti Nojonen, eds. Russia-China relations: Current state, alternative futures, and implications for the West FIIA Report 30, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs (September 2011)\nNye, Joseph. \"A New Sino-Russian Alliance?\" Project Syndicate 12 January 2015\nQuested, Rosemary K.I. Sino-Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014) online\nRozman, Gilbert. The Sino-Russian Challenge to the World Order: National Identities, Bilateral Relations, and East versus West in the 2010s (2014) online review\nRozman, Gilbert. The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978–1985 (Princeton UP, 1987).\nRozman, Gilbert and Sergey Radchenko, eds. International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) excerpt\nShen, Zhihua. A Short History of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991 (Springer Singapore;Palgrave Macmillan, 2020)\nSnow, Philip. China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (Yale UP, 2023) excerpt at Amazon\nTian, Hao. \"Sino-Russian Relations: Conflict and Cooperation.\" (Lehigh University, 2016), bibliography pp 55–60; online\nTrenin, Dmitri. Challenges and Opportunities: Russia and the Rise of China and India in Strategic Asia 2011–12: Asia Responds to Its Rising Powers – China and India (September 2011)\nUrbansky, Sören. Beyond the Steppe Frontier: A History of the Sino-Russian Border (2020) a comprehensive history; excerpt\nWeitz, Richard. China-Russia security relations: strategic parallelism without partnership or passion? (Maroon Ebooks, 2015)\nWishnick, Elizabeth. Mending Fences. The Evolution of Moscow's China Policy from Brezhnev to Yeltsin (2001)\nZubok, Vladislav. \"The Soviet Union and China in the 1980s: reconciliation and divorce.\" Cold War History 17.2 (2017): 121–141.vte China–Russia relations Diplomatic posts\nEmbassy of China, Moscow\nAmbassadors of Russia to China\nConsulate General of Russia, Shanghai\nDiplomacy\n1991 Sino-Soviet Border Agreement\n2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship\nAltai gas pipeline\n2007 Delhi security summit\nEastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline\nAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation\nBRICS\nBRIC\nShanghai Cooperation Organisation\n2023 visit by Xi Jinping to Russia\nIncidents\nNew Star incident\nMilitary relations\nVostok 2018\nChinese missile warning system\nMarine Security Belt\nRelated\nHistory of Sino-Russian relations\nChina–Soviet Union relations\nChina–Russia border\nChina and the Russian invasion of Ukraine\nSixty-Four Villages East of the River\nOuter Manchuria\nRusso-Chinese Bank Building\nShenzhen MSU-BIT University\nChinese Eastern Railway\nChinese Orthodox Church\nSecond Cold War\nCyrillization of Chinese\nLi Yueran\nChina and Russia\n Category:China–Russia relationsvteForeign relations of ChinaBilateral relationsAfrica\nAlgeria\nAngola\nBenin\nBotswana\nBurkina Faso\nBurundi\nCameroon\nCape Verde\nCentral African Republic\nChad\nComoros\nCongo, Democratic Republic of the\nCongo, Republic of the\nDjibouti\nEgypt\nEquatorial Guinea\nEritrea\nEthiopia\nGabon\nGambia\nGhana\nGuinea\nGuinea-Bissau\nIvory Coast\nKenya\nLesotho\nLiberia\nLibya\nMadagascar\nMalawi\nMali\nMauritania\nMauritius\nMorocco\nMozambique\nNamibia\nNiger\nNigeria\nRwanda\nSão Tomé and Príncipe\nSenegal\nSeychelles\nSierra Leone\nSomalia\nSouth Africa\nSouth Sudan\nSudan\nTanzania\nTogo\nTunisia\nUganda\nZambia\nZimbabwe\nAmericas\nAntigua and Barbuda\nArgentina\nBahamas\nBarbados\nBolivia\nBrazil\nCanada\nChile\nColombia\nCosta Rica\nCuba\nDominican Republic\nEcuador\nEl Salvador\nGrenada\nHaiti\nHonduras\nJamaica\nMexico\nNicaragua\nPanama\nPeru\nSuriname\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited States\nUruguay\nVenezuela\nAsia\nAfghanistan\nArmenia\nAzerbaijan\nBangladesh\nBhutan\nBrunei\nCambodia\nEast Timor\nGeorgia\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIran\nIraq\nIsrael\nJapan\nhistory\nKazakhstan\nKyrgyzstan\nLaos\nLebanon\nMalaysia\nMaldives\nMongolia\nMyanmar\nNepal\nNorth Korea\nHistory\nPakistan\nPalestine\nPhilippines\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nSingapore\nSouth Korea\nHistory\nSri Lanka\nSyria\nTaiwan\nTajikistan\nThailand\nTurkey\nTurkmenistan\nUnited Arab Emirates\nUzbekistan\nVietnam\nNorthern Domination\nYemen\nEurope\nAlbania\nAustria\nBelarus\nBelgium\nBulgaria\nCroatia\nCyprus\nCzech Republic\nDenmark\nFinland\nFrance\nGermany\nGreece\nHungary\nIceland\nIreland\nItaly\nKosovo\nLithuania\nLuxembourg\nMoldova\nMontenegro\nNetherlands\nNorway\nPoland\nPortugal\nRomania\nRussia\nSan Marino\nSerbia\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nUkraine\nUnited Kingdom\nVatican City\nOceania\nAustralia\nFiji\nKiribati\nMicronesia\nNauru\nNew Zealand\nNiue\nPapua New Guinea\nSamoa\nSolomon Islands\nTonga\nVanuatu\nFormer states\nSoviet Union\nYugoslavia\nMultilateral relations\nBCIM Economic Corridor\nBIMSTEC\nAfrica\nArab League\nBRICS\nCaribbean\nChina–Japan–South Korea\nEuropean Union\nLatin America\nOceania\nThird World\nUnited Nations\nArctic policy of China\nChina and the Antarctic\nDiplomacy\nCentral Foreign Affairs Commission (General Secretary)\nMinistry of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister)\nDiplomatic missions of China / in China\nBelt and Road Initiative\nChina's peaceful rise\nChinese Century\nConfucius Institute\nDates of diplomatic recognition\nForeign policy of China\nForeign Relations Law\nForeign relations of Hong Kong\nNine-dash line\nPanda diplomacy\nPolitical status of Taiwan\nChinese unification\nRegional Comprehensive Economic Partnership\nStadium diplomacy\nString of Pearls\nMajor historical splits\nAlbania\nSoviet\nShanghai Cooperation Organisation\nTreaties\nTheater diplomacy\nWolf warrior diplomacy\nXi Jinping Thought on DiplomacyvteForeign relations of RussiaBilateral relationsAfrica\nAlgeria\nAngola\nBenin\nBotswana\nBurkina Faso\nBurundi\nCameroon\nCentral African Republic\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\nRepublic of the Congo\nDjibouti\nEgypt\nEquatorial Guinea\nEritrea\nEswatini\nEthiopia\nGambia\nGhana\nGuinea-Bissau\nIvory Coast\nKenya\nLesotho\nLibya\nMadagascar\nMali\nMauritania\nMauritius\nMorocco\nMozambique\nNamibia\nNigeria\nRwanda\nSenegal\nSeychelles\nSomalia\nSouth Africa\nSouth Sudan\nSudan\nTanzania\nTunisia\nUganda\nZambia\nZimbabwe\nAmericas\nArgentina\nBolivia\nBrazil\nCanada\nChile\nColombia\nCosta Rica\nCuba\nEcuador\nGuatemala\nGuyana\nHonduras\nMexico\nNicaragua\nPanama\nParaguay\nPeru\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited States\nRussian Empire\nSoviet Union\nUruguay\nVenezuela\nAsia\nAfghanistan\nArmenia\nAzerbaijan\nBahrain\nBangladesh\nBhutan\nBrunei\nCambodia\nChina\nEast Timor\nGeorgia\nAbkhazia\nSouth Ossetia\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIran\nIraq\nKurdistan Region\nIsrael\nJapan\nJordan\nKazakhstan\nKuwait\nKyrgyzstan\nLaos\nLebanon\nMalaysia\nMongolia\nMyanmar\nNepal\nNorth Korea\nOman\nPakistan\nPalestine\nHamas\nPhilippines\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nSingapore\nSouth Korea\nSri Lanka\nSyria\nTaiwan\nTajikistan\nThailand\nTurkey\nTurkmenistan\nUnited Arab Emirates\nUzbekistan\nVietnam\nYemen\nEurope\nAlbania\nAustria\nBelarus\nBelgium\nBosnia and Herzegovina\nBulgaria\nCroatia\nCyprus\nCzech Republic\nDenmark\nEstonia\nFinland\nFrance\nGermany\nGreece\nHungary\nIceland\nIreland\nItaly\nLatvia\nLiechtenstein\nLithuania\nLuxembourg\nMalta\nMoldova\nTransnistria\nMonaco\nMontenegro\nNetherlands\nNorth Macedonia\nNorway\nPoland\nPortugal\nRomania\nSerbia\nSlovakia\nSlovenia\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nUkraine\nDonetsk PR\nLuhansk PR\nUnited Kingdom\nVatican City\nOceania\nAustralia\nFiji\nNauru\nNew Zealand\nTonga\nVanuatu\nMultilateral relations\nBRICS\nEuropean Union\nNATO\nUnited Nations\nArctic policy of Russia\nRussia and the Antarctic\nNear Abroad\nDiplomacy\nMinistry of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister)\nDiplomatic missions of Russia / in Russia\nEuropean energy sector\nShanghai Cooperation Organisation\nEurasian Economic Union\nMilitary Cooperation\nTreaties\nMilitary doctrine\nForeign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of UkrainevteSino-Russian treatiesRussian and Qing empires\nNerchinsk (1689)\nBura (1727)\nKyakhta (1727, 1768, 1792)\nKulja (1851)\nAigun (1858)\nTientsin (1858)\nPeking (1860)\nTarbagatai (1864)\nLivadia (1879)\nSaint Petersburg (1881)\nMoscow (1896)\nPeking (1898)\nBoxer Protocol (1901)\nQiqikar (1911)\nRussian Empire and Republic of China\nTreaty of Kyakhta (1915)\nSoviet Union and Republic of China\nSino-Soviet Treaty of Peking (1924)\nKhabarovsk Protocol (1929)\nNon-Aggression Pact (1937)\nTreaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945)\nSoviet Union and People's Republic of China\nTreaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance (1950)\nBorder Agreement (1991)\nRussian Federation and People's Republic of ChinaTreaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (2001)vteBRICSMembership\n Brazil\n Russia\n India\n China\n South Africa\n Egypt Egypt\n Ethiopia\n Iran\n United Arab Emirates\nSummits\nYekaterinburg 2009\nBrasília 2010\nSanya 2011\nNew Delhi 2012\nDurban 2013\nFortaleza 2014\nUfa 2015\nGoa 2016\nXiamen 2017\nJohannesburg 2018\nBrasília 2019\nSaint Petersburg 2020\nNew Delhi 2021\nBeijing 2022\nJohannesburg 2023\nBilateral relations\nBrazil–China\nBrazil–India\nBrazil–Russia\nBrazil–South Africa\nChina–India\nChina–Russia\nChina–South Africa\nIndia–Russia\nIndia–South Africa\nRussia–South Africa\nLeaders\n Lula\n Putin\n Modi\n Xi\n Ramaphosa\n Madbouly\n Ahmed\n Mokhber\n Al Nahyan\nBRICS U-17 Football Cup\n2016 Goa\n2018 Johannesburg\nRelated\nBRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement\nBRICS Cable\nBRICS Games\nBRICS Universities League\nNew Development Bank","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Vladimir Putin with Xi Jinping during a state visit to Moscow in May 2015.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_70-%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_-_15.jpg/260px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B2_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_70-%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B_-_15.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria (later Russian Manchuria) and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent loss of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg/220px-MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chinese Paramount leader Xi Jinping presented two pandas to Moscow Zoo at a ceremony with Vladimir Putin on 5 June 2019","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Vladimir_Putin_and_Xi_Jinping_%282019-06-05%29_57.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Xi_Jinping_%282019-06-05%29_57.jpg"},{"image_text":"Xi continued to meet Putin via videoconference during the Covid-19 crisis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Xi-Putin_meeting_%282021-06-28%29_02.jpg/220px-Xi-Putin_meeting_%282021-06-28%29_02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Putin visited China and met with Xi Jinping on 4 February 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Vladimir_Putin_met_with_Xi_Jinping_in_advance_of_2022_Beijing_Winter_Olympics_%281%29.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_met_with_Xi_Jinping_in_advance_of_2022_Beijing_Winter_Olympics_%281%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Putin welcomes Xi in Moscow during Xi's visit to Russia in March 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Putin-Xi_press_conference_%282023%29.jpg/220px-Putin-Xi_press_conference_%282023%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Territories that have become part of Russia under the Aigun Treaty and the Beijing Treaty of 1860","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg/220px-MANCHURIA-U.S.S.R_BOUNDARY_Ct002999.jpg"},{"image_text":"Putin and Xi Jinping at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/SCO_meeting_%282022-09-16%29.jpg/220px-SCO_meeting_%282022-09-16%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Meeting of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) foreign ministers in New York City on 22 September 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/9YAN_5350_%2852766002359%29.jpg/220px-9YAN_5350_%2852766002359%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chinese Premier Li Qiang and Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin in Beijing, China on 24 May 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Mikhail_Mishustin_and_Li_Qiang_%282023-05-24%29_10.jpg/220px-Mikhail_Mishustin_and_Li_Qiang_%282023-05-24%29_10.jpg"},{"image_text":"On 21 May 2014, China and Russia signed a $400 billion gas deal. Starting 2019, Russia plans to provide natural gas to China for the next 30 years.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Russia_and_China_sign_major_gas_deal.jpeg/230px-Russia_and_China_sign_major_gas_deal.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Russian oil exports by destination in 2020.[95]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Russian_oil_exports_destination.webp/220px-Russian_oil_exports_destination.webp.png"},{"image_text":"Meeting between Dmitry Medvedev and Hu Jintao at the 2009 APEC Summit.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Dmitry_Medvedev_APEC_Summit_14-15_November_2009-8.jpg/220px-Dmitry_Medvedev_APEC_Summit_14-15_November_2009-8.jpg"},{"image_text":"Putin's close associate Vyacheslav Volodin, Speaker of the State Duma, with Chinese President Xi Jinping in Beijing on 22 November 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Vyacheslav_Volodin_%26_Xi_Jinping_-_2023.jpg/220px-Vyacheslav_Volodin_%26_Xi_Jinping_-_2023.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu visited the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia on 17 April 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Chinese_military_delegation_visits_the_Military_Academy_of_the_General_Staff_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces_%282023-04-17%29_04.jpg/220px-Chinese_military_delegation_visits_the_Military_Academy_of_the_General_Staff_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces_%282023-04-17%29_04.jpg"}] | [{"title":"China portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China"},{"title":"Russia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Russia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg"},{"title":"Politics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics"},{"title":"Foreign relations of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_China"},{"title":"Foreign relations of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia"},{"title":"Embassy of China, Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_of_China,_Moscow"},{"title":"Ambassadors of China to Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_China_to_Russia"},{"title":"Ambassadors of Russia to China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Russia_to_China"},{"title":"China–Soviet Union relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations"},{"title":"Russia–Taiwan relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations"},{"title":"History of Sino-Russian relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sino-Russian_relations"},{"title":"Russia's turn to the East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia%27s_turn_to_the_East"},{"title":"China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (book)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_and_Russia"},{"title":"Ethnic Chinese in Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_Chinese_in_Russia"},{"title":"Russians in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians_in_China"}] | [{"reference":"\"Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China\". 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Archived from the original on 2013-04-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130411013534/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jI8_kZmr2INskAt4erPYLeDxW9Zw?docId=CNG.456411c08037199e9bc2690b1b0726fa.211","url_text":"\"AFP: Chinese leader Xi, Putin agree key energy deals\""},{"url":"http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jI8_kZmr2INskAt4erPYLeDxW9Zw?docId=CNG.456411c08037199e9bc2690b1b0726fa.211","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Trofimov, Yaroslav; Grove, Thomas (2020-06-20). \"Weary Russia Tries to Avoid Entanglement in U.S.-China Spat\". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. 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The Diplomat.","urls":[{"url":"https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/china-and-russia-sign-military-cooperation-roadmap/","url_text":"\"China and Russia Sign Military Cooperation Roadmap\""}]},{"reference":"Stent, Angela (2020-02-24). \"Russia and China: Axis of revisionists?\". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 2021-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brookings.edu/research/russia-and-china-axis-of-revisionists/","url_text":"\"Russia and China: Axis of revisionists?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution","url_text":"Brookings Institution"}]},{"reference":"Baev, Pavel K. (2020-06-15). \"The limits of authoritarian compatibility: Xi's China and Putin's Russia\". Brookings. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palliser_shot | Palliser shot and shell | ["1 History","2 Design","3 References","4 Bibliography"] | Early British armour-piercing artillery projectile
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (January 2022)
Palliser shot, Mark I, for 9-inch Rifled Muzzle Loading (RML) gun
Palliser shot is an early British armour-piercing artillery projectile, intended to pierce the armour protection of warships being developed in the second half of the 19th century. It was invented by Sir William Palliser, after whom it is named.
History
Major Palliser's shot, approved 21 October 1867, was an improvement over the ordinary elongated shot of the time.
It was adopted for the larger types of rifled muzzle-loading guns rifled on the Woolwich principle (with three rifling grooves). Palliser shot in many calibres stayed in service in the armour-piercing role until phased out of (British) service in 1909 for naval and fortress use, and 1921 for land service.
At the Battle of Angamos (8 October 1879) the Chilean ironclad warships fired twenty 250-pound Palliser gunshots against the Peruvian monitor Huáscar, with devastating results. It was the first time that such piercing shells were used in combat.
Design
Studded Palliser shot for RML 7 inch gun, 1877Palliser shot for BL 12 inch naval gun Mk I - VII, 1886
Studded Palliser shell for RML 7 inch gun, 1877Studless Palliser shell for RML 10 inch 18 ton gun, 1886
Palliser shot was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite moulds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time. Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without them cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check. This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the driving band had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.
Britain also deployed Palliser shells in the 1870s–1880s. In the shell the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled with gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armour plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze. While these Palliser shells were effective against unhardened iron, British doctrine held that only shot (i.e. non-explosive projectiles) were suitable for penetrating the new hardened armour being developed in the 1880s; hence the gunpowder filling was discontinued.
References
^ Textbook of Ammunition 1936 The War Office pp 282
^ "Naval Battle of Angamos Part 2". Archived from the original on 2002-11-26.
^ "Treatise on Ammunition" 4th Edition 1887, page 236.
^ "Treatise on Ammunition" 4th Edition 1887, page 237.
Bibliography
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palliser shot and shell.
"Treatise on Ammunition" 2nd Edition, 1877. War Office, UK
"Treatise on Ammunition" 4th Edition, 1887. War Office, UK | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NG-MC-1289.jpg"},{"link_name":"armour-piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour-piercing"},{"link_name":"William Palliser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Palliser"}],"text":"Palliser shot, Mark I, for 9-inch Rifled Muzzle Loading (RML) gunPalliser shot is an early British armour-piercing artillery projectile, intended to pierce the armour protection of warships being developed in the second half of the 19th century. It was invented by Sir William Palliser, after whom it is named.","title":"Palliser shot and shell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rifled muzzle-loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifled_muzzle-loading"},{"link_name":"Woolwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Battle of Angamos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Angamos"},{"link_name":"ironclad warships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironclad_warship"},{"link_name":"Huáscar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar_(ship)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Major Palliser's shot, approved 21 October 1867, was an improvement over the ordinary elongated shot of the time.It was adopted for the larger types of rifled muzzle-loading guns rifled on the Woolwich principle (with three rifling grooves). Palliser shot in many calibres stayed in service in the armour-piercing role until phased out of (British) service in 1909 for naval and fortress use, and 1921 for land service.[1]At the Battle of Angamos (8 October 1879) the Chilean ironclad warships fired twenty 250-pound Palliser gunshots against the Peruvian monitor Huáscar, with devastating results. It was the first time that such piercing shells were used in combat.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RML_7_inch_Palliser_shot_Mk_VI_diagram.jpg"},{"link_name":"RML 7 inch gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RML_7_inch_gun"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BL_12_inch_Palliser_shot_Mk_II_diagram.jpg"},{"link_name":"BL 12 inch naval gun Mk I - VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BL_12_inch_naval_gun_Mk_I_-_VII"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RML_7_inch_Palliser_shell_Mk_III_diagram.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RML_10_inch_Palliser_studless_shell_Mk_II_diagram.jpg"},{"link_name":"RML 10 inch 18 ton gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RML_10_inch_18_ton_gun"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"Bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze"},{"link_name":"engage the rifling grooves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_of_ammunition"},{"link_name":"casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"copper gas check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-checks_in_British_RML_heavy_guns"},{"link_name":"obturation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obturation"},{"link_name":"driving band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving_band"},{"link_name":"shells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(projectile)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Studded Palliser shot for RML 7 inch gun, 1877Palliser shot for BL 12 inch naval gun Mk I - VII, 1886Studded Palliser shell for RML 7 inch gun, 1877Studless Palliser shell for RML 10 inch 18 ton gun, 1886Palliser shot was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite moulds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time. Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without them cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting.[3] The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check. This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the driving band had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.Britain also deployed Palliser shells in the 1870s–1880s. In the shell the cavity was slightly larger than in the shot and was filled with gunpowder instead of being empty, to provide a small explosive effect after penetrating armour plating. The shell was correspondingly slightly longer than the shot to compensate for the lighter cavity. The powder filling was ignited by the shock of impact and hence did not require a fuze. While these Palliser shells were effective against unhardened iron, British doctrine held that only shot (i.e. non-explosive projectiles) were suitable for penetrating the new hardened armour being developed in the 1880s; hence the gunpowder filling was discontinued.[4]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Palliser shot and shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Palliser_shot_and_shell"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Palliser shot and shell.\"Treatise on Ammunition\" 2nd Edition, 1877. War Office, UK\n\"Treatise on Ammunition\" 4th Edition, 1887. War Office, UK","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"Palliser shot, Mark I, for 9-inch Rifled Muzzle Loading (RML) gun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/NG-MC-1289.jpg/170px-NG-MC-1289.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Naval Battle of Angamos Part 2\". Archived from the original on 2002-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021126015306/http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/NAVAL_BATTLE_OF_ANGAMOS_2.html","url_text":"\"Naval Battle of Angamos Part 2\""},{"url":"http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/NAVAL_BATTLE_OF_ANGAMOS_2.html","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021126015306/http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/NAVAL_BATTLE_OF_ANGAMOS_2.html","external_links_name":"\"Naval Battle of Angamos Part 2\""},{"Link":"http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/NAVAL_BATTLE_OF_ANGAMOS_2.html","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WUSO | WUSO | ["1 History","1.1 Radio returns to Wittenberg","1.2 Upgrade to 120 watts","1.3 Sale to Dayton Public Radio","2 Notes","3 References","4 External links"] | Radio station in Springfield, Ohio, U.S.
WUSOSimulcast of WDPR Dayton, OhioSpringfield, OhioUnited StatesFrequency89.1 MHzBrandingDayton Public RadioProgrammingFormatClassical musicAffiliationsWDPROwnershipOwnerDayton Public Radio, Inc.HistoryFirst air dateFebruary 20, 1966 (1966-02-20)Call sign meaningWittenberg University, Springfield, OhioTechnical informationLicensing authorityFCCFacility ID65468ClassAERP100 wattsHAAT26 meters (85 ft)Transmitter coordinates39°56′9.00″N 83°48′41.00″W / 39.9358333°N 83.8113889°W / 39.9358333; -83.8113889LinksPublic license information Public fileLMSWebcastListen liveWebsiteOfficial website
WUSO (89.1 FM) is a radio station in Springfield, Ohio, United States. It is owned by Dayton Public Radio, Inc. and rebroadcasts the classical music programming of WDPR in Dayton on a full-time basis from its transmitter atop Tower Hall on the Wittenberg University campus.
From 1966 to 2019, WUSO was Wittenberg's student-run college radio station, with studios in Firestine Hall on the campus.
History
Radio returns to Wittenberg
Wittenberg University (WU) received a construction permit from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to build a new 10-watt radio station on the campus on October 11, 1965. Organization on campus for a new station had dated to 1961, when a radio club was formed with 35 students. Two years later, a student committee was formed to analyze the idea, and the university appropriated funds to purchase equipment. On February 20, 1966, WUSO began broadcasting. The station represented the return of broadcasting to the university, which had shown an interest in radio transmissions beginning in 1896. Signing on in 1922, station WCSO—the university being Wittenberg College at the time—operated until 1930, when it was shuttered as part of a consolidation that formed WGAR, a new station in Cleveland.
WUSO initially broadcast for six hours a day; by 1971, it was on for three hours in the morning and then 11 hours in the evening. The station survived a 1977 funding cut by the WU student government (SGA) that nearly threatened it with closure because it suggested relocating the facility without considering the technical and legal implications of such a move. Pressure from SGA forced cutbacks, such as the elimination of a news wire, as well as internal reforms. Studios were in the basement of Alumni House before relocating to Sprecher Hall in 1979. The move required major changes and left the station off the air for a year and a half, and it also saw the station convert to stereo broadcasting.
Over time, WUSO began operating with a freeform format, a contrast to the Top 40-heavy FM dial in the area. Programs ranged from Christian rock to jazz; in 1986, station manager Krista May did on-air shifts hosting a punk rock show under the name "Chrystal Meth". However, despite a series of efforts over the years, WUSO remained a 10-watt outlet. By 1986, the original transmitter was out of service for six weeks during the winter term. Even with 10 watts, the station attracted substantial interest on campus: there were 120 DJs in 1990. The station narrowly survived another financial challenge again in 1996 when the student senate made a grant to allow the station to purchase Emergency Alert System equipment that it needed in order to meet requirements for the new service. The station abandoned Sprecher Hall in 1998 as part of its demolition, moving into the basement of Firestine Hall and replacing much of its equipment in the process.
Upgrade to 120 watts
As a Class D station operating on the same 10-watt basis as in 1966, WUSO was vulnerable. In the late 1970s, the FCC encouraged many stations to upgrade to Class A status—100 watts minimum—and left Class D stations a secondary service, vulnerable to being bumped by other stations. Furthermore, even though the transmitter was atop Tower Hall, students living there sometimes had trouble receiving the station. WUSO had twice solicited power increases, first in 1971 and then in 1986. However, such changes also would have come with needed upgrades to professionalize even as FCC restrictions tightened the ability of Class D stations to upgrade. Alongside moving to Firestine, the station mounted a third effort at a power increase, hoping to avoid the paperwork-related problems that had plagued past pushes. The proposed increase turned into a years-long legal battle in the wake of two related applications from Christian groups, the American Family Association and Life Radio Ministries. This conflict was lengthened because the FCC overhauled the process by which it compared applications for non-commercial educational radio stations, leaving the three applications—WUSO's improvement and the two new Christian radio stations, one for Urbana and one for Delaware—in a mutually exclusive group. The three parties then filed a universal settlement, granting WUSO's improvement and the Delaware new station application, which was granted on April 25, 2003.
In November 2004, WUSO upgraded from 10 watts to 120, improving its coverage area and signal strength in the Springfield area. In December 2003, Wittenberg athletics moved to WUSO from commercial station WULM; the move came in the middle of the basketball season after WULM refused to produce and carry broadcasts of Wittenberg women's basketball games. WUSO also initiated online streaming in 2006. WUSO's studios in the basement of Firestine Hall were flooded when a water pipe burst on April 8, 2012. Four feet of water inundated the facilities, and the studio equipment was a total loss. The station was off the air for nearly a year; the studios were rebuilt with increased space for live bands to play and an expanded lobby. By 2018, the station had 18 student-produced shows on its lineup.
Sale to Dayton Public Radio
In August 2017, WUSO entered into a partnership with WDPR Dayton Public Radio to rebroadcast its classical music programming from 6 a.m. to 2 p.m. on weekdays. As WDPR's signal does not reach Springfield, this expanded the service's coverage. In March 2019, WUSO began rebroadcasting WDPR on a full-time basis, and WU filed in December 2022 to sell the station outright to DPR for $94,580. The sale was consummated on March 13, 2023.
Notes
^ Preceded earlier in the year by experimental 8XAK, this station was originally assigned the WNAP call letters, which were changed to WCSO on March 6, 1925.
References
^ a b "Wittenberg To Open FM Broadcasting". Springfield News-Sun. February 20, 1966. p. 2B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Facility Technical Data for WUSO". Licensing and Management System. Federal Communications Commission.
^ "FCC History Cards for WUSO". FCC.
^ "Group organizes for radio station". The Wittenberg Torch. May 5, 1961. p. 2.
^ "Creation of FM station planned by students". The Wittenberg Torch. November 15, 1963. p. 1.
^ "WU will get radio station". The Wittenberg Torch. October 24, 1964. p. 6.
^ a b Frost, S. E. Jr. (1971) . Education's Own Stations (PDF). New York, New York: Arno Press, Inc. pp. 475–478. ISBN 0-405-03555-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 29, 2021. Retrieved August 4, 2022 – via World Radio History.
^ "New Stations". Radio Service Bulletin. No. 67. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. November 1, 1922. p. 3. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved August 4, 2022 – via HathiTrust.
^ "Last Program is Broadcast". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Cincinnati, Ohio. Associated Press. October 12, 1930. p. 35. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
^ "Radio Station WCSO Stops Broadcasting". Akron Beacon Journal. Akron, Ohio. October 31, 1930. p. 25. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Garstang, Kathy (March 4, 1966). "Announcer racalls WCSO radio". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 6.
^ "License Renewed: WUSO-FM To Resume Broadcasts Sunday". Springfield News-Sun. October 8, 1967. p. 7C. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "WUSO Resumes Broadcasting Tuesday". Springfield News-Sun. September 19, 1971. p. 4B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Schnorf, Karen (May 26, 1977). "WUSO threatened with shut down". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 6.
^ Jennings, David G. (November 11, 1977). "WUSO aims for quality". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 6.
^ Wecker, David (July 16, 1978). "Major Changes Coming On Wittenberg Campus". Springfield News-Sun. p. 1B. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Edmiston, Paula (November 9, 1979). "WUSO begins campus broadcast".
^ Irick, Andy (February 3, 1984). "WUSO: Genesis of Campus Waves". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 8.
^ "Out and about". Springfield News-Sun. October 17, 1985. p. 9. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Hughes, Dan (January 26, 1986). "Tuned in to Springfield". Springfield News-Sun. Springfield, Ohio. p. 1B, 2B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Simpson, Lori (May 30, 1986). "WUSO In Need Of New Transmitter". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 5.
^ Dye, Nicole (January 12, 1990). "WUSO offers variety and entertainment". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 3.
^ Neff, Amy (October 1, 1996). "WUSO faces shutdown; lacks equipment funds". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 2.
^ Neff, Amy (October 8, 1996). "Senate rescues WUSO, approves pep band". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 4.
^ Harding, Jared (April 7, 1998). "WUSO move to Firestine in progress". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 11.
^ Bachelder, Lara (February 3, 2005). "Student radio station makes upgrades". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 1.
^ "WUSO, the basement radio station increases output to 500 watts". The Wittenberg Torch. April 15, 1971. p. 6.
^ Johnson, Charlotte (October 3, 1986). "WUSO Striving for Professionalism". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 18.
^ Stiles, Ted (October 14, 1988). "WUSO Hopes To Attract More Listeners". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 3.
^ Jackson, Jennifer (February 10, 1998). "Senate may support WUSO with fee raise". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 2.
^ Remsburg, Alysa (March 23, 1999). "WUSO broadcast license threatened due to frequency". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 10.
^ "Memorandum Opinion and Order, In the Matter of Reexamination of the Comparative Standards for Noncommercial Educational Applicants (FCC 01-64)" (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. February 15, 2001. p. 38.
^ "Public Notice Comment". Consolidated Database System. Federal Communications Commission. April 25, 2003.
^ Baker, Kelly (November 28, 2004). "Reaching out: Radio tower allows Witt station to broadcast to most of the county". Springfield News-Sun. p. 1B. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Walther, Keith (December 21, 2003). "Witt sports to be broadcast on WUSO". Springfield News-Sun. p. 7C. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Fry, Alyssa (September 14, 2006). "Improved sounds at Witt: WUSO to go online". Wittenberg Torch. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
^ Doll, Elizabeth (September 5, 2012). "Rebuilding and Renovating WUSO". Wittenberg Torch. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
^ "WUSO's birthday: Celebrating 46 years of good music". Wittenberg Torch. February 27, 2013. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
^ "Campus Radio Station WUSO Kicks Off Semester". The Wittenberg Torch. September 2, 2018.
^ Turner, Brett (September 3, 2017). "Springfield college radio station partners with classical station". Springfield News-Sun. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
^ "Statement re: Issues/Programs Lists" (PDF). WUSO Public Inspection File. Federal Communications Commission. May 29, 2020.
^ "Deal Digest - January 5, 2023". Inside Radio. January 5, 2023. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.
External links
WUSO in the FCC FM station database
WUSO in Nielsen Audio's FM station database
vteRadio stations in the Dayton, Ohio, metropolitan areaBy AM frequency
910
980
1090
1110
1130
1210
1290
1340
1410
1500
1570
1600
By FM frequency
88.1
88.9
89.1
89.3
89.5
89.5
89.9
90.3
91.3
92.1
92.9
93.7
94.5
94.9
95.3
95.7
96.9
98.1
98.3
99.1
99.5
99.9
100.7
101.5
102.9
103.5
103.9
104.7
105.9
106.5
106.9
107.3
107.7
LPFM
97.3
97.9
106.7
107.1
Translators
98.1
98.7
W254BA
W254BJ
100.3
101.1
102.3
102.5
103.3
104.3
105.5
Digital radioby frequency & subchannel
88.1-1
91.1-1
91.1-2
93.7-1
93.7-2
99.1-1
99.1-2
99.1-3
99.9-1
99.9-2
100.7-1
100.7-2
100.7-3
100.7-4
103.9-1
104.7-1
104.7-2
104.7-3
107.7-1
By call sign
W251BC
W254BA
W254BJ
W262BG
W266BG
W272DR
W273BQ
W277AO
W282CD
W288DJ
WALH-LP
WBZI
WCHD
HD2
WCLI-FM
WCSU-FM
WCWT-FM
WDAO
WDHT
WDPG
WDPR
WDPS
WEDI
WEEC
HD2
HD3
HD4
WFCJ
HD2
WGJM-LP
WGNZ
WGRR
WGTZ
WHIO
WHIO-FM
WHKO
HD2
HD3
WING
WIZE
WKCD
WKET
WKFI
WMMX
WNKN
WONE
WPFB
WPTW
WQRP
WREW
WROU-FM
WSWO-LP
WTJN-LP
WTKD
WTUE
HD2
HD3
WUDR
WULM
WUSO
WWSU
WYDA
WYDB
WYNS
WYSO
WZDA
WZLR
Defunct
WCSO (Springfield)
WCTM
Nearby regions
Cincinnati
Columbus
Fort Wayne
Indianapolis
Lima/Findlay
Muncie
Southern Ohio
See also
List of radio stations in Ohio | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"Springfield, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"WDPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WDPR"},{"link_name":"Dayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"college radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_radio"}],"text":"Radio station in Springfield, Ohio, U.S.WUSO (89.1 FM) is a radio station in Springfield, Ohio, United States. It is owned by Dayton Public Radio, Inc. and rebroadcasts the classical music programming of WDPR in Dayton on a full-time basis from its transmitter atop Tower Hall on the Wittenberg University campus.From 1966 to 2019, WUSO was Wittenberg's student-run college radio station, with studios in Firestine Hall on the campus.","title":"WUSO"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Federal Communications Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hc-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri660220-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wittenberg-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"WGAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHKW"},{"link_name":"Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stops-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri671008-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri710919-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri780716-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri851017-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri860126-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Emergency Alert System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_Alert_System"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Radio returns to Wittenberg","text":"Wittenberg University (WU) received a construction permit from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to build a new 10-watt radio station on the campus on October 11, 1965.[3] Organization on campus for a new station had dated to 1961, when a radio club was formed with 35 students.[4] Two years later, a student committee was formed to analyze the idea,[5] and the university appropriated funds to purchase equipment.[6] On February 20, 1966, WUSO began broadcasting.[1] The station represented the return of broadcasting to the university, which had shown an interest in radio transmissions beginning in 1896.[7] Signing on in 1922,[8] station WCSO[a]—the university being Wittenberg College at the time—operated until 1930,[9] when it was shuttered as part of a consolidation that formed WGAR, a new station in Cleveland.[10][11]WUSO initially broadcast for six hours a day;[12] by 1971, it was on for three hours in the morning and then 11 hours in the evening.[13] The station survived a 1977 funding cut by the WU student government (SGA) that nearly threatened it with closure because it suggested relocating the facility without considering the technical and legal implications of such a move.[14] Pressure from SGA forced cutbacks, such as the elimination of a news wire, as well as internal reforms.[15] Studios were in the basement of Alumni House before relocating to Sprecher Hall in 1979.[16] The move required major changes and left the station off the air for a year and a half,[17] and it also saw the station convert to stereo broadcasting.[18]Over time, WUSO began operating with a freeform format, a contrast to the Top 40-heavy FM dial in the area.[19] Programs ranged from Christian rock to jazz; in 1986, station manager Krista May did on-air shifts hosting a punk rock show under the name \"Chrystal Meth\".[20] However, despite a series of efforts over the years, WUSO remained a 10-watt outlet. By 1986, the original transmitter was out of service for six weeks during the winter term.[21] Even with 10 watts, the station attracted substantial interest on campus: there were 120 DJs in 1990.[22] The station narrowly survived another financial challenge again in 1996 when the student senate made a grant to allow the station to purchase Emergency Alert System equipment that it needed in order to meet requirements for the new service.[23][24] The station abandoned Sprecher Hall in 1998 as part of its demolition, moving into the basement of Firestine Hall and replacing much of its equipment in the process.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"American Family Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Family_Association"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"non-commercial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-commercial"},{"link_name":"Urbana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbana,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Delaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri041128-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spri031221-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Upgrade to 120 watts","text":"As a Class D station operating on the same 10-watt basis as in 1966, WUSO was vulnerable. In the late 1970s, the FCC encouraged many stations to upgrade to Class A status—100 watts minimum—and left Class D stations a secondary service, vulnerable to being bumped by other stations. Furthermore, even though the transmitter was atop Tower Hall, students living there sometimes had trouble receiving the station.[26] WUSO had twice solicited power increases, first in 1971[27] and then in 1986.[28] However, such changes also would have come with needed upgrades to professionalize even as FCC restrictions tightened the ability of Class D stations to upgrade.[29] Alongside moving to Firestine, the station mounted a third effort at a power increase, hoping to avoid the paperwork-related problems that had plagued past pushes.[30] The proposed increase turned into a years-long legal battle in the wake of two related applications from Christian groups, the American Family Association and Life Radio Ministries.[31] This conflict was lengthened because the FCC overhauled the process by which it compared applications for non-commercial educational radio stations, leaving the three applications—WUSO's improvement and the two new Christian radio stations, one for Urbana and one for Delaware—in a mutually exclusive group.[32] The three parties then filed a universal settlement, granting WUSO's improvement and the Delaware new station application, which was granted on April 25, 2003.[33]In November 2004, WUSO upgraded from 10 watts to 120, improving its coverage area and signal strength in the Springfield area.[34] In December 2003, Wittenberg athletics moved to WUSO from commercial station WULM; the move came in the middle of the basketball season after WULM refused to produce and carry broadcasts of Wittenberg women's basketball games.[35] WUSO also initiated online streaming in 2006.[36] WUSO's studios in the basement of Firestine Hall were flooded when a water pipe burst on April 8, 2012. Four feet of water inundated the facilities, and the studio equipment was a total loss.[37] The station was off the air for nearly a year; the studios were rebuilt with increased space for live bands to play and an expanded lobby.[38] By 2018, the station had 18 student-produced shows on its lineup.[39]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WDPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WDPR"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Sale to Dayton Public Radio","text":"In August 2017, WUSO entered into a partnership with WDPR Dayton Public Radio to rebroadcast its classical music programming from 6 a.m. to 2 p.m. on weekdays. As WDPR's signal does not reach Springfield, this expanded the service's coverage.[40] In March 2019, WUSO began rebroadcasting WDPR on a full-time basis,[41] and WU filed in December 2022 to sell the station outright to DPR for $94,580.[42] The sale was consummated on March 13, 2023.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wittenberg-7"}],"text":"^ Preceded earlier in the year by experimental 8XAK, this station was originally assigned the WNAP call letters, which were changed to WCSO on March 6, 1925.[7]","title":"Notes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Wittenberg To Open FM Broadcasting\". Springfield News-Sun. February 20, 1966. p. 2B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115874667/wittenberg-to-open-fm-broadcasting/","url_text":"\"Wittenberg To Open FM Broadcasting\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106023743/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115874667/wittenberg-to-open-fm-broadcasting/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Facility Technical Data for WUSO\". Licensing and Management System. Federal Communications Commission.","urls":[{"url":"https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/public/tv/publicFacilityTechDetails.html?facilityId=65468","url_text":"\"Facility Technical Data for WUSO\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"FCC History Cards for WUSO\". FCC.","urls":[{"url":"https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/api/download/attachment/de871ac4-7a24-cd76-5ecd-571c6f8902b8","url_text":"\"FCC History Cards for WUSO\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"FCC"}]},{"reference":"\"Group organizes for radio station\". The Wittenberg Torch. May 5, 1961. p. 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Creation of FM station planned by students\". The Wittenberg Torch. November 15, 1963. p. 1.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"WU will get radio station\". The Wittenberg Torch. October 24, 1964. p. 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Frost, S. E. Jr. (1971) [1937]. Education's Own Stations (PDF). New York, New York: Arno Press, Inc. pp. 475–478. ISBN 0-405-03555-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 29, 2021. Retrieved August 4, 2022 – via World Radio History.","urls":[{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/BOOKSHELF-ARH/History/Education%27s-Own-Stations-Frost-1937-HOB.pdf","url_text":"Education's Own Stations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-03555-1","url_text":"0-405-03555-1"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210929132558/https://worldradiohistory.com/BOOKSHELF-ARH/History/Education%27s-Own-Stations-Frost-1937-HOB.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"New Stations\". Radio Service Bulletin. No. 67. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce. November 1, 1922. p. 3. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved August 4, 2022 – via HathiTrust.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3221816&view=1up&seq=745&skin=2021","url_text":"\"New Stations\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210712202340/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3221816&view=1up&seq=745","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Last Program is Broadcast\". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Cincinnati, Ohio. Associated Press. October 12, 1930. p. 35. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/83342043/last-program-is-broadcast/","url_text":"\"Last Program is Broadcast\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210813053228/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/83342043/last-program-is-broadcast/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Radio Station WCSO Stops Broadcasting\". Akron Beacon Journal. Akron, Ohio. October 31, 1930. p. 25. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/83342185/radio-station-wcso-stops-broadcasting/","url_text":"\"Radio Station WCSO Stops Broadcasting\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210813053220/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/83342185/radio-station-wcso-stops-broadcasting/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Garstang, Kathy (March 4, 1966). \"Announcer racalls WCSO radio\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"License Renewed: WUSO-FM To Resume Broadcasts Sunday\". Springfield News-Sun. October 8, 1967. p. 7C. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115875530/license-renewed-wuso-fm-to-resume-broad/","url_text":"\"License Renewed: WUSO-FM To Resume Broadcasts Sunday\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230110060541/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115875530/license-renewed-wuso-fm-to-resume/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"WUSO Resumes Broadcasting Tuesday\". Springfield News-Sun. September 19, 1971. p. 4B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878117/wuso-resumes-broadcasting-tuesday/","url_text":"\"WUSO Resumes Broadcasting Tuesday\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106032913/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878117/wuso-resumes-broadcasting-tuesday/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schnorf, Karen (May 26, 1977). \"WUSO threatened with shut down\". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jennings, David G. (November 11, 1977). \"WUSO aims for quality\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wecker, David (July 16, 1978). \"Major Changes Coming On Wittenberg Campus\". Springfield News-Sun. p. 1B. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878279/major-changes-coming-on-wittenberg-campu/","url_text":"\"Major Changes Coming On Wittenberg Campus\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230110060548/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878279/major-changes-coming-on-wittenberg/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Edmiston, Paula (November 9, 1979). \"WUSO begins campus broadcast\".","urls":[]},{"reference":"Irick, Andy (February 3, 1984). \"WUSO: Genesis of Campus Waves\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Out and about\". Springfield News-Sun. October 17, 1985. p. 9. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878490/out-and-about/","url_text":"\"Out and about\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106032911/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878490/out-and-about/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hughes, Dan (January 26, 1986). \"Tuned in to Springfield\". Springfield News-Sun. Springfield, Ohio. p. 1B, 2B. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878408/tuned-in-to-springfield/","url_text":"\"Tuned in to Springfield\""},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878627/tuned/","url_text":"2B"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106032908/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878408/tuned-in-to-springfield/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Simpson, Lori (May 30, 1986). \"WUSO In Need Of New Transmitter\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 5.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dye, Nicole (January 12, 1990). \"WUSO offers variety and entertainment\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Neff, Amy (October 1, 1996). \"WUSO faces shutdown; lacks equipment funds\". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Neff, Amy (October 8, 1996). \"Senate rescues WUSO, approves pep band\". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Harding, Jared (April 7, 1998). \"WUSO move to Firestine in progress\". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 11.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bachelder, Lara (February 3, 2005). \"Student radio station makes upgrades\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 1.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"WUSO, the basement radio station increases output to 500 watts\". The Wittenberg Torch. April 15, 1971. p. 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Johnson, Charlotte (October 3, 1986). \"WUSO Striving for Professionalism\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 18.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stiles, Ted (October 14, 1988). \"WUSO Hopes To Attract More Listeners\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jackson, Jennifer (February 10, 1998). \"Senate may support WUSO with fee raise\". The Wittenberg Torch. p. 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Remsburg, Alysa (March 23, 1999). \"WUSO broadcast license threatened due to frequency\". The Wittenberg Torch. pp. 1, 10.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Memorandum Opinion and Order, In the Matter of Reexamination of the Comparative Standards for Noncommercial Educational Applicants (FCC 01-64)\" (PDF). Federal Communications Commission. February 15, 2001. p. 38.","urls":[{"url":"https://transition.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Mass_Media/Orders/2001/fcc01064.pdf","url_text":"\"Memorandum Opinion and Order, In the Matter of Reexamination of the Comparative Standards for Noncommercial Educational Applicants (FCC 01-64)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Public Notice Comment\". Consolidated Database System. Federal Communications Commission. April 25, 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://licensing.fcc.gov/cgi-bin/ws.exe/prod/cdbs/pubacc/prod/comment.pl?Application_id=623331&File_number=BPED-19980602MA","url_text":"\"Public Notice Comment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"Baker, Kelly (November 28, 2004). \"Reaching out: Radio tower allows Witt station to broadcast to most of the county\". Springfield News-Sun. p. 1B. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115875649/reaching-out-radio-tower-allows-witt-st/","url_text":"\"Reaching out: Radio tower allows Witt station to broadcast to most of the county\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230110060539/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115875649/reaching-out-radio-tower-allows-witt/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Walther, Keith (December 21, 2003). \"Witt sports to be broadcast on WUSO\". Springfield News-Sun. p. 7C. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878758/witt-sports-to-be-broadcast-on-wuso/","url_text":"\"Witt sports to be broadcast on WUSO\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106032910/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/115878758/witt-sports-to-be-broadcast-on-wuso/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fry, Alyssa (September 14, 2006). \"Improved sounds at Witt: WUSO to go online\". Wittenberg Torch. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www6.wittenberg.edu/lib/witt_pubs/torch/archive/?file=Improved.Sounds.At.Witt.Wuso.To.Go.Online-2277973.shtml","url_text":"\"Improved sounds at Witt: WUSO to go online\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106040124/https://www6.wittenberg.edu/lib/witt_pubs/torch/archive/?file=Improved.Sounds.At.Witt.Wuso.To.Go.Online-2277973.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Doll, Elizabeth (September 5, 2012). \"Rebuilding and Renovating WUSO\". Wittenberg Torch. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wittprojects.net/torcharchive/?p=5931","url_text":"\"Rebuilding and Renovating WUSO\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106023749/https://www.wittprojects.net/torcharchive/?p=5931","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"WUSO's birthday: Celebrating 46 years of good music\". Wittenberg Torch. February 27, 2013. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wittprojects.net/torcharchive/?p=8649","url_text":"\"WUSO's birthday: Celebrating 46 years of good music\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106023745/https://www.wittprojects.net/torcharchive/?p=8649","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Campus Radio Station WUSO Kicks Off Semester\". The Wittenberg Torch. September 2, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://wittenbergtorch.com/2018/09/02/wuso/","url_text":"\"Campus Radio Station WUSO Kicks Off Semester\""}]},{"reference":"Turner, Brett (September 3, 2017). \"Springfield college radio station partners with classical station\". Springfield News-Sun. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springfieldnewssun.com/news/local/springfield-college-radio-station-partners-with-classical-station/2cTOOBKIiAfI0NJDn8a0eO/","url_text":"\"Springfield college radio station partners with classical station\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106023747/https://www.springfieldnewssun.com/news/local/springfield-college-radio-station-partners-with-classical-station/2cTOOBKIiAfI0NJDn8a0eO/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Statement re: Issues/Programs Lists\" (PDF). WUSO Public Inspection File. Federal Communications Commission. May 29, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicfiles.fcc.gov/api/manager/download/64f8e565-3665-34c5-9395-5e999a245824/6a2b6df0-beca-4fcd-9e29-3886c7fd8622.pdf","url_text":"\"Statement re: Issues/Programs Lists\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission","url_text":"Federal Communications Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Deal Digest - January 5, 2023\". Inside Radio. January 5, 2023. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Kennard | Derek Kennard | ["1 Early years","2 Professional career","2.1 Los Angeles Express (USFL)","2.2 St. Louis / Phoenix Cardinals","2.3 New Orleans Saints","2.4 Dallas Cowboys","3 Personal life","4 References","5 External links"] | American football player (born 1962)
American football player
Derek KennardNo. 70, 60Position:Guard / CenterPersonal informationBorn: (1962-09-09) September 9, 1962 (age 61)Stockton, California, U.S.Height:6 ft 3 in (1.91 m)Weight:333 lb (151 kg)Career informationHigh school:Edison (Stockton)College:NevadaNFL draft:1984 / Round: 2 / Pick: 45Career history
Los Angeles Express (1984–1985)
St. Louis/Phoenix Cardinals (1986–1990)
New Orleans Saints (1991–1993)
Dallas Cowboys (1994–1996)
Career highlights and awards
Super Bowl champion (XXX)
Second-team All-Pro (1992)
Division I-AA All-American (1983)
2× All-Big Sky (1982, 1983)
Second-team All-Big Sky (1981)
Big Sky Conference Silver Anniversary team
Career NFL statisticsGames played:134Games started:122Player stats at PFR
Derek Craig Kennard (born September 9, 1962) is an American former professional football player who was a guard and center in the National Football League (NFL) for the St. Louis/Phoenix Cardinals, New Orleans Saints, and Dallas Cowboys. He also was a member of the Los Angeles Express in the United States Football League (USFL). He played college football for the Nevada Wolf Pack.
Early years
Kennard attended Edison High School, where he was an offensive tackle and his No. 73 jersey was retired in 1996. He accepted a football scholarship from the University of Nevada, Reno, where he was a second-team All-Big Sky as a sophomore, and All-Big Sky as a junior and senior. He was named to the Division I-AA All-American as an offensive tackle in 1983.
In 1996, he was inducted into Nevada Athletics Hall of Fame and he also is part of the Big Sky Conference Silver Anniversary team.
Professional career
Los Angeles Express (USFL)
Kennard was selected by the Los Angeles Express in the third round (53rd overall) of the 1984 USFL Draft. He was converted into a guard and played in 20 games during 2 seasons.
St. Louis / Phoenix Cardinals
Kennard was selected by the St. Louis Cardinals in the second round (45th overall) of the 1984 NFL Supplemental Draft of USFL and CFL players. He joined them after the USFL folded in August 1986, starting 10 out of 15 games at left guard.
In 1987, he started the final 11 games at center. In 1988, he was the regular starter at center and was an alternate selection to the Pro Bowl.
In 1989, he was suspended 2 games after crashing his car while driving under the influence and started 14 games at center. In 1990, he was moved to left guard to make room for Bill Lewis at center. He played in 73 games and had a streak of 40 consecutive starts.
New Orleans Saints
On August 19, 1991, he was traded along with a fifth round draft choice (#118-Rogerick Green) to the New Orleans Saints, in exchange for holdout cornerback Robert Massey. He opened the season as the starter at right guard, but suffered a torn pectoral muscle in a weight room accident, and was lost for the year after the third game.
In 1991, he regained his starting position at right guard. He missed the season finale with a sprained ankle. In 1992, he started the first 14 games at right guard before moving to center in place of an injured Joel Hilgenberg in the fifteenth game, and returned to guard for the season finale.
Kennard played 3 seasons and had 32 consecutive starts at guard and center.
Dallas Cowboys
On April 18, 1994, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys as an unrestricted free agent, primarily to be the starting right guard, replacing Kevin Gogan who signed with the Los Angeles Raiders in free agency.
In 1995 after injuring his hip in training camp, he told the team that he was retiring because of health reasons, but Jerry Jones eventually convinced him to return. When Larry Allen moved from left tackle back to right guard, he became a backup offensive lineman. After Ray Donaldson suffered a broken right ankle and was placed on the injured reserve list, he started the last 4 games at center and all of the playoffs. In Super Bowl XXX he started at center and played with a severe separated shoulder.
Although he was not a part of the team at the start of the 1996 season, the Cowboys signed him to help in one game. He retired at the end of the year.
Personal life
His sons Derek Kennard Jr. played defensive tackle for the University of Nevada, and Devon Kennard played linebacker for the New York Giants, Detroit Lions and Arizona Cardinals from 2014-2022, and USC from 2009-2013.
After retiring from the NFL, he promoted sleep apnea awareness with a company called Pro Player Health Alliance. In the summer of 1986, he shot several episodes of the HBO series 1st & Ten.
References
^ "1980-89 All-Conference Teams". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ "Past All-Americans". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ "25th Anniversary Football Team". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ "1984 NFL Draft Listing". Pro-Football-Reference.com. Retrieved 2023-10-10.
^ "Saints offensive line negates continuity theory". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ "'Pokes ink Kennard; Raiders pick up Gogan". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
^ "Angered Means reports for duty". Retrieved February 19, 2018.
External links
Nevada Reno hall of fame bio
vteSt. Louis Cardinals 1984 NFL draft selections
Clyde Duncan
Doug Dawson
Rick McIvor
Martin Bayless
Jeff Leiding
John Goode
Rod Clark
Quentin Walker
Niko Noga
Bob Paulling
John Walker
Mark Smythe
Kyle Mackey
Paul Parker
Mike Ruether (supp.)
Derek Kennard (supp.)
Tim Riordan (supp.)
vteDallas Cowboys Super Bowl XXX champions
8 Troy Aikman
10 Jon Baker
11 Wade Wilson
17 Jason Garrett
18 Chris Boniol
19 John Jett
20 Sherman Williams
21 Deion Sanders
22 Emmitt Smith
23 Robert Bailey
24 Larry Brown (MVP)
25 Scott Case
26 Kevin Smith
27 Greg Tremble
28 Darren Woodson
29 Alundis Brice
31 Brock Marion
36 Dominique Ross
38 David Lang
40 Bill Bates
42 Charlie Williams
43 Greg Briggs
47 Clayton Holmes
48 Daryl Johnston
52 Jim Schwantz
53 Ray Donaldson
54 Darryl Hardy
54 Anthony Fieldings
55 Robert Jones
56 Reggie Barnes
58 Dixon Edwards
59 Darrin Smith
60 Derek Kennard
61 Nate Newton
65 Ron Stone
67 Russell Maryland
68 Michael Batiste
69 George Hegamin
70 Dale Hellestrae
71 Mark Tuinei
73 Larry Allen
78 Leon Lett
79 Erik Williams
81 Ed Hervey
82 Cory Fleming
83 Kendell Watkins
84 Jay Novacek
85 Kevin Williams
86 Eric Bjornson
87 Billy Davis
88 Michael Irvin
90 Oscar Sturgis
91 Darren Benson
92 Tony Tolbert
94 Charles Haley
95 Chad Hennings
96 Shante Carver
98 Godfrey Myles
99 Hurvin McCormack
Head coach: Barry Switzer
Coaches: Hubbard Alexander
Joe Avezzano
John Blake
Craig Boller
Joe Brodsky
Dave Campo
Jim Eddy
Robert Ford
Steve Hoffman
Hudson Houck
Ernie Zampese
Mike Zimmer
Owner: Jerry Jones | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_football"},{"link_name":"guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guard_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"National Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"St. Louis/Phoenix Cardinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Cardinals"},{"link_name":"New Orleans Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans_Saints"},{"link_name":"Dallas Cowboys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Express_(USFL)"},{"link_name":"United States Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Football_League"},{"link_name":"college football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football"},{"link_name":"Nevada Wolf Pack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_Wolf_Pack_football"}],"text":"American football playerDerek Craig Kennard (born September 9, 1962) is an American former professional football player who was a guard and center in the National Football League (NFL) for the St. Louis/Phoenix Cardinals, New Orleans Saints, and Dallas Cowboys. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamliel_II | Gamaliel II | ["1 Biography","1.1 Leadership","1.2 Leadership controversy","1.3 Anecdotes","1.4 Death","2 Teachings","2.1 Halacha","2.2 Aggadah","3 References","4 External links"] | Judean rabbi and nasi from c. 80 to c. 118
Alleged site of the grave of Rabban Gamliel in Yavneh known as the Mausoleum of Abu Huraira. A Hebrew travel guide dated between 1266 and 1291 mentioned a tomb of Rabbi Gammliel in Yavne that is used as a Muslim prayer house
Another view of the tomb in Yavneh
Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel; Hebrew: רבן גמליאל דיבנה; before c. 80–c. 118) was a rabbi from the second generation of tannaim. He was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as nasi after the fall of the Second Temple in 70 CE.
He was the son of Shimon ben Gamaliel, one of Jerusalem's foremost men in the war against the Romans, and grandson of Gamaliel I. To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamliel of Yavne.
Biography
He seemed to have settled initially in Kefar 'Othnai in Lower Galilee, but with the outbreak of the war with Rome, he fled to Jerusalem. From there, he moved to Yavne. In Yavne, during the siege of Jerusalem, the scribes of the school of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, and a new centre of Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem. He was appointed nasi in approximately the year 80 CE.
Leadership
Gamaliel II became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction of the Second Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself said, not for his own honor nor for that of his family, but in order that disunion should not prevail in Israel.
Gamaliel's position was recognized by the Roman government also, and he journeyed to Syria for the purpose of being confirmed in office by the governor. Towards the end of Domitian's reign (c. 95 CE), he went to Rome in company with the most prominent members of the school of Yavneh, in order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of the emperor. Many interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and their sojourn there. The impression made by the capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians.
He may have been the first to receive the title "nasi" (prince; later replaced by "patriarch"), given to raise him in public estimation and to revive the Biblical designation for the head of the nation. This title later became hereditary with his descendants.
Rabbinical eras
Chazal
Zugot
Tannaim
Amoraim
Savoraim
Geonim
Rishonim
Acharonim
vte
Leadership controversy
Gamaliel was a controversial leader. In a dispute about fixing the calendar, Rabban Gamaliel humiliated Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah by asking him to show up with his "stick and satchel" (weekday attire) on the holy day which according to Rabbi Joshua's calculation was Yom Kippur. Later on, another dispute broke out regarding the status of the nightly prayer, and he humiliated him again by asking him to stand up, and to remain standing while teaching his students. This incident shocked the Rabbis, and subsequently is said to have led to a rabbinic revolt against Gamaliel's leadership of the Sanhedrin. The Sanhedrin installed Rabbi Eleazar Ben Azariah as the new Nasi. After reconciling with Rabbi Joshua, Rabban Gamaliel was reinstated as Nasi, with Rabbi Eleazar serving along with him in a rotation every third week. According to the version recorded in the Jerusalem Talmud, Rabbi Eleazar served as Av Beit Din, a viceregent. Gamaliel, however, showed that with him it was only a question of principle, and that he had no intention of humiliating Joshua; for, rising and kissing him on the head, he greeted him with the words: "Welcome, my master and my pupil: my master in learning; my pupil in that you submit to my will."
Similarly, he was implicated in the 'excommunication' of his own brother-in-law, Eliezer ben Hyrcanus. His goal was to strengthen the authority of the assembly at Yavneh as well as his own authority, and thus brought upon himself the suspicion of seeking his own glory. However, Gamaliel describes his motivations in this episode as in the following prayer: "Lord of the world, it is manifest and known to Thee that I have not done it for my own honor nor for that of my house, but for Thy honor, that factions may not increase in Israel." A story which confirms Gamaliel's claim to modesty is told, in which he, standing, served his guests himself at a feast.
Gamaliel's greatest achievement was ending of the opposition between the schools of Hillel and Shammai, which had survived even the destruction of the Temple. According to tradition, a voice from heaven was heard in Yavneh, declaring that although the views of both schools were justifiable in principle (as "words of the living God"), in practice the views of Hillel's school are authoritative.
Anecdotes
See also: Gilyonim
Many of Gamaliel's decisions in religious law are connected with his stay in some place in the Holy Land. In Ecdippa the archisynagogue Scipio asked him a question which he answered by letter after his return home. There are also records of Gamaliel's stay in Kfar Uthnai, in Emmaus, in Lod, in Jericho in Samaria, and in Tiberias.
He was on friendly terms with many non-Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tavi that when Tavi died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family. A friendly conversation is recorded which he had with a heathen on the way from Acre to Ecdippa. On the Sabbath he sat upon the benches of heathen merchants.
Still, Gamaliel and his sister, Ima Shalom, chided with the growing local Christian population, even mocking a certain gentile judge who had adjudicated in an inheritance case, in which Ima Shalom had made herself the make-believe claimant in the case. When the judge at first ruled in favor of the woman, he quickly rescinded the verdict in favor of Gamaliel after being given a bribe by Rabban Gamaliel. The story includes a reference to the words of Jesus in Matthew 5:17, with one possible reading of the story indicating that it was Gamaliel making this reference. This episode, as also another described elsewhere, are some of the first encounters with Christianity, during which Rabban Gamliel debated the "min," or philosopher, who maliciously concluded from Hosea 5:6 that God had completely forsaken Israel.
The memory of the destroyed Temple was especially vivid in Gamaliel's heart. Gamaliel and his companions wept over the destruction of Jerusalem and of the Temple when they heard the noise of the great city of Rome, and at another time when they stood on the Temple ruins.
Death
Gamaliel died around c. 118, which was before the insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Israel. At his funeral the celebrated proselyte Aquila, reviving an ancient custom for the burial of kings, burned costly materials to the value of seventy minae.
Gamaliel himself had directed that his body be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated with funerals, and his end was attained; his example became the rule.
Of Gamaliel's children, one daughter is known, who answered in a very intelligent fashion two questions addressed to her father by an unbeliever. Two of Gamaliel's sons are mentioned as returning from a certain feast.
One son, Simon, inherited his office long after his father's death, and after the Hadrianic persecutions, which thenceforward his descendants handed on from father to son.
It cannot be regarded as proved that the tanna Haninah ben Gamaliel was a son of Gamaliel II; this is more likely to be true of Judah ben Gamaliel, who reports a decision in the name of Haninah ben Gamaliel.
Teachings
Halacha
Aside from his official position, Gamaliel stood in learning on an equal footing with the legal teachers of his time. Many of his halakhic opinions have been handed down. Sometimes the united opinion of Gamaliel and Eliezer ben Hyrcanus is opposed to that of Joshua ben Hananiah and sometimes Gamaliel holds a middle position between the stricter opinion of the one and the more lenient view of the other. Gamaliel assented to certain principles of civil law which have been transmitted in the name of Admon, a former judge in Jerusalem, and which became especially well known and were authoritative for ensuing periods.
Various details have been handed down by tradition concerning the religious practises of Gamaliel and his house. In Gamaliel's house it was not customary to say "Marpe'!" (Recovery) when any one sneezed, because that was a heathenish superstition. Two concessions were made to Gamaliel's household in the way of relaxing the severity of the rules set up as a barrier against heathendom: permission to use a mirror in cutting the hair of the head, and to learn Greek. In regard to the latter, Gamaliel's son Simon relates that many children were instructed in his father's house in "Greek wisdom."
He directed Simeon ha-Pakoli to edit the Amidah and make it a duty, incumbent on every one, to recite the prayer three times daily. Also, he directed Samuel ha-Katan to write another paragraph against informers and heretics.
Another liturgical institution goes back to Gamaliel—that of the memorial celebration which takes the place of the sacrifice of the Passover lamb on the first evening of Passover. Gamaliel instituted this celebration, which may be regarded as the central feature of the Passover Haggadah, on an occasion when he spent the first Passover night with other scholars at Lydda in conversing about the feast and its customs.
Aggadah
Gamaliel uses striking comparisons in extolling the value of handiwork and labor and in expressing his opinion on the proper training of the mind.
Gamaliel's appreciation of the virtue of mercy is well illustrated by a saying of his in allusion to Deuteronomy 13:18: "Let this be a token unto thee! So long as thou thyself art compassionate God will show thee mercy; but if thou hast no compassion, God will show thee no mercy".
Gamaliel portrays the distress and corruption of the times in a remarkable speech which concludes with an evident reference to the emperor Domitian. He says: "Since lying judges have the upper hand, lying witnesses also gain ground; since evil-doers have increased, the seekers of revenge are also increasing; since shamelessness has augmented, men have lost their dignity; since the small says to the great. 'I am greater than thou,' the years of men are shortened; since the beloved children have angered their Father in heaven, He has placed a ruthless king over them . Such a king was Ahasuerus, who first killed his wife for the sake of his friend, and then his friend for the sake of his wife".
He loved discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text.
There are records of four such discussions, which all end with Gamaliel's expressed desire to hear the opinion of the eminent aggadist Eleazar of Modi'im.
The lament over his favorite pupil, Samuel haKatan, which he made in common with Eleazar b. Azariah, is very touching: "It is fitting to weep for him; it is fitting to lament for him. Kings die and leave their crowns to their sons; the rich die and leave their wealth to their sons; but Samuel haKaton has taken with him the most precious thing in the world—his wisdom—and is departed".
The Roman yoke borne by the Jewish people of Palestine weighed heavily upon Gamaliel. In one speech he portrays the tyranny of Rome that devours the property of its subjects. He reflects on the coming of the Messiah, and describes the period which shall precede His appearance as one of the deepest moral degradation and direst distress. But he preaches also of the fruitfulness and blessing which shall at some time distinguish the land of Israel.
References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gamaliel s.v. Gamaliel II.". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 434–435.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "GAMALIEL II. (called also Gamaliel of Jabneh, to distinguish him from his grandfather, Gamaliel I.)". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
^ טרגן, חנה; Taragan, Hana (2000). "Baybars and the Tomb of Abu Hurayra/Rabban Gamliel in Yavneh / הכוח שבאבן: ביברס וקבר אבו-הרירה/רבן גמליאל ביבנה". Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה (97): 65–84. JSTOR 23404643.
^ Josephus, Bellum Judaicum iv. 3, 9, Vita 38
^ a b c d e Chisholm 1911, p. 434.
^ Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 10b (Mishnah Gittin 1:5; 7:7)
^ ἡγεμών; Eduyot 7:7; Sanhedrin 11b
^ Grätz, "Geschichte," 3d ed., iv. 109
^ see Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 84
^ see Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 85
^ Rosh Hashana 25a,b
^ Berakhot 28a, JT Berakhot 4:1
^ Shabbat 116a; Bava Metziah 59b
^ Neusner, Jacob (1973). Eliezer Ben Hyrcanus: The Tradition and the Man. Vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 263.
^ Bava Metziah 59b
^ Sifre to Deuteronomy 38; Kiddushin 32b
^ Yerushalmi Berachot 3b; Eruvin 13b
^ Tosefta Terumot 2:13
^ Gittin 1:5; Tosefta Gitin 1:4
^ Hullin 91b
^ Tosefta Pesachim 2:10, 10:end
^ Tosefta Berachot 4:15
^ Tosefta Demai 5:24
^ Tosefta Shabbat 13:2
^ Sukkah 2:1
^ a b c d Chisholm 1911, p. 435.
^ Brachot 2:7
^ Eruvin 64b
^ Tosefta, Moed Kattan 2:8
^ Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 116a-b
^ Yebamot 102b; Midrash Tehillim to Psalms 10, end; most completely reproduced from the old source in Midrash HaGadol to Leviticus 26:9, in Bacher, "Ag. Tan." 2d ed., i. 83
^ Sifre Deuteronomy 43; Makkot 24a; Lamentations Rabbah 5:18
^ Tosefta Shabbat 7(8):18; Avodah Zarah 11a
^ Ketuvot 8b
^ Sanhedrin 34a, 90b
^ Berachot 1:2
^ Büchler, "Die Priester und der Cultus," p. 14
^ Tosefta Avodah Zarah, 4(5):12; Avodah Zarah 39b
^ Ketubot 1:6-9
^ Shevuot 9:8; Terumot 8:8
^ Ketubot 14:3-5
^ See the following Tosefta passages: Demai 3:15; Shabbat 1:22, 12(13),end; Yom Tov 1:22; 2:10,13,14,16
^ Tosefta, Shabbat 7(8):5; compare Berachot 53a
^ Tosefta Avodah Zarah 3:5; compare Yerushalmi Avodah Zarah 41a
^ Tosefta Sotah 15:8; Sotah, end
^ Sotah 49b
^ Babylonian Talmud Megilah 17b, Berachos 28b
^ Pesachim 10:5
^ Tosefta Pesachim 10 112
^ Tosefta Kiddushin 1:11
^ Avot of Rabbi Natan 28
^ Tosefta Bava Kamma 9:30; Yerushalmi Bava Kamma l.c.; compare Shabbat 151a
^ Introduction to Midrash Abba Gorion, beginning; Esther Rabbah, beginning
^ Bava Batra 10b (on Proverbs 14:34); Hullin 92a (on Genesis 40:10); Shabbat 55b (on Genesis 49:4); Megillah 12b (on Esther 5:4)
^ Semachot 8
^ Avot of Rabbi Natan 28
^ Derekh Eretz Zuta 10
^ Shabbat 30b
External links
Perspectives on Transformational Leadership in the Sanhedrin of Ancient Judaism
Parshat terumah (from Hillel)
Preceded byShimon ben Gamliel
Nasi ca. 80 – ca. 118
Succeeded byShimon ben Gamliel II
vteRabbis of the Mishnah: chronology and hierarchy
Teacher→StudentFather→Son
HillelShammai
Rabban GamlielYohanan ben Zakkai
Shimon ben GamlielYose the GalileanEliezer ben HurcanusYehoshua ben HananiahElazar ben ArachElazar ben Azariah
Gamaliel of YavneElisha ben AbuyahAkivaIshmael ben ElishaTarfon
Shimon ben Gamliel IIMeirYehudahYose ben HalaftaShimon bar YochaiElazar ben ShammuaNatan
Yehudah ha NasiHiyya
vteTannaimLast Generation of Zugot Era
Hillel the Elder
Shammai
Houses of Hillel and Shammai
Bnei Bathyra
Menahem
Hananiah ben Hezekiah ben Garon
Simeon ben Hillel
First Generation
Gamaliel I, the Elder
Shimon ben Gamliel (I)
Ishmael ben Elisha ha-Kohen
Yohanan ben Zakkai
Jonathan ben Uzziel
Baba ben Buta
Hanina ben Dosa
Hanina Segan ha-Kohanim
Abba Saul ben Batnit
Admon
Dosa ben Harkinas
Judah ben Bathyra
Eliezer ben Jacob I
Nahum the Mede
Second Generation
Gamaliel II
Joshua ben Hananiah
Eliezer ben Hurcanus
Eleazar ben Arach
Nehunya ben HaKanah
Nachum Ish Gamzu
Abba Hilkiah
Rabbi Zadok
Akabia ben Mahalalel
Simeon HaPakoli
Shmuel ha-Katan
Third Generation
Rabbi Akiva
Rabbi Tarfon
Judah ben Bava
Rabbi Ishmael
Eleazar ben Azariah
Jose the Galilean
Eliezer ben Jose
Haninah ben Teradion
Eleazar ben Perata I
Johanan ben Baroka
Simeon ben Zoma
Simeon ben Azzai
Onkelos
Hanina ben Antigonus
Hanina ben Hakinai
Yochanan ben Nuri
Eleazar Chisma
Elisha ben Abuyah
Rabbi Ilai I
Eleazar of Modi'im
Halafta
Haninah ben Ahi R. Joshua
Abtolemus
Jose ben Kisma
Jeshbab the Scribe
Aquila of Sinope
Johanan ben Torta
Eleazar ben Judah of Bartota
Matteya ben Heresh
Hanan the Egyptian
Simeon the Yemenite
Abba Jose ben Hanan
Judah ben Dama
Fourth Generation
Simeon ben Gamaliel II
Judah bar Ilai
Jose ben Halafta
Shimon ben Halafta
Rabbi Jonathan
Rabbi Meir (and wife Bruriah)
Shimon bar Yochai
Eleazar ben Shammua
Rabbi Nehemiah
Rabbi Nathan
Joshua ben Karha
Abba Saul
Johanan HaSandlar
Pinchas ben Yair
Simeon Shezuri
Hananiah ben Akavia
Eliezer ben Jacob II
Fifth Generation
Judah haNasi (Judah I)
Huna Kamma
Jose ben Judah
Ishmael ben Jose
Eleazar ben Simeon
Simeon ben Eleazar
Eleazar ha-Kappar
Symmachus ben Joseph
Issi ben Judah
Bar Kappara
Jose ben Zimra
Levi ben Sisi
Rabbi Bana'ah
Simeon ben Menasya
Yadua the Babylonian
Joshua ben Levi
Abba Kohen Bardela
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RabanGamliel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Abu Huraira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Abu_Huraira"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RabanGamliel2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"tannaim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tannaim"},{"link_name":"Sanhedrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin"},{"link_name":"nasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)"},{"link_name":"Shimon ben Gamaliel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_ben_Gamaliel"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"war against the Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Gamaliel I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamaliel_I"},{"link_name":"Yavne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavne"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911434-3"}],"text":"Alleged site of the grave of Rabban Gamliel in Yavneh known as the Mausoleum of Abu Huraira. 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To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamliel of Yavne.[3]","title":"Gamaliel II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kefar 'Othnai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kefar_%27Othnai"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Yavne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavne"},{"link_name":"siege of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70)"},{"link_name":"Hillel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Vespasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Johanan ben Zakkai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanan_ben_Zakkai"},{"link_name":"Sanhedrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911434-3"}],"text":"He seemed to have settled initially in Kefar 'Othnai in Lower Galilee,[4] but with the outbreak of the war with Rome, he fled to Jerusalem. From there, he moved to Yavne. In Yavne, during the siege of Jerusalem, the scribes of the school of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, and a new centre of Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem.[3] He was appointed nasi in approximately the year 80 CE.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple"},{"link_name":"Shammai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shammai"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911434-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Domitian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitian"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911434-3"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"pagans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganism"},{"link_name":"Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911434-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Leadership","text":"Gamaliel II became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction of the Second Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself said, not for his own honor nor for that of his family, but in order that disunion should not prevail in Israel.[3]Gamaliel's position was recognized by the Roman government also, and he journeyed to Syria for the purpose of being confirmed in office by the governor.[5] Towards the end of Domitian's reign (c. 95 CE), he went to Rome in company with the most prominent members of the school of Yavneh, in order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of the emperor.[6] Many interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and their sojourn there.[7] The impression made by the capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.[3]In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians.[3][8]He may have been the first to receive the title \"nasi\" (prince; later replaced by \"patriarch\"), given to raise him in public estimation and to revive the Biblical designation for the head of the nation. This title later became hereditary with his descendants.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joshua ben Hananiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah"},{"link_name":"Yom Kippur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Sanhedrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedrin"},{"link_name":"Eleazar Ben Azariah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_Ben_Azariah"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem Talmud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud"},{"link_name":"Av Beit Din","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Av_Beit_Din"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Eliezer ben Hyrcanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hyrcanus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Hillel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Hillel"},{"link_name":"Shammai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Shammai"},{"link_name":"voice from heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_of_God#Talmud"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Leadership controversy","text":"Gamaliel was a controversial leader. In a dispute about fixing the calendar, Rabban Gamaliel humiliated Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah by asking him to show up with his \"stick and satchel\" (weekday attire) on the holy day which according to Rabbi Joshua's calculation was Yom Kippur.[9] Later on, another dispute broke out regarding the status of the nightly prayer, and he humiliated him again by asking him to stand up, and to remain standing while teaching his students. This incident shocked the Rabbis, and subsequently is said to have led to a rabbinic revolt against Gamaliel's leadership of the Sanhedrin. The Sanhedrin installed Rabbi Eleazar Ben Azariah as the new Nasi. After reconciling with Rabbi Joshua, Rabban Gamaliel was reinstated as Nasi, with Rabbi Eleazar serving along with him in a rotation every third week. According to the version recorded in the Jerusalem Talmud, Rabbi Eleazar served as Av Beit Din, a viceregent.[10] Gamaliel, however, showed that with him it was only a question of principle, and that he had no intention of humiliating Joshua; for, rising and kissing him on the head, he greeted him with the words: \"Welcome, my master and my pupil: my master in learning; my pupil in that you submit to my will.\"Similarly, he was implicated in the 'excommunication' of his own brother-in-law,[11] Eliezer ben Hyrcanus.[12] His goal was to strengthen the authority of the assembly at Yavneh as well as his own authority, and thus brought upon himself the suspicion of seeking his own glory. However, Gamaliel describes his motivations in this episode as in the following prayer: \"Lord of the world, it is manifest and known to Thee that I have not done it for my own honor nor for that of my house, but for Thy honor, that factions may not increase in Israel.\"[13] A story which confirms Gamaliel's claim to modesty is told, in which he, standing, served his guests himself at a feast.[14]Gamaliel's greatest achievement was ending of the opposition between the schools of Hillel and Shammai, which had survived even the destruction of the Temple. According to tradition, a voice from heaven was heard in Yavneh, declaring that although the views of both schools were justifiable in principle (as \"words of the living God\"), in practice the views of Hillel's school are authoritative.[15]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gilyonim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilyonim"},{"link_name":"Ecdippa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achziv"},{"link_name":"archisynagogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archisynagogue"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Emmaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmaus"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Lod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lod"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Jericho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jericho"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Samaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Tiberias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberias"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Tavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavi_(slave)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911435-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel"},{"link_name":"Ecdippa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achzib"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Ima Shalom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima_Shalom"},{"link_name":"Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus"},{"link_name":"Matthew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Matthew"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Anecdotes","text":"See also: GilyonimMany of Gamaliel's decisions in religious law are connected with his stay in some place in the Holy Land. In Ecdippa the archisynagogue Scipio asked him a question which he answered by letter after his return home.[16] There are also records of Gamaliel's stay in Kfar Uthnai,[17] in Emmaus,[18] in Lod,[19] in Jericho[20] in Samaria,[21] and in Tiberias.[22]He was on friendly terms with many non-Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tavi[23] that when Tavi died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family.[24][25] A friendly conversation is recorded which he had with a heathen on the way from Acre to Ecdippa.[26] On the Sabbath he sat upon the benches of heathen merchants.[27]Still, Gamaliel and his sister, Ima Shalom, chided with the growing local Christian population, even mocking a certain gentile judge who had adjudicated in an inheritance case, in which Ima Shalom had made herself the make-believe claimant in the case. When the judge at first ruled in favor of the woman, he quickly rescinded the verdict in favor of Gamaliel after being given a bribe by Rabban Gamaliel. The story includes a reference to the words of Jesus in Matthew 5:17, with one possible reading of the story indicating that it was Gamaliel making this reference.[28] This episode, as also another described elsewhere, are some of the first encounters with Christianity, during which Rabban Gamliel debated the \"min,\" or philosopher, who maliciously concluded from Hosea 5:6 that God had completely forsaken Israel.[29]The memory of the destroyed Temple was especially vivid in Gamaliel's heart. Gamaliel and his companions wept over the destruction of Jerusalem and of the Temple when they heard the noise of the great city of Rome, and at another time when they stood on the Temple ruins.[30]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"Aquila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila_of_Sinope"},{"link_name":"minae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mina_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911435-24"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911435-24"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_ben_Gamliel_II"},{"link_name":"Hadrianic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911435-24"},{"link_name":"Haninah ben Gamaliel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haninah_ben_Gamaliel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Death","text":"Gamaliel died around c. 118, which was before the insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Israel. At his funeral the celebrated proselyte Aquila, reviving an ancient custom for the burial of kings, burned costly materials to the value of seventy minae.[24][31]Gamaliel himself had directed that his body be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated with funerals, and his end was attained; his example became the rule.[24][32]Of Gamaliel's children, one daughter is known, who answered in a very intelligent fashion two questions addressed to her father by an unbeliever.[33] Two of Gamaliel's sons are mentioned as returning from a certain feast.[34]One son, Simon, inherited his office long after his father's death, and after the Hadrianic persecutions, which thenceforward his descendants handed on from father to son.[24]It cannot be regarded as proved that the tanna Haninah ben Gamaliel was a son of Gamaliel II;[35] this is more likely to be true of Judah ben Gamaliel, who reports a decision in the name of Haninah ben Gamaliel.[36]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Teachings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eliezer ben Hyrcanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Hyrcanus"},{"link_name":"Joshua ben Hananiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Admon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admon_(tanna)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Simeon ha-Pakoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_ha-Pakoli"},{"link_name":"Amidah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amidah"},{"link_name":"Samuel ha-Katan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Hakatan"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Haggadah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haggadah"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Halacha","text":"Aside from his official position, Gamaliel stood in learning on an equal footing with the legal teachers of his time. Many of his halakhic opinions have been handed down. Sometimes the united opinion of Gamaliel and Eliezer ben Hyrcanus is opposed to that of Joshua ben Hananiah[37] and sometimes Gamaliel holds a middle position between the stricter opinion of the one and the more lenient view of the other.[38] Gamaliel assented to certain principles of civil law which have been transmitted in the name of Admon, a former judge in Jerusalem, and which became especially well known and were authoritative for ensuing periods.[39]Various details have been handed down by tradition concerning the religious practises of Gamaliel and his house.[40] In Gamaliel's house it was not customary to say \"Marpe'!\" (Recovery) when any one sneezed, because that was a heathenish superstition.[41] Two concessions were made to Gamaliel's household in the way of relaxing the severity of the rules set up as a barrier against heathendom: permission to use a mirror in cutting the hair of the head,[42] and to learn Greek.[43] In regard to the latter, Gamaliel's son Simon relates that many children were instructed in his father's house in \"Greek wisdom.\"[44]He directed Simeon ha-Pakoli to edit the Amidah and make it a duty, incumbent on every one, to recite the prayer three times daily. Also, he directed Samuel ha-Katan to write another paragraph against informers and heretics.[45]Another liturgical institution goes back to Gamaliel—that of the memorial celebration which takes the place of the sacrifice of the Passover lamb on the first evening of Passover. Gamaliel instituted this celebration,[46] which may be regarded as the central feature of the Passover Haggadah, on an occasion when he spent the first Passover night with other scholars at Lydda in conversing about the feast and its customs.[47]","title":"Teachings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Domitian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitian"},{"link_name":"Ahasuerus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahasuerus"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Eleazar of Modi'im","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_of_Modi%27im"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Aggadah","text":"Gamaliel uses striking comparisons in extolling the value of handiwork and labor[48] and in expressing his opinion on the proper training of the mind.[49]Gamaliel's appreciation of the virtue of mercy is well illustrated by a saying of his in allusion to Deuteronomy 13:18: \"Let this be a token unto thee! So long as thou thyself art compassionate God will show thee mercy; but if thou hast no compassion, God will show thee no mercy\".[50]Gamaliel portrays the distress and corruption of the times in a remarkable speech which concludes with an evident reference to the emperor Domitian. He says: \"Since lying judges have the upper hand, lying witnesses also gain ground; since evil-doers have increased, the seekers of revenge are also increasing; since shamelessness has augmented, men have lost their dignity; since the small says to the great. 'I am greater than thou,' the years of men are shortened; since the beloved children have angered their Father in heaven, He has placed a ruthless king over them [with reference to Job 34:20]. Such a king was Ahasuerus, who first killed his wife for the sake of his friend, and then his friend for the sake of his wife\".[51]He loved discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text.\nThere are records of four such discussions,[52] which all end with Gamaliel's expressed desire to hear the opinion of the eminent aggadist Eleazar of Modi'im.The lament over his favorite pupil, Samuel haKatan, which he made in common with Eleazar b. Azariah, is very touching: \"It is fitting to weep for him; it is fitting to lament for him. Kings die and leave their crowns to their sons; the rich die and leave their wealth to their sons; but Samuel haKaton has taken with him the most precious thing in the world—his wisdom—and is departed\".[53]The Roman yoke borne by the Jewish people of Palestine weighed heavily upon Gamaliel. In one speech[54] he portrays the tyranny of Rome that devours the property of its subjects. He reflects on the coming of the Messiah, and describes the period which shall precede His appearance as one of the deepest moral degradation and direst distress.[55] But he preaches also of the fruitfulness and blessing which shall at some time distinguish the land of Israel.[56]","title":"Teachings"}] | [{"image_text":"Alleged site of the grave of Rabban Gamliel in Yavneh known as the Mausoleum of Abu Huraira. A Hebrew travel guide dated between 1266 and 1291 mentioned a tomb of Rabbi Gammliel in Yavne that is used as a Muslim prayer house[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/RabanGamliel.jpg/300px-RabanGamliel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Another view of the tomb in Yavneh","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/RabanGamliel2.jpg/300px-RabanGamliel2.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Gamaliel s.v. Gamaliel II.\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 434–435.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gamaliel","url_text":"Gamaliel s.v. Gamaliel II."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). \"GAMALIEL II. (called also Gamaliel of Jabneh, to distinguish him from his grandfather, Gamaliel I.)\". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_Singer","url_text":"Singer, Isidore"},{"url":"http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6495-gamaliel-ii","url_text":"\"GAMALIEL II. (called also Gamaliel of Jabneh, to distinguish him from his grandfather, Gamaliel I.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia","url_text":"The Jewish Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"טרגן, חנה; Taragan, Hana (2000). \"Baybars and the Tomb of Abu Hurayra/Rabban Gamliel in Yavneh / הכוח שבאבן: ביברס וקבר אבו-הרירה/רבן גמליאל ביבנה\". Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה (97): 65–84. JSTOR 23404643.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23404643","url_text":"23404643"}]},{"reference":"Neusner, Jacob (1973). Eliezer Ben Hyrcanus: The Tradition and the Man. Vol. 2. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 263.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Neusner","url_text":"Neusner, Jacob"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dMkUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263","url_text":"Eliezer Ben Hyrcanus: The Tradition and the Man"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6495-gamaliel-ii","external_links_name":"\"GAMALIEL II. (called also Gamaliel of Jabneh, to distinguish him from his grandfather, Gamaliel I.)\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23404643","external_links_name":"23404643"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dMkUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263","external_links_name":"Eliezer Ben Hyrcanus: The Tradition and the Man"},{"Link":"https://www.sefaria.org.il/Bava_Metzia.59b.9?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en","external_links_name":"Bava Metziah 59b"},{"Link":"https://www.sefaria.org.il/Shabbat.116a.11?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en","external_links_name":"Shabbat 116a-b"},{"Link":"https://www.sefaria.org.il/Makkot.24a.33?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en","external_links_name":"Makkot 24a"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060519083636/http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/economic/friedman/sanhedrin.htm","external_links_name":"Perspectives on Transformational Leadership in the Sanhedrin of Ancient Judaism"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060223100517/http://www.hillel.org/hillel/newhille.nsf/0/71C621D3361603A285256CC30067BE3F?OpenDocument","external_links_name":"Parshat terumah (from Hillel)"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1819764/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/50788/","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/57676162","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/6629152988214212790003","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjHqfBWvbRPwpjTptDmDFX","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/128859946","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007280393805171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80023217","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_(Natalie_Cole_album) | Natalie (Natalie Cole album) | ["1 Track listing","2 Personnel","3 Production","4 Charts","5 Certifications","6 References","7 External links"] | 1976 studio album by Natalie ColeNatalieStudio album by Natalie ColeReleasedApril 9, 1976Recorded1975–76StudioCurtom (Chicago)Genre
R&B
soul
Length34:31LabelCapitolProducer
Gene Barge
Richard Evans
Chuck Jackson
Marvin Yancy
Larkin Arnold (exec.)
Natalie Cole chronology
Inseparable(1975)
Natalie(1976)
Unpredictable(1977)
Singles from Natalie
"Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)"Released: April 12, 1976
"Mr. Melody"Released: August 4, 1976
Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllMusicChristgau's Record GuideC+Rolling Stone(average)
Natalie is a 1976 album by American singer Natalie Cole. Cole's second studio album, It was released on April 9, 1976, by Capitol Records. The album features the hit singles, "Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)" and "Mr. Melody". The track, "Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)" peaked at No 1 on Billboard's Hot R&B Singles and No 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 Charts.
Track listing
All tracks are written by Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy, except where notedSide oneNo.TitleWriter(s)Length1."Mr. Melody" 3:072."Heaven Is With You" 4:173."Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)"Jackson, Yancy, Natalie Cole3:274."No Plans for the Future" 3:125."Can We Get Together Again" 3:12
Side twoNo.TitleWriter(s)Length6."Keep Smiling" 2:557."Good Morning Heartache"Ervin Drake, Irene Higginbotham, Dan Fisher4:198."Not Like Mine"Jackson, Yancy, Cole3:039."Touch Me" 4:1410."Hard to Get Along" 2:45
Personnel
Natalie Cole – lead vocals, backing vocals
Tennyson Stephens – keyboards
Marvin Yancy – keyboards, arrangements (3, 4, 5, 9, 10)
Cash McCall – guitar
Joseph "Lucky" Scott – bass guitar
Quinton Joseph – drums
Henry Gibson – percussion
Chuck Jackson – percussion, arrangements (3, 5, 9, 10)
Richard Evans – arrangements (1-5, 7)
Gene Barge – arrangements (3, 6, 8, 9, 10)
Production
Producers – Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy (Tracks 1, 2 & 4–10); Gene Barge and Richard Evans (Track 3).
Executive Producer – Larkin Arnold
Engineers – Roger Anfinsen and Fred Brietberg
Mastered by Wally Traugott at Capitol Studios (Hollywood, CA).
Art Direction – Roy Kohara
Photography – Charles W. Bush
Management – Kevin Hunter
Charts
Chart (1976)
Peak
U.S. Billboard Top LPs
13
U.S. Billboard Top Soul LPs
3
Singles
Year
Single
Peak chart positions
US
USR&B
USA/C
1976
"Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)"
25
1
—
"Mr. Melody"
49
10
25
Certifications
Region
Certification
Certified units/sales
United States (RIAA)
Gold
500,000^
^ Shipments figures based on certification alone.
References
^ Henderson, Alex. Natalie > review at AllMusic. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
^ Christgau, Robert (1981). "Consumer Guide '70s: C". Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies. Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 089919026X. Retrieved February 23, 2019 – via robertchristgau.com.
^ McEwen, Joe (July 15, 1976). "Natalie Cole: Natalie : Music Reviews". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 2006-05-12. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
^ a b c d "US Charts > Natalie Cole". AllMusic. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
^ "American album certifications – Natalie Cole – Natalie". Recording Industry Association of America.
External links
Natalie at Discogs
vteNatalie Cole
Discography
Studio albums
Inseparable (1975)
Natalie (1976)
Unpredictable (1977)
Thankful (1977)
I Love You So (1979)
We're the Best of Friends (1979)
Don't Look Back (1980)
Happy Love (1981)
I'm Ready (1983)
Dangerous (1985)
Everlasting (1987)
Good to Be Back (1989)
Unforgettable... with Love (1991)
Take a Look (1993)
Holly & Ivy (1994)
Stardust (1996)
Snowfall on the Sahara (1999)
The Magic of Christmas (1999)
Ask a Woman Who Knows (2002)
Leavin' (2006)
Still Unforgettable (2008)
Caroling, Caroling: Christmas with Natalie Cole (2008)
Natalie Cole en Español (2013)
Compilation albums
The Natalie Cole Collection (1987)
Live albums
Natalie Live! (1978)
Unforgettable – A Musical Tribute to Nat King Cole (1983)
Singles
"This Will Be"
"Inseparable"
"Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)"
"I've Got Love on My Mind"
"Our Love"
"Someone That I Used to Love"
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
"What You Won't Do for Love" (with Peabo Bryson)
"I Live for Your Love"
"Pink Cadillac"
"When I Fall in Love"
"Miss You Like Crazy"
"Starting Over Again"
"Wild Women Do"
"Unforgettable" (with Nat King Cole)
"A Smile Like Yours"
"Day Dreaming"
Tours
Soul Divas Tour
Family
Marvin Yancy (ex-husband)
Nat King Cole (father)
Maria Cole (mother)
Carole Cole (sister)
Eddie Cole (uncle)
Ike Cole (uncle)
Freddy Cole (uncle)
Lionel Cole (cousin)
Charlotte Hawkins Brown (great-aunt)
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Natalie Cole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Cole"},{"link_name":"Capitol Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Records"},{"link_name":"Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophisticated_Lady_(She%27s_a_Different_Lady)"},{"link_name":"Hot R&B Singles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_R%26B/Hip-Hop_Songs"},{"link_name":"Billboard Hot 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_100"}],"text":"Natalie is a 1976 album by American singer Natalie Cole. Cole's second studio album, It was released on April 9, 1976, by Capitol Records. The album features the hit singles, \"Sophisticated Lady (She's a Different Lady)\" and \"Mr. Melody\". 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Bush\nManagement – Kevin Hunter","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Singles","title":"Charts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Certifications"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Christgau, Robert (1981). \"Consumer Guide '70s: C\". Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies. Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 089919026X. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuanying_District | Chuanying, Jilin City | ["1 Administrative divisions","2 References","3 External links"] | Coordinates: 43°50′02″N 126°32′27″E / 43.8338°N 126.5409°E / 43.8338; 126.5409District in Jilin, ChinaChuanying
船营区DistrictChuanyingLocation in JilinCoordinates (Chuanying District government): 43°50′02″N 126°32′27″E / 43.8338°N 126.5409°E / 43.8338; 126.5409CountryChinaProvinceJilinPrefecture-level cityJilin CitySeatDadong SubdistrictArea • Total685.91 km2 (264.83 sq mi)Population (2020 census) • Total3,623,713 • Density5,300/km2 (14,000/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+8 (China Standard)Websitewww.jlcy.gov.cn
Chuanying District (simplified Chinese: 船营区; traditional Chinese: 船營區; pinyin: Chuányíng Qū) is a district of Jilin City, Jilin, China.
Administrative divisions
There are 11 subdistricts, 2 towns and 1 township.
Desheng Subdistrict (德胜街道)
Nanjing Subdistrict (南京街道)
Dadong Subdistrict (大东街道)
Qingdao Subdistrict (青岛街道)
Xiangyang Subdistrict (向阳街道)
Beiji Subdistrict (北极街道)
Zhihe Subdistrict (致和街道)
Changchun Road Subdistrict (长春路街道)
Linjiang Subdistrict (临江街道)
Beishan Subdistrict (北山街道)
Huangqi Subdistrict (黄旗街道)
Dasuihe Town (大绥河镇)
Yuebei Town (越北镇)
Huanxi Township (欢喜乡)
References
^ 2022年统计用区划代码：船营区 (in Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China.
External links
vteCounty-level divisions of Jilin ProvinceChangchun (capital)Sub-provincial cityChangchun
Chaoyang District
Kuancheng District
Erdao District
Nanguan District
Luyuan District
Shuangyang District
Jiutai District
Yushu city
Dehui city
Gongzhuling city
Nong'an County
Prefecture-level citiesJilin
Chuanying District
Changyi District
Longtan District
Fengman District
Shulan city
Huadian city
Jiaohe city
Panshi city
Yongji County
Siping
Tiexi District
Tiedong District
Shuangliao city
Lishu County
Yitong County
Liaoyuan
Longshan District
Xi'an District
Dongliao County
Dongfeng County
Tonghua
Dongchang District
Erdaojiang District
Meihekou city
Ji'an city
Tonghua County
Huinan County
Liuhe County
Baishan
Hunjiang District
Jiangyuan District
Linjiang city
Jingyu County
Fusong County
Changbai County
Songyuan
Ningjiang District
Fuyu city
Qian'an County
Changling County
Qian Gorlos County
Baicheng
Taobei District
Da'an city
Taonan city
Zhenlai County
Tongyu County
Autonomous prefectureYanbian
Yanji city
Tumen city
Dunhua city
Longjing city
Hunchun city
Helong city
Antu County
Wangqing County
This Jilin location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"simplified Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Jilin City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilin_City"},{"link_name":"Jilin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilin"}],"text":"District in Jilin, ChinaChuanying District (simplified Chinese: 船营区; traditional Chinese: 船營區; pinyin: Chuányíng Qū) is a district of Jilin City, Jilin, China.","title":"Chuanying, Jilin City"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subdistricts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdistrict_(China)"},{"link_name":"towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_(China)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Desheng Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Desheng_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nanjing Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanjing_Subdistrict&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dadong Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dadong_Subdistrict&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Qingdao Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qingdao_Subdistrict&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Xiangyang Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiangyang_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City"},{"link_name":"Beiji Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beiji_Subdistrict&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Zhihe Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhihe_Subdistrict,_Jilin"},{"link_name":"Changchun Road Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Changchun_Road_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Linjiang Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linjiang_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Beishan Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beishan_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Huangqi Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huangqi_Subdistrict,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dasuihe Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dasuihe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yuebei Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuebei,_Jilin_City&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Huanxi Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huanxi_Township&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"There are 11 subdistricts, 2 towns and 1 township.[1]Desheng Subdistrict (德胜街道)\nNanjing Subdistrict (南京街道)\nDadong Subdistrict (大东街道)\nQingdao Subdistrict (青岛街道)\nXiangyang Subdistrict (向阳街道)\nBeiji Subdistrict (北极街道)\nZhihe Subdistrict (致和街道)\nChangchun Road Subdistrict (长春路街道)\nLinjiang Subdistrict (临江街道)\nBeishan Subdistrict (北山街道)\nHuangqi Subdistrict (黄旗街道)\nDasuihe Town (大绥河镇)\nYuebei Town (越北镇)\nHuanxi Township (欢喜乡)","title":"Administrative divisions"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"2022年统计用区划代码：船营区 (in Chinese). National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/tjbz/tjyqhdmhcxhfdm/2022/22/02/220204.html","url_text":"2022年统计用区划代码：船营区"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chuanying,_Jilin_City¶ms=43.8338_N_126.5409_E_type:format_region:CN-22_source:Gaode","external_links_name":"43°50′02″N 126°32′27″E / 43.8338°N 126.5409°E / 43.8338; 126.5409"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chuanying,_Jilin_City¶ms=43.8338_N_126.5409_E_type:format_region:CN-22_source:Gaode","external_links_name":"43°50′02″N 126°32′27″E / 43.8338°N 126.5409°E / 43.8338; 126.5409"},{"Link":"http://www.jlcy.gov.cn/","external_links_name":"www.jlcy.gov.cn"},{"Link":"http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/tjbz/tjyqhdmhcxhfdm/2022/22/02/220204.html","external_links_name":"2022年统计用区划代码：船营区"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuanying,_Jilin_City&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crackout_(Band) | Crackout (band) | ["1 Career","2 Post-Crackout","3 Discography","3.1 Albums","3.2 Singles","4 References","5 External links"] | British pop punk band
This article is about the band Crackout. For NES game, see Crackout (video game).
CrackoutOriginBicester, Oxfordshire, EnglandGenresPop punk / indieYears active1997–2005LabelsShifty Disco (1998)Hut Recordings (2001–2004)MembersSteven EaglesNicholas MillardJack DunkleyPast membersRachel Lavelle
Crackout were an English three-piece pop punk band formed in Bicester, Oxfordshire, in 1997. The band released two albums and a handful of singles and toured with artists such as Sum 41, Seafood, Haven and Span before disbanding in late 2005.
Career
The band, singer-guitarist Steven Eagles, drummer Nicholas Millard and bassist Rachel Lavelle, were all 16 years old when they signed to the Shifty Disco label after playing only eight gigs as 'Crackout' (named after 'Brian Krakow', a character in the American TV teen drama My So-Called Life). Within four weeks of the record label first seeing the band live, they had recorded and released their debut "Chuck" single. An album was also recorded around this time, but was never released. Lavelle was replaced in 1999 by Jack Dunkley when Lavelle and the rest of the band drifted apart in the last year of school due to differing life plans.
Crackout toured with Sick of It All / 28 Days in late December 2000, where they sold a self-released tape containing early recordings of "Breakout" and "Joey Lost His Mind" (both later re-recorded and included on debut album This Is Really Neat). "EP1", a 500-limited edition CD with four songs showing early promise, and "EP2" shortly followed in 2001. Both EPs came with a free sticker and in a hand-numbered cardboard sleeve, finished with a wax seal (red on "EP1"; green on "EP2"). Their debut album, This Is Really Neat, was released that October featuring artwork by Jane Wooster Scott.
In 2002, plans to release old favourite "Volume" (the B-side to their first single, later re-recorded and featured on This Is Really Neat) were scrapped when, "I Am the One", was used in an advert for Salomon Sports. "Volume" was therefore the only Crackout song not released as a single with its own music video.
After long delays, the band's follow up to This Is Really Neat was released in March 2004. However, the promotion for Oh No! was ended abruptly due to EMI deciding to close down Hut Recordings shortly after the album's release. Whilst making plans for a third album, their record producer friend Clive Langer, also the producer of Oh No!, asked them if they were interested in playing on a film soundtrack which he was scoring. This resulted in Crackout being cast for small roles in Brothers of the Head, the 2006 mockumentary based on the 1977 novel by Brian Aldiss.
In 2005, Crackout toyed with the idea of adding an extra member to provide them with options with guitars, keyboards and backing vocals live. This led to a few low-key gigs with additional member Simon Plumbley in October that year. After playing these gigs, however, they felt like too much time had passed since their last shows and decided to disband Crackout, leaving the following statement on their now archived website.
Dear All,
Sadly, after a few years of incredible fun, we have decided to end Crackout. While we are still the best of friends and intend on continuing with music, it just didn't seem right to continue with Crackout any longer. While we were involved with other projects, too much time had passed since we last toured and when we came back to play the recent gigs. Although those gigs were enjoyable to play, we simply felt at odds with our past and unable to continue.
From the bottom of our hearts, we thank you all for your support,
Steven, Nick and Jack.
Post-Crackout
Despite Crackout disbanding, Eagles, Millard, Dunkley and Plumbley formed a new group called 'Blackholes' in 2006 and released "The Alcohol EP" through their MySpace profile, featuring a couple of tracks played at their last few Crackout gigs. During this time, Eagles, Millard and Dunkley also played in French pop act Vanessa and the O's in a few of their live shows.
It was announced in 2007 that Dunkley had left the original lineup due to 'creative differences', with Alex Szrok replacing him on bass. In September of the same year, Blackholes decided to regroup, changing the name of the band to 'Out of the Afternoon'. Out of the Afternoon released their first record 'The Bird EP' in 2008, which was followed by a single, "I Won't Forget You" released in June 2010. The group have since disbanded.
During 2008 Millard played drums for The Kooks whilst Paul Garred, the usual drummer in the band, was sidelined with an arm injury.
Millard started studying International Agriculture at Hadlow College in 2011. In May 2013, as a second year mature student, he was awarded Pinnacle Business Management Gold Award, the Nickerson Cup and a cheque for £2,000 for his plans for developing and producing Buckinghamshire's first artisan cheese for more than a century.
Eagles now works as a guitar tech, having worked with the likes of The Darkness.
Discography
Albums
This Is Really Neat (2001, Hut Recordings, CD / ltd Gatefold CD / 12" vinyl)
Oh No! (2004, Hut Recordings, CD / 12" vinyl)
Singles
"Demo Tape" (December 1997, self released, ltd 100 tape)
"Chuck" (1998, Shifty Disco, ltd 1000 CD)
"Gig Tape" (2000, self released, tape only available on the Sick of It All / 28 Days / Crackout tour)
"EP1" (2001, Precious Cargo, ltd 500 CD)
"EP2" (2001, Precious Cargo, ltd 500 CD)
"You Dumb Fuck" (2001, Hut Recordings, CD / 7" vinyl) – UK No. 87
"I Am the One" (2002, Hut Recordings, CD / 7" vinyl) – UK No. 72
"Out of Our Minds" (2003, Hut Recordings, CD / 7" vinyl, DVD) – UK No. 63
"This Is What We Do" (2004, Hut Recordings, CD1 / CD2 / 7" vinyl) – UK No. 65
References
^ "Crackout Biography". Sweetslyrics. 16 April 1999. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ "Radio 1 – One Live in Birmingham – Crackout". BBC. 17 October 2001. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ "Crackout – Oh No! (CD, Album) at Discogs". Discogs. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ "Out Of The Afternoon | blog op Myspace". Myspace.com. 2 April 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ "I Won't Forget You – Out of the Afternoon". Last.fm. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
^ "I don't suppose this band is still going? If not... - Out of the Afternoon". Facebook.com. 30 June 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
^ "Music: The Kooks rock Turner Hall Ballroom". Onmilwaukee.com. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
^ "Buckingham's grand cheese plan recognition". The Southern Farmer. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.
^ a b c Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 124. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
External links
Official website (archived)
Shifty Disco comment on the band's "Chuck" single and early career
MySpace Profile
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
Artists
MusicBrainz | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Crackout (video game)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crackout_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"pop punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_punk"},{"link_name":"Bicester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicester"},{"link_name":"Oxfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfordshire"},{"link_name":"singles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_(music)"},{"link_name":"Sum 41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_41"},{"link_name":"Seafood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafood_(band)"},{"link_name":"Haven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haven_(band)"},{"link_name":"Span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span_(band)"}],"text":"This article is about the band Crackout. For NES game, see Crackout (video game).Crackout were an English three-piece pop punk band formed in Bicester, Oxfordshire, in 1997. The band released two albums and a handful of singles and toured with artists such as Sum 41, Seafood, Haven and Span before disbanding in late 2005.","title":"Crackout (band)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"My So-Called Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_So-Called_Life"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sick of It All","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_of_It_All"},{"link_name":"28 Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28_Days_(band)"},{"link_name":"wax seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(device)"},{"link_name":"Jane Wooster Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Wooster_Scott"},{"link_name":"B-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-side_and_B-side"},{"link_name":"Salomon Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salomon_Group"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI"},{"link_name":"Hut Recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hut_Recordings"},{"link_name":"Clive Langer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Langer"},{"link_name":"Brothers of the Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_of_the_Head"},{"link_name":"mockumentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mockumentary"},{"link_name":"Brian Aldiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Aldiss"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The band, singer-guitarist Steven Eagles, drummer Nicholas Millard and bassist Rachel Lavelle, were all 16 years old when they signed to the Shifty Disco label after playing only eight gigs as 'Crackout' (named after 'Brian Krakow', a character in the American TV teen drama My So-Called Life). Within four weeks of the record label first seeing the band live, they had recorded and released their debut \"Chuck\" single. An album was also recorded around this time, but was never released. Lavelle was replaced in 1999 by Jack Dunkley[1] when Lavelle and the rest of the band drifted apart in the last year of school due to differing life plans.[2]Crackout toured with Sick of It All / 28 Days in late December 2000, where they sold a self-released tape containing early recordings of \"Breakout\" and \"Joey Lost His Mind\" (both later re-recorded and included on debut album This Is Really Neat). \"EP1\", a 500-limited edition CD with four songs showing early promise, and \"EP2\" shortly followed in 2001. Both EPs came with a free sticker and in a hand-numbered cardboard sleeve, finished with a wax seal (red on \"EP1\"; green on \"EP2\"). Their debut album, This Is Really Neat, was released that October featuring artwork by Jane Wooster Scott.In 2002, plans to release old favourite \"Volume\" (the B-side to their first single, later re-recorded and featured on This Is Really Neat) were scrapped when, \"I Am the One\", was used in an advert for Salomon Sports. \"Volume\" was therefore the only Crackout song not released as a single with its own music video.After long delays, the band's follow up to This Is Really Neat was released in March 2004. However, the promotion for Oh No! was ended abruptly due to EMI deciding to close down Hut Recordings shortly after the album's release. Whilst making plans for a third album, their record producer friend Clive Langer, also the producer of Oh No!, asked them if they were interested in playing on a film soundtrack which he was scoring. This resulted in Crackout being cast for small roles in Brothers of the Head, the 2006 mockumentary based on the 1977 novel by Brian Aldiss.[3]In 2005, Crackout toyed with the idea of adding an extra member to provide them with options with guitars, keyboards and backing vocals live. This led to a few low-key gigs with additional member Simon Plumbley in October that year. After playing these gigs, however, they felt like too much time had passed since their last shows and decided to disband Crackout, leaving the following statement on their now archived website.Dear All,\nSadly, after a few years of incredible fun, we have decided to end Crackout. While we are still the best of friends and intend on continuing with music, it just didn't seem right to continue with Crackout any longer. While we were involved with other projects, too much time had passed since we last toured and when we came back to play the recent gigs. Although those gigs were enjoyable to play, we simply felt at odds with our past and unable to continue.\nFrom the bottom of our hearts, we thank you all for your support,\n\nSteven, Nick and Jack.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MySpace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace"},{"link_name":"pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music"},{"link_name":"Vanessa and the O's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_and_the_O%27s"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Kooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kooks"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hadlow College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadlow_College"},{"link_name":"Buckinghamshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"artisan cheese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan_cheese"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Despite Crackout disbanding, Eagles, Millard, Dunkley and Plumbley formed a new group called 'Blackholes' in 2006 and released \"The Alcohol EP\" through their MySpace profile, featuring a couple of tracks played at their last few Crackout gigs. During this time, Eagles, Millard and Dunkley also played in French pop act Vanessa and the O's in a few of their live shows.It was announced in 2007 that Dunkley had left the original lineup due to 'creative differences', with Alex Szrok replacing him on bass. In September of the same year, Blackholes decided to regroup, changing the name of the band to 'Out of the Afternoon'. Out of the Afternoon released their first record 'The Bird EP' in 2008,[4] which was followed by a single, \"I Won't Forget You\" released in June 2010.[5] The group have since disbanded.[6]During 2008 Millard played drums for The Kooks whilst Paul Garred, the usual drummer in the band, was sidelined with an arm injury.[7]Millard started studying International Agriculture at Hadlow College in 2011. In May 2013, as a second year mature student, he was awarded Pinnacle Business Management Gold Award, the Nickerson Cup and a cheque for £2,000 for his plans for developing and producing Buckinghamshire's first artisan cheese for more than a century.[8]Eagles now works as a guitar tech, having worked with the likes of The Darkness.","title":"Post-Crackout"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Albums","text":"This Is Really Neat (2001, Hut Recordings, CD / ltd Gatefold CD / 12\" vinyl)\nOh No! (2004, Hut Recordings, CD / 12\" vinyl)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-British_Hit_Singles_&_Albums-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-British_Hit_Singles_&_Albums-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-British_Hit_Singles_&_Albums-9"}],"sub_title":"Singles","text":"\"Demo Tape\" (December 1997, self released, ltd 100 tape)\n\"Chuck\" (1998, Shifty Disco, ltd 1000 CD)\n\"Gig Tape\" (2000, self released, tape only available on the Sick of It All / 28 Days / Crackout tour)\n\"EP1\" (2001, Precious Cargo, ltd 500 CD)\n\"EP2\" (2001, Precious Cargo, ltd 500 CD)\n\"You Dumb Fuck\" (2001, Hut Recordings, CD / 7\" vinyl) – UK No. 87\n\"I Am the One\" (2002, Hut Recordings, CD / 7\" vinyl) – UK No. 72[9]\n\"Out of Our Minds\" (2003, Hut Recordings, CD / 7\" vinyl, DVD) – UK No. 63[9]\n\"This Is What We Do\" (2004, Hut Recordings, CD1 / CD2 / 7\" vinyl) – UK No. 65[9]","title":"Discography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Crackout Biography\". Sweetslyrics. 16 April 1999. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130203154504/http://www.sweetslyrics.com/bio-Crackout.html","url_text":"\"Crackout Biography\""},{"url":"http://www.sweetslyrics.com/bio-Crackout.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Radio 1 – One Live in Birmingham – Crackout\". BBC. 17 October 2001. Retrieved 12 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/birmingham/alt_crackout.shtml","url_text":"\"Radio 1 – One Live in Birmingham – Crackout\""}]},{"reference":"\"Crackout – Oh No! (CD, Album) at Discogs\". Discogs. Retrieved 12 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.discogs.com/Crackout-Oh-No/release/2683622","url_text":"\"Crackout – Oh No! (CD, Album) at Discogs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discogs","url_text":"Discogs"}]},{"reference":"\"Out Of The Afternoon | blog op Myspace\". Myspace.com. 2 April 2008. Retrieved 12 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.myspace.com/outoftheafternoon/blog","url_text":"\"Out Of The Afternoon | blog op Myspace\""}]},{"reference":"\"I Won't Forget You – Out of the Afternoon\". Last.fm. Retrieved 12 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.last.fm/music/Out+of+the+Afternoon/I+Won%27t+Forget+You","url_text":"\"I Won't Forget You – Out of the Afternoon\""}]},{"reference":"\"I don't suppose this band is still going? If not... - Out of the Afternoon\". Facebook.com. 30 June 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid=10151668948804435&id=8337009434&comment_id=26605200&offset=0&total_comments=3","url_text":"\"I don't suppose this band is still going? If not... - Out of the Afternoon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Music: The Kooks rock Turner Hall Ballroom\". Onmilwaukee.com. 2 June 2008. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khol | Khol | ["1 Description","2 Construction","3 History","4 Use","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Indian terracotta two-sided drum
For other uses, see Khol (disambiguation).
This article is about the clay drum of eastern India. For the specific clay drum of Odisha, see Mrudanga. For the wooden drum of southern India, see Mridangam.
KholMridanga bayan, or kholPercussionOther namesMridangaClassification
MembranophonesRelated instruments
Tabla, Dholak
The khol is a terracotta two-sided drum used in northern and eastern India for accompaniment with devotional music (bhakti). It is also known as a mridanga (< Sanskrit mṛd + aṅga, lit. 'clay limb'), not to be confused with mridangam. It originates from the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam and Manipur. The drum is played with palms and fingers of both hands.
Description
The khol is regarded as resembling to the ancient gopuchha shape of drums, as described in Natya Shastra. The right face of the drum has a high pitch and produces a metallic sound, whereas the left face, produces a lower bass sound. The larger side can be tuned with humidity. On a humid day the larger side will loosen up and vibrate more producing the lower sound. During a dry day the side tightens up producing a high pitched sound. Players of the instrument will add water to their drum if they feel it does not produce a low enough sound. They will put a bit of water on their finger and spread it around the edge of the large side. They will either let it sit there for a few minutes, or manually stretch it with their palm.
Construction
Parts of the khol (mridanga)
The khol is a drum with a hollow earthen body, with drumheads at both ends, one far smaller than the other. The drumheads are made of cow or goat skin, and are three-layered and treated with a circle of rice paste, glue, and iron known as syahi. Some modern instruments are made with a fibreglass body and synthetic drumheads.
History
There are so many histories about its origin. Different types of Khol are available in north eastern India. Odisha, Manipur, Bengal and Assamese Khol are commonly found in different forms. The wooden khol was made into terracotta by the Assamese polymath Sankardev.
Use
The khol is considered an integral part of the Ek Saran Naam Dharma culture and is used in bhaona (plays), gayan-bayan', prasanga-kirtan and borgeets (lyrical songs) in Assam. Assamese polymath Sankardeva is known to have adapted and evolved the tradition of gayan-bayan by using musical instruments like the khol and taal. According to Assamese Neo-Vaishnavites, playing the khol is regarded as a holy activity and it is also considered to be one of the most important traditional percussion instruments. It is also a key musical instrument that accompanies a Sattriya performance.
The instrument is used in every Vishnu (Jagannath, Radha Krishna) temple in Odisha during arati rituals.
The drum is used to accompany Odia, Bengali kirtans by medieval poets like Chandidas, Govindadasa and Gyanadas. It is also used to accompany Gaudiya Nritya, one of the nine Indian classical dances (as recognized by Ministry of Culture, and not recognized by Sangeet Natak Akademi).
In the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, "Hare Krishnas") and in Gaudiya Vaishnava societies, the khol is the primary drum for bhajan and kirtan.
See also
India portalMusic portal
Mridangam
Tabla
Thavil
Karatalas
Maddale, an instrument used in Yakshagana
Dholak
Manoj Kumar Das
Samphor
Taphon
References
^ "Khol - India Instruments". www.india-instruments.com. Retrieved 20 October 2019.
^ "Yathi and Jathi - Classical Music Mridangam". www.mridangams.com. Retrieved 20 October 2019.
^ Indian Literature. Sähitya Akademi. 1970. p. 84. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
^ Nandini, Dr M. Lalitha & M. (30 November 2017). "Soul of kirtans". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 20 October 2019.
^ Barthakur, Dilip Ranjan (2003). The Music and Musical Instruments of North Eastern India. Mittal Publications. ISBN 81-7099-881-6.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mridanga.
Mridanganet.blogspot.com
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Temple dance | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Khol (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khol_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Mrudanga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrudanga"},{"link_name":"Mridangam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mridangam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mridanga_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"terracotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta"},{"link_name":"eastern India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_India"},{"link_name":"devotional music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devotional_music"},{"link_name":"bhakti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"mridangam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mridangam"},{"link_name":"West Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"Manipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur"}],"text":"For other uses, see Khol (disambiguation).This article is about the clay drum of eastern India. For the specific clay drum of Odisha, see Mrudanga. For the wooden drum of southern India, see Mridangam.The khol is a terracotta two-sided drum used in northern and eastern India for accompaniment with devotional music (bhakti). It is also known as a mridanga (< Sanskrit mṛd + aṅga, lit. 'clay limb'), not to be confused with mridangam. It originates from the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam and Manipur. The drum is played with palms and fingers of both hands.","title":"Khol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Natya Shastra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natya_Shastra"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The khol is regarded as resembling to the ancient gopuchha shape of drums, as described in Natya Shastra. The right face of the drum has a high pitch and produces a metallic sound, whereas the left face, produces a lower bass sound. The larger side can be tuned with humidity. On a humid day the larger side will loosen up and vibrate more producing the lower sound. During a dry day the side tightens up producing a high pitched sound. Players of the instrument will add water to their drum if they feel it does not produce a low enough sound. They will put a bit of water on their finger and spread it around the edge of the large side. They will either let it sit there for a few minutes, or manually stretch it with their palm. [1][2]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mridanga_parts_by_Jan_Kraus.jpg"},{"link_name":"syahi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syahi"}],"text":"Parts of the khol (mridanga)The khol is a drum with a hollow earthen body, with drumheads at both ends, one far smaller than the other. The drumheads are made of cow or goat skin, and are three-layered and treated with a circle of rice paste, glue, and iron known as syahi. Some modern instruments are made with a fibreglass body and synthetic drumheads.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Odisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha"},{"link_name":"Sankardev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankardev"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indian_Literature-3"}],"text":"There are so many histories about its origin. Different types of Khol are available in north eastern India. Odisha, Manipur, Bengal and Assamese Khol are commonly found in different forms. The wooden khol was made into terracotta by the Assamese polymath Sankardev.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ek Saran Naam Dharma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ek_Saran_Naam_Dharma"},{"link_name":"bhaona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhaona"},{"link_name":"gayan-bayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gayan-bayan"},{"link_name":"kirtan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtan"},{"link_name":"borgeet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgeet"},{"link_name":"Sankardeva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankardev"},{"link_name":"taal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"Neo-Vaishnavites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavites"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Sattriya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sattriya"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"arati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arati"},{"link_name":"kirtans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtan"},{"link_name":"Chandidas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandidas"},{"link_name":"Govindadasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govindadasa"},{"link_name":"Gyanadas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gyanadas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gaudiya Nritya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya_Nritya"},{"link_name":"Indian classical dances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_dance"},{"link_name":"Sangeet Natak Akademi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangeet_Natak_Akademi"},{"link_name":"International Society for Krishna Consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness"},{"link_name":"Gaudiya Vaishnava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnava"},{"link_name":"bhajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhajan"}],"text":"The khol is considered an integral part of the Ek Saran Naam Dharma culture and is used in bhaona (plays), gayan-bayan', prasanga-kirtan and borgeets (lyrical songs) in Assam. Assamese polymath Sankardeva is known to have adapted and evolved the tradition of gayan-bayan by using musical instruments like the khol and taal. According to Assamese Neo-Vaishnavites, playing the khol is regarded as a holy activity and it is also considered to be one of the most important traditional percussion instruments.[4] It is also a key musical instrument that accompanies a Sattriya performance.[5]The instrument is used in every Vishnu (Jagannath, Radha Krishna) temple in Odisha during arati rituals.\nThe drum is used to accompany Odia, Bengali kirtans by medieval poets like Chandidas, Govindadasa and Gyanadas. It is also used to accompany Gaudiya Nritya, one of the nine Indian classical dances (as recognized by Ministry of Culture, and not recognized by Sangeet Natak Akademi).In the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, \"Hare Krishnas\") and in Gaudiya Vaishnava societies, the khol is the primary drum for bhajan and kirtan.","title":"Use"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Mridanga_2.jpg/220px-Mridanga_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Parts of the khol (mridanga)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mridanga_parts_by_Jan_Kraus.jpg/220px-Mridanga_parts_by_Jan_Kraus.jpg"}] | [{"title":"India portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:India"},{"title":"Music portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Music"},{"title":"Mridangam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mridangam"},{"title":"Tabla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabla"},{"title":"Thavil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thavil"},{"title":"Karatalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatalas"},{"title":"Maddale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddale"},{"title":"Yakshagana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshagana"},{"title":"Dholak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholak"},{"title":"Manoj Kumar Das","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manoj_Kumar_Das"},{"title":"Samphor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samphor"},{"title":"Taphon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphon"}] | [{"reference":"\"Khol - India Instruments\". www.india-instruments.com. Retrieved 20 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.india-instruments.com/encyclopedia-khol.html","url_text":"\"Khol - India Instruments\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yathi and Jathi - Classical Music Mridangam\". www.mridangams.com. Retrieved 20 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mridangams.com/2007/09/yathi.html","url_text":"\"Yathi and Jathi - Classical Music Mridangam\""}]},{"reference":"Indian Literature. Sähitya Akademi. 1970. p. 84. Retrieved 23 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vmVjAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Indian Literature"}]},{"reference":"Nandini, Dr M. Lalitha & M. (30 November 2017). \"Soul of kirtans\". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 20 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/on-the-khol-trail/article21212672.ece","url_text":"\"Soul of kirtans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X","url_text":"0971-751X"}]},{"reference":"Barthakur, Dilip Ranjan (2003). The Music and Musical Instruments of North Eastern India. Mittal Publications. ISBN 81-7099-881-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7099-881-6","url_text":"81-7099-881-6"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.india-instruments.com/encyclopedia-khol.html","external_links_name":"\"Khol - India Instruments\""},{"Link":"https://www.mridangams.com/2007/09/yathi.html","external_links_name":"\"Yathi and Jathi - Classical Music Mridangam\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vmVjAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Indian Literature"},{"Link":"https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/on-the-khol-trail/article21212672.ece","external_links_name":"\"Soul of kirtans\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0971-751X","external_links_name":"0971-751X"},{"Link":"http://www.mridanganet.blogspot.com/","external_links_name":"Mridanganet.blogspot.com"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Fez | History of Fez | ["1 Foundation under the Idrisids (7th-8th centuries)","2 Zenata domination and imperial rivalries (10th-11th centuries)","3 Fez under the Almoravids and Almohads (11th-13th centuries)","4 Golden age under the Marinids (13th-15th centuries)","5 Decline under the Saadians (16th and early 17th centuries)","6 Early Alaouite period (17th and 18th centuries)","7 Prosperity and growth in the 19th and early 20th centuries","8 French colonial rule (1912–1956)","9 After independence and up to present-day (after 1956)","10 See also","11 References","12 Further reading"] | View over Fes el-Bali
The History of Fez begins with its foundation by Idris I and Idris II at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century CE. It initially consisted of two autonomous and competing settlements on opposing shores of what is now known as the Oued Fes. Initially inhabited by a largely Berber (Amazigh) population, successive waves of mainly Arab immigrants from Ifriqiya (Tunisia) and al-Andalus (Spain/Portugal) over time gave the nascent city an Arab character as well. After the downfall of the Idrisid dynasty, it was contested between different Zenata groups allied with either the Fatimid Caliphate or the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. In the 11th century the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin conquered the region and united its two settlements into what is today the Fes el-Bali ("Old Fez") quarter. Under the rule of the Almoravids and of the Almohads after them, despite losing the status of capital to Marrakesh, the city remained the economic and political center of northern Morocco and gained a reputation for religious scholarship and mercantile activity.
Fez reached its zenith in the Marinid era (13th-15th centuries), regaining its status as political capital. In 1276 the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub also founded a separate royal city, Fes el-Jdid ("New Fes"), just west of Fes el-Bali, where the royal palace is still located today. Numerous new madrasas and mosques were constructed across Fez, many of which survive today, while other structures were restored. During this period the Jewish population of the city grew and the Mellah (Jewish quarter) was formed on the south side of this new district. After the overthrow of the Marinid dynasty, Fez underwent periods of decline and prosperity and often competed with Marrakesh for political and cultural influence. The city rose again in influence during the 19th century and remained the capital of the Alaouite sultanate until 1912, when it came under control of the French Protectorate in Morocco. The French colonial regime moved the capital to Rabat, where it remains today, and Fes underwent a political decline. The French also constructed a new city, the Ville Nouvelle, to the southwest, which grew into what is now most of the modern city of Fez.
Foundation under the Idrisids (7th-8th centuries)
Approximate reconstitution of the two original settlements of Fez: Al-'Aliya and Madinat Fas (present-day walls shown in grey)
The city was first founded in 789 as Madinat Fas on the southeast bank of the Jawhar River (now known as the Fez River) by Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. His son, Idris II, built a settlement called Al-'Aliya on the opposing river bank in 809 and moved his capital here from Walili (Volubilis).: 35 : 35 : 83 These settlements (Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya) would soon develop into two walled and largely autonomous sites, often in conflict with one another. The early population was composed mostly of Berbers, along with hundreds of Arab warriors from Kairouan who made up Idris II's entourage.
The cenotaph of Moulay Idris II in Fez today; the building around it has been rebuilt many times but is located on the original site of the Shurafa Mosque
Arab emigration to Fez increased afterwards, including Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent who were expelled from Córdoba in 817–818 after a rebellion against the Al-Hakam I: 46 as well as Arab families banned from Kairouan (modern Tunisia) after another rebellion in 824. The Andalusians mainly settled in Madinat Fas, while the Tunisians found their home in Al-'Aliya. These two waves of immigrants gave the city its Arabic character and would subsequently give their name to the districts of 'Adwat Al-Andalus and 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin.: 51 With the influx of Arabic-speaking Andalusians and Tunisians, the majority of the population was Arab, but rural Berbers from the surrounding countryside settled there throughout this early period, mainly in Madinat Fas (the Andalusian quarter) and later in Fes Jdid during the Marinid period. The city also had a strong Jewish community, probably consisting of Zenata Berbers who had previously converted to Judaism, as well as a small remaining Christian population for a time. The Jews were especially concentrated in a northeastern district of Al-'Aliya known as Funduq el-Yihoudi (near the later Bab Guissa).: 42–44
The area benefitted from abundant water, and each of the two settlements was fully equipped with its own urban amenities. The first mosques of the city were the Mosque of the Sharifs (or Shurafa Mosque) and the Mosque of the Sheikhs (or al-Anouar Mosque); however, they no longer exist in their original form. The Mosque of the Sharifs became the burial site of Idris II upon his death and later evolved into the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II that exists today, while the al-Anouar Mosque has left only minor remnants. According to one of the major early sources on this period, the Rawd al-Qirtas by Ibn Abi Zar, in 859 the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque ("Mosque of the people from Kairouan') was founded by Fatima al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Her sister, Mariam, is likewise reputed to have founded the Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque ('Mosque of the Andalusians') the same year.
Upon the death of Idris II in 828, the dynasty's territory was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez, but some of his brothers attempted to break away from his leadership, resulting in an internecine conflict. Although the Idrisid realm was eventually reunified and enjoyed a period of peace under Ali ibn Muhammad and Yahya ibn Muhammad, it fell into decline again in the late 9th century.
Zenata domination and imperial rivalries (10th-11th centuries)
In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (Tunisia), who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients. The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrisids definitively, after which their Miknasa (one of the Zenata tribes) were installed there. The city, along with much of northern Morocco, continued to change hands between the proxies of Córdoba and the proxies of the Fatimids for many decades. Following another successful but ephemeral Fatimid takeover of Morocco in 979 by Buluggin ibn Ziri, the forces of Al-Mansur of Córdoba managed to retake the region again, expelling the Fatimids permanently.The Qarawiyyin Mosque (green roof in this picture) was expanded circa 956, and a new minaret (left) was added under the patronage of Abd al-Rahman IIIDespite the political instability of this era, notable contributions to the city's development were made. In 956 the Qarawiyyin Mosque was significantly expanded by the local Zenata governor, Ahmed ibn Abi Said, with funds provided by Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba. At the same time, both the Qarawiyyin Mosque and the Andalusiyyin Mosque were given new minarets, which appeared to be simplified versions of the minaret Abd al-Rahman III built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba during the same decade.: 62
From 980 (or from 986), Fez was ruled by a Zenata dynasty from the Maghrawa tribe, who were allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. They maintained this control even after the Caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century and until the arrival of the Almoravids.: 16 : 91 Under Zenata control Fez continued to grow even though conflicts between its two settlements, Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya, flared up during periods of political rivalry. Ziri ibn Atiyya, the first ruler of the new dynasty, had a troubled reign. However, Ibn Atiyya's descendant Dunas Ibn Hamama, ruling between 1037 and 1049, was responsible for many important infrastructural works necessary to accommodate Fez's growing population. He developed much of Fez's water distribution infrastructure, which has largely survived up to the present day. According to the tenth-century geographer, Ibn Hawqal, water was flushed into the suqs every summer night to clean the ground. The water was also transported to public baths and 300 mills. The city grew quickly and by the late 900s, it had about 100,000 inhabitants.
Other structures built in his time included hammams (bathhouses), mosques, and the first bridges over the Oued Bou Khrareb (mostly rebuilt in later eras). Thus, the two cities became increasingly integrated into each other: the open space between the two was increasingly filled up by new houses and up to six bridges across the river allowed for easier traffic between the two shores.: 36 A decade after Dunas, however, between 1059 and 1061, the two opposing settlements of the city were ruled separately by two rival Zenata emirs: Al-'Aliya was controlled by an emir named 'Ajisa and Madinat Fas was controlled by his brother el-Ftouh. Both brothers fortified their respective shores, and their names have been preserved in two of the city's gates to this day: Bab Guissa in the north and Bab Ftouh in the south.: 50 In 1062, the Hammadid emir Buluggin ibn Muhammad led an expedition against the Maghrawa and briefly captured Fez for several months before leaving. He was subsequently assassinated on his return journey eastward and Fez returned to Maghrawa control afterward.: 43–49
Fez under the Almoravids and Almohads (11th-13th centuries)
Layout of Fez in the Almohad period, after the unification of its two original settlements by the Almoravids in the previous century and after the reconstruction of the city walls at the beginning of the 13th century
The Almoravids, who originated far to the south, advanced into the region near Fez in the early 1060s. In 1063, under the leadership of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, they began a long military conquest of the region in order to defeat the Maghrawa, who were the main resistance to their rule. The last Maghrawa ruler of Fez, Mu'ansir Ibn Ziri, was a persistent obstacle.: 43–49 Unable to take Fez quickly, Ibn Tashfin conquered some of the surrounding forts and settlements first before refocusing on besieging the city. Mu'ansir fled Fez before the Almoravids were able to capture it in the later months of 1063.: 46 Ibn Tashfin appointed a member of his tribe as governor of the city and left a garrison of 400 Lamtuna tribesmen to guard it, then set out on further campaigns across northern Morocco. In his absence, Ibn Ziri returned, recaptured the city after a siege, and killed Ibn Tashfin's governor. The Almoravids retaliated by besieging the city and setting up a blockade. Eventually, Ibn Ziri was killed in a sortie against them, but the local Zenata continued to resist and rallied around a new leader, a man of noble lineage from Taza named Qasim Ibn Abd al-Rahman. Still unable to take the city, Ibn Tashfin kept the pressure on but chose instead to resume his conquest of the surrounding countryside and of northern Morocco, so as to eliminate resistance outside the city first. This took occupied him from 1064 until 1070.: 43–49
Ibn Tashfin finally captured the city definitively on 18 March 1070 (462 AH).: 49 (Other sources give the date as 1069.: 51 : 82 ) There is some contradiction and uncertainty in historical sources, however, and some historians date the final conquest to 1074 or 1075.: 39, 337 : 110 The Almoravids sacked the city and massacred many of the Zenata, although it seems that Fez itself did not suffer much long-term damage.: 49 : 51–52 In the same year of this conquest, Ibn Tashfin finally unified Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya into one city.: 51–52 The walls dividing them were destroyed, bridges connecting them were built or renovated, and a new circuit of walls was constructed that encompassed both cities. A kasbah (citadel), later known as the Kasbah Bou Jeloud, was built at the western edge of the city (just west of Bab Bou Jeloud today) to house the city's governor and garrison.: 50–51 With the help of engineers from Cordoba, Ibn Tashfin also upgraded the city's water supply system by creating additional canals branching off from the main canals made earlier by Dunas Ibn Hamama. Under the patronage of the later Almoravid emir Ali Ibn Yusuf the largest expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin took place between 1134 and 1143.: 20 Although the capital was moved to Marrakesh under the Almoravids, Fez acquired a reputation for Maliki legal scholarship and remained an important centre of trade and industry. Almoravid impact on the city's structure was such that Yusuf Ibn Tashfin is sometimes considered to be the second founder of Fez.: 51
Remains of the city walls on the north side of Fes el-Bali, which were rebuilt during the Almohad period (12th-13th century)
In 1145 or 1146 the Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min besieged and conquered the city during the Almohad overthrow of the Almoravids.: 54–55 : 71–72 The city, led by the Almoravid governor Yahya Ibn al-Sahrawiyya, resisted fiercely and the city was only taken after a hard siege during which the Almohads cut off the city's water supply. The besiegers finally entered the city with the help of 'Abdallah Ibn Khiyyar al-Jayyani, the local Almoravid financial administrator (mushrif), who switched his allegiance and opened the gates to them.: 72 Due to the ferocious resistance they encountered, the victorious Almohads retaliated demolished the city's fortifications, massacred most of the Almoravids, and destroyed many houses.: 54–55 : 72
However, due to Fez's continuing economic and military importance the Almohad caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur later ordered the reconstruction of the ramparts.: 36 : 606 Since the city had grown in the meantime, the new Almohad perimeter of walls was larger than that of the former Almoravid ramparts.: 607 The walls were completed by his successor Muhammad al-Nasir in 1204, giving them their definitive shape and establishing the perimeter of Fes el-Bali to this day. The Almohads rebuilt the Kasbah Bou Jeloud on the site of the former Almoravid kasbah.: 56 In Ya'qub al-Mansur's time the kasbah was endowed with a new congregational mosque, the Bou Jeloud Mosque, which still stands today (with later modifications). Nearby, the Almohads also built the first kasbah occupying the site of what is now the Kasbah an-Nouar.: 109 Muhammad al-Nasir reconstructed and expanded the Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque between 1203 and 1207.: 10–11
It is in this period that the city begins to be referred to as a major city and acquires a high reputation among contemporary writers like al-Idrisi and al-Marrakushi. Under Almohad rule the city grew to become one of the largest in the world between 1170 and 1180, with an estimated 200,000 people living there. Not all the land within the city walls was densely inhabited; much of it was still relatively open and was occupied by crops and gardens used by the inhabitants. The city's economy was prosperous and multiple industries, such as the tanneries, thrived.: 56–59 Each industry was generally concentrated in a particular neighbourhood or neighbourhoods; an arrangement which remained for most of the city's history. Most industries were established near the center but some, like the potters, were established in the outer districts because they needed more room.: 56–59 The Sebou River (into which the Fez River flows) was used to bring goods to the city; boats navigated the river from the Atlantic coast up to a point near the city, before unloading and finishing the journey overland.: 192 Fez, along with other major cities in the region, also played a role in trans-Saharan trade. Multiple trade routes existed, but caravans that took the route through Sijilmasa would usually continue from there to either Fez or Tlemcen. From Fez, goods could then travel further north to the Strait of Gibraltar and to Al-Andalus.: 201 By the end of the Almohad era, Fez had thus become not only a center of local and regional trade but also a center of consumption and an exporter of its own products.: 202
Golden age under the Marinids (13th-15th centuries)
The layout of Fez, including the new center of Fes el-Jdid, in the 14th century under the Marinids
Fez regained its political status and became the capital of Morocco during the Marinid dynasty, a Zenata Berber dynasty, between the 13th and 15th century. The Marinid leader Abu Yahya besieged and captured Fez in 1248, along with other cities, after defeating an Almohad army in eastern Morocco. The traditional urban population of the city was resistant to the rule of the nomadic Marinids, however, and rebelled again in 1250, although it failed to throw off Marinid control.: 104 : 156 The Marinids initially struggled against Yagmurasan, the Zayyanid ruler of Tlemcen, for control of Sijilmasa, but after 1272 they took the city definitively, allowing them to retain control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed there and continuing to divert them towards Fez.
Bab as-Sebaa, now known as Bab Dekkakin, was the original northern gate of Fes el-Jdid, built in 1276
The Marinids initially established themselves in the old Almohad kasbahs of Fez (the Kasbah Bou Jeloud and the Kasbah an-Nouar) as well as on the hill overlooking the north side of the city. This hill, where the ruins of the Marinid Tombs still stand, was occupied by a large palace and fortification where the Marinid ruler resided, though little of this remains today. In 1276 Abu Yusuf Ya'qub built an entirely new administrative city or royal citadel to the west of the old city, on higher ground overlooking it. In addition to putting more distance between the sultan and the restive population, another reason for building the new city was that the Almohad kasbahs, which were strictly military compounds, lacked the space required to establish a royal court and to house the Marinid troops. Moreover, by this time Abu Yusuf Ya'qub had also conquered Marrakesh (1269) and defeated the last Almohad holdouts in Tinmal (1275). Building a new palace-city was a frequent preoccupation of North African and Andalusi dynasties wishing to demonstrate their power, and so the foundation of the new city also symbolized the new era of Marinid rule.: 61–63 : 105–106
The new city was named al-Madinat al-Bayda (Arabic: المدينة البيضاء, lit. 'the White City'), but it soon became known as Fes el-Jdid (Arabic: فاس الجديد, romanized: Fās al-Jadīd, lit. 'New Fez'), while the old city became known as Fes el-Bali (Arabic: فاس البالي, lit. 'Old Fez').: 61 The new city included the royal palace of the sultans (the Dar al-Makhzen), the administrative offices of the state, and the headquarters of the army.: 62 The city had its own main mosque, the Great Mosque, and its own set of fortified walls and gates. Most of its outer perimeter was protected by a set of double walls; a tall inner wall with heavy square towers at regular intervals and a smaller outer wall with minor towers. Its northern entrance, at the beginning of the road to Meknes, consisted of a fortified bridge (now the Old Mechouar) over the Oued Fes, between two gates, Bab es-Sebaa (Arabic: باب السبع, lit. 'Gate of the Lion') and Bab al-Qantara (Arabic: باب القنطرة, lit. 'Gate of the Bridge'). Inside, the city was further subdivided into different districts, some of which, including the Dar al-Makhzen, had walls and gates separating them from the others. Another district, initially known as Hims and later converted into the Jewish Mellah, was also added to the south.: 62–66 In 1287 Sultan Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (son of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub) created a vast pleasure garden, known as Al-Mosara, to the north, just outside the city but encompassed by its own protective wall. The gardens were watered via an aqueduct which drew water from the Oued Fes through an enormous noria (type of water wheel), approximately 26 meters in diameter, which was located on the west side of Bab es-Sebaa. Although the gardens and the water wheel have since disappeared, traces of the former aqueduct are visible in the western wall of the New Mechouar today and also in the large octagonal towers of Bab Segma, one of the former gates to the garden.
The Bou Inania Madrasa, the most important madrasa built by the Marinids in Fez (14th century)
Fez reached its golden age in the Marinid period. It is from this period that the city's reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates. The Marinid rulers established the first formal madrasas in Morocco here in the city. The madrasas became a hallmark of Marinid architecture, with its striking blending of Andalusian and Almohad traditions. Between 1271 and 1357 at least seven madrasas were built in Fez, which are considered among the best examples of Moroccan architecture and some of the most richly decorated monuments in Fez. The first of these was the Saffarin Madrasa in 1271, followed by the Sahrij Madrasa in 1321, the al-Attarine and Sba'iyin madrasas in 1323, and the Mesbahiya Madrasa in 1346. All of these madrasas were built near the Qarawiyyin or Andalusiyyin mosques and were designed to complement those older institutions, in particular by providing housing for students from outside the city. Another madrasa was also built near the Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid in 1320, though this center never succeeded in rivaling the older educational centers in Fes el-Bali.: 114 The only truly independent madrasa (for a time) was the large Bou Inania Madrasa, commissioned by Sultan Abu Inan and completed in 1355, which also served as its own Friday mosque and was located in the western part of Fes el-Bali.
Meanwhile, many scholars consider that the high point of the Qarawiyyin as an intellectual and scholarly center was in the 13th-14th centuries, when the curriculum was at its broadest and its prestige had reached new heights after centuries of expansion and elite patronage.: 141 Among the subjects taught around this period or shortly after were traditional religious subjects such as the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) as well as other sciences like grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and geography.: 455
Ibn Khaldun, the famous historian and philosopher, spent time in Fez after 1354. He started as the secretary of Sultan Abu Inan but subsequently became involved in the intrigues of Marinid dynastic politics, spending time in jail at the end of Abu Inan's reign. Ibn Battuta also passed through the city on his way to Sijilmasa in the 14th century and described it in his writings. Ibn al-Khatib, the Andalusi poet and writer, also spent time here following his Nasrid master Muhammad V into exile for a few years between 1358 and 1362. After becoming embroiled in political intrigues in Granada he fled to North Africa again and was accused of heresy, eventually being put on trial in Fez and killed while in prison in 1375; his body was reportedly burnt in front of Bab Mahrouk and was buried in the nearby cemetery.Jews of Fez in the 1900s. The Mellah was the traditional Jewish quarter of the city since the 15th century.
The Jewish quarter of Fez, the Mellah (Arabic: ملاح), was created in Fes el-Jdid at some point during the Marinid period. The exact date and circumstances of its formation are not firmly established, but many scholars date the transfer of the Jewish population from Fes el-Bali to the new Mellah to the 15th century, a period of political tension and instability. In particular, Jewish sources describe the transfer as a consequence of the "rediscovery" of Idris II's body in the heart of the city in 1437, which caused the surrounding area – or possibly the entire city – to acquire a "holy" (haram) status, requiring that non-Muslims be removed from the area. In 1438, under pressure from the shurafāʾ, Sultan Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq made Jewish merchants with businesses in the qaysāriyya (the main market of Fes el Bali, near the site of the discovery) abandon them and move to the Mellah. Many Fessi Jews chose to become Muslims and keep their homes and livelihoods in Old Fes. They formed a group called the bildiyyīn. Numerous Fessi Jews converted to Islam throughout the premodern period, but the conversions spiked in the mid-fifteenth century. Powerful families, such as the Bannānī, Ibn Shaqrūn, Bannīs, Barrāda, and Gassūs families, adopted Islam.
The Jewish community had initially consisted of indigenous local Jews but these were joined by Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula (known as the Megorashim) in subsequent generations, especially after the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain. The ensuing waves of Spanish/Andalusi Jews migrating to Fez and North Africa increased the Jewish population in the city and also altered the community's social, ethnic, and linguistic makeup. The influx of migrants also revitalized Jewish cultural activity in the following years, while splitting the community along ethnic lines for many generations. The Megorashim of Spanish origin retained their heritage and their Spanish language while the indigenous Moroccan Toshavim, who spoke Arabic and were of Arab and Berber heritage, followed their own traditions. Members of the two communities worshiped in separate synagogues and were even buried separately. It was only in the 18th century that the two communities eventually blended together, with Arabic eventually becoming the main language of the entire community while the Spanish (Sephardic) minhag became dominant in religious practice.
The 1465 Moroccan revolt overthrew the last Marinid sultan. In 1472 the Wattasids, another Zenata dynasty which had previously served as viziers under the Marinid sultans, succeeded as rulers of Morocco from Fez.: 114–115 They perpetuated the structure of the Marinid state and continued its policies, but were unable to control all of Morocco.: 15 : 207–209 They did not contribute significantly to the physical fabric of Fez.
Decline under the Saadians (16th and early 17th centuries)
Changes to Fez under the Saadians: multiple forts were built around the area, and the Mosara Garden fell into decline
In the 16th century the Saadians (or Saadis) rose to power in southern Morocco and challenged the Wattasids. In the meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire came close to Fez after the conquest of Algeria in the 16th century. In January 1549 the Saadian sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh took Fez and ousted the last Wattasid sultan Ali Abu Hassun. They later retook the city in 1554 with Ottoman support, but this reconquest was short-lived and later that same year the Wattasids were decisively defeated in the Battle of Tadla by the Saadians. The Ottomans would try to invade Morocco after the assassination of Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1558, but were stopped by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib at the battle of Wadi al-Laban north of Fez. Hence, Morocco remained the only North-African state to remain outside Ottoman control.
After the death of Abdallah al-Ghalib a new power struggle would emerge. Abd al-Malik, Abdallah's brother, enlisted Ottoman support and ousted his nephew Abu Abdullah from power in 1576. The latter would flee to Portugal where he asked king Sebastian of Portugal for help to regain his throne. This would lead to the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin (also known as the Battle of Alcácer Quibir or the Battle of the Three Kings) where Abd al-Malik's army would defeat the invading Portuguese army with the support of his Ottoman allies, ensuring Moroccan independence. Abd al-Malik himself also died during the battle and was succeeded by Ahmad al-Mansur.
Borj Nord, a Saadian fortress built in the 16th century overlooking Fez from the north
The Saadians, who used Marrakesh again as their capital, did not lavish much attention on Fez, with the exception of the ornate ablutions pavilions added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque's courtyard during their time. It was likely during the Saadian period that the former royal gardens of the Marinids, the Mosara, fell into disuse and began to fade. Perhaps as a result of persistent tensions with the city's inhabitants, the Saadians built a number of new forts and bastions around the city which appear to have been aimed at keeping control over the local population. They were mostly located on higher ground overlooking Fes el-Bali, from which they would have been easily able to bombard the city with canons. These include the Kasbah Tamdert, just inside the city walls near Bab Ftouh, and the forts of Borj Nord (Borj al-Shamali) on the hills to the north, Borj Sud (Borj al-Janoub) on the hills to the south, and the Borj Sheikh Ahmed to the west, at a point in Fes el-Jdid's walls that was closest to Fes el-Bali. These were built in the late 16th century, mostly by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur. Two other bastions, Borj Twil and Borj Sidi Bou Nafa', were also built along Fes el-Jdid's walls south of Borj Sheikh Ahmed. The Borj Nord, Borj Sud, and these bastions (sometimes referred to as the bastioun in Arabic) of Fes el-Jdid are the only fortifications in Fez to demonstrate clear European (most likely Portuguese) influence in their design, updated to serve as defenses in the age of gunpowder. Some of them may have been built with the help of Christian European prisoners of war from the Saadians' victory over Portuguese in 1578.
After the long and impressive reign of Ahmad al-Mansur, the Saadian state fell into civil war between his sons and potential successors. Fez became a rival seat of power for a number of brothers vying against other family members ruling from Marrakesh and both cities changed hands multiple times until the internecine conflict finally ended in 1627. During this time, the inhabitants of the city had violent confrontations with the Chraga, an Arab tribe which the Saadians had installed in the surrounding countryside as a garrison force (known as a guich or "army" tribe). In 1611 the population of the city revolted and even massacred many of the Chraga in apparent retaliation against crimes committed by some of their members.: 81–82 Despite the reunification of the realm after 1627, the Saadians were in full decline and Fez had already suffered considerably from the repeated conquests and reconquests during the conflict. As the Saadian sultanate collapsed, both the city and the wider country descended into relative anarchy. The two shores of the city, the 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin and 'Adwat al-Andalusiyyin (the latter now also known simply as al-'Adwat), fell into rivalries reminiscent of the city's early history, while new rivalries developed between different clans within the western (Qarawiyyin) shore. Fes el-Jdid, which was the center of the official government, also struggled against Fes el-Bali, the old city.: 82
In 1641, Muhammad al-Haj of the Sanhaja Amazigh Dilā' Sufi order of the Middle Atlas occupied Fes.: 88 This time was particularly difficult for Fessi Jews. A Jewish chronicle of the time recounts that in 1646 synagogues were ordered to close and were subsequently desecrated, damaged, or destroyed.: 88–89 The city was not receptive to the Dilā' either, and for a brief period in 1651 they rebelled and invited Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Sharif, one of the early Alaouite sultans, to take control of the city.: 82–83 : 229
Early Alaouite period (17th and 18th centuries)
The Cherratine Madrasa, built by Moulay Rashid in 1670
It was only when the true founder of the future Alaouite state, Moulay Rashid, took Fez in 1666 that the city saw a revival and became the capital again, albeit briefly. Moulay Rashid set about restoring the city after a long period of neglect. He built the Kasbah Cherarda (also known as the Kasbah al-Khemis) to the north of Fes el-Jdid and of the Royal Palace in order to house a large part of his tribal troops. He also restored or rebuilt what became known as the Kasbah an-Nouar, which became the living quarters of his followers from the Tafilalt region (the Alaouite dynasty's ancestral home). For this reason, the kasbah was also known as the Kasbah Filala ("Kasbah of the people from Tafilalt"). Moulay Rashid also built a large new madrasa, the Cherratine Madrasa, in 1670. Upon his death in 1672 he was buried in the Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem, in the southern cemetery of the city outside Bab Ftouh.
After his death Fez underwent another dark period. Moulay Isma'il, his successor, apparently disliked the city – possibly due to a rebellion there in his early reign – and chose nearby Meknès as his capital instead. He also frequently imposed heavy taxes on the city's inhabitants and sometimes even forcibly transferred parts of its population to repopulate other cities in the country. Nonetheless, he did restore or rebuild some major monuments in the city, such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II.
The gate of Dar Dbibegh, a walled palace built outside the city by Moulay Abdallah in 1729 (photograph from 1920s)
After Isma'il's death things only worsened as Morocco plunged into anarchy and decades of conflict between his sons who vied to succeed him. Fez suffered particularly from repeated conflicts with the Udayas (or Oudayas), a guich tribe (vassal tribe serving as a garrison and military force) previously installed in the Kasbah Cherarda by Moulay Isma'il. Sultan Moulay Abdallah, who reigned intermittently during this period and used Fez as a capital, was initially welcomed in 1728–29 as an enemy of the Udayas, but relations between him and the city's population quickly soured due to his choice of governor. He immediately built a separate fortified palace in the countryside, Dar Dbibegh, where he resided instead. For nearly three more decades the city remained in more or less perpetual conflict with both the Udayas and the Alaouite sultans.
Starting with the reign of Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah, between 1757 and 1790, the country stabilized and Fez finally regained its fortunes. Although its status was partly shared with Marrakesh, it remained the capital of Morocco for the rest of the Alaouite period up to the 20th century. The Udayas, who had been a burden on the population of Fez, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power, and in 1760 Muhammad ibn Abdallah was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Udaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead.: 240
There was a brief period of disorder under Moulay Yazid (ruled 1790–1792) and Moulay Slimane (ruled 1792–1822), with the sultans in Fez losing control of most of the rest of Morocco between 1790 and 1795.: 241–242 The reign of Moulay Yazid was especially disastrous for the city. The Udayas tribe was brought back as a local garrison. During these two years the sultan forced the entire Jewish community to move to an open area next to the Kasbah Cherarda, north of Fes el-Jdid. The Mellah was occupied by tribal troops allied to the sultan, its main synagogue was replaced by a mosque, and the district itself was permanently reduced in size. It was only after Moulay Yazid's death that the chief Muslim qadi (judge) of Fez ordered the Mellah to be restored to the Jewish community, along with the demolition of the mosque built by Yazid's troops.
Otherwise, however, the city benefitted from a long era of relative peace. It remained a major economic center of the region even during troubled times. The Alaouites continued to rebuild or restore various monuments, as well as to expand the grounds of the Royal Palace a number of times. The sultans and their entourage also became more and more closely associated with the elites of Fez and other urban centers, with the ulama (religious scholars) of Fez being particularly influential. After Moulay Slimane's death powerful Fassi families became the main players of the country's political and intellectual scene.: 242–247 After another episode of troubles in 1820, his successor Abd al-Rahman expelled the Udayas from Fez permanently in 1824.: 89
Prosperity and growth in the 19th and early 20th centuries
Layout of Fez at the beginning of the 20th century, after most of the major Alaouite-era additions to the city, such as the Kasbah Cherarda and the new walls built by Moulay Hasan to link the old and new cities
The Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), had its spiritual center in Fez after al-Tijani moved here from Algeria in 1789.: 244 The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa and its ulama had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fez and beyond. Until the 19th century the city was also the only manufacturing center of fezzes (also known as the tarboosh). The fortunes of the Jewish community also improved considerably in the 19th century when the expansion of contact and trade with Europe allowed the Jewish merchant class to place themselves at the center of international trade networks in Morocco. This also led to a greater social openness and a shift in tastes and attitudes, especially among richer Jews, who built luxurious residences in the upper Mellah. Likewise, rich Muslim families and elites built their own grand mansions, especially in the garden districts of al-'Uyun in the southwestern part of Fes el-Bali. Examples from the late 19th century and early 20th century include the Dar Moqri, Dar Glaoui, Dar Mnebhi and Dar Jama'i.: 222
In 1873, in response to the attempt of Sultan Hassan I to introduce a market tax called the mukūs (المكوس), the guilds of the tanneries of Fes led a revolt that turned violent.
The New Mechouar created by Moulay Hassan (late 19th century) at the northern entrance to the Royal Palace; on the left is the gate of the Dar al-Makina
The last major change to Fez's topography before the 20th century was made during the reign of Sultan Hasan I, who finally connected Fes el-Jdid and Fes el-Bali by building a walled corridor between them. Within this new corridor, between the two cities, were built new gardens and summer palaces used by the royals and the capital's high society, such as the Jnan Sbil Gardens and the Dar Batha palace. Moulay Hassan also expanded the old Royal Palace itself, extending its entrance up to the current location of the Old Mechouar while adding the New Mechouar, along with the Dar al-Makina, to the north. This had the consequence of also splitting the Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood to the northwest from the rest of Fes el-Jdid.
With the Conditioned Bay'ah, Fes played a central role in the Hafidiya, the brief civil war that erupted when Sultan Abd al-Hafid challenged his heavily Europe-allied brother Abdelaziz for the throne.: 76 The ulama of Fez, led by the Sufi modernist Muhammad Bin Abdul-Kabir Al-Kattani, offered their conditioned support to Abd al-Hafid, which turned the tide of the conflict. Abdelaziz was defeated in the Battle of Marrakesh in 1908.: 76–78 Abdelhafid's reign soon deteriorated and in early 1911 the sultan was besieged in Fez by the tribes of the Middle Atlas. Abdelhafid appealed for French help and a French force under Colonel Charles Émile Moinier arrived in Fez on May 21 and established a command centre at Dar Dbibegh.: 313 : 78
By 1912, on the eve of French colonial rule, the city had an estimated population between 80,000 and 100,000.: 152
French colonial rule (1912–1956)
The abdication of Abd al-Hafid, Sultan of Morocco in 1912, after signing the Treaty of Fes which initiated French colonial rule
In 1912 the French Protectorate was instituted over Morocco following the Treaty of Fes. One immediate consequence was the 1912 riots in Fez, a popular uprising which included deadly attacks targeting Europeans as well as native Jewish inhabitants in the Mellah, followed by an even deadlier repression. Fez and its Dar al-Makhzen ceased to be the center of power in Morocco as the first French resident general, Hubert Lyautey, decided to move the administrative capital of the Protectorate to Rabat in 1912–1913, which has remained the capital ever since.: 149
Bab Bou Jeloud, the symbolic entrance to Fes el-Bali today, was built in 1913 by the new French administration
A number of social and physical changes took place at this period and across the 20th century. Starting under Lyautey, one important policy with long-term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic walled cities in Morocco and to intentionally preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as "medinas". Instead, the French administration built new modern cities (the Villes Nouvelles) just outside the old cities, where European settlers largely resided with modern Western-style amenities. This was part of a larger "policy of association" adopted by Lyautey which favoured various forms of indirect colonial rule by preserving local institutions and elites, in contrast with other French colonial policies that had favoured "assimilation". The existence today of a Ville Nouvelle ("New City") alongside a historic medina in Fez was thus a consequence of this early colonial decision-making. The Ville Nouvelle also became known as Dar Dbibegh by Moroccans, as the former palace of Moulay Abdallah was located in the same area. The French administration did still build some new structures in the old city, often emulating the local Moroccan style, such as the now iconic Bab Bou Jeloud gate in 1913.
Avenue Hassan II today, formerly Avenue de France, was established by Lyautey in 1916 as part of the Ville Nouvelle (New City)
The creation of the separate French Ville Nouvelle to the west had a wider impact on the entire city's development. While new colonial policies preserved historic monuments, it also had other consequences in the long-term by stalling urban development in these heritage areas. Scholar Janet Abu-Lughod has argued that these policies created in Morocco a kind of urban "apartheid" between the indigenous Moroccan urban areas – which were forced to remain stagnant in terms of urban development and architectural innovation – and the new planned cities which were mainly inhabited by Europeans and which expanded to occupy lands formerly used by Moroccans outside the city. This separation was partly softened, however, by wealthy Moroccans who started moving into the Ville Nouvelles during this period. By contrast, the old city (medina) of Fez was increasingly settled by poorer rural migrants from the countryside.: 26
Fez also played a role in the Moroccan nationalist movement and in protests against the French colonial regime. Many Moroccan nationalists received their education at the Al-Qarawiyyin University and some of their informal political networks were established thanks to this shared educational background.: 140, 146 In July 1930, the Al-Qarawiyyin's students and other inhabitants participated in protests against the Berber Dahir decreed by the French authorities in May of that year.: 143–144 In 1937 the Al-Qarawiyyin mosque and R'cif Mosque were some of the rallying points for demonstrations in response to a violent crackdown on Moroccan protesters in the nearby city of Meknes, which ended with French troops being deployed across Fes el-Bali and at the mosques themselves.: 387–389 : 168 Towards the end of World War II, Moroccan nationalists gathered in Fez to draft a demand for independence which they submitted to the Allies on January 11, 1944. This resulted in the arrest of nationalist leaders followed by the violent suppression of protests across many cities, including Fez.: 255
After independence and up to present-day (after 1956)
A street in the modern Ville Nouvelle ("New City") of Fez
After Morocco regained its independence in 1956 many of the trends begun under colonial rule continued and accelerated during the second half of the 20th century. Much of Fez's bourgeois classes moved to the growing metropolises of Casablanca and the capital, Rabat. The Jewish population was particularly depleted, either moving to Casablanca or emigrating to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. Although the population of the city grew, it did so only slowly up until the late 1960s, when the pace of growth finally accelerated.: 216 Throughout this period (and up to today) Fez nonetheless remained the country's third largest urban center.: 26 : 216 Between 1971 and 2000, the population of the city roughly tripled from 325,000 to 940,000.: 376 The Ville Nouvelle became the locus of further development, with new peripheral neighbourhoods – with inconsistent housing quality – spreading outwards around it. In 1963 the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was reorganized as a state university, while a new public university, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, was founded in 1975 in the Ville Nouvelle. In 1981, the old city, consisting of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid, was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
During this period, however, Moroccans were also subject to serious social inequalities and economic precarity, particularly under the repressive reign of King Hassan II and the period known as the Years of Lead (roughly 1975–1990).: 170 Fez was strongly affected by unemployment and lack of housing. Austerity measures led to several riots and uprisings across other cities during the 1980s. On December 14, 1990, a general strike was called by two major trade unions to demand an increase to minimum wage and other measures. In Fez this broke into protest and rioting led by university students and youths. The death of one of the students further inflamed protests, resulting in buildings being burned and looted, particularly symbols of wealth such as the Hôtel des Mérinides, a luxury hotel overlooking Fes el-Bali and dating to the time of Lyautey. While the official death toll was 5 people, the New York Times reported a toll of 33 people and quoted an anonymous source claiming the real death toll was likely higher. The government denied reports that the deaths were due to the intervention of security forces and armored vehicles. Many of those arrested were later released and the government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by the opposition.: 377
Today Fez remains a regional capital and one of Morocco's most important cities. Many of the former notable families of Fez still make up a large part of the country's political elite. It is also a major tourism destination due to its historical heritage. In recent years efforts have been underway to restore and rehabilitate the old medina, ranging from the restoration of individual monuments to attempts to rehabilitate the Fez River.
See also
Timeline of Fez
History of Morocco
Architecture of Fez
References
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Further reading
Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. (In French, comprehensive study of the city's pre-colonial history)
Bressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). "Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle". Hespéris-Tamuda. XX–XXI: 245–318. (In French; more detailed study focusing on history of Fes Jdid)
Gilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). "Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 60 (3): 310–327. (Information on the history of the city's Jewish community and the Mellah)
vteFez, MoroccoSubdivisions
Fes el-Bali
Fes el-Jdid
Ville Nouvelle
Mellah (Jewish quarter)
History
Timeline
Treaty of Fes
Transport
Fès–Saïs Airport
Fes railway station
Education
University of al-Qarawiyyin
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University
École nationale des sciences appliquées de Fès
Collège Moulay Idriss
SportsClubs
MAS Fez
Wydad de Fès
Maghreb de Fes (basketball)
Sport venues
Fez Stadium
Salle 11th November
Culture
World Sacred Music Festival
LandmarksMosquesFes el-Bali
Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque
Mosque of the Andalusians
Al-Anouar Mosque (Mosque of the Sheikhs)
Ain al-Kheil Mosque (Al-Azhar Mosque)
Abu al-Hassan Mosque
Bab Guissa Mosque
Bou Jeloud Mosque
Chrabliyine Mosque
Diwan Mosque
El-Oued Mosque
R'cif Mosque
Fes el-Jdid
Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid
Al-Beida Mosque
Al-Hamra Mosque
Lalla ez-Zhar Mosque
Lalla Ghriba Mosque
Moulay Abdallah Mosque
Synagogues
Ibn Danan Synagogue
Al Fassiyine Synagogue
Madrasas
Al-Attarine Madrasa
Bou Inania Madrasa
Cherratine Madrasa
Madrasa of Fes el-Jdid
Madrasa el-Oued
Mesbahiyya Madrasa
Sahrij Madrasa
Saffarin Madrasa
Sba'iyyin Madrasa
Mausoleums & zawiyas
Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem
Zawiya of Moulay Idris II
Zawiya of Sidi Abdelkader al-Fassi
Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani
Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed esh-Shawi
Zawiya of Sidi Ali Boughaleb
Zawiya of Sidi Taoudi Ben Souda
Tomb of Sidi Bel Kacem
Museums
Batha Museum
Nejjarine Museum of Wooden Arts & Crafts
Museum of Arms
Palaces & historic mansions
Royal Palace of Fez
Dar Adiyel
Dar Ba Mohammed Chergui
Dar Batha
Dar el-Beida
Dar Belghazi
Dar Glaoui
Dar Moqri
Jamai Palace
Mnebhi Palace
Funduqs (foundouks)
Funduq al-Najjarin (Foundouk Nejjarine)
Funduq Barka
Funduq Kettanin
Funduq Sagha
Funduq Shamma'in (Foundouk Chemmaïne)
Funduq al-Tetwaniyyin
Tanneries
Ain Azliten Tannery
Chouara Tannery
Sidi Moussa Tannery
Hammams (bathhouses)
Hammam al-Mokhfiya
Hammam Ben Abbad
Hammam Saffarin
Fortresses & city walls
City walls
Borj Nord
Borj Sud
Dar Dbibegh
Kasbah An-Nouar
Kasbah Cherarda
Kasbah Tamdert
Gates
Bab al-Amer
Bab Bou Jeloud
Bab Chorfa
Bab Dekkakin (Bab es-Sebaa)
Bab Ftouh
Bab Guissa
Bab Mahrouk
Bab Semmarine
Bab Segma
For other gates, see Fortifications of Fez
Streets, souqs, and squares
Kissariat al-Kifah
Place Bou Jeloud (Place Pacha el-Baghdadi)
Place Nejjarine
Place Seffarine
Tala'a Kebira
For the "Mechouars" of the Royal Palace, see Royal Palace of Fez
Other landmarks
Borj Neffara
Dar al-Magana
Dar al-Makina
Jnan Sbil Gardens
Marinid Tombs
Maristan of Sidi Frej
Mosara Garden (Marinid Royal Gardens)
Oued Fes (Fez River)
People
See Category:People from Fez, Morocco | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_view_over_F%C3%A8s_IV_(50071318338).jpg"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_el_Bali"},{"link_name":"Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Idris I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Era"},{"link_name":"Oued Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oued_Fes"},{"link_name":"Berber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs"},{"link_name":"Ifriqiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiya"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia"},{"link_name":"al-Andalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Idrisid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Zenata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenata"},{"link_name":"Fatimid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"Almoravid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid"},{"link_name":"Yusuf ibn Tashfin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_el_Bali"},{"link_name":"Almohads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Marrakesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh"},{"link_name":"Marinid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid"},{"link_name":"Abu Yusuf Yaqub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yusuf_Yaqub_ibn_Abd_al-Haqq"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_Jdid"},{"link_name":"royal palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makhzen_(Fez)"},{"link_name":"madrasas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa"},{"link_name":"mosques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"Mellah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellah_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Alaouite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_dynasty"}],"text":"View over Fes el-BaliThe History of Fez begins with its foundation by Idris I and Idris II at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century CE. It initially consisted of two autonomous and competing settlements on opposing shores of what is now known as the Oued Fes. Initially inhabited by a largely Berber (Amazigh) population, successive waves of mainly Arab immigrants from Ifriqiya (Tunisia) and al-Andalus (Spain/Portugal) over time gave the nascent city an Arab character as well. After the downfall of the Idrisid dynasty, it was contested between different Zenata groups allied with either the Fatimid Caliphate or the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba. In the 11th century the Almoravid sultan Yusuf ibn Tashfin conquered the region and united its two settlements into what is today the Fes el-Bali (\"Old Fez\") quarter. Under the rule of the Almoravids and of the Almohads after them, despite losing the status of capital to Marrakesh, the city remained the economic and political center of northern Morocco and gained a reputation for religious scholarship and mercantile activity.Fez reached its zenith in the Marinid era (13th-15th centuries), regaining its status as political capital. In 1276 the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub also founded a separate royal city, Fes el-Jdid (\"New Fes\"), just west of Fes el-Bali, where the royal palace is still located today. Numerous new madrasas and mosques were constructed across Fez, many of which survive today, while other structures were restored. During this period the Jewish population of the city grew and the Mellah (Jewish quarter) was formed on the south side of this new district. After the overthrow of the Marinid dynasty, Fez underwent periods of decline and prosperity and often competed with Marrakesh for political and cultural influence. The city rose again in influence during the 19th century and remained the capital of the Alaouite sultanate until 1912, when it came under control of the French Protectorate in Morocco. The French colonial regime moved the capital to Rabat, where it remains today, and Fes underwent a political decline. The French also constructed a new city, the Ville Nouvelle, to the southwest, which grew into what is now most of the modern city of Fez.","title":"History of Fez"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_walls_history_1_-_early_11th_century_(pre-Almoravid).png"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19492-1"},{"link_name":"Fez River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oued_Fes"},{"link_name":"Idris I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Idrisid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-2"},{"link_name":"Walili (Volubilis)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volubilis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"Berbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers"},{"link_name":"Kairouan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mausol%C3%A9e_de_Moulay_Idriss_II_13102019_004.jpg"},{"link_name":"Moulay Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Shurafa Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs"},{"link_name":"Iberian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Al-Hakam I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_I"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Kairouan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kairouan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Fes Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_Jdid"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Jewish community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_Jews"},{"link_name":"Zenata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenata"},{"link_name":"Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Bab Guissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Guissa"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Mosque of the Sheikhs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Anouar_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Moulay Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Rawd al-Qirtas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawd_al-Qirtas"},{"link_name":"Ibn Abi Zar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zar"},{"link_name":"Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin"},{"link_name":"Fatima al-Fihri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatima_al-Fihri"},{"link_name":"Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_Mosque"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Idris"},{"link_name":"Ali ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Yahya ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-11"}],"text":"Approximate reconstitution[1] of the two original settlements of Fez: Al-'Aliya and Madinat Fas (present-day walls shown in grey)The city was first founded in 789 as Madinat Fas on the southeast bank of the Jawhar River (now known as the Fez River) by Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. His son, Idris II,[2] built a settlement called Al-'Aliya on the opposing river bank in 809 and moved his capital here from Walili (Volubilis).[3]: 35 [4]: 35 [5]: 83 These settlements (Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya) would soon develop into two walled and largely autonomous sites, often in conflict with one another. The early population was composed mostly of Berbers, along with hundreds of Arab warriors from Kairouan who made up Idris II's entourage.[3][5]The cenotaph of Moulay Idris II in Fez today; the building around it has been rebuilt many times but is located on the original site of the Shurafa MosqueArab emigration to Fez increased afterwards, including Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent[6] who were expelled from Córdoba in 817–818 after a rebellion against the Al-Hakam I[3]: 46 [7] as well as Arab families banned from Kairouan (modern Tunisia) after another rebellion in 824. The Andalusians mainly settled in Madinat Fas, while the Tunisians found their home in Al-'Aliya. These two waves of immigrants gave the city its Arabic character and would subsequently give their name to the districts of 'Adwat Al-Andalus and 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin.[8]: 51 With the influx of Arabic-speaking Andalusians and Tunisians, the majority of the population was Arab, but rural Berbers from the surrounding countryside settled there throughout this early period, mainly in Madinat Fas (the Andalusian quarter) and later in Fes Jdid during the Marinid period.[9] The city also had a strong Jewish community, probably consisting of Zenata Berbers who had previously converted to Judaism, as well as a small remaining Christian population for a time. The Jews were especially concentrated in a northeastern district of Al-'Aliya known as Funduq el-Yihoudi (near the later Bab Guissa).[3]: 42–44The area benefitted from abundant water, and each of the two settlements was fully equipped with its own urban amenities. The first mosques of the city were the Mosque of the Sharifs (or Shurafa Mosque) and the Mosque of the Sheikhs (or al-Anouar Mosque); however, they no longer exist in their original form. The Mosque of the Sharifs became the burial site of Idris II upon his death and later evolved into the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II that exists today, while the al-Anouar Mosque has left only minor remnants.[3] According to one of the major early sources on this period, the Rawd al-Qirtas by Ibn Abi Zar, in 859 the Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque (\"Mosque of the people from Kairouan') was founded by Fatima al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Her sister, Mariam, is likewise reputed to have founded the Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque ('Mosque of the Andalusians') the same year.[10][3]Upon the death of Idris II in 828, the dynasty's territory was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez, but some of his brothers attempted to break away from his leadership, resulting in an internecine conflict. Although the Idrisid realm was eventually reunified and enjoyed a period of peace under Ali ibn Muhammad and Yahya ibn Muhammad, it fell into decline again in the late 9th century.[11]","title":"Foundation under the Idrisids (7th-8th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Umayyad Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Fatimid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Ifriqiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifriqiya"},{"link_name":"Zenata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenata"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-11"},{"link_name":"Miknasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miknasa"},{"link_name":"Buluggin ibn Ziri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buluggin_ibn_Ziri"},{"link_name":"Al-Mansur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almanzor"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:29610-Fez_(28134041211)_(qarawiyyin_crop).jpg"},{"link_name":"Qarawiyyin Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin"},{"link_name":"minaret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minaret"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Rahman III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Rahman III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III"},{"link_name":"Great Mosque of Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:010-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Maghrawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrawa"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"Ziri ibn Atiyya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziri_ibn_Atiyya"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3322-15"},{"link_name":"water distribution infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oued_Fes#The_historic_water_network_of_Fes_el-Bali"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3322-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"Ibn Hawqal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"hammams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_bath"},{"link_name":"Oued Bou Khrareb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oued_Fes"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3322-15"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:52-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:07-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-19"},{"link_name":"emirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emir"},{"link_name":"Bab Guissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Guissa"},{"link_name":"Bab Ftouh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Ftouh"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-21"},{"link_name":"Hammadid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammadid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Buluggin ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buluggin_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"captured Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammadid_capture_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:023-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:023-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"}],"text":"In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Ifriqiya (Tunisia), who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients.[5][8][11] The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrisids definitively, after which their Miknasa (one of the Zenata tribes) were installed there. The city, along with much of northern Morocco, continued to change hands between the proxies of Córdoba and the proxies of the Fatimids for many decades. Following another successful but ephemeral Fatimid takeover of Morocco in 979 by Buluggin ibn Ziri, the forces of Al-Mansur of Córdoba managed to retake the region again, expelling the Fatimids permanently.[11]The Qarawiyyin Mosque (green roof in this picture) was expanded circa 956, and a new minaret (left) was added under the patronage of Abd al-Rahman IIIDespite the political instability of this era, notable contributions to the city's development were made. In 956 the Qarawiyyin Mosque was significantly expanded by the local Zenata governor, Ahmed ibn Abi Said, with funds provided by Abd al-Rahman III of Córdoba. At the same time, both the Qarawiyyin Mosque and the Andalusiyyin Mosque were given new minarets, which appeared to be simplified versions of the minaret Abd al-Rahman III built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba during the same decade.[12]: 62 [13][10]From 980 (or from 986[14][3]), Fez was ruled by a Zenata dynasty from the Maghrawa tribe, who were allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. They maintained this control even after the Caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century and until the arrival of the Almoravids.[4]: 16 [14]: 91 [5][14] Under Zenata control Fez continued to grow even though conflicts between its two settlements, Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya, flared up during periods of political rivalry. Ziri ibn Atiyya, the first ruler of the new dynasty, had a troubled reign.[3] However, Ibn Atiyya's descendant Dunas Ibn Hamama, ruling between 1037 and 1049, was responsible for many important infrastructural works necessary to accommodate Fez's growing population.[15] He developed much of Fez's water distribution infrastructure, which has largely survived up to the present day.[15][16] According to the tenth-century geographer, Ibn Hawqal, water was flushed into the suqs every summer night to clean the ground. The water was also transported to public baths and 300 mills. The city grew quickly and by the late 900s, it had about 100,000 inhabitants.[17]Other structures built in his time included hammams (bathhouses), mosques, and the first bridges over the Oued Bou Khrareb (mostly rebuilt in later eras).[3][15][18][19][20] Thus, the two cities became increasingly integrated into each other: the open space between the two was increasingly filled up by new houses and up to six bridges across the river allowed for easier traffic between the two shores.[19]: 36 A decade after Dunas, however, between 1059 and 1061, the two opposing settlements of the city were ruled separately by two rival Zenata emirs: Al-'Aliya was controlled by an emir named 'Ajisa and Madinat Fas was controlled by his brother el-Ftouh. Both brothers fortified their respective shores, and their names have been preserved in two of the city's gates to this day: Bab Guissa in the north and Bab Ftouh in the south.[3]: 50 [21] In 1062, the Hammadid emir Buluggin ibn Muhammad led an expedition against the Maghrawa and briefly captured Fez for several months before leaving.[22] He was subsequently assassinated on his return journey eastward and Fez returned to Maghrawa control afterward.[22][23]: 43–49","title":"Zenata domination and imperial rivalries (10th-11th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_walls_history_2_-_early-mid_13th_century_(Almohad_period).png"},{"link_name":"Almohad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Almoravids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Almoravids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Yusuf Ibn Tashfin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Tashfin"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"kasbah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah"},{"link_name":"citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadel"},{"link_name":"Bab Bou Jeloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Bou_Jeloud"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3322-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"Ali Ibn Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:010-13"},{"link_name":"Maliki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maliki"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_medina_walls_DSCF3737.jpg"},{"link_name":"city walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Almohad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Almohad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Mu'min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Mu%27min"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-25"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"caliph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Ya'qub al-Mansur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yusuf_Yaqub_al-Mansur"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:55-26"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"Muhammad al-Nasir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Nasir"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:55-26"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:422-16"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"congregational mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_mosque"},{"link_name":"Bou Jeloud Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Jeloud_Mosque"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-27"},{"link_name":"Kasbah an-Nouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_An-Nouar"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gaudio_1982-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:55-26"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:14-29"},{"link_name":"al-Idrisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi"},{"link_name":"al-Marrakushi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Wahid_al-Marrakushi"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05223-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"additional citation(s) needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"tanneries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanning_(leather)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"potters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Sebou River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebou_River"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"trans-Saharan trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade"},{"link_name":"Sijilmasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmasa"},{"link_name":"Tlemcen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcen"},{"link_name":"Strait of Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:23-24"}],"text":"Layout of Fez in the Almohad period, after the unification of its two original settlements by the Almoravids in the previous century and after the reconstruction of the city walls at the beginning of the 13th centuryThe Almoravids, who originated far to the south, advanced into the region near Fez in the early 1060s. In 1063, under the leadership of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, they began a long military conquest of the region in order to defeat the Maghrawa, who were the main resistance to their rule. The last Maghrawa ruler of Fez, Mu'ansir Ibn Ziri, was a persistent obstacle.[23]: 43–49 Unable to take Fez quickly, Ibn Tashfin conquered some of the surrounding forts and settlements first before refocusing on besieging the city. Mu'ansir fled Fez before the Almoravids were able to capture it in the later months of 1063.[23]: 46 Ibn Tashfin appointed a member of his tribe as governor of the city and left a garrison of 400 Lamtuna tribesmen to guard it, then set out on further campaigns across northern Morocco. In his absence, Ibn Ziri returned, recaptured the city after a siege, and killed Ibn Tashfin's governor. The Almoravids retaliated by besieging the city and setting up a blockade. Eventually, Ibn Ziri was killed in a sortie against them, but the local Zenata continued to resist and rallied around a new leader, a man of noble lineage from Taza named Qasim Ibn Abd al-Rahman. Still unable to take the city, Ibn Tashfin kept the pressure on but chose instead to resume his conquest of the surrounding countryside and of northern Morocco, so as to eliminate resistance outside the city first. This took occupied him from 1064 until 1070.[23]: 43–49Ibn Tashfin finally captured the city definitively on 18 March 1070 (462 AH).[23]: 49 (Other sources give the date as 1069.[14][3]: 51 [8]: 82 ) There is some contradiction and uncertainty in historical sources, however, and some historians date the final conquest to 1074 or 1075.[14][24]: 39, 337 [5]: 110 The Almoravids sacked the city and massacred many of the Zenata, although it seems that Fez itself did not suffer much long-term damage.[23]: 49 [3]: 51–52 In the same year of this conquest, Ibn Tashfin finally unified Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya into one city.[3]: 51–52 The walls dividing them were destroyed, bridges connecting them were built or renovated, and a new circuit of walls was constructed that encompassed both cities. A kasbah (citadel), later known as the Kasbah Bou Jeloud, was built at the western edge of the city (just west of Bab Bou Jeloud today) to house the city's governor and garrison.[3][16][23]: 50–51 With the help of engineers from Cordoba, Ibn Tashfin also upgraded the city's water supply system by creating additional canals branching off from the main canals made earlier by Dunas Ibn Hamama.[15][16] Under the patronage of the later Almoravid emir Ali Ibn Yusuf the largest expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin took place between 1134 and 1143.[13]: 20 Although the capital was moved to Marrakesh under the Almoravids, Fez acquired a reputation for Maliki legal scholarship and remained an important centre of trade and industry.[3][4] Almoravid impact on the city's structure was such that Yusuf Ibn Tashfin is sometimes considered to be the second founder of Fez.[23]: 51Remains of the city walls on the north side of Fes el-Bali, which were rebuilt during the Almohad period (12th-13th century)In 1145 or 1146 the Almohad leader Abd al-Mu'min besieged and conquered the city during the Almohad overthrow of the Almoravids.[3]: 54–55 [16][24]: 71–72 [25] The city, led by the Almoravid governor Yahya Ibn al-Sahrawiyya, resisted fiercely and the city was only taken after a hard siege during which the Almohads cut off the city's water supply. The besiegers finally entered the city with the help of 'Abdallah Ibn Khiyyar al-Jayyani, the local Almoravid financial administrator (mushrif), who switched his allegiance and opened the gates to them.[24]: 72 [25] Due to the ferocious resistance they encountered, the victorious Almohads retaliated demolished the city's fortifications, massacred most of the Almoravids, and destroyed many houses.[3]: 54–55 [24]: 72 [16]However, due to Fez's continuing economic and military importance the Almohad caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur later ordered the reconstruction of the ramparts.[26]: 36 [16]: 606 Since the city had grown in the meantime, the new Almohad perimeter of walls was larger than that of the former Almoravid ramparts.[16]: 607 The walls were completed by his successor Muhammad al-Nasir in 1204,[26] giving them their definitive shape and establishing the perimeter of Fes el-Bali to this day.[3][16][4] The Almohads rebuilt the Kasbah Bou Jeloud on the site of the former Almoravid kasbah.[3]: 56 In Ya'qub al-Mansur's time the kasbah was endowed with a new congregational mosque, the Bou Jeloud Mosque, which still stands today (with later modifications).[27] Nearby, the Almohads also built the first kasbah occupying the site of what is now the Kasbah an-Nouar.[28][26]: 109 Muhammad al-Nasir reconstructed and expanded the Al-Andalusiyyin Mosque between 1203 and 1207.[29]: 10–11It is in this period that the city begins to be referred to as a major city and acquires a high reputation among contemporary writers like al-Idrisi and al-Marrakushi.[30] Under Almohad rule the city grew to become one of the largest in the world between 1170 and 1180, with an estimated 200,000 people living there.[31][additional citation(s) needed] Not all the land within the city walls was densely inhabited; much of it was still relatively open and was occupied by crops and gardens used by the inhabitants.[4] The city's economy was prosperous and multiple industries, such as the tanneries, thrived.[3]: 56–59 Each industry was generally concentrated in a particular neighbourhood or neighbourhoods; an arrangement which remained for most of the city's history. Most industries were established near the center but some, like the potters, were established in the outer districts because they needed more room.[3]: 56–59 The Sebou River (into which the Fez River flows) was used to bring goods to the city; boats navigated the river from the Atlantic coast up to a point near the city, before unloading and finishing the journey overland.[24]: 192 Fez, along with other major cities in the region, also played a role in trans-Saharan trade. Multiple trade routes existed, but caravans that took the route through Sijilmasa would usually continue from there to either Fez or Tlemcen. From Fez, goods could then travel further north to the Strait of Gibraltar and to Al-Andalus.[24]: 201 By the end of the Almohad era, Fez had thus become not only a center of local and regional trade but also a center of consumption and an exporter of its own products.[24]: 202","title":"Fez under the Almoravids and Almohads (11th-13th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_walls_history_3_-_late_14th_or_15th_century_(Marinid_period).png"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_Jdid"},{"link_name":"Marinids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Marinid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Abu Yahya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yahya_ibn_Abd_al-Haqq"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-19"},{"link_name":"Yagmurasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaghmurasen_Ibn_Zyan"},{"link_name":"Zayyanid ruler of Tlemcen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tlemcen"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_-_Palau_Reial_-_Bab_El_Seba_des_N.JPG"},{"link_name":"Bab as-Sebaa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Dekkakin"},{"link_name":"Marinid Tombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_Tombs"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:32-33"},{"link_name":"Abu Yusuf Ya'qub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yusuf_Yaqub_ibn_Abd_al-Haqq"},{"link_name":"Tinmal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinmel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_Jdid"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_el_Bali"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Dar al-Makhzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makhzen_(Fez)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Great Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Fes_el-Jdid"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:123-34"},{"link_name":"Old Mechouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makhzen_(Fez)#Old_Mechouar_(Vieux_M%C3%A9chouar)"},{"link_name":"Bab es-Sebaa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Dekkakin"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Mellah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellah_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"Abu Ya'qub Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_Yusuf_an-Nasr"},{"link_name":"Al-Mosara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosara_Garden"},{"link_name":"aqueduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)"},{"link_name":"noria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noria"},{"link_name":"water wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wheel"},{"link_name":"New Mechouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makhzen_(Fez)#New_Mechouar_(Nouveau_M%C3%A9chouar)"},{"link_name":"Bab Segma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Segma"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:123-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:011-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bou Inania Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Inania_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Marinids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"madrasas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-40"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-21"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:022-41"},{"link_name":"Saffarin Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffarin_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Sahrij Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahrij_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"al-Attarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Attarine_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Sba'iyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sba%27iyyin_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Mesbahiya Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesbahiyya_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-43"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:122-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-43"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:63-19"},{"link_name":"Bou Inania Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Inania_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:132-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lulat_2005,_154%E2%80%931572-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-48"},{"link_name":"Qur'an","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an"},{"link_name":"Fiqh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh"},{"link_name":"grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_grammar"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"},{"link_name":"geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:162-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lulat_2005,_154%E2%80%931572-46"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Ibn Khaldun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-51"},{"link_name":"Ibn Battuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ibn-52"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Khatib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib"},{"link_name":"Nasrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Muhammad V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_V_of_Granada"},{"link_name":"Bab Mahrouk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Mahrouk"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-51"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0522-53"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jews_of_Fez.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mellah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellah_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:64-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1323-55"},{"link_name":"haram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haram"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:64-54"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:44-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:73-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:82-58"},{"link_name":"shurafāʾ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharifism"},{"link_name":"Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Haqq_I"},{"link_name":"qaysāriyya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissariat_al-Kifah"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:75-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:75-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:75-59"},{"link_name":"Bannānī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bennani"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:75-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Jewish community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_Jews"},{"link_name":"Sephardic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jews"},{"link_name":"Megorashim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megorashim"},{"link_name":"1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_Decree"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:133-62"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:133-62"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:133-62"},{"link_name":"Toshavim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshavim"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"minhag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minhag"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:73-57"},{"link_name":"1465 Moroccan revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1465_Moroccan_revolt"},{"link_name":"sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan"},{"link_name":"Wattasids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wattasid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"viziers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:262-64"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05223-30"}],"text":"The layout of Fez, including the new center of Fes el-Jdid, in the 14th century under the MarinidsFez regained its political status and became the capital of Morocco during the Marinid dynasty, a Zenata Berber dynasty, between the 13th and 15th century. The Marinid leader Abu Yahya besieged and captured Fez in 1248, along with other cities, after defeating an Almohad army in eastern Morocco. The traditional urban population of the city was resistant to the rule of the nomadic Marinids, however, and rebelled again in 1250, although it failed to throw off Marinid control.[8]: 104 [19]: 156 The Marinids initially struggled against Yagmurasan, the Zayyanid ruler of Tlemcen, for control of Sijilmasa, but after 1272 they took the city definitively, allowing them to retain control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed there and continuing to divert them towards Fez.[32]Bab as-Sebaa, now known as Bab Dekkakin, was the original northern gate of Fes el-Jdid, built in 1276The Marinids initially established themselves in the old Almohad kasbahs of Fez (the Kasbah Bou Jeloud and the Kasbah an-Nouar) as well as on the hill overlooking the north side of the city. This hill, where the ruins of the Marinid Tombs still stand, was occupied by a large palace and fortification where the Marinid ruler resided, though little of this remains today.[33] In 1276 Abu Yusuf Ya'qub built an entirely new administrative city or royal citadel to the west of the old city, on higher ground overlooking it. In addition to putting more distance between the sultan and the restive population, another reason for building the new city was that the Almohad kasbahs, which were strictly military compounds, lacked the space required to establish a royal court and to house the Marinid troops. Moreover, by this time Abu Yusuf Ya'qub had also conquered Marrakesh (1269) and defeated the last Almohad holdouts in Tinmal (1275). Building a new palace-city was a frequent preoccupation of North African and Andalusi dynasties wishing to demonstrate their power, and so the foundation of the new city also symbolized the new era of Marinid rule.[3]: 61–63 [8]: 105–106The new city was named al-Madinat al-Bayda (Arabic: المدينة البيضاء, lit. 'the White City'), but it soon became known as Fes el-Jdid (Arabic: فاس الجديد, romanized: Fās al-Jadīd, lit. 'New Fez'), while the old city became known as Fes el-Bali (Arabic: فاس البالي, lit. 'Old Fez').[3]: 61 The new city included the royal palace of the sultans (the Dar al-Makhzen), the administrative offices of the state, and the headquarters of the army.[3]: 62 The city had its own main mosque, the Great Mosque, and its own set of fortified walls and gates. Most of its outer perimeter was protected by a set of double walls; a tall inner wall with heavy square towers at regular intervals and a smaller outer wall with minor towers.[34] Its northern entrance, at the beginning of the road to Meknes, consisted of a fortified bridge (now the Old Mechouar) over the Oued Fes, between two gates, Bab es-Sebaa (Arabic: باب السبع, lit. 'Gate of the Lion') and Bab al-Qantara (Arabic: باب القنطرة, lit. 'Gate of the Bridge'). Inside, the city was further subdivided into different districts, some of which, including the Dar al-Makhzen, had walls and gates separating them from the others. Another district, initially known as Hims and later converted into the Jewish Mellah, was also added to the south.[3]: 62–66 [4] In 1287 Sultan Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (son of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub) created a vast pleasure garden, known as Al-Mosara, to the north, just outside the city but encompassed by its own protective wall. The gardens were watered via an aqueduct which drew water from the Oued Fes through an enormous noria (type of water wheel), approximately 26 meters in diameter, which was located on the west side of Bab es-Sebaa. Although the gardens and the water wheel have since disappeared, traces of the former aqueduct are visible in the western wall of the New Mechouar today and also in the large octagonal towers of Bab Segma, one of the former gates to the garden.[34][35]The Bou Inania Madrasa, the most important madrasa built by the Marinids in Fez (14th century)Fez reached its golden age in the Marinid period.[36][3][4] It is from this period that the city's reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates.[37] The Marinid rulers established the first formal madrasas in Morocco here in the city.[38][39] The madrasas became a hallmark of Marinid architecture, with its striking blending of Andalusian and Almohad traditions. Between 1271 and 1357 at least seven madrasas were built in Fez, which are considered among the best examples of Moroccan architecture and some of the most richly decorated monuments in Fez.[40][21][41] The first of these was the Saffarin Madrasa in 1271, followed by the Sahrij Madrasa in 1321, the al-Attarine and Sba'iyin madrasas in 1323, and the Mesbahiya Madrasa in 1346.[42][43] All of these madrasas were built near the Qarawiyyin or Andalusiyyin mosques and were designed to complement those older institutions, in particular by providing housing for students from outside the city.[3][44] Another madrasa was also built near the Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid in 1320,[43] though this center never succeeded in rivaling the older educational centers in Fes el-Bali.[19]: 114 The only truly independent madrasa (for a time) was the large Bou Inania Madrasa, commissioned by Sultan Abu Inan and completed in 1355, which also served as its own Friday mosque and was located in the western part of Fes el-Bali.[45]Meanwhile, many scholars consider that the high point of the Qarawiyyin as an intellectual and scholarly center was in the 13th-14th centuries, when the curriculum was at its broadest and its prestige had reached new heights after centuries of expansion and elite patronage.[46][47][48]: 141 Among the subjects taught around this period or shortly after were traditional religious subjects such as the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) as well as other sciences like grammar, rhetoric, logic, medicine, mathematics, astronomy and geography.[48][49][46][3]: 455Ibn Khaldun, the famous historian and philosopher, spent time in Fez after 1354. He started as the secretary of Sultan Abu Inan but subsequently became involved in the intrigues of Marinid dynastic politics, spending time in jail at the end of Abu Inan's reign.[50][51] Ibn Battuta also passed through the city on his way to Sijilmasa in the 14th century and described it in his writings.[52] Ibn al-Khatib, the Andalusi poet and writer, also spent time here following his Nasrid master Muhammad V into exile for a few years between 1358 and 1362. After becoming embroiled in political intrigues in Granada he fled to North Africa again and was accused of heresy, eventually being put on trial in Fez and killed while in prison in 1375; his body was reportedly burnt in front of Bab Mahrouk and was buried in the nearby cemetery.[51][53]Jews of Fez in the 1900s. The Mellah was the traditional Jewish quarter of the city since the 15th century.The Jewish quarter of Fez, the Mellah (Arabic: ملاح), was created in Fes el-Jdid at some point during the Marinid period. The exact date and circumstances of its formation are not firmly established,[54][55] but many scholars date the transfer of the Jewish population from Fes el-Bali to the new Mellah to the 15th century, a period of political tension and instability. In particular, Jewish sources describe the transfer as a consequence of the \"rediscovery\" of Idris II's body in the heart of the city in 1437, which caused the surrounding area – or possibly the entire city – to acquire a \"holy\" (haram) status, requiring that non-Muslims be removed from the area.[54][56][57][58] In 1438, under pressure from the shurafāʾ, Sultan Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Ḥaqq made Jewish merchants with businesses in the qaysāriyya (the main market of Fes el Bali, near the site of the discovery) abandon them and move to the Mellah.[59] Many Fessi Jews chose to become Muslims and keep their homes and livelihoods in Old Fes. They formed a group called the bildiyyīn.[59] Numerous Fessi Jews converted to Islam throughout the premodern period, but the conversions spiked in the mid-fifteenth century.[59] Powerful families, such as the Bannānī, Ibn Shaqrūn, Bannīs, Barrāda, and Gassūs families, adopted Islam.[59][60][61]The Jewish community had initially consisted of indigenous local Jews but these were joined by Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula (known as the Megorashim) in subsequent generations, especially after the 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain.[62] The ensuing waves of Spanish/Andalusi Jews migrating to Fez and North Africa increased the Jewish population in the city and also altered the community's social, ethnic, and linguistic makeup.[62] The influx of migrants also revitalized Jewish cultural activity in the following years, while splitting the community along ethnic lines for many generations.[62] The Megorashim of Spanish origin retained their heritage and their Spanish language while the indigenous Moroccan Toshavim, who spoke Arabic and were of Arab and Berber heritage, followed their own traditions. Members of the two communities worshiped in separate synagogues and were even buried separately. It was only in the 18th century that the two communities eventually blended together, with Arabic eventually becoming the main language of the entire community while the Spanish (Sephardic) minhag became dominant in religious practice.[57]The 1465 Moroccan revolt overthrew the last Marinid sultan. In 1472 the Wattasids, another Zenata dynasty which had previously served as viziers under the Marinid sultans, succeeded as rulers of Morocco from Fez.[8]: 114–115 [63] They perpetuated the structure of the Marinid state and continued its policies, but were unable to control all of Morocco.[64]: 15 [8]: 207–209 They did not contribute significantly to the physical fabric of Fez.[30]","title":"Golden age under the Marinids (13th-15th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_walls_history_4_-_early_17th_century_(Saadian_period).png"},{"link_name":"Saadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Saadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"Mohammed ash-Sheikh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_ash-Sheikh"},{"link_name":"Ali Abu Hassun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Abu_Hassun"},{"link_name":"retook the city in 1554","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Fez_(1554)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tadla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tadla"},{"link_name":"Abdallah al-Ghalib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_al-Ghalib"},{"link_name":"battle of Wadi al-Laban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wadi_al-Laban"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Malik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Marwan_Abd_al-Malik_I_Saadi"},{"link_name":"ousted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Fez_(1576)"},{"link_name":"Abu Abdullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_Mohammed_II_Saadi"},{"link_name":"Sebastian of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alc%C3%A1cer_Quibir"},{"link_name":"Ahmad al-Mansur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05222-66"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Borj_Nord_DSCF2747.jpg"},{"link_name":"Borj Nord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Nord"},{"link_name":"Saadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:010-13"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:32-33"},{"link_name":"bastions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastion"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"Kasbah Tamdert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_Tamdert"},{"link_name":"Bab Ftouh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Ftouh"},{"link_name":"Borj Nord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Nord"},{"link_name":"Borj Sud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Sud"},{"link_name":"Ahmad al-Mansur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_people"},{"link_name":"age of gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_warfare"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salmon_2016-67"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05222-66"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:26-68"},{"link_name":"guich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guich"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Muhammad al-Haj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_al-Hajj_ibn_Abu_Bakr_al-Dila%27i"},{"link_name":"Sanhaja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhaja"},{"link_name":"Dilā' Sufi order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaouia_of_Dila"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:211-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:211-69"},{"link_name":"Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Sharif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Sharif"},{"link_name":"Alaouite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"}],"text":"Changes to Fez under the Saadians: multiple forts were built around the area, and the Mosara Garden fell into declineIn the 16th century the Saadians (or Saadis) rose to power in southern Morocco and challenged the Wattasids. In the meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire came close to Fez after the conquest of Algeria in the 16th century.[8] In January 1549 the Saadian sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh took Fez and ousted the last Wattasid sultan Ali Abu Hassun. They later retook the city in 1554 with Ottoman support, but this reconquest was short-lived and later that same year the Wattasids were decisively defeated in the Battle of Tadla by the Saadians. The Ottomans would try to invade Morocco after the assassination of Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1558, but were stopped by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib at the battle of Wadi al-Laban north of Fez. Hence, Morocco remained the only North-African state to remain outside Ottoman control.[65]After the death of Abdallah al-Ghalib a new power struggle would emerge. Abd al-Malik, Abdallah's brother, enlisted Ottoman support and ousted his nephew Abu Abdullah from power in 1576. The latter would flee to Portugal where he asked king Sebastian of Portugal for help to regain his throne. This would lead to the Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin (also known as the Battle of Alcácer Quibir or the Battle of the Three Kings) where Abd al-Malik's army would defeat the invading Portuguese army with the support of his Ottoman allies, ensuring Moroccan independence. Abd al-Malik himself also died during the battle and was succeeded by Ahmad al-Mansur.[66]Borj Nord, a Saadian fortress built in the 16th century overlooking Fez from the northThe Saadians, who used Marrakesh again as their capital, did not lavish much attention on Fez, with the exception of the ornate ablutions pavilions added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque's courtyard during their time.[13] It was likely during the Saadian period that the former royal gardens of the Marinids, the Mosara, fell into disuse and began to fade.[33] Perhaps as a result of persistent tensions with the city's inhabitants, the Saadians built a number of new forts and bastions around the city which appear to have been aimed at keeping control over the local population. They were mostly located on higher ground overlooking Fes el-Bali, from which they would have been easily able to bombard the city with canons.[3][4] These include the Kasbah Tamdert, just inside the city walls near Bab Ftouh, and the forts of Borj Nord (Borj al-Shamali) on the hills to the north, Borj Sud (Borj al-Janoub) on the hills to the south, and the Borj Sheikh Ahmed to the west, at a point in Fes el-Jdid's walls that was closest to Fes el-Bali. These were built in the late 16th century, mostly by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur.[4][3] Two other bastions, Borj Twil and Borj Sidi Bou Nafa', were also built along Fes el-Jdid's walls south of Borj Sheikh Ahmed.[3] The Borj Nord, Borj Sud, and these bastions (sometimes referred to as the bastioun in Arabic) of Fes el-Jdid are the only fortifications in Fez to demonstrate clear European (most likely Portuguese) influence in their design, updated to serve as defenses in the age of gunpowder. Some of them may have been built with the help of Christian European prisoners of war from the Saadians' victory over Portuguese in 1578.[4][67]After the long and impressive reign of Ahmad al-Mansur, the Saadian state fell into civil war between his sons and potential successors. Fez became a rival seat of power for a number of brothers vying against other family members ruling from Marrakesh and both cities changed hands multiple times until the internecine conflict finally ended in 1627.[66][68] During this time, the inhabitants of the city had violent confrontations with the Chraga, an Arab tribe which the Saadians had installed in the surrounding countryside as a garrison force (known as a guich or \"army\" tribe). In 1611 the population of the city revolted and even massacred many of the Chraga in apparent retaliation against crimes committed by some of their members.[3]: 81–82 Despite the reunification of the realm after 1627, the Saadians were in full decline and Fez had already suffered considerably from the repeated conquests and reconquests during the conflict.[14] As the Saadian sultanate collapsed, both the city and the wider country descended into relative anarchy. The two shores of the city, the 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin and 'Adwat al-Andalusiyyin (the latter now also known simply as al-'Adwat), fell into rivalries reminiscent of the city's early history, while new rivalries developed between different clans within the western (Qarawiyyin) shore. Fes el-Jdid, which was the center of the official government, also struggled against Fes el-Bali, the old city.[3]: 82In 1641, Muhammad al-Haj of the Sanhaja Amazigh Dilā' Sufi order of the Middle Atlas occupied Fes.[69]: 88 This time was particularly difficult for Fessi Jews. A Jewish chronicle of the time recounts that in 1646 synagogues were ordered to close and were subsequently desecrated, damaged, or destroyed.[69]: 88–89 The city was not receptive to the Dilā' either, and for a brief period in 1651 they rebelled and invited Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Sharif, one of the early Alaouite sultans, to take control of the city.[3]: 82–83 [8]: 229","title":"Decline under the Saadians (16th and early 17th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cherratine_DSCF6208.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cherratine Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherratine_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Moulay Rashid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Rashid_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Moulay Rashid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Rashid_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"Kasbah Cherarda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_Cherarda"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"Kasbah an-Nouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_An-Nouar"},{"link_name":"Tafilalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafilalt"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Cherratine Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherratine_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-21"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Sidi_Harazem"},{"link_name":"Bab Ftouh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Ftouh"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-70"},{"link_name":"Moulay Isma'il","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Ibn_Sharif"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Meknès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meknes"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Moulay Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fez,_Porte_de_Dar-Debibagh_IMG27348.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dar Dbibegh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Dbibegh"},{"link_name":"Moulay Abdallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"guich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guich"},{"link_name":"Moulay Abdallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Dar Dbibegh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Dbibegh"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_ben_Abdallah"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"Moulay Yazid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazid_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Moulay Slimane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slimane_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:73-57"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1323-55"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"qadi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadi"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:73-57"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-21"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-51"},{"link_name":"ulama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"}],"text":"The Cherratine Madrasa, built by Moulay Rashid in 1670It was only when the true founder of the future Alaouite state, Moulay Rashid, took Fez in 1666 that the city saw a revival and became the capital again, albeit briefly.[4] Moulay Rashid set about restoring the city after a long period of neglect. He built the Kasbah Cherarda (also known as the Kasbah al-Khemis) to the north of Fes el-Jdid and of the Royal Palace in order to house a large part of his tribal troops.[3][4] He also restored or rebuilt what became known as the Kasbah an-Nouar, which became the living quarters of his followers from the Tafilalt region (the Alaouite dynasty's ancestral home). For this reason, the kasbah was also known as the Kasbah Filala (\"Kasbah of the people from Tafilalt\").[3] Moulay Rashid also built a large new madrasa, the Cherratine Madrasa, in 1670.[21] Upon his death in 1672 he was buried in the Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem, in the southern cemetery of the city outside Bab Ftouh.[70]After his death Fez underwent another dark period. Moulay Isma'il, his successor, apparently disliked the city – possibly due to a rebellion there in his early reign[3] – and chose nearby Meknès as his capital instead. He also frequently imposed heavy taxes on the city's inhabitants and sometimes even forcibly transferred parts of its population to repopulate other cities in the country. Nonetheless, he did restore or rebuild some major monuments in the city, such as the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II.[3]The gate of Dar Dbibegh, a walled palace built outside the city by Moulay Abdallah in 1729 (photograph from 1920s)After Isma'il's death things only worsened as Morocco plunged into anarchy and decades of conflict between his sons who vied to succeed him. Fez suffered particularly from repeated conflicts with the Udayas (or Oudayas), a guich tribe (vassal tribe serving as a garrison and military force) previously installed in the Kasbah Cherarda by Moulay Isma'il. Sultan Moulay Abdallah, who reigned intermittently during this period and used Fez as a capital, was initially welcomed in 1728–29 as an enemy of the Udayas, but relations between him and the city's population quickly soured due to his choice of governor. He immediately built a separate fortified palace in the countryside, Dar Dbibegh, where he resided instead. For nearly three more decades the city remained in more or less perpetual conflict with both the Udayas and the Alaouite sultans.[3]Starting with the reign of Moulay Muhammad ibn Abdallah, between 1757 and 1790, the country stabilized and Fez finally regained its fortunes. Although its status was partly shared with Marrakesh, it remained the capital of Morocco for the rest of the Alaouite period up to the 20th century.[3][4] The Udayas, who had been a burden on the population of Fez, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power, and in 1760 Muhammad ibn Abdallah was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Udaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead.[8]: 240There was a brief period of disorder under Moulay Yazid (ruled 1790–1792) and Moulay Slimane (ruled 1792–1822), with the sultans in Fez losing control of most of the rest of Morocco between 1790 and 1795.[8]: 241–242 The reign of Moulay Yazid was especially disastrous for the city. The Udayas tribe was brought back as a local garrison. During these two years the sultan forced the entire Jewish community to move to an open area next to the Kasbah Cherarda, north of Fes el-Jdid.[57] The Mellah was occupied by tribal troops allied to the sultan, its main synagogue was replaced by a mosque, and the district itself was permanently reduced in size.[55][3] It was only after Moulay Yazid's death that the chief Muslim qadi (judge) of Fez ordered the Mellah to be restored to the Jewish community, along with the demolition of the mosque built by Yazid's troops.[57]Otherwise, however, the city benefitted from a long era of relative peace. It remained a major economic center of the region even during troubled times.[3] The Alaouites continued to rebuild or restore various monuments, as well as to expand the grounds of the Royal Palace a number of times.[21][51] The sultans and their entourage also became more and more closely associated with the elites of Fez and other urban centers, with the ulama (religious scholars) of Fez being particularly influential. After Moulay Slimane's death powerful Fassi families became the main players of the country's political and intellectual scene.[8]: 242–247 After another episode of troubles in 1820, his successor Abd al-Rahman expelled the Udayas from Fez permanently in 1824.[71][3]: 89","title":"Early Alaouite period (17th and 18th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_walls_history_5_-_circa_1913_(after_Alaouite_additions).png"},{"link_name":"Alaouite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Kasbah Cherarda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_Cherarda"},{"link_name":"Moulay Hasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Tijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijaniyyah"},{"link_name":"Ahmad al-Tijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Tijani"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"fezzes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez_(hat)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-2"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:72-73"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:72-73"},{"link_name":"Dar Moqri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Moqri"},{"link_name":"Dar Glaoui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Glaoui"},{"link_name":"Dar Mnebhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnebhi_Palace"},{"link_name":"Dar Jama'i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamai_Palace"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"Hassan I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"tanneries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chouara_Tannery"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_mechouar.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mechouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechouar"},{"link_name":"Moulay Hassan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Royal Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makhzen_(Fez)"},{"link_name":"Dar al-Makina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makina"},{"link_name":"Hasan I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"Jnan Sbil Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jnan_Sbil_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Dar Batha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Batha"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Le_Tourneau_19495-3"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-51"},{"link_name":"Dar al-Makina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makina"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-51"},{"link_name":"Conditioned Bay'ah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditioned_Bay%27ah"},{"link_name":"Hafidiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafidiya"},{"link_name":"Sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Hafid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Abdelaziz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdelaziz_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:111-76"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Bin Abdul-Kabir Al-Kattani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Bin_Abdul-Kabir_Al-Kattani"},{"link_name":"conditioned support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditioned_Bay%27ah"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:111-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Battle of Marrakesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marrakesh"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:111-76"},{"link_name":"Charles Émile Moinier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_%C3%89mile_Moinier&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_%C3%89mile_Moinier"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:111-76"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abu-Lughod2014-78"}],"text":"Layout of Fez at the beginning of the 20th century, after most of the major Alaouite-era additions to the city, such as the Kasbah Cherarda and the new walls built by Moulay Hasan to link the old and new citiesThe Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), had its spiritual center in Fez after al-Tijani moved here from Algeria in 1789.[8]: 244 The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa and its ulama had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fez and beyond.[72] Until the 19th century the city was also the only manufacturing center of fezzes (also known as the tarboosh).[2] The fortunes of the Jewish community also improved considerably in the 19th century when the expansion of contact and trade with Europe allowed the Jewish merchant class to place themselves at the center of international trade networks in Morocco.[73] This also led to a greater social openness and a shift in tastes and attitudes, especially among richer Jews, who built luxurious residences in the upper Mellah.[73] Likewise, rich Muslim families and elites built their own grand mansions, especially in the garden districts of al-'Uyun in the southwestern part of Fes el-Bali. Examples from the late 19th century and early 20th century include the Dar Moqri, Dar Glaoui, Dar Mnebhi and Dar Jama'i.[3]: 222In 1873, in response to the attempt of Sultan Hassan I to introduce a market tax called the mukūs (المكوس), the guilds of the tanneries of Fes led a revolt that turned violent.[74][75]The New Mechouar created by Moulay Hassan (late 19th century) at the northern entrance to the Royal Palace; on the left is the gate of the Dar al-MakinaThe last major change to Fez's topography before the 20th century was made during the reign of Sultan Hasan I, who finally connected Fes el-Jdid and Fes el-Bali by building a walled corridor between them.[3][4] Within this new corridor, between the two cities, were built new gardens and summer palaces used by the royals and the capital's high society, such as the Jnan Sbil Gardens and the Dar Batha palace.[3][51] Moulay Hassan also expanded the old Royal Palace itself, extending its entrance up to the current location of the Old Mechouar while adding the New Mechouar, along with the Dar al-Makina, to the north. This had the consequence of also splitting the Moulay Abdallah neighbourhood to the northwest from the rest of Fes el-Jdid.[51]With the Conditioned Bay'ah, Fes played a central role in the Hafidiya, the brief civil war that erupted when Sultan Abd al-Hafid challenged his heavily Europe-allied brother Abdelaziz for the throne.[76]: 76 The ulama of Fez, led by the Sufi modernist Muhammad Bin Abdul-Kabir Al-Kattani, offered their conditioned support to Abd al-Hafid, which turned the tide of the conflict.[76][77] Abdelaziz was defeated in the Battle of Marrakesh in 1908.[76]: 76–78 Abdelhafid's reign soon deteriorated and in early 1911 the sultan was besieged in Fez by the tribes of the Middle Atlas. Abdelhafid appealed for French help and a French force under Colonel Charles Émile Moinier [fr] arrived in Fez on May 21 and established a command centre at Dar Dbibegh.[14][8]: 313 [76]: 78By 1912, on the eve of French colonial rule, the city had an estimated population between 80,000 and 100,000.[78]: 152","title":"Prosperity and growth in the 19th and early 20th centuries"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abdication_of_Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco_(1912,_Le_Petit_Journal).jpg"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Hafid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes"},{"link_name":"French colonial rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Protectorate_in_Morocco"},{"link_name":"French Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes"},{"link_name":"1912 riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1912_Fez_riots"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hirschberg1981-80"},{"link_name":"Hubert Lyautey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Lyautey"},{"link_name":"Rabat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_Bab_Bou_Jeloud_2011.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bab Bou Jeloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Bou_Jeloud"},{"link_name":"medinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina_quarter"},{"link_name":"Villes Nouvelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_community"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:192-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:20-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-86"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-14"},{"link_name":"Moroccan style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_architecture"},{"link_name":"Bab Bou Jeloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Bou_Jeloud"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_Avenue_Hassan_II_DSCF8721.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lyautey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Lyautey"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:32-33"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-86"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:192-84"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:192-84"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2223-89"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:28-90"},{"link_name":"Berber Dahir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_Dahir"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:28-90"},{"link_name":"R'cif Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%27cif_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Meknes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meknes"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:21-8"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:28-90"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:28-90"}],"text":"The abdication of Abd al-Hafid, Sultan of Morocco in 1912, after signing the Treaty of Fes which initiated French colonial ruleIn 1912 the French Protectorate was instituted over Morocco following the Treaty of Fes. One immediate consequence was the 1912 riots in Fez, a popular uprising which included deadly attacks targeting Europeans as well as native Jewish inhabitants in the Mellah, followed by an even deadlier repression.[79][80] Fez and its Dar al-Makhzen ceased to be the center of power in Morocco as the first French resident general, Hubert Lyautey, decided to move the administrative capital of the Protectorate to Rabat in 1912–1913, which has remained the capital ever since.[81]: 149 [82][83]Bab Bou Jeloud, the symbolic entrance to Fes el-Bali today, was built in 1913 by the new French administrationA number of social and physical changes took place at this period and across the 20th century. Starting under Lyautey, one important policy with long-term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic walled cities in Morocco and to intentionally preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as \"medinas\". Instead, the French administration built new modern cities (the Villes Nouvelles) just outside the old cities, where European settlers largely resided with modern Western-style amenities. This was part of a larger \"policy of association\" adopted by Lyautey which favoured various forms of indirect colonial rule by preserving local institutions and elites, in contrast with other French colonial policies that had favoured \"assimilation\".[84][85][86] The existence today of a Ville Nouvelle (\"New City\") alongside a historic medina in Fez was thus a consequence of this early colonial decision-making. The Ville Nouvelle also became known as Dar Dbibegh by Moroccans, as the former palace of Moulay Abdallah was located in the same area.[14] The French administration did still build some new structures in the old city, often emulating the local Moroccan style, such as the now iconic Bab Bou Jeloud gate in 1913.[4]Avenue Hassan II today, formerly Avenue de France, was established by Lyautey in 1916 as part of the Ville Nouvelle (New City)[33]The creation of the separate French Ville Nouvelle to the west had a wider impact on the entire city's development.[86] While new colonial policies preserved historic monuments, it also had other consequences in the long-term by stalling urban development in these heritage areas.[84] Scholar Janet Abu-Lughod has argued that these policies created in Morocco a kind of urban \"apartheid\" between the indigenous Moroccan urban areas – which were forced to remain stagnant in terms of urban development and architectural innovation – and the new planned cities which were mainly inhabited by Europeans and which expanded to occupy lands formerly used by Moroccans outside the city.[87][88][84] This separation was partly softened, however, by wealthy Moroccans who started moving into the Ville Nouvelles during this period.[89][4] By contrast, the old city (medina) of Fez was increasingly settled by poorer rural migrants from the countryside.[4]: 26 \nFez also played a role in the Moroccan nationalist movement and in protests against the French colonial regime. Many Moroccan nationalists received their education at the Al-Qarawiyyin University and some of their informal political networks were established thanks to this shared educational background.[90]: 140, 146 In July 1930, the Al-Qarawiyyin's students and other inhabitants participated in protests against the Berber Dahir decreed by the French authorities in May of that year.[91][90]: 143–144 In 1937 the Al-Qarawiyyin mosque and R'cif Mosque were some of the rallying points for demonstrations in response to a violent crackdown on Moroccan protesters in the nearby city of Meknes, which ended with French troops being deployed across Fes el-Bali and at the mosques themselves.[8]: 387–389 [90]: 168 Towards the end of World War II, Moroccan nationalists gathered in Fez to draft a demand for independence which they submitted to the Allies on January 11, 1944. This resulted in the arrest of nationalist leaders followed by the violent suppression of protests across many cities, including Fez.[92][90]: 255","title":"French colonial rule (1912–1956)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fes_City_Modern_(lightened).jpg"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"bourgeois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeoisie"},{"link_name":"Casablanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"Casablanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:25-4"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2225-92"},{"link_name":"state university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_university"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lulat_2005,_154%E2%80%931572-46"},{"link_name":"Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi_Mohamed_Ben_Abdellah_University"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:17-94"},{"link_name":"King Hassan II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Years of Lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Morocco)"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:111-76"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-5"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:16-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"text":"A street in the modern Ville Nouvelle (\"New City\") of FezAfter Morocco regained its independence in 1956 many of the trends begun under colonial rule continued and accelerated during the second half of the 20th century.[92] Much of Fez's bourgeois classes moved to the growing metropolises of Casablanca and the capital, Rabat.[4][92] The Jewish population was particularly depleted, either moving to Casablanca or emigrating to countries like France, Canada, and Israel. Although the population of the city grew, it did so only slowly up until the late 1960s, when the pace of growth finally accelerated.[92]: 216 Throughout this period (and up to today) Fez nonetheless remained the country's third largest urban center.[4]: 26 [92]: 216 Between 1971 and 2000, the population of the city roughly tripled from 325,000 to 940,000.[5]: 376 The Ville Nouvelle became the locus of further development, with new peripheral neighbourhoods – with inconsistent housing quality – spreading outwards around it.[92] In 1963 the University of Al-Qarawiyyin was reorganized as a state university,[46] while a new public university, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, was founded in 1975 in the Ville Nouvelle.[93] In 1981, the old city, consisting of Fes el-Bali and Fes Jdid, was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[94]During this period, however, Moroccans were also subject to serious social inequalities and economic precarity, particularly under the repressive reign of King Hassan II and the period known as the Years of Lead (roughly 1975–1990).[76]: 170 Fez was strongly affected by unemployment and lack of housing. Austerity measures led to several riots and uprisings across other cities during the 1980s. On December 14, 1990, a general strike was called by two major trade unions to demand an increase to minimum wage and other measures. In Fez this broke into protest and rioting led by university students and youths. The death of one of the students further inflamed protests, resulting in buildings being burned and looted, particularly symbols of wealth such as the Hôtel des Mérinides, a luxury hotel overlooking Fes el-Bali and dating to the time of Lyautey. While the official death toll was 5 people, the New York Times reported a toll of 33 people and quoted an anonymous source claiming the real death toll was likely higher. The government denied reports that the deaths were due to the intervention of security forces and armored vehicles. Many of those arrested were later released and the government promised to investigate and raise wages, though some of these measures were dismissed by the opposition.[5]: 377 [95][96][97]Today Fez remains a regional capital and one of Morocco's most important cities. Many of the former notable families of Fez still make up a large part of the country's political elite.[98] It is also a major tourism destination due to its historical heritage. In recent years efforts have been underway to restore and rehabilitate the old medina, ranging from the restoration of individual monuments to attempts to rehabilitate the Fez River.[99][100][101][102]","title":"After independence and up to present-day (after 1956)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hespéris-Tamuda. XX–XXI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.hesperis-tamuda.com/fr/index.php/archives/archives-1989-1980/105-hesperis-tamuda-1982-1983"},{"link_name":"Gilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). \"Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)\". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 60 (3): 310–327.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/991758"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Fes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Fes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fes"},{"link_name":"Fez, Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Bali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_el_Bali"},{"link_name":"Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_Jdid"},{"link_name":"Mellah (Jewish quarter)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellah_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Fes"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes"},{"link_name":"Fès–Saïs Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A8s%E2%80%93Sa%C3%AFs_Airport"},{"link_name":"Fes railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes_railway_station"},{"link_name":"University of al-Qarawiyyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin"},{"link_name":"Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi_Mohamed_Ben_Abdellah_University"},{"link_name":"École nationale des sciences appliquées de Fès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_des_sciences_appliqu%C3%A9es_de_F%C3%A8s"},{"link_name":"Collège Moulay Idriss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_Moulay_Idriss"},{"link_name":"MAS Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAS_Fez"},{"link_name":"Wydad de Fès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wydad_de_F%C3%A8s"},{"link_name":"Maghreb de Fes (basketball)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb_de_Fes_(basketball)"},{"link_name":"Fez Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Salle 11th November","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salle_11th_November&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"World Sacred Music Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Sacred_Music_Festival"},{"link_name":"Landmarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Al-Qarawiyyin Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin"},{"link_name":"Mosque of the Andalusians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_the_Andalusians"},{"link_name":"Al-Anouar Mosque (Mosque of the Sheikhs)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Anouar_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Ain al-Kheil Mosque (Al-Azhar Mosque)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_al-Kheil_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Abu al-Hassan Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Bab Guissa Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Guissa_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Bou Jeloud Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Jeloud_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Chrabliyine Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrabliyine_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Diwan Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diwan_Mosque"},{"link_name":"El-Oued Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Oued_Mosque"},{"link_name":"R'cif Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%27cif_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Fes_el-Jdid"},{"link_name":"Al-Beida Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Beida_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Al-Hamra Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hamra_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Lalla ez-Zhar Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalla_ez-Zhar_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Lalla Ghriba Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalla_Ghriba_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Moulay Abdallah Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulay_Abdallah_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Ibn Danan Synagogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Danan_Synagogue"},{"link_name":"Al Fassiyine Synagogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Fassiyine_Synagogue"},{"link_name":"Al-Attarine Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Attarine_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Bou Inania Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Inania_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Cherratine Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherratine_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Madrasa of Fes el-Jdid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa_of_Fes_el-Jdid"},{"link_name":"Madrasa el-Oued","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El-Oued_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Mesbahiyya Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesbahiyya_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Sahrij Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahrij_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Saffarin Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffarin_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Sba'iyyin Madrasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sba%27iyyin_Madrasa"},{"link_name":"Mausoleum of Sidi Harazem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Sidi_Harazem"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Moulay Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Sidi Abdelkader al-Fassi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Sidi_Abdelkader_al-Fassi"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Sidi_Ahmed_al-Tijani"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed esh-Shawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zawiya_of_Sidi_Ahmed_esh-Shawi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Sidi Ali Boughaleb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zawiya_of_Sidi_Ali_Boughaleb&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Sidi Taoudi Ben Souda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Sidi_Taoudi_Ben_Souda"},{"link_name":"Tomb of Sidi Bel Kacem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Sidi_Bel_Kacem"},{"link_name":"Batha Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Batha"},{"link_name":"Nejjarine Museum of Wooden Arts & Crafts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_al-Najjarin"},{"link_name":"Museum of Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Nord"},{"link_name":"Royal Palace of Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Dar Adiyel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Adiyel"},{"link_name":"Dar Ba Mohammed Chergui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Ba_Mohammed_Chergui"},{"link_name":"Dar Batha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Batha"},{"link_name":"Dar el-Beida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_el-Beida,_Fez"},{"link_name":"Dar Belghazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dar_Belghazi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dar Glaoui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Glaoui"},{"link_name":"Dar Moqri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Moqri"},{"link_name":"Jamai Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamai_Palace"},{"link_name":"Mnebhi Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnebhi_Palace"},{"link_name":"Funduq al-Najjarin (Foundouk Nejjarine)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_al-Najjarin"},{"link_name":"Funduq Barka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Funduq_Barka&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Funduq Kettanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_Kettanin"},{"link_name":"Funduq Sagha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_Sagha"},{"link_name":"Funduq Shamma'in (Foundouk Chemmaïne)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_Shamma%27in"},{"link_name":"Funduq al-Tetwaniyyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_al-Tetwaniyyin"},{"link_name":"Ain Azliten Tannery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ain_Azliten_Tannery&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chouara Tannery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chouara_Tannery"},{"link_name":"Sidi Moussa Tannery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi_Moussa_Tannery"},{"link_name":"Hammam al-Mokhfiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammam_al-Mokhfiya"},{"link_name":"Hammam Ben Abbad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammam_Ben_Abbad"},{"link_name":"Hammam Saffarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammam_Saffarin"},{"link_name":"Fortresses & city walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"City walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Borj Nord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Nord"},{"link_name":"Borj Sud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Sud"},{"link_name":"Dar Dbibegh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_Dbibegh"},{"link_name":"Kasbah An-Nouar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_An-Nouar"},{"link_name":"Kasbah Cherarda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_Cherarda"},{"link_name":"Kasbah Tamdert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_Tamdert"},{"link_name":"Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gates_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Bab al-Amer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_al-Amer"},{"link_name":"Bab Bou Jeloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Bou_Jeloud"},{"link_name":"Bab Chorfa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasbah_An-Nouar"},{"link_name":"Bab Dekkakin (Bab es-Sebaa)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Dekkakin"},{"link_name":"Bab Ftouh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Ftouh"},{"link_name":"Bab Guissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Guissa"},{"link_name":"Bab Mahrouk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Mahrouk"},{"link_name":"Bab Semmarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Semmarine"},{"link_name":"Bab Segma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_Segma"},{"link_name":"Fortifications of Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Kissariat al-Kifah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissariat_al-Kifah"},{"link_name":"Place Bou Jeloud (Place Pacha el-Baghdadi)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_Bou_Jeloud"},{"link_name":"Place Nejjarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funduq_al-Najjariyyin"},{"link_name":"Place Seffarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_Seffarine"},{"link_name":"Tala'a Kebira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tala%27a_Kebira"},{"link_name":"Royal Palace of Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Palace_of_Fez"},{"link_name":"Borj Neffara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borj_Neffara"},{"link_name":"Dar al-Magana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Magana"},{"link_name":"Dar al-Makina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Makina"},{"link_name":"Jnan Sbil Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jnan_Sbil_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Marinid Tombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_Tombs"},{"link_name":"Maristan of Sidi Frej","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maristan_of_Sidi_Frej"},{"link_name":"Mosara Garden (Marinid Royal Gardens)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosara_Garden"},{"link_name":"Oued Fes (Fez River)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oued_Fes"},{"link_name":"Category:People from Fez, Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_from_Fez,_Morocco"}],"text":"Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. (In French, comprehensive study of the city's pre-colonial history)\nBressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). \"Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle\". Hespéris-Tamuda. XX–XXI: 245–318. (In French; more detailed study focusing on history of Fes Jdid)\nGilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). \"Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)\". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 60 (3): 310–327. (Information on the history of the city's Jewish community and the Mellah)vteFez, MoroccoSubdivisions\nFes el-Bali\nFes el-Jdid\nVille Nouvelle\nMellah (Jewish quarter)\nHistory\nTimeline\nTreaty of Fes\nTransport\nFès–Saïs Airport\nFes railway station\nEducation\nUniversity of al-Qarawiyyin\nSidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University\nÉcole nationale des sciences appliquées de Fès\nCollège Moulay Idriss\nSportsClubs\nMAS Fez\nWydad de Fès\nMaghreb de Fes (basketball)\nSport venues\nFez Stadium\nSalle 11th November\nCulture\nWorld Sacred Music Festival\nLandmarksMosquesFes el-Bali\nAl-Qarawiyyin Mosque\nMosque of the Andalusians\nAl-Anouar Mosque (Mosque of the Sheikhs)\nAin al-Kheil Mosque (Al-Azhar Mosque)\nAbu al-Hassan Mosque\nBab Guissa Mosque\nBou Jeloud Mosque\nChrabliyine Mosque\nDiwan Mosque\nEl-Oued Mosque\nR'cif Mosque\nFes el-Jdid\nGreat Mosque of Fes el-Jdid\nAl-Beida Mosque\nAl-Hamra Mosque\nLalla ez-Zhar Mosque\nLalla Ghriba Mosque\nMoulay Abdallah Mosque\nSynagogues\nIbn Danan Synagogue\nAl Fassiyine Synagogue\nMadrasas\nAl-Attarine Madrasa\nBou Inania Madrasa\nCherratine Madrasa\nMadrasa of Fes el-Jdid\nMadrasa el-Oued\nMesbahiyya Madrasa\nSahrij Madrasa\nSaffarin Madrasa\nSba'iyyin Madrasa\nMausoleums & zawiyas\nMausoleum of Sidi Harazem\nZawiya of Moulay Idris II\nZawiya of Sidi Abdelkader al-Fassi\nZawiya of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani\nZawiya of Sidi Ahmed esh-Shawi\nZawiya of Sidi Ali Boughaleb\nZawiya of Sidi Taoudi Ben Souda\nTomb of Sidi Bel Kacem\nMuseums\nBatha Museum\nNejjarine Museum of Wooden Arts & Crafts\nMuseum of Arms\nPalaces & historic mansions\nRoyal Palace of Fez\nDar Adiyel\nDar Ba Mohammed Chergui\nDar Batha\nDar el-Beida\nDar Belghazi\nDar Glaoui\nDar Moqri\nJamai Palace\nMnebhi Palace\nFunduqs (foundouks)\nFunduq al-Najjarin (Foundouk Nejjarine)\nFunduq Barka\nFunduq Kettanin\nFunduq Sagha\nFunduq Shamma'in (Foundouk Chemmaïne)\nFunduq al-Tetwaniyyin\nTanneries\nAin Azliten Tannery\nChouara Tannery\nSidi Moussa Tannery\nHammams (bathhouses)\nHammam al-Mokhfiya\nHammam Ben Abbad\nHammam Saffarin\nFortresses & city walls\nCity walls\nBorj Nord\nBorj Sud\nDar Dbibegh\nKasbah An-Nouar\nKasbah Cherarda\nKasbah Tamdert\nGates\nBab al-Amer\nBab Bou Jeloud\nBab Chorfa\nBab Dekkakin (Bab es-Sebaa)\nBab Ftouh\nBab Guissa\nBab Mahrouk\nBab Semmarine\nBab Segma\nFor other gates, see Fortifications of Fez\nStreets, souqs, and squares\nKissariat al-Kifah\nPlace Bou Jeloud (Place Pacha el-Baghdadi)\nPlace Nejjarine\nPlace Seffarine\nTala'a Kebira\nFor the \"Mechouars\" of the Royal Palace, see Royal Palace of Fez\nOther landmarks\nBorj Neffara\nDar al-Magana\nDar al-Makina\nJnan Sbil Gardens\nMarinid Tombs\nMaristan of Sidi Frej\nMosara Garden (Marinid Royal Gardens)\nOued Fes (Fez River)\nPeople\nSee Category:People from Fez, Morocco","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"View over Fes el-Bali","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/A_view_over_F%C3%A8s_IV_%2850071318338%29.jpg/330px-A_view_over_F%C3%A8s_IV_%2850071318338%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Approximate reconstitution[1] of the two original settlements of Fez: Al-'Aliya and Madinat Fas (present-day walls shown in grey)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Fes_walls_history_1_-_early_11th_century_%28pre-Almoravid%29.png/220px-Fes_walls_history_1_-_early_11th_century_%28pre-Almoravid%29.png"},{"image_text":"The cenotaph of Moulay Idris II in Fez today; the building around it has been rebuilt many times but is located on the original site of the Shurafa Mosque","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Mausol%C3%A9e_de_Moulay_Idriss_II_13102019_004.jpg/220px-Mausol%C3%A9e_de_Moulay_Idriss_II_13102019_004.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Qarawiyyin Mosque (green roof in this picture) was expanded circa 956, and a new minaret (left) was added under the patronage of Abd al-Rahman III","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/29610-Fez_%2828134041211%29_%28qarawiyyin_crop%29.jpg/220px-29610-Fez_%2828134041211%29_%28qarawiyyin_crop%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Layout of Fez in the Almohad period, after the unification of its two original settlements by the Almoravids in the previous century and after the reconstruction of the city walls at the beginning of the 13th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Fes_walls_history_2_-_early-mid_13th_century_%28Almohad_period%29.png/220px-Fes_walls_history_2_-_early-mid_13th_century_%28Almohad_period%29.png"},{"image_text":"Remains of the city walls on the north side of Fes el-Bali, which were rebuilt during the Almohad period (12th-13th century)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Fes_medina_walls_DSCF3737.jpg/220px-Fes_medina_walls_DSCF3737.jpg"},{"image_text":"The layout of Fez, including the new center of Fes el-Jdid, in the 14th century under the Marinids","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Fes_walls_history_3_-_late_14th_or_15th_century_%28Marinid_period%29.png/220px-Fes_walls_history_3_-_late_14th_or_15th_century_%28Marinid_period%29.png"},{"image_text":"Bab as-Sebaa, now known as Bab Dekkakin, was the original northern gate of Fes el-Jdid, built in 1276","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Fes_-_Palau_Reial_-_Bab_El_Seba_des_N.JPG/220px-Fes_-_Palau_Reial_-_Bab_El_Seba_des_N.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Bou Inania Madrasa, the most important madrasa built by the Marinids in Fez (14th century)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique.jpg/220px-Fes_Medersa_Bou_Inania_Mosaique.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jews of Fez in the 1900s. The Mellah was the traditional Jewish quarter of the city since the 15th century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jews_of_Fez.jpg/220px-Jews_of_Fez.jpg"},{"image_text":"Changes to Fez under the Saadians: multiple forts were built around the area, and the Mosara Garden fell into decline","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Fes_walls_history_4_-_early_17th_century_%28Saadian_period%29.png/220px-Fes_walls_history_4_-_early_17th_century_%28Saadian_period%29.png"},{"image_text":"Borj Nord, a Saadian fortress built in the 16th century overlooking Fez from the north","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Borj_Nord_DSCF2747.jpg/220px-Borj_Nord_DSCF2747.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Cherratine Madrasa, built by Moulay Rashid in 1670","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Cherratine_DSCF6208.jpg/220px-Cherratine_DSCF6208.jpg"},{"image_text":"The gate of Dar Dbibegh, a walled palace built outside the city by Moulay Abdallah in 1729 (photograph from 1920s)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Fez%2C_Porte_de_Dar-Debibagh_IMG27348.jpg/220px-Fez%2C_Porte_de_Dar-Debibagh_IMG27348.jpg"},{"image_text":"Layout of Fez at the beginning of the 20th century, after most of the major Alaouite-era additions to the city, such as the Kasbah Cherarda and the new walls built by Moulay Hasan to link the old and new cities","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Fes_walls_history_5_-_circa_1913_%28after_Alaouite_additions%29.png/220px-Fes_walls_history_5_-_circa_1913_%28after_Alaouite_additions%29.png"},{"image_text":"The New Mechouar created by Moulay Hassan (late 19th century) at the northern entrance to the Royal Palace; on the left is the gate of the Dar al-Makina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/New_mechouar.jpg/220px-New_mechouar.jpg"},{"image_text":"The abdication of Abd al-Hafid, Sultan of Morocco in 1912, after signing the Treaty of Fes which initiated French colonial rule","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Abdication_of_Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco_%281912%2C_Le_Petit_Journal%29.jpg/220px-Abdication_of_Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco_%281912%2C_Le_Petit_Journal%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bab Bou Jeloud, the symbolic entrance to Fes el-Bali today, was built in 1913 by the new French administration","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Fes_Bab_Bou_Jeloud_2011.jpg/220px-Fes_Bab_Bou_Jeloud_2011.jpg"},{"image_text":"Avenue Hassan II today, formerly Avenue de France, was established by Lyautey in 1916 as part of the Ville Nouvelle (New City)[33]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Fes_Avenue_Hassan_II_DSCF8721.jpg/220px-Fes_Avenue_Hassan_II_DSCF8721.jpg"},{"image_text":"A street in the modern Ville Nouvelle (\"New City\") of Fez","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fes_City_Modern_%28lightened%29.jpg/220px-Fes_City_Modern_%28lightened%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Timeline of Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Fez"},{"title":"History of Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Morocco"},{"title":"Architecture of Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Fez"}] | [{"reference":"Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. pp. 40–43.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman (in French). Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_t9yAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman"}]},{"reference":"Métalsi, Mohamed (2003). Fès: La ville essentielle (in French). Paris: ACR Édition Internationale. ISBN 978-2867701528.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2867701528","url_text":"978-2867701528"}]},{"reference":"Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI (in French). Fayard.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kennedy, Hugh (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Routledge. ISBN 9781317870418.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317870418","url_text":"9781317870418"}]},{"reference":"Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987). A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521337670.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&q=moinier%20hiba&pg=PA369","url_text":"A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521337670","url_text":"9780521337670"}]},{"reference":"Terrasse, Henri (1942). La mosquée des Andalous à Fès (in French). Paris: Les Éditions d'art et d'histoire.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Eustache, D. (2012). \"Idrīsids\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300218701.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300218701","url_text":"9780300218701"}]},{"reference":"Terrasse, Henri (1968). La Mosquée al-Qaraouiyin à Fès; avec une étude de Gaston Deverdun sur les inscriptions historiques de la mosquée (in French). Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Le Tourneau, Roger; Terrasse, Henri (2012). \"Fās\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madani, Tariq (1999). \"Le réseau hydraulique de la ville de Fès\". Archéologie islamique. 8–9: 119–142.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Marcos Cobaleda, Maria; Villalba Sola, Dolores (2018). \"Transformations in medieval Fez: Almoravid hydraulic system and changes in the Almohad walls\". The Journal of North African Studies. 23 (4): 591–623. doi:10.1080/13629387.2017.1371596. S2CID 219625871.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13629387.2017.1371596","url_text":"10.1080/13629387.2017.1371596"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219625871","url_text":"219625871"}]},{"reference":"Lombard, Maurice (2009). The Golden Age of Islam. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 138. ISBN 978-1558763227.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1558763227","url_text":"978-1558763227"}]},{"reference":"Gaillard, Henri (1905). Une ville de l'Islam: Fès. Paris: J. André. pp. 32.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla00gailgoog","url_text":"Une ville de l'Islam: Fès"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla00gailgoog/page/n55","url_text":"32"}]},{"reference":"Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique (in French). Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. ISBN 2723301591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2723301591","url_text":"2723301591"}]},{"reference":"\"La magnifique rénovation des 27 monuments de Fès – Conseil Régional du Tourisme (CRT) de Fès\" (in French). Retrieved 2020-03-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://visitefes.com/la-magnifique-renovation-des-27-monuments-de-fes/","url_text":"\"La magnifique rénovation des 27 monuments de Fès – Conseil Régional du Tourisme (CRT) de Fès\""}]},{"reference":"Touri, Abdelaziz; Benaboud, Mhammad; Boujibar El-Khatib, Naïma; Lakhdar, Kamal; Mezzine, Mohamed (2010). Le Maroc andalou : à la découverte d'un art de vivre (2 ed.). Ministère des Affaires Culturelles du Royaume du Maroc & Museum With No Frontiers. ISBN 978-3902782311.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3902782311","url_text":"978-3902782311"}]},{"reference":"Baadj, A.S. (2015). Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries). Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib. Brill. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-90-04-29857-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BvTjCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42","url_text":"Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-29857-6","url_text":"978-90-04-29857-6"}]},{"reference":"Messier, Ronald A. (2010). The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-38589-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5YouJtx-igIC","url_text":"The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38589-6","url_text":"978-0-313-38589-6"}]},{"reference":"Bennison, Amira K. (2016). The Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748646821.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=19JVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1","url_text":"The Almoravid and Almohad Empires"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748646821","url_text":"9780748646821"}]},{"reference":"Fierro, Maribel (2021). 'Abd al-Mu'min: Mahdism and Caliphate in the Islamic West. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-86154-192-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7bMbEAAAQBAJ&dq=almohad+siege+fez&pg=PT48","url_text":"'Abd al-Mu'min: Mahdism and Caliphate in the Islamic West"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86154-192-8","url_text":"978-0-86154-192-8"}]},{"reference":"Gaillard, Henri (1905). Une ville de l'Islam: Fès. Paris: J. André.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla01gailgoog","url_text":"Une ville de l'Islam: Fès"}]},{"reference":"Terrasse, Henri (1964). \"La mosquée almohade de Bou Jeloud à Fès\". Al-Andalus. 29 (2): 355–363.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presses de l'Unesco: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. ISBN 2723301591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2723301591","url_text":"2723301591"}]},{"reference":"Terrasse, Henri (1942). La mosquée des Andalous à Fès (in French). Paris: Les Éditions d'art et d'histoire.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oPL-zQEACAAJ","url_text":"La mosquée des Andalous à Fès"}]},{"reference":"O'Meara, Simon (2013). \"Fez\". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 9789004252677. ISSN 1873-9830.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004252677","url_text":"9789004252677"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","url_text":"1873-9830"}]},{"reference":"Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1977). The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3, From c.1050 to c.1600. Cambridge University Press. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=fez+trans-saharan&pg=PA356","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3, From c.1050 to c.1600"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20981-6","url_text":"978-0-521-20981-6"}]},{"reference":"Bressolette, Henri; Delaroziere, Jean (1983). \"Fès-Jdid de sa fondation en 1276 au milieu du XXe siècle\". Hespéris-Tamuda: 245–318.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bressolette, Henri; Delarozière, Jean (1978). \"El Mosara, jardin royal des Mérinides\". Hespéris-Tamuda: 51–61.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Qantara - Grand noria of Fez al-Jadīd\". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 2020-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=285&lang=en","url_text":"\"Qantara - Grand noria of Fez al-Jadīd\""}]},{"reference":"O'Meara, Simon M. (2004). An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law (PDF). University of Leeds. pp. 16, 22.","urls":[{"url":"http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/348/1/uk_bl_ethos_426809.pdf","url_text":"An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law"}]},{"reference":"Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kubisch, Natascha (2011). \"Maghreb - Architecture\". In Hattstein, Markus; Delius, Peter (eds.). Islam: Art and Architecture. h.f.ullmann. pp. 312–313.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. p. 69.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Parker, Richard (1981). A practical guide to Islamic Monuments in Morocco. Charlottesville, VA: The Baraka Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ettahiri, Ahmed (2014). \"La Bu'inaniya de Fès, perle des madrasas mérinides\". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne. Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 474–481. ISBN 9782350314907.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782350314907","url_text":"9782350314907"}]},{"reference":"Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. ISBN 2723301591.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yczpWGhXj2kC&q=gerbert&pg=PA138","url_text":"Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2723301591","url_text":"2723301591"}]},{"reference":"Deverdun, Gaston (2012). \"al-Ḳarawiyyīn\". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Tibawi, A. L. (Summer 1980). \"Reviewed Work: Jami' al-Qarawiyyin: al-Masjid wa'l-Jami'ah bi Madinat Fas (Mausu'ah li-Tarikhiha al-Mi'mari wa'l-Fikri). Al Qaraouiyyine: la Mosquée-Université de Fès (histoire architecturale et intellectuelle) by Abdul-Hadi at-Tazi\". Arab Studies Quarterly. 2 (3): 286–288.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40087958","url_text":"\"Reviewed Work: Jami' al-Qarawiyyin: al-Masjid wa'l-Jami'ah bi Madinat Fas (Mausu'ah li-Tarikhiha al-Mi'mari wa'l-Fikri). Al Qaraouiyyine: la Mosquée-Université de Fès (histoire architecturale et intellectuelle) by Abdul-Hadi at-Tazi\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ibn Khaldūn - The Muqaddimah: Ibn Khaldūn's philosophy of history\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-04-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-Khaldun","url_text":"\"Ibn Khaldūn - The Muqaddimah: Ibn Khaldūn's philosophy of history\""}]},{"reference":"Bressolette, Henri (2016). A la découverte de Fès. L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2343090221.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2343090221","url_text":"978-2343090221"}]},{"reference":"Battutah, Ibn (2002). The Travels of Ibn Battutah. London: Picador. p. 281. ISBN 9780330418799.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780330418799","url_text":"9780330418799"}]},{"reference":"Bosch-Vilá, J. (2012). \"Ibn al- K̲h̲aṭīb\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"García-Arenal, Mercedes (1987). \"Les Bildiyyīn de Fès, un groupe de néo-musulmans d'origine juive\". Studia Islamica. 66 (66): 113–143. doi:10.2307/1595913. JSTOR 1595913.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595913","url_text":"10.2307/1595913"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595913","url_text":"1595913"}]},{"reference":"Rguig, Hicham (2014). \"Quand Fès inventait le Mellah\". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne. Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 452–454. ISBN 9782350314907.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782350314907","url_text":"9782350314907"}]},{"reference":"Zafrani, H. \"Mallāḥ\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Miller, Susan Gilson; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). \"Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)\". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 60 (3): 310–327. doi:10.2307/991758. JSTOR 991758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F991758","url_text":"10.2307/991758"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/991758","url_text":"991758"}]},{"reference":"Ben-Layashi, Samir; Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce (2018). \"Myth, History, and Realpolitik: Morocco and its Jewish Community\". In Abramson, Glenda (ed.). Sites of Jewish Memory: Jews in and From Islamic Lands. Routledge. ISBN 9781317751601.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4Hp0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1","url_text":"\"Myth, History, and Realpolitik: Morocco and its Jewish Community\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317751601","url_text":"9781317751601"}]},{"reference":"Elbaz, Vanessa Paloma. \"Muslim Descendants of Jews in Morocco: Identity and Practice\".","urls":[{"url":"https://core.ac.uk/display/200999815","url_text":"\"Muslim Descendants of Jews in Morocco: Identity and Practice\""}]},{"reference":"\"لهذه الأسباب أسلمت الكثير من العائلات اليهودية المغربية عبر التاريخ\". مغرس. Retrieved 2022-03-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.maghress.com/almassae/183546","url_text":"\"لهذه الأسباب أسلمت الكثير من العائلات اليهودية المغربية عبر التاريخ\""}]},{"reference":"Chetrit, Joseph (2014). \"Juifs du Maroc et Juifs d'Espagne: deux destins imbriqués\". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne. Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 309–311. ISBN 9782350314907.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782350314907","url_text":"9782350314907"}]},{"reference":"Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). \"The Waṭṭāsids\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748696482.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties","url_text":"The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748696482","url_text":"9780748696482"}]},{"reference":"O'Meara, Simon M. (2004). An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law (PDF). University of Leeds. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-11-02. Retrieved 2012-02-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/348/1/uk_bl_ethos_426809.pdf","url_text":"An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181102071616/http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/348/1/uk_bl_ethos_426809.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"3. North Africa, 1504-1799. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History\". 19 December 2007. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 22 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071219212840/http://www.bartleby.com/67/822.html","url_text":"\"3. North Africa, 1504-1799. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History\""},{"url":"http://www.bartleby.com/67/822.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Véronne, Chantal de la (2012). \"Saʿdids\". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Salmon, Xavier (2016). Marrakech: Splendeurs saadiennes: 1550-1650. Paris: LienArt. p. 92. ISBN 9782359061826.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782359061826","url_text":"9782359061826"}]},{"reference":"Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748621378.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties","url_text":"The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748621378","url_text":"9780748621378"}]},{"reference":"Gottreich, Emily (2020). Jewish Morocco : a history from pre-Islamic to postcolonial times. London. ISBN 978-1-83860-361-8. OCLC 1139892409.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1139892409","url_text":"Jewish Morocco : a history from pre-Islamic to postcolonial times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83860-361-8","url_text":"978-1-83860-361-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1139892409","url_text":"1139892409"}]},{"reference":"Michaux-Bellaire, Édouard; Péretié, A. (December 1911). \"Les Marabouts (2)\". Revue du monde musulman. 16 (12): 138.","urls":[{"url":"http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1038116/f341.item","url_text":"\"Les Marabouts (2)\""}]},{"reference":"Mouline, Saïd (2008). \"Rabat, Salé – Holy Cities of the Two Banks\". In Jayyusi, Salma K. (ed.). The City in the Islamic World. Brill. p. 645. ISBN 9789047442653.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tO55DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR7","url_text":"\"Rabat, Salé – Holy Cities of the Two Banks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789047442653","url_text":"9789047442653"}]},{"reference":"Brigaglia, Andrea (2013–2014). \"Sufi Revival and Islamic Literacy: Tijaniyya Writings in Twentieth-Century Nigeria\". Annual Review of Islam in Africa. 12 (1).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/9668574","url_text":"\"Sufi Revival and Islamic Literacy: Tijaniyya Writings in Twentieth-Century Nigeria\""}]},{"reference":"Gilson Miller, Susan; Petruccioli, Attilio; Bertagnin, Mauro (2001). \"Inscribing Minority Space in the Islamic City: The Jewish Quarter of Fez (1438-1912)\". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 60 (3): 310–327. doi:10.2307/991758. JSTOR 991758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F991758","url_text":"10.2307/991758"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/991758","url_text":"991758"}]},{"reference":"Sebti, Abdelahad, (1948- ...). Chronique de la contestation citadine : Fès et la révolte des tanneurs, 1873-1874. OCLC 949224677.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/949224677","url_text":"Chronique de la contestation citadine : Fès et la révolte des tanneurs, 1873-1874"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/949224677","url_text":"949224677"}]},{"reference":"Bettina, Dennerlein. Legitimate bounds and bound legitimacy : the act of allegiance to the ruler (baia) in 19th century Morocco. Brill. OCLC 837453255.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/837453255","url_text":"Legitimate bounds and bound legitimacy : the act of allegiance to the ruler (baia) in 19th century Morocco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/837453255","url_text":"837453255"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Susan Gilson. (2013). A history of modern Morocco. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-62469-5. 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A history of the Jews in North Africa: From the Ottoman conquests to the present time, edited by Eliezer Bashan and Robert Attal. BRILL. p. 318. ISBN 90-04-06295-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=idEUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA319","url_text":"A history of the Jews in North Africa: From the Ottoman conquests to the present time, edited by Eliezer Bashan and Robert Attal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06295-5","url_text":"90-04-06295-5"}]},{"reference":"Pennell, C.R. (2003). Morocco: From Empire to Independence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 9781851686346.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851686346","url_text":"9781851686346"}]},{"reference":"Théliol, Mylène (2014-01-30). \"Aménagement et préservation de la médina de Rabat entre 1912 et 1956\". Les Cahiers d'EMAM (Études sur le Monde Arabe et la Méditerranée) (in French) (22): 47–70. doi:10.4000/emam.548. ISSN 1969-248X.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.openedition.org/emam/548?lang=en","url_text":"\"Aménagement et préservation de la médina de Rabat entre 1912 et 1956\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femam.548","url_text":"10.4000/emam.548"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1969-248X","url_text":"1969-248X"}]},{"reference":"Rabinow, Paul (2014). French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment. University of Chicago Press. p. 296. 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(2008). \"The Legacy of French Colonialism: Preservation in Morocco's Fez Medina\". APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology. 39 (4): 5–11.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jelidi, Charlotte (2012). Fès, la fabrication d'une ville nouvelle (1912-1956). ENS Éditions.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Abu-Lughod, Janet (1980). Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco. Princeton University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Abu-Lughod, Janet (1875). \"Moroccan Cities: Apartheid and the Serendipity of Conservation\". In Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim (ed.). African Themes: Northwestern University Studies in Honor of Gwendolen M. Carter. Northwestern University Press. pp. 77–111.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Aouchar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion. pp. 192–194.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wyrtzen, Jonathan (2016). Making Morocco: Colonial Intervention and the Politics of Identity. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9781501704246. Retrieved 7 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VC1UCwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Making Morocco: Colonial Intervention and the Politics of Identity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501704246","url_text":"9781501704246"}]},{"reference":"Hart, David M. (1997). \"The Berber Dahir of 1930 in colonial Morocco: then and now (1930-1996)\". The Journal of North African Studies. 2 (2): 11–33. doi:10.1080/13629389708718294.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13629389708718294","url_text":"10.1080/13629389708718294"}]},{"reference":"Aouchar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University\". Times Higher Education (THE). 2020-09-18. Retrieved 2020-09-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/sidi-mohamed-ben-abdellah-university","url_text":"\"Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University\""}]},{"reference":"\"Medina of Fez\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved 7 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170","url_text":"\"Medina of Fez\""}]},{"reference":"\"33 Dead in 2-Day Riot in Morocco Fed by Frustration Over Economy (Published 1990)\". The New York Times. Reuters. 1990-12-17. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-01-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/17/world/33-dead-in-2-day-riot-in-morocco-fed-by-frustration-over-economy.html","url_text":"\"33 Dead in 2-Day Riot in Morocco Fed by Frustration Over Economy (Published 1990)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"5 Die, 127 Hurt as Worst Riots in 7 Years Sweep Morocco City\". Los Angeles Times. 1990-12-16. Retrieved 2021-01-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-12-16-mn-9259-story.html","url_text":"\"5 Die, 127 Hurt as Worst Riots in 7 Years Sweep Morocco City\""}]},{"reference":"Bidwell, Robin (1998). \"Fez Riots (1990)\". Dictionary Of Modern Arab History. Routledge. p. 146. 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Retrieved 2021-01-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://thearabweekly.com/facelift-helps-moroccos-old-city-fez-lure-tourists","url_text":"\"Facelift helps Morocco's Old City of Fez lure tourists |\""}]},{"reference":"\"Revitalization of the Fez River: A Reclaimed Public Space | Smart Cities Dive\". www.smartcitiesdive.com. Retrieved 2020-03-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.smartcitiesdive.com/ex/sustainablecitiescollective/revitalization-fez-river-reclaimed-public-space/171636/","url_text":"\"Revitalization of the Fez River: A Reclaimed Public Space | Smart Cities Dive\""}]},{"reference":"\"Aziza Chaouni presents a 2014 TED Talk on her efforts to uncover the Fez River in Morocco\". Daniels. 2014-03-20. Retrieved 2020-03-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.daniels.utoronto.ca/news/2014/03/20/aziza-chaouni-presents-2014-ted-talk-her-efforts-uncover-fez-river-morocco","url_text":"\"Aziza Chaouni presents a 2014 TED Talk on her efforts to uncover the Fez River in Morocco\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_t9yAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6tFvlaM1LmgC&pg=PA463","external_links_name":"The Places Where Men Pray Together"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&q=moinier%20hiba&pg=PA369","external_links_name":"A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=u4X1s7S0ZdgC&pg=PA9","external_links_name":"Realm of Saints"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13629387.2017.1371596","external_links_name":"10.1080/13629387.2017.1371596"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219625871","external_links_name":"219625871"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla00gailgoog","external_links_name":"Une ville de l'Islam: Fès"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla00gailgoog/page/n55","external_links_name":"32"},{"Link":"http://visitefes.com/la-magnifique-renovation-des-27-monuments-de-fes/","external_links_name":"\"La magnifique rénovation des 27 monuments de Fès – Conseil Régional du Tourisme (CRT) de Fès\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BvTjCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42","external_links_name":"Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5YouJtx-igIC","external_links_name":"The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=19JVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1","external_links_name":"The Almoravid and Almohad Empires"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7bMbEAAAQBAJ&dq=almohad+siege+fez&pg=PT48","external_links_name":"'Abd al-Mu'min: Mahdism and Caliphate in the Islamic West"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/unevilledelisla01gailgoog","external_links_name":"Une ville de l'Islam: Fès"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oPL-zQEACAAJ","external_links_name":"La mosquée des Andalous à Fès"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","external_links_name":"1873-9830"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hEvCpNW2qBwC&pg=PA252","external_links_name":"Morocco 2009"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=fez+trans-saharan&pg=PA356","external_links_name":"The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3, From c.1050 to c.1600"},{"Link":"https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=285&lang=en","external_links_name":"\"Qantara - Grand noria of Fez al-Jadīd\""},{"Link":"http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/348/1/uk_bl_ethos_426809.pdf","external_links_name":"An architectural Investigation of Marinid and Wattasid Fes Medina (674-961/1276-1554), in Terms of Gender, Legend, and Law"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9JQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA896","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Islam"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=frhUbLo7aRsC&pg=PA91","external_links_name":"The Berbers and the Islamic State"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Te5QRi35W5EC&pg=PA121","external_links_name":"Islamic Art a Visual Culture"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yczpWGhXj2kC&q=gerbert&pg=PA138","external_links_name":"Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40087958","external_links_name":"\"Reviewed Work: Jami' al-Qarawiyyin: al-Masjid wa'l-Jami'ah bi Madinat Fas (Mausu'ah li-Tarikhiha al-Mi'mari wa'l-Fikri). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hope_More_Powerful_than_the_Sea | A Hope More Powerful than the Sea | ["1 Production","2 Synopsis","3 Critical reception","4 Screen adaption","5 References"] | A Hope More Powerful than the Sea AuthorMelissa FlemingGenreNon-fictionPublisherFleetPublication date2017
2017 non-fiction book by Melissa Fleming
A Hope More Powerful than the Sea is a book by Melissa Fleming about Syrian refugee Doaa Al Zamel's experiences leading up to and during the 2014 Malta migrant shipwreck.
Production
A Hope More Powerful than the Sea was published by Fleet in 2017. It was written by Melissa Fleming, the chief spokesperson for United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Synopsis
The book starts with Doaa Al Zamel's early life, growing up in Daraa, Syria. Al Zamel has a happy childhood, living in the extended family home, until the Syrian civil war breaks out. Her family flee to Egypt where she gets engaged to Bassam. In Egypt, Bassam and Al Zamel pay people smugglers to move them to Europe, boarding a boat with 500 other refugees. The boat capsizes in the Mediterranean Sea, with all but eleven of the passengers drowning. Bassam does not make it, Al Zamel is one of the eleven.
Critical reception
Jenny Sawyer writing in The Christian Science Monitor credit's Fleming's ability to tell the personal story and frame it in the wider refugee crisis, but also notes the lack of Al Zamel's own voice, the story only ever being told by the third party narrator.
Hannah Solel writing in the Financial Times called the book gripping and moving.
Screen adaption
Steven Spielberg bought the rights to the book, but production stopped after the producers received media backlash in 2018 for commissioning white American writer and actor Lena Dunham for penning the script, who has previously been accused of being a hipster racist. Flemming, along with other Syrian rights activists, accused Spielberg and co-producer JJ Abrams of whitewashing for hiring Dunham to write the screenplay.
References
^ a b c d e Solel, Hannah (2017-01-20). "A Hope More Powerful than the Sea by Melissa Fleming — on the refugee crisis". Financial Times. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
^ "'I had a feeling of death before me': A refugee's survival story of 4 days floating at sea". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 31 March 2017.
^ Stewart, Debbie (12 July 2017). "The Syrian refugee crisis through Doaa Zamel's experiences". Great Falls Tribune.
^ a b Sawyer, Jenny (2017-02-06). "'A Hope More Powerful Than the Sea' is the stunning tale of a Syrian refugee". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
^ Walter, Natasha (2017-01-22). "A Hope More Powerful Than the Sea by Melissa Fleming – review". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
^ Nordyke, Kimberly. "Lenny Letter Writer Accuses Lena Dunham of "Hipster Racism," Exits Publication". Hollywood Reporter. Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^ Pulver, Andrew (2018-10-30). "Backlash over Lena Dunham script for Syrian refugee film". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
^ Chisholm, Kate. "Acts of settlement | The Spectator". www.spectator.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
Authority control databases: National
Spain | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melissa Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa_Fleming"},{"link_name":"Doaa Al Zamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doaa_Al_Zamel"},{"link_name":"2014 Malta migrant shipwreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Malta_migrant_shipwreck"}],"text":"2017 non-fiction book by Melissa FlemingA Hope More Powerful than the Sea is a book by Melissa Fleming about Syrian refugee Doaa Al Zamel's experiences leading up to and during the 2014 Malta migrant shipwreck.","title":"A Hope More Powerful than the Sea"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"}],"text":"A Hope More Powerful than the Sea was published by Fleet in 2017.[1] It was written by Melissa Fleming, the chief spokesperson for United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.[2]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doaa Al Zamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doaa_Al_Zamel"},{"link_name":"Daraa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-3"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"The book starts with Doaa Al Zamel's early life, growing up in Daraa, Syria.[3] Al Zamel has a happy childhood, living in the extended family home, until the Syrian civil war breaks out.[4] Her family flee to Egypt where she gets engaged to Bassam.[1] In Egypt, Bassam and Al Zamel pay people smugglers to move them to Europe, boarding a boat with 500 other refugees.[1][5] The boat capsizes in the Mediterranean Sea, with all but eleven of the passengers drowning. Bassam does not make it, Al Zamel is one of the eleven.[1]","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Christian Science Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-4"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"Jenny Sawyer writing in The Christian Science Monitor credit's Fleming's ability to tell the personal story and frame it in the wider refugee crisis, but also notes the lack of Al Zamel's own voice, the story only ever being told by the third party narrator.[4]Hannah Solel writing in the Financial Times called the book gripping and moving.[1]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steven Spielberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Spielberg"},{"link_name":"Lena Dunham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena_Dunham"},{"link_name":"hipster racist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipster_racist"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"JJ Abrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JJ_Abrams"},{"link_name":"whitewashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitewashing_in_film"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-8"}],"text":"Steven Spielberg bought the rights to the book, but production stopped after the producers received media backlash in 2018 for commissioning white American writer and actor Lena Dunham for penning the script, who has previously been accused of being a hipster racist.[6] Flemming, along with other Syrian rights activists, accused Spielberg and co-producer JJ Abrams of whitewashing for hiring Dunham to write the screenplay.[7][8]","title":"Screen adaption"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Solel, Hannah (2017-01-20). \"A Hope More Powerful than the Sea by Melissa Fleming — on the refugee crisis\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custos_Rotulorum_of_Norfolk | Custos Rotulorum of Norfolk | ["1 References"] | This is a list of people who have served as Custos Rotulorum of Norfolk.
Sir Richard Southwell bef. 1544 – aft. 1547
Sir James Boleyn bef. 1558 – 1561
Sir William Woodhouse bef. 1562 – 1564
Sir Christopher Heydon bef. 1573 – 1579
Sir Drue Drury bef. 1584 – 1617
Sir Philip Wodehouse, 1st Baronet 1617
Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel 1617–1636
Henry Howard, Lord Maltravers 1636–1646
Interregnum
Sir Philip Wodehouse, 3rd Baronet 1660–1681
Henry Richardson, 3rd Lord Cramond 1681–1689
Henry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk 1689–1701
For later custodes rotulorum, see Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk.
References
Institute of Historical Research - Custodes Rotulorum 1544-1646
Institute of Historical Research - Custodes Rotulorum 1660-1828
vteCustodes rotulorumEngland
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Wales portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sir Richard Southwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Southwell_(courtier)"},{"link_name":"Sir James Boleyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Boleyn"},{"link_name":"Sir William Woodhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Woodhouse_(naval_officer)"},{"link_name":"Sir Christopher Heydon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Heydon"},{"link_name":"Sir Drue Drury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drue_Drury_(courtier)"},{"link_name":"Sir Philip Wodehouse, 1st Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Philip_Wodehouse,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_21st_Earl_of_Arundel"},{"link_name":"Henry Howard, Lord Maltravers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Howard,_22nd_Earl_of_Arundel"},{"link_name":"Sir Philip Wodehouse, 3rd Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Philip_Wodehouse,_3rd_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Henry Richardson, 3rd Lord Cramond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Richardson,_3rd_Lord_Cramond&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Henry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Howard,_7th_Duke_of_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Lieutenant_of_Norfolk"}],"text":"Sir Richard Southwell bef. 1544 – aft. 1547\nSir James Boleyn bef. 1558 – 1561\nSir William Woodhouse bef. 1562 – 1564\nSir Christopher Heydon bef. 1573 – 1579\nSir Drue Drury bef. 1584 – 1617\nSir Philip Wodehouse, 1st Baronet 1617\nThomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel 1617–1636\nHenry Howard, Lord Maltravers 1636–1646\nInterregnum\nSir Philip Wodehouse, 3rd Baronet 1660–1681\nHenry Richardson, 3rd Lord Cramond 1681–1689\nHenry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk 1689–1701For later custodes rotulorum, see Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk.","title":"Custos Rotulorum of Norfolk"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161023051640/http://www.history.ac.uk/publications/office/custodes1544","external_links_name":"Institute of Historical Research - Custodes Rotulorum 1544-1646"},{"Link":"http://www.history.ac.uk/publications/office/custodes1660","external_links_name":"Institute of Historical Research - Custodes Rotulorum 1660-1828"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Knope | Leslie Knope | ["1 Background","2 Personality","3 Storyline","3.1 Season one","3.2 Season two","3.3 Season three","3.4 Season four","3.5 Season five","3.6 Season six","3.7 Season seven","4 Development","5 Critical reception","5.1 Season one","5.2 Season two","5.3 Season three","6 2023 Saturday Night Live appearance","7 References"] | Fictional character from Parks and Recreation
Fictional character
Leslie KnopeParks and Recreation characterAmy Poehler as Leslie KnopeFirst appearance"Pilot" (2009)Last appearanceSaturday Night Live (2023)Portrayed byAmy PoehlerIn-universe informationOccupationPresident or First Lady of the United States of America (implied)Governor of IndianaDeputy Director of Operations at United States Department of InteriorRegional Director of National Park Service Midwest RegionCity Councilor for Pawnee, Indiana (former)Deputy director of the Pawnee City Department of Parks and Recreation (former)AffiliationDemocratic (season 7)
Independent (during City Council run)FamilyMarlene Griggs-Knope (mother)Robert Knope (father, deceased)SpouseBen Wyatt (m. 2013)ChildrenWestley Knope-Wyatt (son)Stephen Knope-Wyatt (son)Sonia Knope-Wyatt (daughter)HomePawnee, IndianaNationalityAmerican
Leslie Barbara Knope (/ˈnoʊp/ NOHP) is a fictional character portrayed by Amy Poehler and the main protagonist of the NBC sitcom Parks and Recreation. For most of the show's run, she serves as deputy director of the Parks and Recreation Department of the fictional city of Pawnee, Indiana. An overachiever, Knope believes the government should serve the people and is unceasingly optimistic about the potential of her role within it. For her performance as Knope, Poehler has been nominated for several awards and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy.
Background
Leslie Knope was born on January 18, 1975, in Eagleton, Indiana, due to a raccoon infestation in Pawnee, and has lived in Pawnee, Indiana, since infancy. According to the show's timeline, her father died in 1985. She was inspired to pursue a life of public service by the community programs she enjoyed as a child. While attending Pawnee North High School, Leslie served as Co-Vice President of the student body and participated in several student organizations including the Model United Nations, Debate Club, Mock Trial, Young Republicans, Young Democrats, and the Young Independents, which she founded. She graduated in the top 5% of her high-school class and summa cum laude from Indiana University's School of Public and Environmental Affairs.
In the first three seasons, Leslie is the deputy in Pawnee's Parks and Recreation Department, a midlevel bureaucratic position; in season four, she successfully campaigns to become a member of the city council. In her role as deputy director, she serves on several committees, including the Equal Opportunity Committee, the Fun in the Sun Committee, the Clean Restroom Task Force, the Handicapped Restroom Task Force, and the Task Force to Reduce the Number of Public Restrooms. She hopes to improve her town and to advance her career (possibly aiming to become the city manager). She has also stated her ultimate goal of becoming the first female President of the United States. Knope proudly displays in her office images of Hillary Clinton, Sandra Day O'Connor, Joe Biden, Madeleine Albright, Condoleezza Rice, Dianne Feinstein, Janet Reno, Nancy Pelosi, and Larry Bird. Leslie also has a love for sweets, especially waffles (which she frequently orders in large quantities at J.J.'s Diner) and whipped cream, which she puts in coffee, on waffles, etc.
On November 10, 2016, a member of the Parks and Recreation writing staff wrote an open letter for Vox from the fictional character Leslie Knope on the election results.
Personality
Leslie Knope is extremely cheerful, ambitious, hard-working and optimistic. She is firmly committed to the belief that government should provide a service for its people, and regularly goes above and beyond for the benefits of Pawnee's residents — a belief that regularly clashes with her superior Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), a staunch libertarian who feels all government should be dissolved and privatized.
Although somewhat naive, Leslie is intelligent, well-read, and has good intentions, but is not always successful in executing her goals. She repeatedly tries to put a positive spin on failure, even to the point where she will occasionally distort the truth in her own view. For example, she does not get discouraged by angry residents who complain or yell during her public forums, but instead prefers to think of them as "people caring loudly at me". Many of her co-workers do not share her enthusiasm, but Leslie commands their respect, nonetheless. Her ambition occasionally annoys her colleagues and leads to ribbing against her, especially from her subordinate Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari). Her favorite food is waffles from a local diner, JJ's. She has a crush on former vice president, now President Joe Biden, and harbors an irrational hatred of public libraries, salads, and the wealthy neighboring town of Eagleton, which Leslie found out, to her sheer horror, was actually her birthplace.
Leslie views herself as a budding political star in the style of Hillary Clinton, Nancy Pelosi, and Condoleezza Rice. She has been widely lauded as a positive figure for advancing gender equality and feminism because she represents a strong woman who encourages others to empower themselves and support the women around them. Although she is shown to be running for the city council as an independent, she joins the Democratic Party at some point, as she is approached by "Janet from the DNC" about a potential gubernatorial bid in the final season.
Storyline
Season one
Leslie is initially shown to harbor romantic feelings for her co-worker Mark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider), likely stemming from a romantic liaison with him several years before. She is also desperate to impress her mother, Marlene Griggs-Knope (Pamela Reed), a well-known politician in the Pawnee government. At a public forum, she meets Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), who informs her about a gaping hole near her house that her boyfriend, Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), fell into. Leslie takes on the project and quickly becomes friends with Ann. She has a difficult relationship with her mother, a tough and tactless woman who has had a long and successful career in local government and who does not think much of her daughter's professional or personal choices.
Season two
Leslie seems to move on from her romantic interest in Mark and begins dating police officer Dave Sanderson (Louis C.K.). She also begins taking charge and gains a lot of confidence. Also, more of her relationships with her coworkers are shown. Towards the end of the season, Dave, who is enlisted in the U.S. Army Reserve, is called into active duty in San Diego, where he does custodial work. Dave asks Leslie to move with him to San Diego, and although she considers it, she ultimately declines because she loves her work and Pawnee too much to leave, and they part ways amicably. She then dates an old lawyer friend of Ann's named Justin (Justin Theroux). Although Justin seems to be a perfect boyfriend and has many interesting stories, Leslie soon realizes that stories are all Justin cares about. After he reunites Leslie's mother with an old flame over Leslie's constant protests, she breaks up with him, realizing that Justin cares more about the reunion story that he could potentially tell than he does about her. At the end of the season, Leslie and the rest of the department get a visit from two state auditors, Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) and Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe), who shut down the government due to Pawnee's crippling financial problems. Leslie and Ben have an antagonistic relationship at first, but soon develop a mutual respect for each other.
Season three
In this season, Leslie works on the Harvest Festival in hopes of bringing money to Pawnee. She and Ben are no longer at odds and develop a friendly working relationship, complicated by romantic feelings. However, their budding relationship is threatened by Chris' inter-office dating rules, and they attempt to keep their romance under wraps, despite telling Ann, Ron, Leslie's mother, and a maintenance worker at the memorial service for Lil' Sebastian, Pawnee's beloved, recently deceased "mini-horse". In the season finale, Leslie is approached by a group of people who look for talent in government with the potential for political careers. They tell Leslie that they believe she has the potential to become a member of the city council or even the mayor.
Season four
Leslie comes to realize that while she is running for the city council, her relationship with Ben cannot continue, and they reluctantly break up. Leslie then announces her city council candidacy. Leslie writes a book called Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America. She also finds out that she was actually born in Eagleton because, according to her mother, "the Pawnee hospital had been overrun by raccoons." Leslie and Ben struggle with being broken up; Leslie wants to remain friends with Ben, but he tells her it's just too hard for him. Leslie finally decides she wants to be with Ben, no matter the consequences, and they get back together. Ben resigns from his position in order to save Leslie from getting fired. Her campaign managers inform her that they can no longer run her campaign because her approval ratings are dismally low after the news of her relationship with Ben was revealed. The rest of the Parks employees (and Ann), on a mission to return the love Leslie has shown them over the years, tell Leslie that they will run her campaign for her, allowing her to continue going after her dream. After several tumultuous months, it is announced that Bobby Newport (Paul Rudd), son of Sweetums founder Nick Newport (Christopher Murray), has won by 21 votes. Ben later approaches officials and notifies them that it is the law that they re-count since it was so close. Ann then reveals to Leslie that she in fact beat Bobby by 21 votes.
Season five
At the beginning of the season, she and Ben get engaged and move into a house together. She and Ben get married in the middle of the season, months earlier than the couple had originally planned. They initially arrange to marry at a black-tie event they planned and executed to raise money for the future park at Pawnee Commons. However, Leslie's City Council nemesis Jeremy Jamm (Jon Glaser) disrupts the ceremony by setting off stink bombs and booing Leslie, leading to Ron punching him in the face and getting them both arrested. However, the Parks and Recreation Department plans a secret wedding that same night in the office area, and Ron walks Leslie down the aisle. During her first year as a city councilor, she passes a city-wide soda tax, merges the animal control and parks department, and secures the money for the Pawnee Commons. At the end of the season, the Sweetums Corporation, a major manufacturer of sugary snacks and Pawnee's biggest employer, begins a campaign to recall her.
Season six
Leslie is a key member in the absorption of Eagleton into Pawnee because of a debt problem in Eagleton. After staging a filibuster which wins the citizens of former Eagleton voting rights, Leslie is recalled and replaced with her Eagletonian counterpart, Ingrid de Forest (Kristen Bell). Leslie gets the lot and parks for the Pawnee Commons after a heated debate between her and Jamm, in return for five worthless IOU's from Chris (who was soon leaving his post as City Manager). She dedicates the unofficial groundbreaking of Pawnee Commons to Ann before she and Chris leave for Michigan in "Ann and Chris". In "Flu Season 2", Leslie discovers that she is pregnant. In "One in 8,000", after a visit to a doctor, Ben and Leslie find out that they are going to have triplets. Soon after, Leslie is offered a position in the National Park Service, in Chicago. After stalling on her decision for most of the season, Leslie is eventually convinced by Ben to accept the job, but then after finding out that the Parks Department had her declared as one of the new founders of the new town of Pawnee, she convinces her new boss to relocate their office from Chicago to the Third Floor of Pawnee City Hall. Three years from the end of season six, Leslie and Ben have three children, and Leslie is the head of the Midwest Parks Service on the bustling third floor of Pawnee City Hall.
Season seven
Leslie is head of the Midwest branch of the National Park Service, working to build a National Park in Pawnee. Ron is her main opponent in this effort, as he wants to build a new Gryzzl campus. As the season progresses, however, Ron and Leslie eventually reconcile, and she successfully secures the National Park for Pawnee. Soon afterward, she and Ben decide to move to Washington with Andy and his wife April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) after Leslie is offered a promotion to work at the U.S. Department of the Interior and Ben decides to run for Congress. In flash-forwards, it is shown that by the year 2025, Leslie will run a successful campaign for Governor of State of Indiana, and will serve two terms in that office. It is implied that either she or Ben has been elected President of the United States by 2048 when they are both flanked by the U.S. Secret Service at the funeral of Pawnee Mayor (and Leslie's former Parks employee) Garry Gergich (Jim O'Heir). In the present, the gang gets together for a picture, as they are unsure when the next time they see each other will be. Ben asks Leslie if she's ready, to which she responds, "Yes. I'm ready."
Development
The concept for Parks and Recreation did not start to form until series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur learned Poehler would be available to play the lead character. Once that casting was determined, the general concept for both the series and the Leslie Knope character was established. After the first season, changes were made to Leslie's character to make her appear more intelligent. Schur said this was in response to critical feedback that Leslie came across as "ditzy" during the show's first run of episodes, which Schur said was never their intention. Schur said that the show considered a backstory element for Leslie where she had been elected mayor while a teenager; this story was later used for the Ben Wyatt character.
Amy Poehler said by the third season, after the Parks Department has been shut down for three months due to a budget crisis, Leslie has started to face reality more clearly and realize the department is a low priority.
Critical reception
She was listed in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters. In 2015, Entertainment Weekly named Knope as one of the 25 Best TV Characters of the Past 25 Years.
Poehler has garnered six Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, three Golden Globe Award nominations and three Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for her role. In 2014, while hosting the ceremony, Poehler won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for her portrayal of Leslie Knope.
Season one
Despite mixed reviews of the first season, one fairly consistent source of praise went to Amy Poehler for her performance as Leslie Knope. Tom Shales of The Washington Post writes that "Poehler's show unfortunately isn't worthy of her". Daniel Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter also had praise for Poehler claiming that she "has the comic intelligence to carry a series like this one" and delivers a performance that is "awkward but not alienating" and "eager without being repelling". However, several commentators said the naive and well-meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott (Steve Carell), a well-intentioned but dimwitted manager of a paper company sales office.
Season two
James Poniewozik of Time magazine praised the development of the characters. He thought that the show "really has a handle now" on the main character Leslie Knope, and does an "excellent job of finding things for its supporting characters to do". He also opined that the series is "living up to its potential now". Commentators said the supporting cast was now working with better material and that Amy Poehler's character had improved and become less over-the-top and more human than in the first season.
Season three
By season three, Paste magazine writer Garrett Martin called Leslie "one of the most relatable and admirable women on television".
2023 Saturday Night Live appearance
Knope appeared on the January 21, 2023 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Aubrey Plaza. Plaza reprised the character of April Ludgate on Weekend Update, which was soon followed by Poehler reprising Knope. Poehler had appeared earlier in the episode, cameoing in Plaza's monologue.
References
^ Tapley, Kristopher (January 12, 2014). "71st Golden Globes winners and nominees – complete list". HitFix. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015.
^ a b "City of Pawnee: Parks and Recreation: Staff". NBC (official). 2010. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ a b Owen, Rob (January 15, 2009). "Press Tour Journal: Poehler series' premise". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ Jones, Jaleesa M. (November 10, 2016). "Leslie Knope pens a letter to young women after Trump win: 'We screwed this up'". USA Today. McLean, Virginia: Gannett. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2016.
^ a b c d e Stanley, Alessandra (April 8, 2009). "Misguided, She Yearns to Guide". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ a b c d Martin, Denise (November 18, 2009). "Making bureaucracy work: How NBC's "Parks and Recreation" overcame bad buzz". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. Archived from the original on February 7, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ a b c d e Shales, Tom (April 9, 2009). "'Parks and Rec': Poehler Express to Nowhere". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ Bierly, Mandi (May 19, 2011). "Who's your favorite TV couple now? (Don't hurt us, Leslie and Ben!)". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on May 21, 2011. Retrieved May 19, 2011.
^ Moeschen, Sheila (September 4, 2014). "Just Say Knope to Feminism". Huffington Post Women. TheHuffingtonPost.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
^ Itzkoff, Dave (March 26, 2009). "It's Not 'The Office.' The Boss Is a Woman". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
^ a b Sepinwall, Alan (September 17, 2009). "Parks and Recreation: Interviewing co-creator Mike Schur". The Star-Ledger. Archived from the original on August 16, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
^ Egner, Jeremy (January 20, 2011). "Amy Poehler on the Return (Finally) of 'Parks and Recreation'". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011. Retrieved January 21, 2011.
^ "AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters". AfterEllen.com. February 27, 2012. Archived from the original on April 16, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
^ "25 Best TV Characters in the Past 25 Years". ew.com. Archived from the original on November 10, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2015.
^ Carlson, Daniel (April 7, 2009). "TV Review: Parks and Recreation". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on April 10, 2009. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
^ Sepinwall, Alan (April 9, 2009). ""Parks and Recreation" review - Sepinwall on TV". The Star-Ledger. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
^ Stasi, Linda (April 9, 2009). "Amy Poehler quit "SNL" for "Parks and Recreation"". New York Post. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Tobias, Scott (April 25, 2009). "Parks and Recreation: Season 1: Episode 3: "The Reporter"". The A.V. Club. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
^ Gay, Verne (April 7, 2009). ""Parks and Recreation", starring Amy Poehler". Newsday. Archived from the original on January 6, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Bianco, Robert (April 8, 2009). ""Parks" is like a bad day at "The Office," even with likable Poehler". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 4, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ "Now the Deluge: Office, Parks & Rec and Fringe Return". Time. September 21, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009. Retrieved September 17, 2009.
^ Weiner, Jonah (December 2, 2009). "You really should be watching NBC's Parks and Recreation". Slate. Archived from the original on February 2, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Ausiello, Michael (October 25, 2009). "Fall's best and worst: "Modern Family," "Parks and Recreation," "90210," "SNL," and more!". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 29, 2010. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Havrilesky, Heather (November 4, 2009). "When did "Parks and Recreation" get so funny?". Salon.com. Archived from the original on November 12, 2010. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Poniewozik, James (November 5, 2009). "So What's the Best Comedy on TV Right Now?". Time. Archived from the original on February 20, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
^ Martin, Garrett (May 20, 2011). "Parks and Recreation Review: "The Bubble/Li'l Sebastian" (Episode 3.15)". Paste. Archived from the original on June 25, 2011. Retrieved May 29, 2011.
^ Tinoco, Armando (January 22, 2023). "Amy Poehler & Aubrey Plaza Reprise 'Parks & Recreation' Characters In 'SNL's Weekend Update". Deadline. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
vteParks and RecreationEpisodesSeason 1
"Pilot"
"Canvassing"
"The Reporter"
"Boys' Club"
"The Banquet"
"Rock Show"
Season 2
"Pawnee Zoo"
"The Stakeout"
"Beauty Pageant"
"Practice Date"
"Sister City"
"Kaboom"
"Greg Pikitis"
"Ron and Tammy"
"The Camel"
"Hunting Trip"
"Tom's Divorce"
"Christmas Scandal"
"The Set Up"
"Leslie's House"
"Sweetums"
"Galentine's Day"
"Woman of the Year"
"The Possum"
"Park Safety"
"Summer Catalog"
"94 Meetings"
"Telethon"
"The Master Plan"
"Freddy Spaghetti"
Season 3
"Go Big or Go Home"
"Flu Season"
"Time Capsule"
"Ron & Tammy: Part Two"
"Media Blitz"
"Indianapolis"
"Harvest Festival"
"Camping"
"Andy and April's Fancy Party"
"Soulmates"
"Jerry's Painting"
"Eagleton"
"The Fight"
"Road Trip"
"The Bubble"
"Li'l Sebastian"
Season 4
"I'm Leslie Knope"
"Ron and Tammys"
"Born & Raised"
"Pawnee Rangers"
"End of the World"
"Smallest Park"
"The Trial of Leslie Knope"
"Bowling for Votes"
"Operation Ann"
"The Debate"
"Bus Tour"
"Win, Lose, or Draw"
Season 5
"Ms. Knope Goes to Washington"
"Soda Tax"
"How a Bill Becomes a Law"
"Sex Education"
"Halloween Surprise"
Season 6
Season 7
"2017"
"Leslie and Ron"
"One Last Ride"
Special
"A Parks and Recreation Special"
Characters
Leslie Knope
Ron Swanson
Tom Haverford
Ann Perkins
April Ludgate
Andy Dwyer
Ben Wyatt
Chris Traeger
Jerry Gergich
Donna Meagle
Mark Brendanawicz
Jean-Ralphio Saperstein
Related
Pawnee
Awards and nominations
vteAmy Poehler
Filmography
Awards and nominations
TV series created
Upright Citizens Brigade (1998–2000)
The Mighty B! (2008–2011)
The UCB Show (2015–2017)
Making It (2018–2021)
Russian Doll (2019–2022)
Duncanville (2020–2022)
Baking It (2021–2023)
Films directed
Wine Country (2019)
Moxie (2021)
Lucy and Desi (2022)
Characters
Leslie Knope
Joy (Inside Out)
Books
Yes Please (2014)
Related articles
Upright Citizens Brigade
Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre
Paper Kite Productions
Amy Poehler's Smart Girls
Will Arnett (ex-husband)
Greg Poehler (brother) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/ˈnoʊp/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"NOHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"fictional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction"},{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(arts)"},{"link_name":"Amy Poehler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Poehler"},{"link_name":"protagonist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagonist"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"Parks and Recreation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parks_and_Recreation"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Actress_%E2%80%93_Television_Series_Musical_or_Comedy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GG_14-1"}],"text":"Fictional characterLeslie Barbara Knope (/ˈnoʊp/ NOHP) is a fictional character portrayed by Amy Poehler and the main protagonist of the NBC sitcom Parks and Recreation. For most of the show's run, she serves as deputy director of the Parks and Recreation Department of the fictional city of Pawnee, Indiana. An overachiever, Knope believes the government should serve the people and is unceasingly optimistic about the potential of her role within it. For her performance as Knope, Poehler has been nominated for several awards and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy.[1]","title":"Leslie Knope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana"},{"link_name":"Pawnee, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pawnee,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"Model United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Debate Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_Club"},{"link_name":"Mock Trial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mock_Trial"},{"link_name":"Young Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Republicans"},{"link_name":"Young Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Democrats_of_America"},{"link_name":"summa cum laude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summa_cum_laude"},{"link_name":"Indiana University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University"},{"link_name":"School of Public and Environmental Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University_School_of_Public_and_Environmental_Affairs"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StaffBio-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Owen-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StaffBio-2"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Owen-3"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"Sandra Day O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor"},{"link_name":"Joe Biden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Biden"},{"link_name":"Madeleine Albright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeleine_Albright"},{"link_name":"Condoleezza Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice"},{"link_name":"Dianne Feinstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianne_Feinstein"},{"link_name":"Janet Reno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Reno"},{"link_name":"Nancy Pelosi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi"},{"link_name":"Larry Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Bird"},{"link_name":"Vox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(website)"},{"link_name":"election results","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._presidential_election,_2016"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Leslie Knope was born on January 18, 1975, in Eagleton, Indiana, due to a raccoon infestation in Pawnee, and has lived in Pawnee, Indiana, since infancy. According to the show's timeline, her father died in 1985. She was inspired to pursue a life of public service by the community programs she enjoyed as a child. While attending Pawnee North High School, Leslie served as Co-Vice President of the student body and participated in several student organizations including the Model United Nations, Debate Club, Mock Trial, Young Republicans, Young Democrats, and the Young Independents, which she founded. She graduated in the top 5% of her high-school class and summa cum laude from Indiana University's School of Public and Environmental Affairs.[2]In the first three seasons, Leslie is the deputy in Pawnee's Parks and Recreation Department, a midlevel bureaucratic position;[3] in season four, she successfully campaigns to become a member of the city council. In her role as deputy director, she serves on several committees, including the Equal Opportunity Committee, the Fun in the Sun Committee, the Clean Restroom Task Force, the Handicapped Restroom Task Force, and the Task Force to Reduce the Number of Public Restrooms.[2] She hopes to improve her town and to advance her career (possibly aiming to become the city manager). She has also stated her ultimate goal of becoming the first female President of the United States.[3] Knope proudly displays in her office images of Hillary Clinton, Sandra Day O'Connor, Joe Biden, Madeleine Albright, Condoleezza Rice, Dianne Feinstein, Janet Reno, Nancy Pelosi, and Larry Bird. Leslie also has a love for sweets, especially waffles (which she frequently orders in large quantities at J.J.'s Diner) and whipped cream, which she puts in coffee, on waffles, etc.On November 10, 2016, a member of the Parks and Recreation writing staff wrote an open letter for Vox from the fictional character Leslie Knope on the election results.[4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ron Swanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Swanson"},{"link_name":"Nick Offerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Offerman"},{"link_name":"libertarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin1118-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin1118-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-5"},{"link_name":"Tom Haverford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Haverford"},{"link_name":"Aziz Ansari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz_Ansari"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-7"},{"link_name":"gender equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality"},{"link_name":"feminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HuffPo-9"}],"text":"Leslie Knope is extremely cheerful, ambitious, hard-working and optimistic. She is firmly committed to the belief that government should provide a service for its people, and regularly goes above and beyond for the benefits of Pawnee's residents — a belief that regularly clashes with her superior Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), a staunch libertarian who feels all government should be dissolved and privatized.[5][6]Although somewhat naive,[7] Leslie is intelligent, well-read, and has good intentions,[8] but is not always successful in executing her goals.[6] She repeatedly tries to put a positive spin on failure, even to the point where she will occasionally distort the truth in her own view.[5] For example, she does not get discouraged by angry residents who complain or yell during her public forums, but instead prefers to think of them as \"people caring loudly at me\".[5] Many of her co-workers do not share her enthusiasm, but Leslie commands their respect, nonetheless.[5] Her ambition occasionally annoys her colleagues and leads to ribbing against her, especially from her subordinate Tom Haverford (Aziz Ansari).[7] Her favorite food is waffles from a local diner, JJ's. She has a crush on former vice president, now President Joe Biden, and harbors an irrational hatred of public libraries, salads, and the wealthy neighboring town of Eagleton, which Leslie found out, to her sheer horror, was actually her birthplace.[5][7]Leslie views herself as a budding political star in the style of Hillary Clinton, Nancy Pelosi, and Condoleezza Rice.[7] She has been widely lauded as a positive figure for advancing gender equality and feminism because she represents a strong woman who encourages others to empower themselves and support the women around them.[9] Although she is shown to be running for the city council as an independent, she joins the Democratic Party at some point, as she is approached by \"Janet from the DNC\" about a potential gubernatorial bid in the final season.","title":"Personality"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mark Brendanawicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Brendanawicz"},{"link_name":"Paul Schneider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Schneider_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Marlene Griggs-Knope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlene_Griggs-Knope"},{"link_name":"Pamela Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_Reed"},{"link_name":"Ann Perkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Perkins"},{"link_name":"Rashida Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashida_Jones"},{"link_name":"Andy Dwyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Dwyer"},{"link_name":"Chris Pratt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Pratt"}],"sub_title":"Season one","text":"Leslie is initially shown to harbor romantic feelings for her co-worker Mark Brendanawicz (Paul Schneider), likely stemming from a romantic liaison with him several years before. She is also desperate to impress her mother, Marlene Griggs-Knope (Pamela Reed), a well-known politician in the Pawnee government. At a public forum, she meets Ann Perkins (Rashida Jones), who informs her about a gaping hole near her house that her boyfriend, Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt), fell into. Leslie takes on the project and quickly becomes friends with Ann. She has a difficult relationship with her mother, a tough and tactless woman who has had a long and successful career in local government and who does not think much of her daughter's professional or personal choices.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dave Sanderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Parks_and_Recreation_characters#Dave_Sanderson"},{"link_name":"Louis C.K.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_C.K."},{"link_name":"Justin Theroux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Theroux"},{"link_name":"Ben Wyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Wyatt_(Parks_and_Recreation)"},{"link_name":"Adam Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Scott_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Chris Traeger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Traeger"},{"link_name":"Rob Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Lowe"}],"sub_title":"Season two","text":"Leslie seems to move on from her romantic interest in Mark and begins dating police officer Dave Sanderson (Louis C.K.). She also begins taking charge and gains a lot of confidence. Also, more of her relationships with her coworkers are shown. Towards the end of the season, Dave, who is enlisted in the U.S. Army Reserve, is called into active duty in San Diego, where he does custodial work. Dave asks Leslie to move with him to San Diego, and although she considers it, she ultimately declines because she loves her work and Pawnee too much to leave, and they part ways amicably. She then dates an old lawyer friend of Ann's named Justin (Justin Theroux). Although Justin seems to be a perfect boyfriend and has many interesting stories, Leslie soon realizes that stories are all Justin cares about. After he reunites Leslie's mother with an old flame over Leslie's constant protests, she breaks up with him, realizing that Justin cares more about the reunion story that he could potentially tell than he does about her. At the end of the season, Leslie and the rest of the department get a visit from two state auditors, Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) and Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe), who shut down the government due to Pawnee's crippling financial problems. Leslie and Ben have an antagonistic relationship at first, but soon develop a mutual respect for each other.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Season three","text":"In this season, Leslie works on the Harvest Festival in hopes of bringing money to Pawnee. She and Ben are no longer at odds and develop a friendly working relationship, complicated by romantic feelings. However, their budding relationship is threatened by Chris' inter-office dating rules, and they attempt to keep their romance under wraps, despite telling Ann, Ron, Leslie's mother, and a maintenance worker at the memorial service for Lil' Sebastian, Pawnee's beloved, recently deceased \"mini-horse\". In the season finale, Leslie is approached by a group of people who look for talent in government with the potential for political careers. They tell Leslie that they believe she has the potential to become a member of the city council or even the mayor.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Rudd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Rudd"},{"link_name":"Christopher Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Murray_(actor)"}],"sub_title":"Season four","text":"Leslie comes to realize that while she is running for the city council, her relationship with Ben cannot continue, and they reluctantly break up. Leslie then announces her city council candidacy. Leslie writes a book called Pawnee: The Greatest Town in America. She also finds out that she was actually born in Eagleton because, according to her mother, \"the Pawnee hospital had been overrun by raccoons.\" Leslie and Ben struggle with being broken up; Leslie wants to remain friends with Ben, but he tells her it's just too hard for him. Leslie finally decides she wants to be with Ben, no matter the consequences, and they get back together. Ben resigns from his position in order to save Leslie from getting fired. Her campaign managers inform her that they can no longer run her campaign because her approval ratings are dismally low after the news of her relationship with Ben was revealed. The rest of the Parks employees (and Ann), on a mission to return the love Leslie has shown them over the years, tell Leslie that they will run her campaign for her, allowing her to continue going after her dream. After several tumultuous months, it is announced that Bobby Newport (Paul Rudd), son of Sweetums founder Nick Newport (Christopher Murray), has won by 21 votes. Ben later approaches officials and notifies them that it is the law that they re-count since it was so close. Ann then reveals to Leslie that she in fact beat Bobby by 21 votes.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jon Glaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Glaser"},{"link_name":"recall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_election"}],"sub_title":"Season five","text":"At the beginning of the season, she and Ben get engaged and move into a house together. She and Ben get married in the middle of the season, months earlier than the couple had originally planned. They initially arrange to marry at a black-tie event they planned and executed to raise money for the future park at Pawnee Commons. However, Leslie's City Council nemesis Jeremy Jamm (Jon Glaser) disrupts the ceremony by setting off stink bombs and booing Leslie, leading to Ron punching him in the face and getting them both arrested. However, the Parks and Recreation Department plans a secret wedding that same night in the office area, and Ron walks Leslie down the aisle. During her first year as a city councilor, she passes a city-wide soda tax, merges the animal control and parks department, and secures the money for the Pawnee Commons. At the end of the season, the Sweetums Corporation, a major manufacturer of sugary snacks and Pawnee's biggest employer, begins a campaign to recall her.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"filibuster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filibuster"},{"link_name":"Kristen Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Bell"}],"sub_title":"Season six","text":"Leslie is a key member in the absorption of Eagleton into Pawnee because of a debt problem in Eagleton. After staging a filibuster which wins the citizens of former Eagleton voting rights, Leslie is recalled and replaced with her Eagletonian counterpart, Ingrid de Forest (Kristen Bell). Leslie gets the lot and parks for the Pawnee Commons after a heated debate between her and Jamm, in return for five worthless IOU's from Chris (who was soon leaving his post as City Manager). She dedicates the unofficial groundbreaking of Pawnee Commons to Ann before she and Chris leave for Michigan in \"Ann and Chris\". In \"Flu Season 2\", Leslie discovers that she is pregnant. In \"One in 8,000\", after a visit to a doctor, Ben and Leslie find out that they are going to have triplets. Soon after, Leslie is offered a position in the National Park Service, in Chicago. After stalling on her decision for most of the season, Leslie is eventually convinced by Ben to accept the job, but then after finding out that the Parks Department had her declared as one of the new founders of the new town of Pawnee, she convinces her new boss to relocate their office from Chicago to the Third Floor of Pawnee City Hall. Three years from the end of season six, Leslie and Ben have three children, and Leslie is the head of the Midwest Parks Service on the bustling third floor of Pawnee City Hall.","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"April Ludgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_Ludgate"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Plaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey_Plaza"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of the Interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_the_Interior"},{"link_name":"Governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor"},{"link_name":"State of Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Indiana"},{"link_name":"U.S. Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"Garry Gergich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Gergich"},{"link_name":"Jim O'Heir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_O%27Heir"}],"sub_title":"Season seven","text":"Leslie is head of the Midwest branch of the National Park Service, working to build a National Park in Pawnee. Ron is her main opponent in this effort, as he wants to build a new Gryzzl campus. As the season progresses, however, Ron and Leslie eventually reconcile, and she successfully secures the National Park for Pawnee. Soon afterward, she and Ben decide to move to Washington with Andy and his wife April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza) after Leslie is offered a promotion to work at the U.S. Department of the Interior and Ben decides to run for Congress. In flash-forwards, it is shown that by the year 2025, Leslie will run a successful campaign for Governor of State of Indiana, and will serve two terms in that office. It is implied that either she or Ben has been elected President of the United States by 2048 when they are both flanked by the U.S. Secret Service at the funeral of Pawnee Mayor (and Leslie's former Parks employee) Garry Gergich (Jim O'Heir). In the present, the gang gets together for a picture, as they are unsure when the next time they see each other will be. Ben asks Leslie if she's ready, to which she responds, \"Yes. I'm ready.\"","title":"Storyline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greg Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Daniels"},{"link_name":"Michael Schur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Schur"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Itzkoff-10"},{"link_name":"first season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parks_and_Recreation_(season_1)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sepinwall0917-11"},{"link_name":"Ben Wyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Wyatt_(Parks_and_Recreation)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The concept for Parks and Recreation did not start to form until series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur learned Poehler would be available to play the lead character. Once that casting was determined, the general concept for both the series and the Leslie Knope character was established.[10] After the first season, changes were made to Leslie's character to make her appear more intelligent. Schur said this was in response to critical feedback that Leslie came across as \"ditzy\" during the show's first run of episodes, which Schur said was never their intention.[11] Schur said that the show considered a backstory element for Leslie where she had been elected mayor while a teenager; this story was later used for the Ben Wyatt character.Amy Poehler said by the third season, after the Parks Department has been shut down for three months due to a budget crisis, Leslie has started to face reality more clearly and realize the department is a low priority.[12]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AfterEllen.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfterEllen.com"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Primetime Emmy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award"},{"link_name":"Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Lead_Actress_in_a_Comedy_Series"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award"},{"link_name":"Screen Actors Guild Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award"},{"link_name":"Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_for_Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Female_Actor_in_a_Comedy_Series"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award_for_Best_Actress_%E2%80%93_Television_Series_Musical_or_Comedy"}],"text":"She was listed in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters.[13] In 2015, Entertainment Weekly named Knope as one of the 25 Best TV Characters of the Past 25 Years.[14]Poehler has garnered six Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, three Golden Globe Award nominations and three Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for her role. In 2014, while hosting the ceremony, Poehler won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for her portrayal of Leslie Knope.","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Shales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Shales"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shales-7"},{"link_name":"The Hollywood Reporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Michael Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Scott_(The_Office)"},{"link_name":"Steve Carell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Carell"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin1118-6"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sepinwall0409-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Season one","text":"Despite mixed reviews of the first season, one fairly consistent source of praise went to Amy Poehler for her performance as Leslie Knope. Tom Shales of The Washington Post writes that \"Poehler's show unfortunately isn't worthy of her\".[7] Daniel Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter also had praise for Poehler claiming that she \"has the comic intelligence to carry a series like this one\" and delivers a performance that is \"awkward but not alienating\" and \"eager without being repelling\".[15] However, several commentators said the naive and well-meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott (Steve Carell), a well-intentioned but dimwitted manager of a paper company sales office.[6][16][17][18][19][20]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin1118-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sepinwall0917-11"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weiner1202-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ausiello1025-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salon1104-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time1105-25"}],"sub_title":"Season two","text":"James Poniewozik of Time magazine praised the development of the characters. He thought that the show \"really has a handle now\" on the main character Leslie Knope, and does an \"excellent job of finding things for its supporting characters to do\". He also opined that the series is \"living up to its potential now\".[21] Commentators said the supporting cast was now working with better material and that Amy Poehler's character had improved and become less over-the-top and more human than in the first season.[6][11][22][23][24][25]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Season three","text":"By season three, Paste magazine writer Garrett Martin called Leslie \"one of the most relatable and admirable women on television\".[26]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saturday Night Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Plaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey_Plaza"},{"link_name":"Weekend Update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekend_Update"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Knope appeared on the January 21, 2023 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Aubrey Plaza. Plaza reprised the character of April Ludgate on Weekend Update, which was soon followed by Poehler reprising Knope. Poehler had appeared earlier in the episode, cameoing in Plaza's monologue.[27]","title":"2023 Saturday Night Live appearance"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Tapley, Kristopher (January 12, 2014). \"71st Golden Globes winners and nominees – complete list\". HitFix. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hitfix.com/in-contention/71st-golden-globe-awards-winners-and-nominees","url_text":"\"71st Golden Globes winners and nominees – complete list\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HitFix","url_text":"HitFix"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150406021511/http://www.hitfix.com/in-contention/71st-golden-globe-awards-winners-and-nominees","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"City of Pawnee: Parks and Recreation: Staff\". NBC (official). 2010. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved March 28, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120516142531/http://www.pawneeindiana.com/parks-and-recreation/staff.shtml","url_text":"\"City of Pawnee: Parks and Recreation: Staff\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC","url_text":"NBC"},{"url":"http://www.pawneeindiana.com/parks-and-recreation/staff.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Owen, Rob (January 15, 2009). \"Press Tour Journal: Poehler series' premise\". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090218212238/http://community.post-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2009/01/15/press-tour-journal-poehler-series-premise.aspx","url_text":"\"Press Tour Journal: Poehler series' premise\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette","url_text":"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette"},{"url":"http://community.post-gazette.com/blogs/tunedin/archive/2009/01/15/press-tour-journal-poehler-series-premise.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Jaleesa M. (November 10, 2016). \"Leslie Knope pens a letter to young women after Trump win: 'We screwed this up'\". USA Today. McLean, Virginia: Gannett. Archived from the original on November 11, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainthis/2016/11/10/leslie-knope-open-letter-on-trumps-victory-vox/93592572/","url_text":"\"Leslie Knope pens a letter to young women after Trump win: 'We screwed this up'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today","url_text":"USA Today"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannett","url_text":"Gannett"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161111041920/http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainthis/2016/11/10/leslie-knope-open-letter-on-trumps-victory-vox/93592572/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stanley, Alessandra (April 8, 2009). \"Misguided, She Yearns to Guide\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. 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(Don't hurt us, Leslie and Ben!)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly","url_text":"Entertainment Weekly"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110521091710/http://popwatch.ew.com/2011/05/19/parks-recreation-leslie-ben/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Moeschen, Sheila (September 4, 2014). \"Just Say Knope to Feminism\". Huffington Post Women. TheHuffingtonPost.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/sheila-moeschen/just-say-knope-to-feminis_b_5765454.html","url_text":"\"Just Say Knope to Feminism\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140908224324/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/sheila-moeschen/just-say-knope-to-feminis_b_5765454.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Itzkoff, Dave (March 26, 2009). \"It's Not 'The Office.' The Boss Is a Woman\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. 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Club"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101124085823/http://www.avclub.com/articles/the-reporter,27100/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gay, Verne (April 7, 2009). \"\"Parks and Recreation\", starring Amy Poehler\". Newsday. Archived from the original on January 6, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110106061523/http://www.newsday.com/news/parks-and-recreation-starring-amy-poehler-1.1217966?qr=1","url_text":"\"\"Parks and Recreation\", starring Amy Poehler\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsday","url_text":"Newsday"},{"url":"http://www.newsday.com/entertainment/tv/ny-ettel0912629680apr07,0,422013.story","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bianco, Robert (April 8, 2009). \"\"Parks\" is like a bad day at \"The Office,\" even with likable Poehler\". USA Today. Archived from the original on January 4, 2011. 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