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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Fury
|
Blind Fury
|
["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","4 Reception","5 References","6 External links"]
|
1989 film by Phillip Noyce
Blind FuryTheatrical release posterDirected byPhillip NoyceScreenplay byCharles Robert CarnerStory byCharles Robert CarnerBased onZatoichi Challengedby Ryôzô KasaharaProduced byTim MathesonDaniel GrodnikStarring
Rutger Hauer
Terrance O'Quinn
Lisa Blount
Randall "Tex" Cobb
Noble Willingham
CinematographyDon BurgessEdited byDavid A. SimmonsMusic byJ. Peter RobinsonProductioncompanyInterscope CommunicationsDistributed byTri-Star PicturesRelease dates
August 17, 1989 (1989-08-17) (West Germany)
March 16, 1990 (1990-03-16) (United States)
Running time86 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishBox office$2,692,037 (domestic)
Blind Fury is a 1989 American action comedy film directed by Phillip Noyce and starring Rutger Hauer, Brandon Call, Terry O'Quinn, Lisa Blount, Randall "Tex" Cobb, and Noble Willingham. The screenplay by Charles Robert Carner is a loosely based, modernized remake of Zatoichi Challenged, the 17th film in the Japanese Zatoichi film series.
The film follows Nick Parker (Hauer), a blind, sword-wielding Vietnam War veteran, who returns to the United States and befriends the son of an old friend. Parker decides to help the boy find his father, who has been kidnapped by a major crime syndicate.
Plot
While serving in Vietnam, American soldier Nick Parker was blinded by a mortar explosion. Rescued by local villagers, he recovered his health and, though he remains blind, was trained to master his other senses and be an expert swordsman.
20 years later, having returned to the United States, he visits old army buddy Frank Deveraux, only to find that Deveraux is missing. Parker meets Frank's son Billy and his mother Lynn, Frank's ex-wife. Minutes later, Frank's evil boss Claude MacCready's henchman Slag arrives with two corrupt police officers to kidnap Billy to use as leverage over Frank. Nick stops them; the officers are killed, Billy is knocked unconscious, but Slag mortally wounds Billy's mom before he escapes. With her last words, Lynn tells Nick to take Billy to his father in Reno, Nevada.
At a rest stop on the way to Reno, Parker tells Billy about his mother's death. Billy runs away from Nick and is grabbed by Slag and some henchmen. Slag escapes as Nick rescues Billy a second time, and Billy and Nick (now called Uncle Nick) become fond of one another.
They reach Reno and find Frank's girlfriend Annie, who agrees to take them to Frank. After escaping yet another attempted kidnapping by MacCready's men, Annie suggests they hide out at the home of her friend Colleen. Annie takes Nick to MacCready's casino, where Frank is making MacCready's drugs. Annie returns to Colleen's to watch over Billy while Nick saves Frank. Nick and Frank are reunited; Frank takes the key ingredient in MacCready's drugs and destroys the lab. Avoiding casino security, Nick and Frank escape and head to Colleen's to reunite Billy with his dad; they find Colleen dead, Billy and Annie kidnapped, and a note instructing them to bring the drugs to MacCready's mountain penthouse in exchange for Billy and Annie.
Knowing it is an ambush, Nick and Frank arm themselves with homemade napalm bombs. After killing all of MacCready's men, they find MacCready holding Billy and Annie at gunpoint. MacCready hired a Japanese assassin to kill Nick, but after an epic swordfight between the two, Nick wins by electrocuting the assassin in a hot tub. Slag shoots Nick in the shoulder and Nick throws his sword at Slag, impaling him. MacCready then tries to interfere only to be stopped by Frank. Billy escapes his rope and throws Nick's sword to him, but it lands in the hot tub. As Slag reaches for his gun, Nick grabs hold of the assassin's sword and slashes him, cutting him in half and causing him to fall out of a window.
Frank is reunited with Billy and Annie, and they leave for San Francisco. Nick drops his ticket, choosing not to go. Billy follows Nick, telling him that he needs him. Nick says that while he is fond of Billy, he should go back to his father. Nick crosses the street and vanishes as a bus passes him. Saddened by Nick's departure, Billy throws a toy dinosaur off the bridge where Nick catches it. Billy calls out to Nick one last time and tells him that he'll miss him. As Frank catches up to Billy, they embrace. Nick smiles or sheds a tear, puts on his sunglasses while holding Billy's toy dinosaur with left arm in a sling, and walks off into the distance.
Cast
Rutger Hauer as Nick Parker
Terry O'Quinn as Frank Deveraux (billed as Terrance O'Quinn)
Brandon Call as Billy Deveraux
Noble Willingham as Claude MacCready
Lisa Blount as Annie Winchester
Randall "Tex" Cobb as Slag
Nick Cassavetes as Lyle Pike
Rick Overton as Tector Pike
Meg Foster as Lynn Deveraux
Shō Kosugi as The Assassin
Charles Cooper as Ed Cobb
Weasel Forshaw as Popcorn
Roy Morgan as Six Pack
Tim Mateer as Snow
Sharon Shackelford as Colleen
Woody Watson as Crooked Miami Cop
Alex Morris as Crooked Miami Cop
Mark Fickert as Bus Station Cop
Jay Pennison as Casino Bodyguard
Tiger Chung Lee as Casino Bodyguard
Production
Blind Fury marked the producing debut of actor Tim Matheson. Matheson produced the film having been a fan of the Zatoichi film series. Matheson and producer Daniel Grodnik spent seven years trying to find a distributor for the film. In 1986, the producers landed a deal with film distributor Tri-Star Pictures. According to Grodnik, various writers and directors were attached to the project before Phillip Noyce was hired as the film's director.
Hauer calls Blind Fury one of his "most difficult jobs" because of the combination of swordplay with playing a blind man; and Hauer spent a month training with Lynn Manning whose first words to him were "I don't get confused about what I see ...".
Filming took place around the Midwestern United States, where the cast and crew underwent humid weather conditions. Of the intense weather conditions, Matheson stated, "We shot in the Midwest and West, and it was incredibly hot. Everything was burning up. We ended up buying a three-foot pool for the cast and crew to wade through to cope with the heat." After principal photography was completed, a sequel to the film was planned, but never materialized.
The names of the characters Tector and Lyle Pike are a nod to characters from the classic Western The Wild Bunch.
Reception
On their syndicated television program Siskel and Ebert and the Movies, film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel gave the film "Two thumbs up".
Reviewer Ian Jane of DVD Talk wrote, "Hauer does a commendable job in the lead and is reasonably convincing as a blind man. Like its Japanese predecessors, there is some humor interjected into the storyline that is handled well without becoming overbearing or taking over the action sequences."
On Rotten Tomatoes Blind Fury holds an approval rating of 56% based on 16 reviews, with a rating average of 4.9 out of 10.
References
^ "Blind Fury (1990) – Weekend Box Office Results – Box Office Mojo". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved June 12, 2010.
^ Blind Fury (1989), retrieved September 15, 2019
^ Astell, Hal. "Blind Fury". blog. Apocalypse Later. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
^ a b c Beck, Marilyn (July 24, 1988). "Hauer is in a 'Blind Fury' over samurai film". The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on June 11, 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
^ Hauer, Rutger. "Blind Fury". Rutger Hauer Official Website. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
^ "At the Movies". Siskel and Ebert and the Movies. The Walt Disney Company, American Broadcasting Company. March 16, 1990. Retrieved June 12, 2010.
^ Jane, Ian. "Blind Fury". DVD Talk. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
^ "Blind Fury". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved November 14, 2022.
External links
Blind Fury at IMDb
Blind Fury at AllMovie
vteFilms directed by Phillip Noyce
Backroads (1977)
Newsfront (1978)
Heatwave (1982)
Echoes of Paradise (1987)
Dead Calm (1989)
Blind Fury (1989)
Patriot Games (1992)
Sliver (1993)
Clear and Present Danger (1994)
The Saint (1997)
The Bone Collector (1999)
Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002)
The Quiet American (2002)
Catch a Fire (2006)
Salt (2010)
Mary and Martha (2013)
The Giver (2014)
Above Suspicion (2019)
The Desperate Hour (2021)
Fast Charlie (2023)
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Spain
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"action comedy film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_comedy_film"},{"link_name":"Phillip Noyce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Noyce"},{"link_name":"Rutger Hauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutger_Hauer"},{"link_name":"Brandon Call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Call"},{"link_name":"Terry O'Quinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_O%27Quinn"},{"link_name":"Lisa Blount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Blount"},{"link_name":"Randall \"Tex\" Cobb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall_%22Tex%22_Cobb"},{"link_name":"Noble Willingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Willingham"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Charles Robert Carner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Robert_Carner"},{"link_name":"remake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remake"},{"link_name":"Zatoichi Challenged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zatoichi_Challenged"},{"link_name":"Zatoichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zatoichi"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astell29012012-3"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War veteran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_veteran"},{"link_name":"crime syndicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_syndicate"}],"text":"Blind Fury is a 1989 American action comedy film directed by Phillip Noyce and starring Rutger Hauer, Brandon Call, Terry O'Quinn, Lisa Blount, Randall \"Tex\" Cobb, and Noble Willingham.[2] The screenplay by Charles Robert Carner is a loosely based, modernized remake of Zatoichi Challenged, the 17th film in the Japanese Zatoichi film series.[3]The film follows Nick Parker (Hauer), a blind, sword-wielding Vietnam War veteran, who returns to the United States and befriends the son of an old friend. Parker decides to help the boy find his father, who has been kidnapped by a major crime syndicate.","title":"Blind Fury"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"mortar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"Reno, Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno,_Nevada"}],"text":"While serving in Vietnam, American soldier Nick Parker was blinded by a mortar explosion. Rescued by local villagers, he recovered his health and, though he remains blind, was trained to master his other senses and be an expert swordsman.20 years later, having returned to the United States, he visits old army buddy Frank Deveraux, only to find that Deveraux is missing. Parker meets Frank's son Billy and his mother Lynn, Frank's ex-wife. Minutes later, Frank's evil boss Claude MacCready's henchman Slag arrives with two corrupt police officers to kidnap Billy to use as leverage over Frank. Nick stops them; the officers are killed, Billy is knocked unconscious, but Slag mortally wounds Billy's mom before he escapes. With her last words, Lynn tells Nick to take Billy to his father in Reno, Nevada.At a rest stop on the way to Reno, Parker tells Billy about his mother's death. Billy runs away from Nick and is grabbed by Slag and some henchmen. Slag escapes as Nick rescues Billy a second time, and Billy and Nick (now called Uncle Nick) become fond of one another.They reach Reno and find Frank's girlfriend Annie, who agrees to take them to Frank. After escaping yet another attempted kidnapping by MacCready's men, Annie suggests they hide out at the home of her friend Colleen. Annie takes Nick to MacCready's casino, where Frank is making MacCready's drugs. Annie returns to Colleen's to watch over Billy while Nick saves Frank. Nick and Frank are reunited; Frank takes the key ingredient in MacCready's drugs and destroys the lab. Avoiding casino security, Nick and Frank escape and head to Colleen's to reunite Billy with his dad; they find Colleen dead, Billy and Annie kidnapped, and a note instructing them to bring the drugs to MacCready's mountain penthouse in exchange for Billy and Annie.Knowing it is an ambush, Nick and Frank arm themselves with homemade napalm bombs. After killing all of MacCready's men, they find MacCready holding Billy and Annie at gunpoint. MacCready hired a Japanese assassin to kill Nick, but after an epic swordfight between the two, Nick wins by electrocuting the assassin in a hot tub. Slag shoots Nick in the shoulder and Nick throws his sword at Slag, impaling him. MacCready then tries to interfere only to be stopped by Frank. Billy escapes his rope and throws Nick's sword to him, but it lands in the hot tub. As Slag reaches for his gun, Nick grabs hold of the assassin's sword and slashes him, cutting him in half and causing him to fall out of a window.Frank is reunited with Billy and Annie, and they leave for San Francisco. Nick drops his ticket, choosing not to go. Billy follows Nick, telling him that he needs him. Nick says that while he is fond of Billy, he should go back to his father. Nick crosses the street and vanishes as a bus passes him. Saddened by Nick's departure, Billy throws a toy dinosaur off the bridge where Nick catches it. Billy calls out to Nick one last time and tells him that he'll miss him. As Frank catches up to Billy, they embrace. Nick smiles or sheds a tear, puts on his sunglasses while holding Billy's toy dinosaur with left arm in a sling, and walks off into the distance.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rutger Hauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutger_Hauer"},{"link_name":"Terry O'Quinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_O%27Quinn"},{"link_name":"Brandon Call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon_Call"},{"link_name":"Noble Willingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Willingham"},{"link_name":"Lisa Blount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Blount"},{"link_name":"Randall \"Tex\" Cobb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall_%22Tex%22_Cobb"},{"link_name":"Nick Cassavetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Cassavetes"},{"link_name":"Rick Overton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Overton"},{"link_name":"Meg Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg_Foster"},{"link_name":"Shō Kosugi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sho_Kosugi"},{"link_name":"Charles Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cooper_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Jay Pennison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Pennison"},{"link_name":"Tiger Chung Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger_Chung_Lee"}],"text":"Rutger Hauer as Nick Parker\nTerry O'Quinn as Frank Deveraux (billed as Terrance O'Quinn)\nBrandon Call as Billy Deveraux\nNoble Willingham as Claude MacCready\nLisa Blount as Annie Winchester\nRandall \"Tex\" Cobb as Slag\nNick Cassavetes as Lyle Pike\nRick Overton as Tector Pike\nMeg Foster as Lynn Deveraux\nShō Kosugi as The Assassin\nCharles Cooper as Ed Cobb\nWeasel Forshaw as Popcorn\nRoy Morgan as Six Pack\nTim Mateer as Snow\nSharon Shackelford as Colleen\nWoody Watson as Crooked Miami Cop\nAlex Morris as Crooked Miami Cop\nMark Fickert as Bus Station Cop\nJay Pennison as Casino Bodyguard\nTiger Chung Lee as Casino Bodyguard","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tim Matheson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Matheson"},{"link_name":"Zatoichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zatoichi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spokesman-Review-4"},{"link_name":"Daniel Grodnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Grodnik"},{"link_name":"Tri-Star Pictures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-Star_Pictures"},{"link_name":"Lynn Manning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Manning"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Midwestern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spokesman-Review-4"},{"link_name":"principal photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_photography"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spokesman-Review-4"},{"link_name":"The Wild Bunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wild_Bunch"}],"text":"Blind Fury marked the producing debut of actor Tim Matheson. Matheson produced the film having been a fan of the Zatoichi film series.[4] Matheson and producer Daniel Grodnik spent seven years trying to find a distributor for the film. In 1986, the producers landed a deal with film distributor Tri-Star Pictures. According to Grodnik, various writers and directors were attached to the project before Phillip Noyce was hired as the film's director.Hauer calls Blind Fury one of his \"most difficult jobs\" because of the combination of swordplay with playing a blind man; and Hauer spent a month training with Lynn Manning whose first words to him were \"I don't get confused about what I see ...\".[5]Filming took place around the Midwestern United States, where the cast and crew underwent humid weather conditions. Of the intense weather conditions, Matheson stated, \"We shot in the Midwest and West, and it was incredibly hot. Everything was burning up. We ended up buying a three-foot pool for the cast and crew to wade through to cope with the heat.\"[4] After principal photography was completed, a sequel to the film was planned, but never materialized.[4]The names of the characters Tector and Lyle Pike are a nod to characters from the classic Western The Wild Bunch.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Siskel and Ebert and the Movies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_the_Movies_(1986_TV_program)"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"Gene Siskel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Siskel"},{"link_name":"thumbs up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumbs_signal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Siskel_and_Ebert-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rottentomatoes-8"}],"text":"On their syndicated television program Siskel and Ebert and the Movies, film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel gave the film \"Two thumbs up\".[6]Reviewer Ian Jane of DVD Talk wrote, \"Hauer does a commendable job in the lead and is reasonably convincing as a blind man. Like its Japanese predecessors, there is some humor interjected into the storyline that is handled well without becoming overbearing or taking over the action sequences.\"[7]On Rotten Tomatoes Blind Fury holds an approval rating of 56% based on 16 reviews, with a rating average of 4.9 out of 10.[8]","title":"Reception"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Blind Fury (1990) – Weekend Box Office Results – Box Office Mojo\". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved June 12, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=weekend&id=blindfury.htm","url_text":"\"Blind Fury (1990) – Weekend Box Office Results – Box Office Mojo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo","url_text":"Box Office Mojo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database","url_text":"Internet Movie Database"}]},{"reference":"Blind Fury (1989), retrieved September 15, 2019","urls":[{"url":"https://letterboxd.com/film/blind-fury/genres/","url_text":"Blind Fury (1989)"}]},{"reference":"Astell, Hal. \"Blind Fury\". blog. Apocalypse Later. Retrieved April 21, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.apocalypselaterfilm.com/2012/01/blind-fury-1989.html","url_text":"\"Blind Fury\""}]},{"reference":"Beck, Marilyn (July 24, 1988). \"Hauer is in a 'Blind Fury' over samurai film\". The Spokesman-Review. Archived from the original on June 11, 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19880724&id=xh0SAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-u8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4756,4932558","url_text":"\"Hauer is in a 'Blind Fury' over samurai film\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spokesman-Review","url_text":"The Spokesman-Review"},{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xh0SAAAAIBAJ&pg=4756%2C4932558","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hauer, Rutger. \"Blind Fury\". Rutger Hauer Official Website. Retrieved April 21, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rutgerhauer.org/plots/blind.php","url_text":"\"Blind Fury\""}]},{"reference":"\"At the Movies\". Siskel and Ebert and the Movies. The Walt Disney Company, American Broadcasting Company. March 16, 1990. Retrieved June 12, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://bventertainment.go.com/tv/buenavista/atm/reviews.html?sec=1&subsec=310","url_text":"\"At the Movies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At_the_Movies_(1986_TV_program)","url_text":"Siskel and Ebert and the Movies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company","url_text":"The Walt Disney Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company","url_text":"American Broadcasting Company"}]},{"reference":"Jane, Ian. \"Blind Fury\". DVD Talk. Retrieved April 21, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/13606/blind-fury/","url_text":"\"Blind Fury\""}]},{"reference":"\"Blind Fury\". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved November 14, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/blind_fury/","url_text":"\"Blind Fury\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes","url_text":"Rotten Tomatoes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandango_Media","url_text":"Fandango Media"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Avenue
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Next Avenue
|
["1 References","2 External links"]
|
American digital news platform
Next Avenue is a digital platform launched by PBS that offers original and aggregated journalism aimed at baby boomers. It is PBS' first venture to begin on the Internet rather than on broadcast television, and was conceived and developed at Twin Cities Public Television (TPT) in St. Paul, Minnesota. The website was launched on May 15, 2012.
In 2015, Next Avenue began publishing an annual list of the top 50 "Influencers in Aging", a recognition of "advocates, researchers, thought leaders, innovators, writers and experts continue to push beyond traditional boundaries and change our understanding of what it means to grow older."
References
^ "From Public TV, a New Site for 50-Somethings". The New York Times. May 13, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
^ "Website targets 'tween' seniors". The Star Tribune. May 15, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
^ "The Top 50 Influencers in Aging". Next Avenue.
External links
Official website
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"baby boomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_boomers"},{"link_name":"Twin Cities Public Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_Cities_Public_Television"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Next Avenue is a digital platform launched by PBS that offers original and aggregated journalism aimed at baby boomers. It is PBS' first venture to begin on the Internet rather than on broadcast television, and was conceived and developed at Twin Cities Public Television (TPT) in St. Paul, Minnesota.[1][2] The website was launched on May 15, 2012.In 2015, Next Avenue began publishing an annual list of the top 50 \"Influencers in Aging\", a recognition of \"advocates, researchers, thought leaders, innovators, writers and experts [who] continue to push beyond traditional boundaries and change our understanding of what it means to grow older.\"[3]","title":"Next Avenue"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"From Public TV, a New Site for 50-Somethings\". The New York Times. May 13, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/from-public-tv-a-new-site-for-50-somethings/","url_text":"\"From Public TV, a New Site for 50-Somethings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Website targets 'tween' seniors\". The Star Tribune. May 15, 2012. Retrieved June 19, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.startribune.com/lifestyle/151401245.html","url_text":"\"Website targets 'tween' seniors\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Top 50 Influencers in Aging\". Next Avenue.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nextavenue.org/showcase/meet-next-avenue-influencers-in-aging-2017/","url_text":"\"The Top 50 Influencers in Aging\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/13/from-public-tv-a-new-site-for-50-somethings/","external_links_name":"\"From Public TV, a New Site for 50-Somethings\""},{"Link":"http://www.startribune.com/lifestyle/151401245.html","external_links_name":"\"Website targets 'tween' seniors\""},{"Link":"https://www.nextavenue.org/showcase/meet-next-avenue-influencers-in-aging-2017/","external_links_name":"\"The Top 50 Influencers in Aging\""},{"Link":"http://www.nextavenue.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikiforos_Fokas
|
Nikiforos Fokas
|
["1 References"]
|
Coordinates: 35°18′N 24°24′E / 35.300°N 24.400°E / 35.300; 24.400For the emperor, see Nikephoros II.
Municipal unit in GreeceNikiforos Fokas
Νικηφόρος ΦωκάςMunicipal unitNikiforos FokasLocation within the regional unit Coordinates: 35°18′N 24°24′E / 35.300°N 24.400°E / 35.300; 24.400CountryGreeceAdministrative regionCreteRegional unitRethymnoMunicipalityRethymnoArea • Municipal unit95.6 km2 (36.9 sq mi)Population (2021) • Municipal unit9,388 • Municipal unit density98/km2 (250/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST)UTC+3 (EEST)Vehicle registrationΡΕ
Nikiforos Fokas (Greek: Νικηφόρος Φωκάς) is a former municipality in the Rethymno regional unit, Crete, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rethymno, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 95.64 km2 (36.93 sq mi). It was named after the 10th century Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas, who retook the island from the Muslims. Population 9,388 (2021). The seat of the municipality was in Gonia. The ancient city of Eleutherna is located within the municipal unit.
References
^ "Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2021, Μόνιμος Πληθυσμός κατά οικισμό" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 29 March 2024.
^ "ΦΕΚ B 1292/2010, Kallikratis reform municipalities" (in Greek). Government Gazette.
^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece.
vteSubdivisions of the municipality of RethymnoMunicipal unit of Arkadi
Adele
Amnatos
Archaia Eleftherna
Chamalevri
Charkia
Eleftherna
Erfoi
Kyrianna
Mesi
Pagkalochori
Pigi
Prinos
Skouloufia
Municipal unit of Lappa
Archontiki
Argyroupoli
Episkopi
Karoti
Kato Poros
Koufi
Myriokefala
Vilandredo
Municipal unit of Nikiforos Fokas
Agios Konstantinos
Ano Valsamonero
Atsipopoulo
Frantzeskiana Metochia
Gerani
Gonia
Kalonyktis
Kato Valsamonero
Malaki
Mountros
Prines
Roustika
Saitoures
Zouridi
Municipal unit of Rethymno
Armenoi
Chromonastiri
Goulediana
Kare
Kastellos
Koumoi
Maroulas
Oros
Prasies
Rethymno
Roussospiti
Selli
This Crete location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagonal_number_theorem
|
Pentagonal number theorem
|
["1 Relation with partitions","2 Franklin's bijective proof","3 Partition recurrence","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
|
Relates the product and series representations of the Euler function Π(1-x^n)
In mathematics, Euler's pentagonal number theorem relates the product and series representations of the Euler function. It states that
∏
n
=
1
∞
(
1
−
x
n
)
=
∑
k
=
−
∞
∞
(
−
1
)
k
x
k
(
3
k
−
1
)
/
2
=
1
+
∑
k
=
1
∞
(
−
1
)
k
(
x
k
(
3
k
+
1
)
/
2
+
x
k
(
3
k
−
1
)
/
2
)
.
{\displaystyle \prod _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(1-x^{n}\right)=\sum _{k=-\infty }^{\infty }\left(-1\right)^{k}x^{k\left(3k-1\right)/2}=1+\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }(-1)^{k}\left(x^{k(3k+1)/2}+x^{k(3k-1)/2}\right).}
In other words,
(
1
−
x
)
(
1
−
x
2
)
(
1
−
x
3
)
⋯
=
1
−
x
−
x
2
+
x
5
+
x
7
−
x
12
−
x
15
+
x
22
+
x
26
−
⋯
.
{\displaystyle (1-x)(1-x^{2})(1-x^{3})\cdots =1-x-x^{2}+x^{5}+x^{7}-x^{12}-x^{15}+x^{22}+x^{26}-\cdots .}
The exponents 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, ... on the right hand side are given by the formula gk = k(3k − 1)/2 for k = 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, ... and are called (generalized) pentagonal numbers (sequence A001318 in the OEIS). (The constant term 1 corresponds to
k
=
0
{\displaystyle k=0}
.)
This holds as an identity of convergent power series for
|
x
|
<
1
{\displaystyle |x|<1}
, and also as an identity of formal power series.
A striking feature of this formula is the amount of cancellation in the expansion of the product.
Relation with partitions
The identity implies a recurrence for calculating
p
(
n
)
{\displaystyle p(n)}
, the number of partitions of n:
p
(
n
)
=
p
(
n
−
1
)
+
p
(
n
−
2
)
−
p
(
n
−
5
)
−
p
(
n
−
7
)
+
⋯
{\displaystyle p(n)=p(n-1)+p(n-2)-p(n-5)-p(n-7)+\cdots }
or more formally,
p
(
n
)
=
∑
k
≠
0
(
−
1
)
k
−
1
p
(
n
−
g
k
)
{\displaystyle p(n)=\sum _{k\neq 0}(-1)^{k-1}p(n-g_{k})}
where the summation is over all nonzero integers k (positive and negative) and
g
k
{\displaystyle g_{k}}
is the kth generalized pentagonal number. Since
p
(
n
)
=
0
{\displaystyle p(n)=0}
for all
n
<
0
{\displaystyle n<0}
, the apparently infinite series on the right has only finitely many non-zero terms, enabling an efficient calculation of p(n).
Franklin's bijective proof
The theorem can be interpreted combinatorially in terms of partitions. In particular, the left hand side is a generating function for the number of partitions of n into an even number of distinct parts minus the number of partitions of n into an odd number of distinct parts. Each partition of n into an even number of distinct parts contributes +1 to the coefficient of xn; each partition into an odd number of distinct parts contributes −1. (The article on unrestricted partition functions discusses this type of generating function.)
For example, the coefficient of x5 is +1 because there are two ways to split 5 into an even number of distinct parts (4+1 and 3+2), but only one way to do so for an odd number of distinct parts (the one-part partition 5). However, the coefficient of x12 is −1 because there are seven ways to partition 12 into an even number of distinct parts, but there are eight ways to partition 12 into an odd number of distinct parts, and 7 − 8 = −1.
This interpretation leads to a proof of the identity by canceling pairs of matched terms (involution method). Consider the Ferrers diagram of any partition of n into distinct parts. For example, the diagram below shows n = 20 and the partition 20 = 7 + 6 + 4 + 3.
Let m be the number of elements in the smallest row of the diagram (m = 3 in the above example). Let s be the number of elements in the rightmost 45 degree line of the diagram (s = 2 dots in red above, since 7−1 = 6, but 6−1 > 4). If m > s, take the rightmost 45-degree line and move it to form a new row, as in the matching diagram below.
If m ≤ s (as in our newly formed diagram where m = 2, s = 5) we may reverse the process by moving the bottom row to form a new 45 degree line (adding 1 element to each of the first m rows), taking us back to the first diagram.
A bit of thought shows that this process always changes the parity of the number of rows, and applying the process twice brings us back to the original diagram. This enables us to pair off Ferrers diagrams contributing 1 and −1 to the xn term of the series, resulting in a net coefficient of 0 for xn. This holds for every term except when the process cannot be performed on every Ferrers diagram with n dots. There are two such cases:
1) m = s and the rightmost diagonal and bottom row meet. For example,
Attempting to perform the operation would lead us to:
which fails to change the parity of the number of rows, and is not reversible in the sense that performing the operation again does not take us back to the original diagram. If there are m elements in the last row of the original diagram, then
n
=
m
+
(
m
+
1
)
+
(
m
+
2
)
+
⋯
+
(
2
m
−
1
)
=
m
(
3
m
−
1
)
2
=
k
(
3
k
−
1
)
2
{\displaystyle n=m+(m+1)+(m+2)+\cdots +(2m-1)={\frac {m(3m-1)}{2}}={\frac {k(3k-1)}{2}}}
where the new index k is taken to equal m. Note that the sign associated with this partition is (−1)s, which by construction equals (−1)m and (−1)k.
2) m = s+1 and the rightmost diagonal and bottom row meet. For example,
Our operation requires us to move the right diagonal to the bottom row, but that would lead to two rows of three elements, forbidden since we're counting partitions into distinct parts. This is the previous case but with one fewer row, so
n
=
m
+
(
m
+
1
)
+
(
m
+
2
)
+
⋯
+
(
2
m
−
2
)
=
(
m
−
1
)
(
3
m
−
2
)
2
=
k
(
3
k
−
1
)
2
,
{\displaystyle n=m+(m+1)+(m+2)+\cdots +(2m-2)={\frac {(m-1)(3m-2)}{2}}={\frac {k(3k-1)}{2}},}
where we take k = 1−m (a negative integer). Here the associated sign is (−1)s with s = m−1 = −k, therefore the sign is again (−1)k.
In summary, it has been shown that partitions into an even number of distinct parts and an odd number of distinct parts exactly cancel each other, producing null terms 0xn, except if n is a generalized pentagonal number
n
=
g
k
=
k
(
3
k
−
1
)
/
2
{\displaystyle n=g_{k}=k(3k-1)/2}
, in which case there is exactly one Ferrers diagram left over, producing a term (−1)kxn. But this is precisely what the right side of the identity says should happen, so we are finished.
Partition recurrence
We can rephrase the above proof, using integer partitions, which we denote as:
n
=
λ
1
+
λ
2
+
⋯
+
λ
ℓ
{\displaystyle n=\lambda _{1}+\lambda _{2}+\dotsb +\lambda _{\ell }}
,
where
λ
1
≥
λ
2
≥
…
≥
λ
ℓ
>
0
{\displaystyle \lambda _{1}\geq \lambda _{2}\geq \ldots \geq \lambda _{\ell }>0}
.
The number of partitions of n is the partition function p(n) having generating function:
∑
n
=
0
∞
p
(
n
)
x
n
=
∏
k
=
1
∞
(
1
−
x
k
)
−
1
{\displaystyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }p(n)x^{n}=\prod _{k=1}^{\infty }(1-x^{k})^{-1}}
Note that is the reciprocal of the product on the left hand side of our identity:
(
∑
n
=
0
∞
p
(
n
)
x
n
)
⋅
(
∏
n
=
1
∞
(
1
−
x
n
)
)
=
1
{\displaystyle \left(\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }p(n)x^{n}\right)\cdot \left(\prod _{n=1}^{\infty }(1-x^{n})\right)=1}
Let us denote the expansion of our product by
∏
n
=
1
∞
(
1
−
x
n
)
=
∑
n
=
0
∞
a
n
x
n
{\displaystyle \prod _{n=1}^{\infty }(1-x^{n})=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }a_{n}x^{n}}
,
so that
(
∑
n
=
0
∞
p
(
n
)
x
n
)
⋅
(
∑
n
=
0
∞
a
n
x
n
)
=
1
{\displaystyle \left(\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }p(n)x^{n}\right)\cdot \left(\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }a_{n}x^{n}\right)=1}
.
Multiplying out the left hand side and equating coefficients on the two sides, we obtain
a0 p(0) = 1 and
∑
i
=
0
n
p
(
n
−
i
)
a
i
=
0
{\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{n}p(n{-}i)a_{i}=0}
for all
n
≥
1
{\displaystyle n\geq 1}
. This gives a recurrence relation defining p(n) in terms of an, and vice versa a recurrence for an in terms of p(n). Thus, our desired result:
a
i
:=
{
1
if
i
=
1
2
(
3
k
2
±
k
)
and
k
is even
−
1
if
i
=
1
2
(
3
k
2
±
k
)
and
k
is odd
0
otherwise
{\displaystyle a_{i}:={\begin{cases}1&{\mbox{ if }}i={\frac {1}{2}}(3k^{2}\pm k){\mbox{ and }}k{\mbox{ is even}}\\-1&{\mbox{ if }}i={\frac {1}{2}}(3k^{2}\pm k){\mbox{ and }}k{\mbox{ is odd }}\\0&{\mbox{ otherwise }}\end{cases}}}
for
i
≥
1
{\displaystyle i\geq 1}
is equivalent to the identity
∑
i
(
−
1
)
i
p
(
n
−
g
i
)
=
0
,
{\displaystyle \sum _{i}(-1)^{i}p(n{-}g_{i})=0,}
where
g
i
:=
1
2
(
3
i
2
−
i
)
{\displaystyle g_{i}:=\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}(3i^{2}-i)}
and i ranges over all integers such that
g
i
≤
n
{\displaystyle g_{i}\leq n}
(this range includes both positive and negative i, so as to use both kinds of generalized pentagonal numbers). This in turn means:
∑
i
e
v
e
n
p
(
n
−
g
i
)
=
∑
i
o
d
d
p
(
n
−
g
i
)
,
{\displaystyle \sum _{i\mathrm {\ even} }p(n{-}g_{i})=\sum _{i\mathrm {\ odd} }p(n{-}g_{i}),}
.
In terms of sets of partitions, this is equivalent to saying that the following sets are of equal cardinality:
X
:=
⋃
i
e
v
e
n
P
(
n
−
g
i
)
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}:=\bigcup _{i\mathrm {\ even} }{\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})}
and
Y
:=
⋃
i
o
d
d
P
(
n
−
g
i
)
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Y}}:=\bigcup _{i\mathrm {\ odd} }{\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})}
,
where
P
(
n
)
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(n)}
denotes the set of all partitions of
n
{\displaystyle n}
.
All that remains is to give a bijection from one set to the other, which is accomplished by the function φ from X to Y which maps the partition
P
(
n
−
g
i
)
∋
λ
:
n
−
g
i
=
λ
1
+
λ
2
+
⋯
+
λ
ℓ
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})\ni \lambda :n-g_{i}=\lambda _{1}+\lambda _{2}+\dotsb +\lambda _{\ell }}
to the partition
λ
′
=
φ
(
λ
)
{\displaystyle \lambda '=\varphi (\lambda )}
defined by:
φ
(
λ
)
:=
{
λ
′
:
n
−
g
i
−
1
=
(
ℓ
+
3
i
−
2
)
+
(
λ
1
−
1
)
+
⋯
+
(
λ
ℓ
−
1
)
if
ℓ
+
3
i
>
λ
1
λ
′
:
n
−
g
i
+
1
=
(
λ
2
+
1
)
+
⋯
+
(
λ
ℓ
+
1
)
+
1
+
⋯
+
1
⏟
λ
1
−
ℓ
−
3
i
if
ℓ
+
3
i
≤
λ
1
.
{\displaystyle \varphi (\lambda ):={\begin{cases}\lambda ':n-g_{i-1}=(\ell +3i-2)+(\lambda _{1}-1)+\dotsb +(\lambda _{\ell }-1)&{\mbox{ if }}\ell +3i>\lambda _{1}\\\\\lambda ':n-g_{i+1}=(\lambda _{2}+1)+\dotsb +(\lambda _{\ell }+1)+\underbrace {1+\dotsb +1} _{\lambda _{1}-\ell -3i}&{\mbox{ if }}\ell +3i\leq \lambda _{1}.\end{cases}}}
This is an involution (a self-inverse mapping), and thus in particular a bijection, which proves our claim and the identity.
See also
The pentagonal number theorem occurs as a special case of the Jacobi triple product.
Q-series generalize Euler's function, which is closely related to the Dedekind eta function, and occurs in the study of modular forms. The modulus of the Euler function (see there for picture) shows the fractal modular group symmetry and occurs in the study of the interior of the Mandelbrot set.
References
^ Franklin, F. (1881). "Sur le developpement du produit (1-x)(1-x^2)(1-x^3) ...". Contes Rendues Acad. Paris Ser A. 92: 448–450.
Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Introduction to analytic number theory, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, New York-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90163-3, MR 0434929, Zbl 0335.10001
Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (2008) . An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers. Revised by D. R. Heath-Brown and J. H. Silverman. Foreword by Andrew Wiles. (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921986-5. MR 2445243. Zbl 1159.11001.
External links
Jordan Bell (2005). "Euler and the pentagonal number theorem". arXiv:math.HO/0510054.
On Euler's Pentagonal Theorem at MathPages
OEIS sequence A000041 (a(n) = number of partitions of n (the partition numbers))
De mirabilis proprietatibus numerorum pentagonalium at Scholarly Commons.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"Euler function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_function"},{"link_name":"pentagonal numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagonal_numbers"},{"link_name":"A001318","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A001318"},{"link_name":"OEIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences"},{"link_name":"power series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series"},{"link_name":"formal power series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_power_series"}],"text":"Relates the product and series representations of the Euler function Π(1-x^n)In mathematics, Euler's pentagonal number theorem relates the product and series representations of the Euler function. It states that∏\n \n n\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n −\n ∞\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n x\n \n k\n \n (\n \n 3\n k\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n +\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n k\n (\n 3\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n k\n (\n 3\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod _{n=1}^{\\infty }\\left(1-x^{n}\\right)=\\sum _{k=-\\infty }^{\\infty }\\left(-1\\right)^{k}x^{k\\left(3k-1\\right)/2}=1+\\sum _{k=1}^{\\infty }(-1)^{k}\\left(x^{k(3k+1)/2}+x^{k(3k-1)/2}\\right).}In other words,(\n 1\n −\n x\n )\n (\n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n (\n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n ⋯\n =\n 1\n −\n x\n −\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 5\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 7\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 12\n \n \n −\n \n x\n \n 15\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 22\n \n \n +\n \n x\n \n 26\n \n \n −\n ⋯\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1-x)(1-x^{2})(1-x^{3})\\cdots =1-x-x^{2}+x^{5}+x^{7}-x^{12}-x^{15}+x^{22}+x^{26}-\\cdots .}The exponents 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, ... on the right hand side are given by the formula gk = k(3k − 1)/2 for k = 1, −1, 2, −2, 3, ... and are called (generalized) pentagonal numbers (sequence A001318 in the OEIS). (The constant term 1 corresponds to \n \n \n \n k\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=0}\n \n.)\nThis holds as an identity of convergent power series for \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n <\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |x|<1}\n \n, and also as an identity of formal power series.A striking feature of this formula is the amount of cancellation in the expansion of the product.","title":"Pentagonal number theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"recurrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation"},{"link_name":"partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_partition"}],"text":"The identity implies a recurrence for calculating \n \n \n \n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n)}\n \n, the number of partitions of n:p\n (\n n\n )\n =\n p\n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n +\n p\n (\n n\n −\n 2\n )\n −\n p\n (\n n\n −\n 5\n )\n −\n p\n (\n n\n −\n 7\n )\n +\n ⋯\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n)=p(n-1)+p(n-2)-p(n-5)-p(n-7)+\\cdots }or more formally,p\n (\n n\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n)=\\sum _{k\\neq 0}(-1)^{k-1}p(n-g_{k})}where the summation is over all nonzero integers k (positive and negative) and \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle g_{k}}\n \n is the kth generalized pentagonal number. Since \n \n \n \n p\n (\n n\n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(n)=0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n n\n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n<0}\n \n, the apparently infinite series on the right has only finitely many non-zero terms, enabling an efficient calculation of p(n).","title":"Relation with partitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"combinatorially","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics"},{"link_name":"partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_partition"},{"link_name":"generating function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generating_function"},{"link_name":"unrestricted partition functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_function_(number_theory)"},{"link_name":"involution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ferrers 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theorem can be interpreted combinatorially in terms of partitions. In particular, the left hand side is a generating function for the number of partitions of n into an even number of distinct parts minus the number of partitions of n into an odd number of distinct parts. Each partition of n into an even number of distinct parts contributes +1 to the coefficient of xn; each partition into an odd number of distinct parts contributes −1. (The article on unrestricted partition functions discusses this type of generating function.)For example, the coefficient of x5 is +1 because there are two ways to split 5 into an even number of distinct parts (4+1 and 3+2), but only one way to do so for an odd number of distinct parts (the one-part partition 5). However, the coefficient of x12 is −1 because there are seven ways to partition 12 into an even number of distinct parts, but there are eight ways to partition 12 into an odd number of distinct parts, and 7 − 8 = −1.This interpretation leads to a proof of the identity by canceling pairs of matched terms (involution method).[1] Consider the Ferrers diagram of any partition of n into distinct parts. For example, the diagram below shows n = 20 and the partition 20 = 7 + 6 + 4 + 3.Let m be the number of elements in the smallest row of the diagram (m = 3 in the above example). Let s be the number of elements in the rightmost 45 degree line of the diagram (s = 2 dots in red above, since 7−1 = 6, but 6−1 > 4). If m > s, take the rightmost 45-degree line and move it to form a new row, as in the matching diagram below.If m ≤ s (as in our newly formed diagram where m = 2, s = 5) we may reverse the process by moving the bottom row to form a new 45 degree line (adding 1 element to each of the first m rows), taking us back to the first diagram.A bit of thought shows that this process always changes the parity of the number of rows, and applying the process twice brings us back to the original diagram. This enables us to pair off Ferrers diagrams contributing 1 and −1 to the xn term of the series, resulting in a net coefficient of 0 for xn. This holds for every term except when the process cannot be performed on every Ferrers diagram with n dots. There are two such cases:1) m = s and the rightmost diagonal and bottom row meet. For example,Attempting to perform the operation would lead us to:which fails to change the parity of the number of rows, and is not reversible in the sense that performing the operation again does not take us back to the original diagram. If there are m elements in the last row of the original diagram, thenn\n =\n m\n +\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n +\n (\n m\n +\n 2\n )\n +\n ⋯\n +\n (\n 2\n m\n −\n 1\n )\n =\n \n \n \n m\n (\n 3\n m\n −\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n (\n 3\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=m+(m+1)+(m+2)+\\cdots +(2m-1)={\\frac {m(3m-1)}{2}}={\\frac {k(3k-1)}{2}}}where the new index k is taken to equal m. Note that the sign associated with this partition is (−1)s, which by construction equals (−1)m and (−1)k.2) m = s+1 and the rightmost diagonal and bottom row meet. For example,Our operation requires us to move the right diagonal to the bottom row, but that would lead to two rows of three elements, forbidden since we're counting partitions into distinct parts. This is the previous case but with one fewer row, son\n =\n m\n +\n (\n m\n +\n 1\n )\n +\n (\n m\n +\n 2\n )\n +\n ⋯\n +\n (\n 2\n m\n −\n 2\n )\n =\n \n \n \n (\n m\n −\n 1\n )\n (\n 3\n m\n −\n 2\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n (\n 3\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=m+(m+1)+(m+2)+\\cdots +(2m-2)={\\frac {(m-1)(3m-2)}{2}}={\\frac {k(3k-1)}{2}},}where we take k = 1−m (a negative integer). Here the associated sign is (−1)s with s = m−1 = −k, therefore the sign is again (−1)k.In summary, it has been shown that partitions into an even number of distinct parts and an odd number of distinct parts exactly cancel each other, producing null terms 0xn, except if n is a generalized pentagonal number \n \n \n \n n\n =\n \n g\n \n k\n \n \n =\n k\n (\n 3\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=g_{k}=k(3k-1)/2}\n \n, in which case there is exactly one Ferrers diagram left over, producing a term (−1)kxn. But this is precisely what the right side of the identity says should happen, so we are finished.","title":"Franklin's bijective proof"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integer partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_partitions"}],"text":"We can rephrase the above proof, using integer partitions, which we denote as:\n\n \n \n \n n\n =\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n λ\n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=\\lambda _{1}+\\lambda _{2}+\\dotsb +\\lambda _{\\ell }}\n \n, \nwhere \n \n \n \n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n ≥\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n ≥\n …\n ≥\n \n λ\n \n ℓ\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda _{1}\\geq \\lambda _{2}\\geq \\ldots \\geq \\lambda _{\\ell }>0}\n \n.\nThe number of partitions of n is the partition function p(n) having generating function:∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n ∏\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n (\n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n k\n \n \n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }p(n)x^{n}=\\prod _{k=1}^{\\infty }(1-x^{k})^{-1}}Note that is the reciprocal of the product on the left hand side of our identity:(\n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n (\n \n \n ∏\n \n n\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n (\n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n )\n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }p(n)x^{n}\\right)\\cdot \\left(\\prod _{n=1}^{\\infty }(1-x^{n})\\right)=1}Let us denote the expansion of our product by\n\n \n \n \n \n ∏\n \n n\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n (\n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\prod _{n=1}^{\\infty }(1-x^{n})=\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }a_{n}x^{n}}\n \n, \nso that(\n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n )\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n (\n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }p(n)x^{n}\\right)\\cdot \\left(\\sum _{n=0}^{\\infty }a_{n}x^{n}\\right)=1}\n \n.Multiplying out the left hand side and equating coefficients on the two sides, we obtain \na0 p(0) = 1 and \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n n\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n \n −\n \n i\n )\n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i=0}^{n}p(n{-}i)a_{i}=0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n n\n ≥\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\geq 1}\n \n. This gives a recurrence relation defining p(n) in terms of an, and vice versa a recurrence for an in terms of p(n). Thus, our desired result:a\n \n i\n \n \n :=\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n i\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n (\n 3\n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n ±\n k\n )\n \n \n and \n \n \n k\n \n \n is even\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n i\n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n (\n 3\n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n ±\n k\n )\n \n \n and \n \n \n k\n \n \n is odd \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n otherwise \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{i}:={\\begin{cases}1&{\\mbox{ if }}i={\\frac {1}{2}}(3k^{2}\\pm k){\\mbox{ and }}k{\\mbox{ is even}}\\\\-1&{\\mbox{ if }}i={\\frac {1}{2}}(3k^{2}\\pm k){\\mbox{ and }}k{\\mbox{ is odd }}\\\\0&{\\mbox{ otherwise }}\\end{cases}}}for \n \n \n \n i\n ≥\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\geq 1}\n \n is equivalent to the identity \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n i\n \n \n p\n (\n n\n \n −\n \n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i}(-1)^{i}p(n{-}g_{i})=0,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n :=\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n (\n 3\n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n i\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle g_{i}:=\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{2}}(3i^{2}-i)}\n \n and i ranges over all integers such that \n \n \n \n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n ≤\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g_{i}\\leq n}\n \n (this range includes both positive and negative i, so as to use both kinds of generalized pentagonal numbers). This in turn means:∑\n \n i\n \n \n e\n v\n e\n n\n \n \n \n p\n (\n n\n \n −\n \n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n o\n d\n d\n \n \n \n p\n (\n n\n \n −\n \n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i\\mathrm {\\ even} }p(n{-}g_{i})=\\sum _{i\\mathrm {\\ odd} }p(n{-}g_{i}),}\n \n.In terms of sets of partitions, this is equivalent to saying that the following sets are of equal cardinality:X\n \n \n :=\n \n ⋃\n \n i\n \n \n e\n v\n e\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n (\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {X}}:=\\bigcup _{i\\mathrm {\\ even} }{\\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n :=\n \n ⋃\n \n i\n \n \n o\n d\n d\n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n (\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {Y}}:=\\bigcup _{i\\mathrm {\\ odd} }{\\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})}\n \n,where \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {P}}(n)}\n \n denotes the set of all partitions of \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n.\nAll that remains is to give a bijection from one set to the other, which is accomplished by the function φ from X to Y which maps the partition \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n (\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n )\n ∋\n λ\n :\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n λ\n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {P}}(n-g_{i})\\ni \\lambda :n-g_{i}=\\lambda _{1}+\\lambda _{2}+\\dotsb +\\lambda _{\\ell }}\n \n to the partition \n \n \n \n \n λ\n ′\n \n =\n φ\n (\n λ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda '=\\varphi (\\lambda )}\n \n defined by:φ\n (\n λ\n )\n :=\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n λ\n ′\n \n :\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n (\n ℓ\n +\n 3\n i\n −\n 2\n )\n +\n (\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n +\n ⋯\n +\n (\n \n λ\n \n ℓ\n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n ℓ\n +\n 3\n i\n >\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n λ\n ′\n \n :\n n\n −\n \n g\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n (\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n +\n ⋯\n +\n (\n \n λ\n \n ℓ\n \n \n +\n 1\n )\n +\n \n \n \n \n 1\n +\n ⋯\n +\n 1\n \n ⏟\n \n \n \n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n −\n ℓ\n −\n 3\n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n ℓ\n +\n 3\n i\n ≤\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi (\\lambda ):={\\begin{cases}\\lambda ':n-g_{i-1}=(\\ell +3i-2)+(\\lambda _{1}-1)+\\dotsb +(\\lambda _{\\ell }-1)&{\\mbox{ if }}\\ell +3i>\\lambda _{1}\\\\\\\\\\lambda ':n-g_{i+1}=(\\lambda _{2}+1)+\\dotsb +(\\lambda _{\\ell }+1)+\\underbrace {1+\\dotsb +1} _{\\lambda _{1}-\\ell -3i}&{\\mbox{ if }}\\ell +3i\\leq \\lambda _{1}.\\end{cases}}}This is an involution (a self-inverse mapping), and thus in particular a bijection, which proves our claim and the identity.","title":"Partition recurrence"}]
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[{"title":"Jacobi triple product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_triple_product"},{"title":"Q-series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-series"},{"title":"Dedekind eta function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind_eta_function"},{"title":"modular forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_forms"},{"title":"modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number#Modulus_and_argument"},{"title":"Euler function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_function"},{"title":"fractal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal"},{"title":"modular group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_group"},{"title":"Mandelbrot set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set"}]
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[{"reference":"Franklin, F. (1881). \"Sur le developpement du produit (1-x)(1-x^2)(1-x^3) ...\". Contes Rendues Acad. Paris Ser A. 92: 448–450.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Apostol, Tom M. (1976), Introduction to analytic number theory, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, New York-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-90163-3, MR 0434929, Zbl 0335.10001","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_M._Apostol","url_text":"Apostol, Tom M."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-90163-3","url_text":"978-0-387-90163-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0434929","url_text":"0434929"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbl_(identifier)","url_text":"Zbl"},{"url":"https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:0335.10001","url_text":"0335.10001"}]},{"reference":"Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (2008) [1938]. An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers. Revised by D. R. Heath-Brown and J. H. Silverman. Foreword by Andrew Wiles. (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921986-5. MR 2445243. Zbl 1159.11001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._H._Hardy","url_text":"Hardy, G. H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._M._Wright","url_text":"Wright, E. M."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Heath-Brown","url_text":"D. R. Heath-Brown"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_H._Silverman","url_text":"J. H. Silverman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wiles","url_text":"Andrew Wiles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921986-5","url_text":"978-0-19-921986-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2445243","url_text":"2445243"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbl_(identifier)","url_text":"Zbl"},{"url":"https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:1159.11001","url_text":"1159.11001"}]},{"reference":"Jordan Bell (2005). \"Euler and the pentagonal number theorem\". arXiv:math.HO/0510054.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/math.HO/0510054","url_text":"math.HO/0510054"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystinuria
|
Cystinuria
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["1 Presentation","2 Genetics","2.1 Cause","3 Pathophysiology","4 Diagnosis","5 Treatment","6 Occurrence in animals","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Amino acid metabolic disorder involving cystine stones forming in the kidneys, ureter, and bladder
This article needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Cystinuria" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2020)
Medical conditionCystinuriaOther namesCystinuria-lysinuriaThese cystine crystals were found in the urine sediment of a male dog who presented to the veterinary hospital with a history of chronic stranguria (straining to urinate) and pollakiuria (abnormally increased frequency of urination). A cystotomy was performed and numerous cystoliths (bladder stones) were removed. 5μm scale bar; 1,000x magnification; focus-stacked image consisting of 12 exposures; courtesy of Lance Wheeler.SpecialtyEndocrinology
Cystinuria is an inherited autosomal recessive disease characterized by high concentrations of the amino acid cystine in the urine, leading to the formation of cystine stones in the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. It is a type of aminoaciduria. "Cystine", not "cysteine," is implicated in this disease; the former is a dimer of the latter.
Presentation
Cystinuria is a cause of recurrent kidney stones. It is a disease involving the defective transepithelial transport of cystine and dibasic amino acids in the kidney and intestine, and is one of many causes of kidney stones. If not treated properly, the disease could cause serious damage to the kidneys and surrounding organs, and in some rare cases death. The stones may be identified by a positive nitroprusside cyanide test. The crystals are usually hexagonal, translucent, white. Upon removal, the stones may be pink or yellow in color, but later they turn to greenish due to exposure to air. Cystinuria is usually asymptomatic when no stone is formed. However, once a stone is formed, signs and symptoms can occur:
Nausea
Flank pain
Hematuria
Urinary tract infections
Rarely, acute or chronic kidney disease
People with cystinuria pass stones monthly, weekly, or daily, and need ongoing care. Cystinurics have an increased risk for chronic kidney disease and since kidney damage or poor function is often present in cystinurics, the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or over the counter (OTC) medications should be used with caution.
Cystine stones are often difficult to detect using plain x-rays. Computed tomography or ultrasound may be used instead for imaging.
Urine odor in cystinuria has a smell of rotten eggs due to the increase in cystine.
Genetics
Cystinuria has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance.
Cystinuria is an autosomal recessive disease, which means that the defective gene responsible for the disease is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disease. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disease both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disease. Although signs and symptoms are rare, there are some directly and indirectly associated with cystinuria. These sign and symptoms consist of 1) hematuria- blood in the urine, 2) flank pain – pain in the side due to kidney pain, 3) renal colic – intense, cramping pain due to stones in the urinary tract, 4) obstructive uropathy- urinary tract disease due to obstruction, and 5) urinary tract infections.
Cause
Cystinuria is caused by mutations in the SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 genes. These defects prevent proper reabsorption of basic, or positively charged, amino acids: cystine, lysine, ornithine, arginine. Under normal circumstances, this protein allows certain amino acids, including cystine, to be reabsorbed into the blood from the filtered fluid that will become urine. Mutations in either of these genes disrupt the ability of this transporter protein to reabsorb these amino acids, allowing them to become concentrated in the urine. As the levels of cystine in the urine increase, it forms cystine crystals, resulting in kidney stones. Cystine crystals form hexagonal-shaped crystals that can be viewed upon microscopic analysis of the urine. The other amino acids that are not reabsorbed do not create crystals in urine.
The overall prevalence of cystinuria is approximately 1 in 7,000 neonates (from 1 in 2,500 neonates in Libyan Jews to 1 in 100,000 among Swedes).
Pathophysiology
Cystinuria is characterized by the inadequate reabsorption of cystine in the proximal convoluted tubules after the filtering of the amino acids by the kidney's glomeruli, thus resulting in an excessive concentration of this amino acid in the urine. Cystine may precipitate out of the urine, if the urine is neutral or acidic, and form crystals or stones in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. It is one of several inborn errors of metabolism included in the Garrod's tetrad. The disease is attributed to deficiency in transport and metabolism of amino acids.
Diagnosis
Blood: Routine hemogram along with blood sugar, urea, and creatinine.
Urine: For cystine crystals, and casts. The most specific test is the cyanide–nitroprusside test
Ultrasound/CT scan to reveal if a stone is present.
Genetic analysis to determine which mutation associated with the disease may be present. Currently genotyping is not available in the United States but might be available in Spain, Italy, UK, Germany and Russia (by private companies in Germany and Russia).
Regular X-rays often fail to show the cystine stones, however they can be visualized in the diagnostic procedure that is called intravenous pyelogram (IVP). Stones may show up on XR with a fuzzy gray appearance. They are radioopaque due to sulfur content, though more difficult to visualize than calcium oxalate stones.
Treatment
Initial treatment is with adequate hydration, alkalization of the urine with citrate supplementation or acetazolamide, and dietary modification to reduce salt and protein intake (especially methionine). If this fails then patients are usually started on chelation therapy with an agent such as penicillamine. Tiopronin is another agent.
Once renal stones have formed, however, the first-line treatment is endoscopic laser lithotripsy. ESWL (Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy) is often not effective because of the hardness of the stones that do not fragment easily. Conventional open-abdominal surgery is rarely used but has proven to be effective treatment modalities for patients with more advanced disease. Adequate hydration is the foremost aim of treatment to prevent cystine stones. The goal is to increase the urine volume because the concentration of cystine in the urine is reduced which prevents cystine from precipitating from the urine and forming stones. People with cystine stones should consume 5 to 7 liters a day. The rationale behind alkalizing the urine is that cystine tends to stay in solution and causes no harm. In order to alkalize the urine, sodium bicarbonate has been used. One must be careful in alkalizing their urine because it could lead to other forms of stones in process of preventing cystine stones. Penicillamine is a drug that acts to form a complex with cystine that is 50 times more soluble than cystine itself. Percutaneous nephrolithotripsy (PNL) is performed via a port created by puncturing the kidney through the skin and enlarging the access port to 1 cm in diameter. Most of the time, cystine stones are too dense to be broken up by shock (ESWL) so PNL is needed.
Videos of surgery are available on various websites that show stone removal by percutaneous nephrolithotomy.
In February 2017, an article was published in Nature Medicine entitled "Alpha lipoic acid treatment prevents cystine urolithiasis in a mouse model of cystinuria", suggesting that a high dose of the readily available antioxidant, alpha-lipoic acid at 2,700 mg/67 kg body weight daily reduced the incidence of stones. The effects were dose dependent. The results are unprecedented for cystinuria. A clinical trial is underway based on this mouse model.
Occurrence in animals
This disease is known to occur in at least four mammalian species: humans, domestic canines, domestic ferrets and a wild canid, the maned wolf of South America.
Cystine uroliths have been demonstrated, usually in male dogs, from approximately 70 breeds including the Australian cattle dog, Australian shepherd, Basenji, Basset, Bullmastiff, Chihuahua, Scottish deerhound, Scottish terrier, Staffordshire terrier, Welsh corgi, and both male and female Newfoundland dogs.
See also
Cystine
Cysteine
Tiopronin
International Cystinuria Foundation
Hartnup disease
Cystinosis
Homocystinuria
Medullary sponge kidney
References
^ a b c d "Cystinuria | Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program". rarediseases.info.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
^ Rule, A. D.; Krambeck, A. E.; Lieske, J. C. (2011). "Chronic Kidney Disease in Kidney Stone Formers". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 6 (8): 2069–75. doi:10.2215/CJN.10651110. PMC 3156433. PMID 21784825.
^ Rule, A. D.; Bergstralh, E. J.; Melton, L. J.; Li, X.; Weaver, A. L.; Lieske, J. C. (2009). "Kidney Stones and the Risk for Chronic Kidney Disease". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 4 (4): 804–11. doi:10.2215/CJN.05811108. PMC 2666438. PMID 19339425.
^ Shah, Sorvin M. (15 January 2020). "Cystinuria: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
^ Biyani CS, Cartledge JJ (2006). "Cystinuria—Diagnosis and Management" (PDF). EAU-EBU Update Series. 4 (5): 175–83. doi:10.1016/j.eeus.2006.06.001. ISSN 1871-2592. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2015-04-21.
^ Ahmed, K.; Dasgupta, P.; Khan, M. S. (2006). "Cystine calculi: Challenging group of stones". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 82 (974): 799–801. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2005.044156. PMC 2653923. PMID 17148700.
^ Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM): 220100
^ Ahmed, Kamran; Khan, Mohammad Shamim; Thomas, Kay; Challacombe, Ben; Bultitude, Matthew; Glass, Jonathan; Tiptaft, Richard; Dasgupta, Prokar (2008). "Management of Cystinuric Patients: An Observational, Retrospective, Single-Centre Analysis". Urologia Internationalis. 80 (2): 141–4. doi:10.1159/000112603. PMID 18362482. S2CID 719486.
^ Joly, Dominique; Rieu, Philippe; méJean, Arnaud; Gagnadoux, Marie-France; Daudon, Michel; Jungers, P. (1999). "Treatment of cystinuria". Pediatric Nephrology. 13 (9): 945–50. doi:10.1007/s004670050736. PMID 10603157. S2CID 20984151.
^ Zee, Tiffany; Bose, Neelanjan; Zee, Jarcy; Beck, Jennifer N.; Yang, See; Parihar, Jaspreet; Yang, Min; Damodar, Sruthi; Hall, David (March 2017). "α-Lipoic acid treatment prevents cystine urolithiasis in a mouse model of cystinuria". Nature Medicine. 23 (3): 288–290. doi:10.1038/nm.4280. ISSN 1078-8956. PMC 5656064. PMID 28165480.
^ a b "Alpha-lipoic acid prevents kidney stones in mouse model of rare genetic disease: Research leads to clinical trial for cystinuria". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2017-07-09.
^ D Bannasch; PS Henthorn (2009). "Changing Paradigms in Diagnosis of Inherited Defects Associated with Uroliths". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 39 (1): 111–125. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.09.006. PMC 2628803. PMID 19038654.
External links
ClassificationDICD-10: E72.0ICD-9-CM: 270.0OMIM: 220100MeSH: D003555DiseasesDB: 3339External resourcesMedlinePlus: 000346eMedicine: med/498
vteInborn error of amino acid metabolismK→acetyl-CoALysine/straight chain
Glutaric acidemia type 1
type 2
Hyperlysinemia
Pipecolic acidemia
Saccharopinuria
Leucine
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency
3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency
3-Methylglutaconic aciduria 1
Isovaleric acidemia
Maple syrup urine disease
Tryptophan
Hypertryptophanemia
GG→pyruvate→citrateGlycine
D-Glyceric acidemia
Glutathione synthetase deficiency
Sarcosinemia
Glycine→Creatine: GAMT deficiency
Glycine encephalopathy
G→glutamate→α-ketoglutarateHistidine
Carnosinemia
Histidinemia
Urocanic aciduria
Proline
Hyperprolinemia
Prolidase deficiency
Glutamate/glutamine
SSADHD
G→propionyl-CoA→succinyl-CoAValine
Hypervalinemia
Isobutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency
Maple syrup urine disease
Isoleucine
2-Methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency
Beta-ketothiolase deficiency
Maple syrup urine disease
Methionine
Cystathioninuria
Homocystinuria
Hypermethioninemia
General BC/OA
Methylmalonic acidemia
Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase deficiency
Propionic acidemia
G→fumaratePhenylalanine/tyrosinePhenylketonuria
6-Pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase deficiency
Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency
Tyrosinemia
Alkaptonuria/Ochronosis
Tyrosinemia type I
Tyrosinemia type II
Tyrosinemia type III/Hawkinsinuria
Tyrosine→Melanin
Albinism: Ocular albinism (1)
Oculocutaneous albinism (Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome)
Waardenburg syndrome
Tyrosine→Norepinephrine
Dopamine beta hydroxylase deficiency
reverse: Brunner syndrome
G→oxaloacetateUrea cycle/Hyperammonemia(arginine
aspartate)
Argininemia
Argininosuccinic aciduria
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I deficiency
Citrullinemia
N-Acetylglutamate synthase deficiency
Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency/translocase deficiency
Transport/IE of RTT
Solute carrier family: Cystinuria
Hartnup disease
Iminoglycinuria
Lysinuric protein intolerance
Fanconi syndrome: Oculocerebrorenal syndrome
Cystinosis
Other
2-Hydroxyglutaric aciduria
Aminoacylase 1 deficiency
Ethylmalonic encephalopathy
Fumarase deficiency
Trimethylaminuria
vteGenetic disorder, membrane: Solute carrier disorders1-10
SLC1A3
Episodic ataxia 6
SLC1A4
SPATCCM
SLC2A1
De Vivo disease
SLC2A2
Fanconi-Bickel syndrome
SLC2A5
Fructose malabsorption
SLC2A10
Arterial tortuosity syndrome
SLC3A1
Cystinuria
SLC4A1
Hereditary spherocytosis 4/Hereditary elliptocytosis 4
SLC4A11
Congenital endothelial dystrophy type 2
Fuchs' dystrophy 4
SLC5A1
Glucose-galactose malabsorption
SLC5A2
Renal glycosuria
SLC5A5
Thyroid dyshormonogenesis type 1
SLC6A19
Hartnup disease
SLC7A7
Lysinuric protein intolerance
SLC7A9
Cystinuria
11-20
SLC11A1
Crohn's disease
SLC12A3
Gitelman syndrome
SLC16A1
HHF7
SLC16A2
Allan–Herndon–Dudley syndrome
SLC17A3
Von Gierke's disease, GSD-Ic
SLC17A5
Salla disease
SLC17A8
DFNA25
21-40
SLC26A2
Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia 4
Achondrogenesis type 1B
Recessive multiple epiphyseal dysplasia
Atelosteogenesis, type II
Diastrophic dysplasia
SLC26A4
Pendred syndrome
SLC35C1
CDOG 2C
SLC37A4
Von Gierke's disease, GSD-Ib
SLC39A4
Acrodermatitis enteropathica
SLC40A1
African iron overload
51-60
SLC54A1 (Mitochondrial pyruvate carrier deficiency)
see also solute carrier family
|
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It is a type of aminoaciduria. \"Cystine\", not \"cysteine,\" is implicated in this disease; the former is a dimer of the latter.","title":"Cystinuria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nitroprusside cyanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitroprusside_cyanide"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rarediseases-1"},{"link_name":"Hematuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematuria"},{"link_name":"Urinary tract infections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection"},{"link_name":"acute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury"},{"link_name":"chronic kidney disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Computed tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomography"},{"link_name":"ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biyani-5"}],"text":"Cystinuria is a cause of recurrent kidney stones. It is a disease involving the defective transepithelial transport of cystine and dibasic amino acids in the kidney and intestine, and is one of many causes of kidney stones. If not treated properly, the disease could cause serious damage to the kidneys and surrounding organs, and in some rare cases death. The stones may be identified by a positive nitroprusside cyanide test. The crystals are usually hexagonal, translucent, white. Upon removal, the stones may be pink or yellow in color, but later they turn to greenish due to exposure to air. Cystinuria is usually asymptomatic when no stone is formed. However, once a stone is formed, signs and symptoms can occur:[1]Nausea\nFlank pain\nHematuria\nUrinary tract infections\nRarely, acute or chronic kidney diseasePeople with cystinuria pass stones monthly, weekly, or daily, and need ongoing care. Cystinurics have an increased risk for chronic kidney disease[2][3] and since kidney damage or poor function is often present in cystinurics, the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or over the counter (OTC) medications should be used with caution.Cystine stones are often difficult to detect using plain x-rays. Computed tomography or ultrasound may be used instead for imaging.[4]Urine odor in cystinuria has a smell of rotten eggs due to the increase in cystine.[5]","title":"Presentation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autosomal_recessive_-_en.svg"},{"link_name":"inheritance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rarediseases-1"},{"link_name":"autosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autosome"},{"link_name":"carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_carrier"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Cystinuria has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance.Cystinuria is an autosomal recessive disease,[1] which means that the defective gene responsible for the disease is located on an autosome, and two copies of the defective gene (one inherited from each parent) are required in order to be born with the disease. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disease both carry one copy of the defective gene, but usually do not experience any signs or symptoms of the disease. Although signs and symptoms are rare, there are some directly and indirectly associated with cystinuria. These sign and symptoms consist of 1) hematuria- blood in the urine, 2) flank pain – pain in the side due to kidney pain, 3) renal colic – intense, cramping pain due to stones in the urinary tract, 4) obstructive uropathy- urinary tract disease due to obstruction, and 5) urinary tract infections.[citation needed]","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SLC3A1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC3A1"},{"link_name":"SLC7A9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC7A9"},{"link_name":"cystine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystine"},{"link_name":"lysine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysine"},{"link_name":"ornithine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithine"},{"link_name":"arginine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"cystine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"prevalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence"},{"link_name":"Libyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"Swedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedes"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-omim-7"}],"sub_title":"Cause","text":"Cystinuria is caused by mutations in the SLC3A1 and SLC7A9 genes. These defects prevent proper reabsorption of basic, or positively charged, amino acids: cystine, lysine, ornithine, arginine.[6] Under normal circumstances, this protein allows certain amino acids, including cystine, to be reabsorbed into the blood from the filtered fluid that will become urine. Mutations in either of these genes disrupt the ability of this transporter protein to reabsorb these amino acids, allowing them to become concentrated in the urine. As the levels of cystine in the urine increase, it forms cystine crystals, resulting in kidney stones. Cystine crystals form hexagonal-shaped crystals that can be viewed upon microscopic analysis of the urine. The other amino acids that are not reabsorbed do not create crystals in urine.[citation needed]The overall prevalence of cystinuria is approximately 1 in 7,000 neonates (from 1 in 2,500 neonates in Libyan Jews to 1 in 100,000 among Swedes).[7]","title":"Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"precipitate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitate"},{"link_name":"urine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine"},{"link_name":"neutral or acidic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"inborn errors of metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Garrod's tetrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrod%27s_tetrad"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Cystinuria is characterized by the inadequate reabsorption of cystine in the proximal convoluted tubules after the filtering of the amino acids by the kidney's glomeruli, thus resulting in an excessive concentration of this amino acid in the urine. Cystine may precipitate out of the urine, if the urine is neutral or acidic, and form crystals or stones in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. It is one of several inborn errors of metabolism included in the Garrod's tetrad. The disease is attributed to deficiency in transport and metabolism of amino acids.[citation needed]","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hemogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemogram"},{"link_name":"intravenous pyelogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_pyelogram"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Blood: Routine hemogram along with blood sugar, urea, and creatinine.\nUrine: For cystine crystals, and casts. The most specific test is the cyanide–nitroprusside test\nUltrasound/CT scan to reveal if a stone is present.\nGenetic analysis to determine which mutation associated with the disease may be present. Currently genotyping is not available in the United States but might be available in Spain, Italy, UK, Germany and Russia (by private companies in Germany and Russia).Regular X-rays often fail to show the cystine stones, however they can be visualized in the diagnostic procedure that is called intravenous pyelogram (IVP). Stones may show up on XR with a fuzzy gray appearance. They are radioopaque due to sulfur content, though more difficult to visualize than calcium oxalate stones.[citation needed]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"methionine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine"},{"link_name":"chelation therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelation_therapy"},{"link_name":"penicillamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillamine"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10603157-9"},{"link_name":"Tiopronin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiopronin"},{"link_name":"Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_shock_wave_lithotripsy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScienceDaily-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ScienceDaily-11"}],"text":"Initial treatment is with adequate hydration, alkalization of the urine with citrate supplementation or acetazolamide, and dietary modification to reduce salt and protein intake (especially methionine). If this fails then patients are usually started on chelation therapy with an agent such as penicillamine.[8][9] Tiopronin is another agent.\nOnce renal stones have formed, however, the first-line treatment is endoscopic laser lithotripsy. ESWL (Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy) is often not effective because of the hardness of the stones that do not fragment easily. Conventional open-abdominal surgery is rarely used but has proven to be effective treatment modalities for patients with more advanced disease. Adequate hydration is the foremost aim of treatment to prevent cystine stones. The goal is to increase the urine volume because the concentration of cystine in the urine is reduced which prevents cystine from precipitating from the urine and forming stones. People with cystine stones should consume 5 to 7 liters a day. The rationale behind alkalizing the urine is that cystine tends to stay in solution and causes no harm. In order to alkalize the urine, sodium bicarbonate has been used. One must be careful in alkalizing their urine because it could lead to other forms of stones in process of preventing cystine stones. Penicillamine is a drug that acts to form a complex with cystine that is 50 times more soluble than cystine itself. Percutaneous nephrolithotripsy (PNL) is performed via a port created by puncturing the kidney through the skin and enlarging the access port to 1 cm in diameter. Most of the time, cystine stones are too dense to be broken up by shock (ESWL) so PNL is needed.[citation needed]Videos of surgery are available on various websites that show stone removal by percutaneous nephrolithotomy.[citation needed]In February 2017, an article was published in Nature Medicine entitled \"Alpha lipoic acid treatment prevents cystine urolithiasis in a mouse model of cystinuria\", suggesting that a high dose of the readily available antioxidant, alpha-lipoic acid at 2,700 mg/67 kg body weight daily reduced the incidence of stones. The effects were dose dependent.[10] The results are unprecedented for cystinuria.[11] A clinical trial is underway based on this mouse model.[11]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mammalian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"},{"link_name":"canines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog"},{"link_name":"maned wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maned_wolf"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"Newfoundland dogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_dog"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"This disease is known to occur in at least four mammalian species: humans, domestic canines, domestic ferrets and a wild canid, the maned wolf of South America.\nCystine uroliths have been demonstrated, usually in male dogs, from approximately 70 breeds including the Australian cattle dog, Australian shepherd, Basenji, Basset, Bullmastiff, Chihuahua, Scottish deerhound, Scottish terrier, Staffordshire terrier, Welsh corgi, and both male and female Newfoundland dogs.[12]","title":"Occurrence in animals"}]
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[{"image_text":"Cystinuria has an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Autosomal_recessive_-_en.svg/220px-Autosomal_recessive_-_en.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Cystine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystine"},{"title":"Cysteine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine"},{"title":"Tiopronin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiopronin"},{"title":"International Cystinuria Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Cystinuria_Foundation"},{"title":"Hartnup disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartnup_disease"},{"title":"Cystinosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystinosis"},{"title":"Homocystinuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homocystinuria"},{"title":"Medullary sponge kidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medullary_sponge_kidney"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Cystinuria | Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program\". rarediseases.info.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190415224645/https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6237/disease","url_text":"\"Cystinuria | Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program\""},{"url":"https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6237/disease","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rule, A. D.; Krambeck, A. E.; Lieske, J. C. (2011). \"Chronic Kidney Disease in Kidney Stone Formers\". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 6 (8): 2069–75. doi:10.2215/CJN.10651110. PMC 3156433. PMID 21784825.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3156433","url_text":"\"Chronic Kidney Disease in Kidney Stone Formers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2215%2FCJN.10651110","url_text":"10.2215/CJN.10651110"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3156433","url_text":"3156433"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21784825","url_text":"21784825"}]},{"reference":"Rule, A. D.; Bergstralh, E. J.; Melton, L. J.; Li, X.; Weaver, A. L.; Lieske, J. C. (2009). \"Kidney Stones and the Risk for Chronic Kidney Disease\". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 4 (4): 804–11. doi:10.2215/CJN.05811108. PMC 2666438. PMID 19339425.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666438","url_text":"\"Kidney Stones and the Risk for Chronic Kidney Disease\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2215%2FCJN.05811108","url_text":"10.2215/CJN.05811108"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666438","url_text":"2666438"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339425","url_text":"19339425"}]},{"reference":"Shah, Sorvin M. (15 January 2020). \"Cystinuria: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia\". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000346.htm","url_text":"\"Cystinuria: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia\""}]},{"reference":"Biyani CS, Cartledge JJ (2006). \"Cystinuria—Diagnosis and Management\" (PDF). EAU-EBU Update Series. 4 (5): 175–83. doi:10.1016/j.eeus.2006.06.001. ISSN 1871-2592. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2015-04-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012710/http://eu-acme.org/europeanurology/upload_articles/Cystinuria.pdf","url_text":"\"Cystinuria—Diagnosis and Management\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eeus.2006.06.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.eeus.2006.06.001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1871-2592","url_text":"1871-2592"},{"url":"http://eu-acme.org/europeanurology/upload_articles/Cystinuria.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ahmed, K.; Dasgupta, P.; Khan, M. S. (2006). \"Cystine calculi: Challenging group of stones\". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 82 (974): 799–801. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2005.044156. PMC 2653923. PMID 17148700.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2653923","url_text":"\"Cystine calculi: Challenging group of stones\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fpgmj.2005.044156","url_text":"10.1136/pgmj.2005.044156"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2653923","url_text":"2653923"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17148700","url_text":"17148700"}]},{"reference":"Ahmed, Kamran; Khan, Mohammad Shamim; Thomas, Kay; Challacombe, Ben; Bultitude, Matthew; Glass, Jonathan; Tiptaft, Richard; Dasgupta, Prokar (2008). \"Management of Cystinuric Patients: An Observational, Retrospective, Single-Centre Analysis\". Urologia Internationalis. 80 (2): 141–4. doi:10.1159/000112603. PMID 18362482. S2CID 719486.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000112603","url_text":"10.1159/000112603"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18362482","url_text":"18362482"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:719486","url_text":"719486"}]},{"reference":"Joly, Dominique; Rieu, Philippe; méJean, Arnaud; Gagnadoux, Marie-France; Daudon, Michel; Jungers, P. (1999). \"Treatment of cystinuria\". Pediatric Nephrology. 13 (9): 945–50. doi:10.1007/s004670050736. PMID 10603157. S2CID 20984151.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004670050736","url_text":"10.1007/s004670050736"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10603157","url_text":"10603157"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20984151","url_text":"20984151"}]},{"reference":"Zee, Tiffany; Bose, Neelanjan; Zee, Jarcy; Beck, Jennifer N.; Yang, See; Parihar, Jaspreet; Yang, Min; Damodar, Sruthi; Hall, David (March 2017). \"α-Lipoic acid treatment prevents cystine urolithiasis in a mouse model of cystinuria\". Nature Medicine. 23 (3): 288–290. doi:10.1038/nm.4280. ISSN 1078-8956. PMC 5656064. PMID 28165480.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5656064","url_text":"\"α-Lipoic acid treatment prevents cystine urolithiasis in a mouse model of cystinuria\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm.4280","url_text":"10.1038/nm.4280"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1078-8956","url_text":"1078-8956"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5656064","url_text":"5656064"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28165480","url_text":"28165480"}]},{"reference":"\"Alpha-lipoic acid prevents kidney stones in mouse model of rare genetic disease: Research leads to clinical trial for cystinuria\". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2017-07-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/02/170206111926.htm","url_text":"\"Alpha-lipoic acid prevents kidney stones in mouse model of rare genetic disease: Research leads to clinical trial for cystinuria\""}]},{"reference":"D Bannasch; PS Henthorn (2009). \"Changing Paradigms in Diagnosis of Inherited Defects Associated with Uroliths\". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 39 (1): 111–125. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.09.006. PMC 2628803. PMID 19038654.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2628803","url_text":"\"Changing Paradigms in Diagnosis of Inherited Defects Associated with Uroliths\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cvsm.2008.09.006","url_text":"10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.09.006"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2628803","url_text":"2628803"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19038654","url_text":"19038654"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Strand
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Paul Strand
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["1 Background","2 Career","2.1 Photo League","2.2 Still photography and filmmaking","2.3 Communism","2.4 Later years in Europe","3 Personal life","4 Legacy","5 Publications","6 Film","7 Exhibitions","8 Public collections","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
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American photographer (1890–1976)
For the baseball player, see Paul Strand (baseball).
Paul StrandPaul Strand in a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz (1917)BornNathaniel Paul Stransky(1890-10-16)October 16, 1890Brooklyn, New YorkDiedMarch 31, 1976(1976-03-31) (aged 85)Orgeval, YvelinesNationalityAmericanKnown forPhotography, Filmmaking
Paul Strand (October 16, 1890 – March 31, 1976) was an American photographer and filmmaker who, along with fellow modernist photographers like Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Weston, helped establish photography as an art form in the 20th century. In 1936, he helped found the Photo League, a cooperative of photographers who banded together around a range of common social and creative causes. His diverse body of work, spanning six decades, covers numerous genres and subjects throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa.
Background
Paul Strand was born Nathaniel Paul Stransky on October 16, 1890, in New York; his Bohemian parents were merchant Jacob Stransky and Matilda Stransky (née Arnstein). When Paul was 12, his father gave him a camera as a present.
Career
Wall Street (1915)
In his late teens, he was a student of renowned documentary photographer Lewis Hine at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School. It was while on a field trip in this class that Strand first visited the 291 art gallery – operated by Stieglitz and Edward Steichen – where exhibitions of work by forward-thinking modernist photographers and painters would move Strand to take his photographic hobby more seriously. Stieglitz later promoted Strand's work in the 291 gallery itself, in his photography publication Camera Work, and in his artwork in the Hieninglatzing studio. Some of this early work, like the well-known Wall Street, experimented with formal abstractions (influencing, among others, Edward Hopper and his idiosyncratic urban vision). Other of Strand's works reflect his interest in using the camera as a tool for social reform. When taking portraits, he would often mount a false brass lens to the side of his camera while photographing using a second working lens hidden under his arm. This meant that Strand's subjects likely had no idea he was taking their picture. It was a move some criticized.
Photo League
Strand was one of the founders of the Photo League, an association of photographers who advocated using their art to promote social and political causes. Strand and Elizabeth McCausland were "particularly active" in the League, with Strand serving as "something of an elder statesman." Both Strand and McCausland were "clearly left-leaning," with Strand "more than just sympathetic to Marxist ideas." Strand, McCausland, Ansel Adams, and Nancy Newhall all contributed to the League's publication, Photo News.
Still photography and filmmaking
Over the next few decades, Strand worked in motion pictures as well as still photography. His first film was Manhatta (1921), also known as New York the Magnificent, a silent film showing the day-to-day life of New York City made with painter/photographer Charles Sheeler. Manhatta includes a shot similar to Strand's famous Wall Street (1915) photograph. In 1932–35, he lived in Mexico and worked on Redes (1936), a film commissioned by the Mexican government, released in the US as The Wave. Other films he was involved with were the documentary The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and the pro-union, anti-fascist Native Land (1942).
From 1933 to 1952, Strand had no darkroom of his own and used those of others.
Communism
In December 1947, the Photo League appeared on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO).
In 1948, CBS commissioned Strand to contribute a photo for an advertisement captured "It is Now Tomorrow": Strand's photo showed television antennas atop New York City.
On January 17, 1949, Strand signed in support of Communist Party leaders (Benjamin J. Davis Jr., Eugene Dennis, William Z. Foster, John Gates, Gil Green (politician), Gus Hall, Irving Potash, Jack Stachel, Robert G. Thompson, John Williamson, Henry Winston, Carl Winter) in the Smith Act trials, along with Lester Cole, Martha Dodd, W.E.B. Dubois, Henry Pratt Fairchild, Howard Fast, Shirley Graham, Robert Gwathmey, E.Y. Harburg, Joseph H. Levy, Albert Maltz, Philip Morrison, Clarence Parker, Muriel Rukeyser, Alfred K. Stern (husband of Martha Dodd), Max Weber, and Henry Wilcox.
Later years in Europe
The Family, from Un Paese (1955)
In June 1949, Strand left the United States to present Native Land at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in Czechoslovakia. The remaining 27 years of his life were spent in Orgeval, France, where, despite never learning the language, he maintained an impressive, creative life, assisted by his third wife, fellow photographer Hazel Kingsbury Strand.
Although Strand is best known for his early abstractions, his return to still photography in this later period produced some of his most significant work in the form of six book "portraits" of place: Time in New England (1950), La France de Profil (1952), Un Paese (featuring photographs of Luzzara and the Po River Valley in Italy, Einaudi, 1955), Tir a'Mhurain / Outer Hebrides (1962), Living Egypt (1969, with James Aldridge) and Ghana: An African Portrait (with commentary by Basil Davidson; 1976).
Personal life
Portrait, Washington Square Park (1917)
Strand married the painter Rebecca Salsbury on January 21, 1922. He photographed her frequently, sometimes in unusually intimate, closely cropped compositions. Following their divorce in 1933, Strand met Virginia Stevens and married her in 1936. They divorced in 1950. He married Hazel Kingsbury in 1951 and they remained married until his death in 1976."
The timing of Strand's departure to France is coincident with the first libel trial of his friend Alger Hiss, with whom he maintained a correspondence until his death. Although he was never officially a member of the Communist Party, many of Strand's collaborators were either Party members (James Aldridge; Cesare Zavattini) or prominent left-leaning writers and activists (Basil Davidson). Many of his friends were also Communists or suspected of being so (Member of Parliament D. N. Pritt; film director Joseph Losey; Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid; actor Alex McCrindle). Strand was also closely involved with Frontier Films, one of more than 20 organizations that were identified as "subversive" and "un-American" by the US Attorney General. When he was asked by an interviewer why he decided to go to France, Strand began by noting that in America, at the time of his departure, "McCarthyism was becoming rife and poisoning the minds of an awful lot of people."
During the 1950s, and owing to a printing process that was reportedly only available in that country at the time, Strand insisted that his books be printed in Leipzig, East Germany, even if it meant they were initially banned in the American market on account of their Communist provenance.
Following Strand's move to Europe, it was later revealed in de-classified intelligence files, obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and now preserved at the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona, that he was closely monitored by security services.
Legacy
In 1984 Strand was posthumously inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.
The highest price reached by a Strand photograph in the art market was by Akeley Motion Picture Camera (1922), who sold by $783,750 at Christie's New York, on 4 April 2013.
Publications
Time in New England (1950)
La France de Profil (1952)
Un Paese (1955)
Tir a'Mhurain / Outer Hebrides (1962)
Living Egypt (1969), with James Aldridge
Ghana: An African Portrait (1976), with commentary by Basil Davidson
Film
Manhatta (1921; with Charles Sheeler), "considered to be the first American avant-garde film"
Exhibitions
Paul Strand: Photographs 1915–1945, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1945
Paul Strand: Photography and Film for the 20th Century, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2014; Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 2016; Fundación Mapfre, Madrid, 2020–21
Paul Strand: The Balance of Forces, Fondation Henri Cartier-Bresson, Paris, 2023
Public collections
The Art Institute of Chicago
The Cleveland Museum of Art
Dallas Museum of Art
J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Philadelphia Museum of Art
Princeton University Art Museum
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Moderna Museet, Stockholm
Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Museum of Modern Art, New York, 39 prints (as of 8 January 2022)
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne
San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Saint Louis Art Museum
Smithsonian Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C.
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 9 prints (as of 11 January 2022)
References
^ AnOther (15 March 2016). "How Paul Strand Paved the Way For Photographic Modernism". AnOther. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ Dama, Francesco (28 June 2016). "An Intimate Encounter with Paul Strand's Photographic Journeys". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Philadelphia Museum of Art - Exhibitions - Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography".
^ "Paul Strand". Retrieved 16 August 2022.
^ Wells, Walter, Silent Theater: The Art of Edward Hopper, London/New York: Phaidon, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7148-4541-8
^ Conway, Richard (30 October 2014). "Paul Strand, Master of Modernism, in Retrospect". Time magazine. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
^ Robinson, Gerald H. (2006). Photography, History & Science. Carl Mautz Publishing. pp. 38 (Photo League), 43 (documentarian), 91 (Realism), 111 (influence on Ansel Adams). ISBN 9781887694278. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
^ "Symphonies of steel and stone: silent cinema and the city". The Guardian. 21 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ a b Strand, Paul (1987). Paul Strand. pp. 62 (dark room), 72 (AGLOSO). Retrieved 23 June 2020.
^ Spigel, Lynn (2008). TV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television. University of Chicago Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780226769684. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
^ "Defense of arrested and indicted Communist leaders, 1948-49". House of Representatives Report No. 1700. US GPO. 1950. p. 46. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
^ a b "I posed for Paul Strand: the day the great photographer walked into my village in Italy". The Guardian. 16 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ a b "Paul Strand's Hebrides: Subtle, sensitive with a dash of Marxist steel". The Guardian. 20 September 2012.
^ "Paul Strand's intimate and rich Hebridean images bought for Scottish gallery". The Guardian. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ New York, New York, Marriage Index 1866-1937
^ Buselle, Rebecca and Wilner-Stack, Trudy (2005). Paul Strand: Southwest (1st ed.). New York: Aperture. ISBN 9781931788465.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Adams, Robert, 1937- (1994). Why people photograph : selected essays and reviews (1st ed.). New York: Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-597-7. OCLC 31404331.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link), page 86
^ "Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War" (PDF).
^ "Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography".
^ "Paul Strand". International Photography Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2022-07-25.
^ Akeley Motion Picture Camera, New York, 1922, Christie's, 4 April 2013...
^ "Paul Strand, Charles Sheeler, Manhatta, 1921". MoMa.
^ "Paul Strand: Photographs 1915–1945". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Paul Strand's Sense of Things". The New Yorker. 15 April 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Sean O'Hagan's top 10 photography exhibitions of 2016". the Guardian. 7 December 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Photographic pioneer Paul Strand on show". BBC News. 18 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ James Pickford, "V&A's Strand retrospective offers glimpse of lost world", The Financial Times, 15 March 2016.
^ "Paul Strand: Honest gaze of a craftsman's camera". Financial Times. 22 March 2016. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Paul Strand exhibition in Barcelona". Fundación Mapfre. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.artic.edu. 1890. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.clevelandart.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". collections.dma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.getty.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". collections.lacma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.philamuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". artmuseum.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand (1890–1976)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Paul Strand". sis.modernamuseet.se. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.musee-orsay.fr. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Paul Strand". emuseum.mfah.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Paul Strand". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
^ "Paul Strand". www.nga.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Paul Strand". www.nationalgalleries.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Paul Strand". www.ngv.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". www.sfmoma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Paul Strand". www.slam.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.
^ "Paul Strand". americanart.si.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
^ "Search Results". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "Paul Strand". whitney.org. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
Further reading
Barberie, Peter. Paul Strand: Aperture Masters of Photography. Hong Kong: Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-077-0.
Barberie, Peter and Bock Amanda N., ed. “Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography.” Yale University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0300207927.
Gualtieri, Elena. Paul Strand Cesare Zavattini: Lettere e immagini, Bologna, Bora, 2005. ISBN 88-88600-37-X.
Hambourg, Maria Morris, Paul Strand circa 1916, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998 (available for download)
MacDonald, Fraser. "Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War" History of Photography 28.4 (2004), 356–373.
Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Photography (3rd ed.). New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-7892-0028-7.
Stange, Maren. Paul Strand: essays on his life and work, New York: Aperture 1991.
Weaver, Mike, "Paul Strand: Native Land", The Archive 27 (Tucson, Arizona: Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, 1990), 5–15.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paul Strand.
Library of Congress: Paul Strand
Paul Strand at MOMA
Karen Rosenberg, "Expatriate Humanist, Lens Up His Sleeve, Paul Strand's Lifetime of Photography, at Philadelphia Museum" – The New York Times
Zachary Rosen, "The photographer Paul Strand's 1960's Portrait of Ghana" – Africa is a Country
Paul Strand at IMDb
Paul Strand, Lumiere Gallery
Paul Strand, Photographs of the American Southwest and Mexico. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
vtePaul StrandPhotographs
Wall Street (1915)
Abstraction, Porch Shadows (1916)
Bowls (1916)
The White Fence (1916)
Akeley Motion Picture Camera (1922)
The Family, Luzzara, Italy (1953)
Feature films
Manhatta (1921) (co-director, with Charles Sheeler)
Redes (1936) (co-screenwriter)
The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) (co-cinematographer)
Native Land (1942) (co-director, with Leo Hurwitz)
Family and relationships
Rebecca Salsbury James (first wife)
Lewis Hine (teacher)
Related
Photo League
291 (art gallery)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
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WorldCat
National
Norway
Spain
France
BnF data
Catalonia
Germany
Israel
Belgium
United States
Sweden
Latvia
Czech Republic
Australia
Croatia
Netherlands
Poland
Vatican
Academics
CiNii
Artists
South Australia
Museum of Modern Art
Musée d'Orsay
National Gallery of Canada
Victoria
Photographers' Identities
RKD Artists
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People
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Other
SNAC
IdRef
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Strand (baseball)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Strand_(baseball)"},{"link_name":"modernist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist"},{"link_name":"Alfred Stieglitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Stieglitz"},{"link_name":"Edward Weston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Weston"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Photo League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_League"}],"text":"For the baseball player, see Paul Strand (baseball).Paul Strand (October 16, 1890 – March 31, 1976) was an American photographer and filmmaker who, along with fellow modernist photographers like Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Weston, helped establish photography as an art form in the 20th century.[1][2] In 1936, he helped found the Photo League, a cooperative of photographers who banded together around a range of common social and creative causes. His diverse body of work, spanning six decades, covers numerous genres and subjects throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa.","title":"Paul Strand"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bohemian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Paul Strand was born Nathaniel Paul Stransky on October 16, 1890, in New York; his Bohemian parents were merchant Jacob Stransky and Matilda Stransky (née Arnstein).[3] When Paul was 12, his father gave him a camera as a present.[4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wall_Street_by_Paul_Strand,_1915.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lewis Hine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Hine"},{"link_name":"Ethical Culture Fieldston School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_Culture_Fieldston_School"},{"link_name":"the 291 art gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Galleries_of_the_Photo-Secession"},{"link_name":"Edward Steichen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Steichen"},{"link_name":"Camera Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_Work"},{"link_name":"Wall Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_(photograph)"},{"link_name":"abstractions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_art"},{"link_name":"Edward Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Hopper"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Wall Street (1915)In his late teens, he was a student of renowned documentary photographer Lewis Hine at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School. It was while on a field trip in this class that Strand first visited the 291 art gallery – operated by Stieglitz and Edward Steichen – where exhibitions of work by forward-thinking modernist photographers and painters would move Strand to take his photographic hobby more seriously. Stieglitz later promoted Strand's work in the 291 gallery itself, in his photography publication Camera Work, and in his artwork in the Hieninglatzing studio. Some of this early work, like the well-known Wall Street, experimented with formal abstractions (influencing, among others, Edward Hopper and his idiosyncratic urban vision).[5] Other of Strand's works reflect his interest in using the camera as a tool for social reform.[citation needed] When taking portraits, he would often mount a false brass lens to the side of his camera while photographing using a second working lens hidden under his arm. This meant that Strand's subjects likely had no idea he was taking their picture.[6] It was a move some criticized.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Photo League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_League"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth McCausland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_McCausland"},{"link_name":"Ansel Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansel_Adams"},{"link_name":"Nancy Newhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Newhall"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robinson-7"}],"sub_title":"Photo League","text":"Strand was one of the founders of the Photo League, an association of photographers who advocated using their art to promote social and political causes. Strand and Elizabeth McCausland were \"particularly active\" in the League, with Strand serving as \"something of an elder statesman.\" Both Strand and McCausland were \"clearly left-leaning,\" with Strand \"more than just sympathetic to Marxist ideas.\" Strand, McCausland, Ansel Adams, and Nancy Newhall all contributed to the League's publication, Photo News.[7]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manhatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhatta"},{"link_name":"1921","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921_in_film"},{"link_name":"silent film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_film"},{"link_name":"Charles Sheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sheeler"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Redes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redes_(film)"},{"link_name":"1936","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_in_film"},{"link_name":"The Plow That Broke the Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plow_That_Broke_the_Plains"},{"link_name":"1936","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_in_film"},{"link_name":"Native Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Land"},{"link_name":"1942","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1942_in_film"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stockeregg-9"}],"sub_title":"Still photography and filmmaking","text":"Over the next few decades, Strand worked in motion pictures as well as still photography. His first film was Manhatta (1921), also known as New York the Magnificent, a silent film showing the day-to-day life of New York City made with painter/photographer Charles Sheeler.[8] Manhatta includes a shot similar to Strand's famous Wall Street (1915) photograph. In 1932–35, he lived in Mexico and worked on Redes (1936), a film commissioned by the Mexican government, released in the US as The Wave. Other films he was involved with were the documentary The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and the pro-union, anti-fascist Native Land (1942).From 1933 to 1952, Strand had no darkroom of his own and used those of others.[9]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney_General%27s_List_of_Subversive_Organizations"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stockeregg-9"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spigel-10"},{"link_name":"Benjamin J. Davis Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr."},{"link_name":"Eugene Dennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Dennis"},{"link_name":"William Z. 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Dubois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.E.B._Dubois"},{"link_name":"Henry Pratt Fairchild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Pratt_Fairchild"},{"link_name":"Howard Fast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Fast"},{"link_name":"Robert Gwathmey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gwathmey"},{"link_name":"E.Y. Harburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.Y._Harburg"},{"link_name":"Albert Maltz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Maltz"},{"link_name":"Muriel Rukeyser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_Rukeyser"},{"link_name":"Max Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Communism","text":"In December 1947, the Photo League appeared on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO).[9]In 1948, CBS commissioned Strand to contribute a photo for an advertisement captured \"It is Now Tomorrow\": Strand's photo showed television antennas atop New York City.[10]On January 17, 1949, Strand signed in support of Communist Party leaders (Benjamin J. Davis Jr., Eugene Dennis, William Z. Foster, John Gates, Gil Green (politician), Gus Hall, Irving Potash, Jack Stachel, Robert G. Thompson, John Williamson, Henry Winston, Carl Winter) in the Smith Act trials, along with Lester Cole, Martha Dodd, W.E.B. Dubois, Henry Pratt Fairchild, Howard Fast, Shirley Graham, Robert Gwathmey, E.Y. Harburg, Joseph H. Levy, Albert Maltz, Philip Morrison, Clarence Parker, Muriel Rukeyser, Alfred K. Stern (husband of Martha Dodd), Max Weber, and Henry Wilcox.[11]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Family_by_Paul_Strand.jpg"},{"link_name":"Karlovy Vary International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlovy_Vary_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"Orgeval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orgeval,_Yvelines"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Luzzara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzzara"},{"link_name":"Po River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_River"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian-ohagan-2016-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian-macdonald-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"James Aldridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Aldridge"},{"link_name":"Basil Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Davidson"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Later years in Europe","text":"The Family, from Un Paese (1955)In June 1949, Strand left the United States to present Native Land at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in Czechoslovakia. The remaining 27 years of his life were spent in Orgeval, France, where, despite never learning the language, he maintained an impressive, creative life, assisted by his third wife, fellow photographer Hazel Kingsbury Strand.[citation needed]Although Strand is best known for his early abstractions, his return to still photography in this later period produced some of his most significant work in the form of six book \"portraits\" of place: Time in New England (1950), La France de Profil (1952), Un Paese (featuring photographs of Luzzara and the Po River Valley in Italy, Einaudi, 1955),[12] Tir a'Mhurain / Outer Hebrides[13][14] (1962), Living Egypt (1969, with James Aldridge) and Ghana: An African Portrait (with commentary by Basil Davidson; 1976).[citation needed]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Strand_(American_-_Portrait_-_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rebecca Salsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Salsbury_James"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Alger Hiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alger_Hiss"},{"link_name":"Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_USA"},{"link_name":"Cesare Zavattini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Zavattini"},{"link_name":"Basil Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Davidson"},{"link_name":"Member of Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"D. N. Pritt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._N._Pritt"},{"link_name":"Joseph Losey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Losey"},{"link_name":"Hugh MacDiarmid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_MacDiarmid"},{"link_name":"Alex McCrindle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_McCrindle"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Leipzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Freedom of Information Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"University of Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Portrait, Washington Square Park (1917)Strand married the painter Rebecca Salsbury on January 21, 1922.[15] He photographed her frequently, sometimes in unusually intimate, closely cropped compositions. Following their divorce in 1933, Strand met Virginia Stevens and married her in 1936. They divorced in 1950. He married Hazel Kingsbury in 1951 and they remained married until his death in 1976.\"[16]The timing of Strand's departure to France is coincident with the first libel trial of his friend Alger Hiss, with whom he maintained a correspondence until his death. Although he was never officially a member of the Communist Party, many of Strand's collaborators were either Party members (James Aldridge; Cesare Zavattini) or prominent left-leaning writers and activists (Basil Davidson). Many of his friends were also Communists or suspected of being so (Member of Parliament D. N. Pritt; film director Joseph Losey; Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid; actor Alex McCrindle). Strand was also closely involved with Frontier Films, one of more than 20 organizations that were identified as \"subversive\" and \"un-American\" by the US Attorney General. When he was asked by an interviewer why he decided to go to France, Strand began by noting that in America, at the time of his departure, \"McCarthyism was becoming rife and poisoning the minds of an awful lot of people.\"[17]During the 1950s, and owing to a printing process that was reportedly only available in that country at the time, Strand insisted that his books be printed in Leipzig, East Germany, even if it meant they were initially banned in the American market on account of their Communist provenance.[18]\nFollowing Strand's move to Europe, it was later revealed in de-classified intelligence files, obtained under the Freedom of Information Act and now preserved at the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona, that he was closely monitored by security services.[19]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Photography_Hall_of_Fame_and_Museum"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Akeley Motion Picture Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akeley_Motion_Picture_Camera"},{"link_name":"Christie's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christie%27s"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"In 1984 Strand was posthumously inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.[20]The highest price reached by a Strand photograph in the art market was by Akeley Motion Picture Camera (1922), who sold by $783,750 at Christie's New York, on 4 April 2013.[21]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian-ohagan-2016-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theguardian-macdonald-13"},{"link_name":"James Aldridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Aldridge"},{"link_name":"Basil Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Davidson"}],"text":"Time in New England (1950)\nLa France de Profil (1952)\nUn Paese (1955)[12]\nTir a'Mhurain / Outer Hebrides (1962)[13]\nLiving Egypt (1969), with James Aldridge\nGhana: An African Portrait (1976), with commentary by Basil Davidson","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manhatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhatta"},{"link_name":"Charles Sheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sheeler"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Manhatta (1921; with Charles Sheeler), \"considered to be the first American avant-garde film\"[22]","title":"Film"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Museum of Modern Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Victoria and Albert Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Fundación Mapfre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapfre"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Fondation Henri Cartier-Bresson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondation_Henri_Cartier-Bresson"}],"text":"Paul Strand: Photographs 1915–1945, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1945[23]\nPaul Strand: Photography and Film for the 20th Century, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2014;[24] Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 2016;[25][26][27][28] Fundación Mapfre, Madrid, 2020–21[29]\nPaul Strand: The Balance of Forces, Fondation Henri Cartier-Bresson, Paris, 2023","title":"Exhibitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Art Institute of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_Institute_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"The Cleveland Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Dallas Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"J. Paul Getty Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Paul_Getty_Museum"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles County Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Princeton University Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Moderna Museet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_Museet"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Musée d'Orsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Museum of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Houston"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Museum of Modern Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"National Galleries of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Galleries_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Museum of Modern Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Museum_of_Modern_Art"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Saint Louis Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louis_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Museum of American Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Museum_of_American_Art"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Victoria and Albert Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Whitney Museum of American Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Museum_of_American_Art"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"text":"The Art Institute of Chicago[30]\nThe Cleveland Museum of Art[31]\nDallas Museum of Art[32]\nJ. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles[33]\nLos Angeles County Museum of Art[34]\nPhiladelphia Museum of Art[35]\nPrinceton University Art Museum[36]\nMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York[37]\nModerna Museet, Stockholm[38]\nMusée d'Orsay, Paris[39]\nMuseum of Fine Arts, Houston[40]\nMuseum of Modern Art, New York, 39 prints (as of 8 January 2022)[41]\nNational Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.[42]\nNational Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh[43]\nNational Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne[44]\nSan Francisco Museum of Modern Art[45]\nSaint Louis Art Museum[46]\nSmithsonian Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C.[47]\nVictoria and Albert Museum, London[48]\nWhitney Museum of American Art, New York, 9 prints (as of 11 January 2022)[49]","title":"Public collections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89381-077-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89381-077-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0300207927","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300207927"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"88-88600-37-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-88600-37-X"},{"link_name":"available for download","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.metmuseum.org/research/metpublications/Paul_Strand_circa_1916?Tag=&title=&author=&pt=&tc=&dept=&fmt="},{"link_name":"\"Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060218210003/http://www.sages.unimelb.edu.au/staff/macdonald.html"},{"link_name":"History of Photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Photography_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Rosenblum, Naomi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Rosenblum"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7892-0028-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0028-7"}],"text":"Barberie, Peter. Paul Strand: Aperture Masters of Photography. Hong Kong: Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-077-0.\nBarberie, Peter and Bock Amanda N., ed. “Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography.” Yale University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0300207927.\nGualtieri, Elena. Paul Strand Cesare Zavattini: Lettere e immagini, Bologna, Bora, 2005. ISBN 88-88600-37-X.\nHambourg, Maria Morris, Paul Strand circa 1916, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998 (available for download)\nMacDonald, Fraser. \"Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War\" History of Photography 28.4 (2004), 356–373.\nRosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Photography (3rd ed.). New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-7892-0028-7.\nStange, Maren. Paul Strand: essays on his life and work, New York: Aperture 1991.\nWeaver, Mike, \"Paul Strand: Native Land\", The Archive 27 (Tucson, Arizona: Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona, 1990), 5–15.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Wall Street (1915)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Wall_Street_by_Paul_Strand%2C_1915.jpg/220px-Wall_Street_by_Paul_Strand%2C_1915.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Family, from Un Paese (1955)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/The_Family_by_Paul_Strand.jpg/220px-The_Family_by_Paul_Strand.jpg"},{"image_text":"Portrait, Washington Square Park (1917)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Paul_Strand_%28American_-_Portrait_-_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Paul_Strand_%28American_-_Portrait_-_New_York_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"AnOther (15 March 2016). \"How Paul Strand Paved the Way For Photographic Modernism\". AnOther. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anothermag.com/art-photography/8482/how-paul-strand-paved-the-way-for-photographic-modernism","url_text":"\"How Paul Strand Paved the Way For Photographic Modernism\""}]},{"reference":"Dama, Francesco (28 June 2016). \"An Intimate Encounter with Paul Strand's Photographic Journeys\". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://hyperallergic.com/295439/an-intimate-encounter-with-paul-strands-photographic-journeys/","url_text":"\"An Intimate Encounter with Paul Strand's Photographic Journeys\""}]},{"reference":"\"Philadelphia Museum of Art - Exhibitions - Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philamuseum.org/exhibitions/805.html?page=4","url_text":"\"Philadelphia Museum of Art - Exhibitions - Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". Retrieved 16 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theartstory.org/artist/strand-paul/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"Conway, Richard (30 October 2014). \"Paul Strand, Master of Modernism, in Retrospect\". Time magazine. Retrieved 24 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://time.com/104072/paul-strand-retrospective/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand, Master of Modernism, in Retrospect\""}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Gerald H. (2006). Photography, History & Science. Carl Mautz Publishing. pp. 38 (Photo League), 43 (documentarian), 91 (Realism), 111 (influence on Ansel Adams). ISBN 9781887694278. Retrieved 23 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-NeC2Rmb1jYC","url_text":"Photography, History & Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781887694278","url_text":"9781887694278"}]},{"reference":"\"Symphonies of steel and stone: silent cinema and the city\". The Guardian. 21 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2016/mar/21/city-symphonies-silent-cinema-paul-strand-victoria-albert","url_text":"\"Symphonies of steel and stone: silent cinema and the city\""}]},{"reference":"Strand, Paul (1987). Paul Strand. pp. 62 (dark room), 72 (AGLOSO). Retrieved 23 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nnFOAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Paul Strand"}]},{"reference":"Spigel, Lynn (2008). TV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television. University of Chicago Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780226769684. Retrieved 23 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=q_dekIDkPtMC","url_text":"TV by Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226769684","url_text":"9780226769684"}]},{"reference":"\"Defense of arrested and indicted Communist leaders, 1948-49\". House of Representatives Report No. 1700. US GPO. 1950. p. 46. Retrieved 23 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wWBbChEhg50C","url_text":"House of Representatives Report No. 1700"}]},{"reference":"\"I posed for Paul Strand: the day the great photographer walked into my village in Italy\". The Guardian. 16 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/mar/16/i-posed-for-paul-strand-the-day-the-great-photographer-walked-into-my-village-in-italy","url_text":"\"I posed for Paul Strand: the day the great photographer walked into my village in Italy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand's Hebrides: Subtle, sensitive with a dash of Marxist steel\". The Guardian. 20 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/uk/scotland-blog/2012/sep/20/scotland-photography-paul-strand","url_text":"\"Paul Strand's Hebrides: Subtle, sensitive with a dash of Marxist steel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand's intimate and rich Hebridean images bought for Scottish gallery\". The Guardian. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/scotland-blog/2015/jul/22/paul-strands-intimate-and-rich-hebridean-images-bought-for-scottish-gallery","url_text":"\"Paul Strand's intimate and rich Hebridean images bought for Scottish gallery\""}]},{"reference":"Buselle, Rebecca and Wilner-Stack, Trudy (2005). Paul Strand: Southwest (1st ed.). New York: Aperture. ISBN 9781931788465.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781931788465","url_text":"9781931788465"}]},{"reference":"Adams, Robert, 1937- (1994). Why people photograph : selected essays and reviews (1st ed.). New York: Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-597-7. OCLC 31404331.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89381-597-7","url_text":"0-89381-597-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31404331","url_text":"31404331"}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.frasermacdonald.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/MacDonald-F-Hist-Photog-2004.pdf","url_text":"\"Paul Strand and the Atlanticist Cold War\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.studiointernational.com/index.php/paul-strand-master-of-photography-review","url_text":"\"Paul Strand: Master of Modern Photography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". International Photography Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2022-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://iphf.org/inductees/paul-strand/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand, Charles Sheeler, Manhatta, 1921\". MoMa.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.moma.org/collection/works/299884","url_text":"\"Paul Strand, Charles Sheeler, Manhatta, 1921\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoMa","url_text":"MoMa"}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand: Photographs 1915–1945\". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/2344","url_text":"\"Paul Strand: Photographs 1915–1945\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand's Sense of Things\". The New Yorker. 15 April 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newyorker.com/culture/photo-booth/paul-strands-sense-of-things","url_text":"\"Paul Strand's Sense of Things\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sean O'Hagan's top 10 photography exhibitions of 2016\". the Guardian. 7 December 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/dec/07/top-10-photography-exhibitions-of-2016-sean-ohagan","url_text":"\"Sean O'Hagan's top 10 photography exhibitions of 2016\""}]},{"reference":"\"Photographic pioneer Paul Strand on show\". BBC News. 18 March 2016. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-35823949","url_text":"\"Photographic pioneer Paul Strand on show\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand: Honest gaze of a craftsman's camera\". Financial Times. 22 March 2016. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/981f00c6-ec5d-11e5-bb79-2303682345c8","url_text":"\"Paul Strand: Honest gaze of a craftsman's camera\""},{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/981f00c6-ec5d-11e5-bb79-2303682345c8","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand exhibition in Barcelona\". Fundación Mapfre. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fundacionmapfre.org/en/art-and-culture/exhibitions/historical/year-2020/paul-strand/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand exhibition in Barcelona\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.artic.edu. 1890. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.artic.edu/artists/36816/paul-strand","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.clevelandart.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.clevelandart.org/art/collection/search?filter-artist=Paul%20Strand","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". collections.dma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://collections.dma.org/search?facet_artist_creator=paul%2Bstrand","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.getty.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/person/103KHM","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". collections.lacma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://collections.lacma.org/node/168270","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.philamuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.philamuseum.org/search/collections?filters=%7B%22artist%22%3A%5B%22Paul%20Strand%22%5D%7D","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". artmuseum.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/collections/makers/2590","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand (1890–1976)\". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pstd/hd_pstd.htm","url_text":"\"Paul Strand (1890–1976)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". sis.modernamuseet.se. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://sis.modernamuseet.se/people/2836/paul-strand/objects","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.musee-orsay.fr. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/recherche?union_artist_names=35828&search_type=advanced_search","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". emuseum.mfah.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://emuseum.mfah.org/people/1386/paul-strand/objects","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". The Museum of Modern Art. Retrieved 2022-01-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.moma.org/artists/5685","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.nga.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nga.gov/collection/artist-info.6729.html?artobj_artistId=6729&pageNumber=1","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.nationalgalleries.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/artists/paul-strand","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.ngv.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/artist/2168/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.sfmoma.org. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sfmoma.org/artist/Paul_Strand/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". www.slam.org. Retrieved 2022-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.slam.org/collection/objects/8701/","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". americanart.si.edu. Retrieved 2022-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://americanart.si.edu/artist/paul-strand-4675","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Search Results\". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://collections.vam.ac.uk/search/","url_text":"\"Search Results\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paul Strand\". whitney.org. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://whitney.org/artists/3500","url_text":"\"Paul Strand\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_L%C3%A9onard
|
Philippe Léonard
|
["1 Club career","2 International career","3 Honours","4 References","5 External links"]
|
Belgian footballer
Philippe LéonardPersonal informationFull name
Philippe LéonardDate of birth
(1974-02-14) 14 February 1974 (age 50)Place of birth
Liège, BelgiumHeight
1.85 m (6 ft 1 in)Position(s)
Left backSenior career*Years
Team
Apps
(Gls)1992–1996
Standard Liège
124
(3)1996–2003
Monaco
99
(3)2004
Nice
14
(0)2004–2006
Standard Liège
55
(3)2006–2007
Feyenoord
2
(0)2008
Rapid București
10
(0)Total
304
(9)International career1991
Belgium U19
2
(0)1992–1995
Belgium U21
9
(1)1994–2006
Belgium
26
(0)
*Club domestic league appearances and goals
Philippe Léonard (born 14 February 1974) is a Belgian former professional footballer who played as a left back.
After playing most notably for Standard Liège and Monaco, he rarely appeared for his following four teams (including Standard again) in a 16-year professional career.
Léonard represented Belgium at Euro 2000, being an international over a 12-year period.
Club career
Born in Liège, Léonard started his professional career at Standard Liège. There, alongside Régis Genaux and Michaël Goossens, he was part of The Three Musketeers generation – with Roberto Bisconti playing a smaller role – hailed for their sporting talent but with a troublesome character.
He won the Belgian Cup in 1993, only 19, having scored in the final against R. Charleroi SC, and also helped the side to two runner-up league places (1992–93 and 1994–95), each time bowing out to Anderlecht.
Subsequently, Léonard moved to France where he played with AS Monaco FC, also having a brief stint with OGC Nice. Whilst at Monaco, he scored in the semifinal of the 1997–98 UEFA Champions League against Juventus, in a 4–6 aggregate loss, being the only Belgian player to score at this stage of the competition; in the previous round, he helped oust Manchester United on the away goals rule after a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford.
After two Ligue 1 titles with Monaco, to which he contributed with 38 games and two goals combined, Léonard returned to Standard, where he again finished second, in the 2005–06 season, again to Anderlecht. Subsequently, he had short spells abroad, with Feyenoord and FC Rapid București.
Léonard ended his career in 2009, at the age of 35, after not being able to find a new club. He subsequently took up writing columns in Belgian newspapers.
International career
Léonard played 26 times with Belgium, and was in the team for UEFA Euro 2000, where he appeared in the 2–1 win for the hosts against Sweden. His debut coming in 1994, he was a regular fixture in the next two years, as right back Genaux, but Belgium failed to qualify for Euro 1996.
They both lost their place with the arrival of coach Georges Leekens, and Léonard was dropped at the last minute for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Because of a conflict with then coach Robert Waseige, he spent five years without being called after Euro 2000, so he also missed the 2002 World Cup in Japan and South Korea.
Honours
Standard Liège
Belgian Cup: 1992–93
Monaco
Ligue 1: 1996–97, 1999–2000
Coupe de la Ligue: 2002–03; Runner-up 2000–01
Trophée des Champions: 1997, 2000
References
^ "Monaco 3–2 Juventus". UEFA.com. 15 April 1998. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
^ "Monaco and bust for sorry United". The Independent. 19 March 1998. Archived from the original on 26 May 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
External links
Philippe Léonard – French league stats at LFP – also available in French (archived)
Philippe Léonard at National-Football-Teams.com
Philippe Léonard – FIFA competition record (archived)
Philippe Léonard at FootballDatabase.eu
Philippe Léonard Interview
vteBelgium squad – UEFA Euro 2000
1 De Wilde
2 Deflandre
3 Valgaeren
4 Staelens (c)
5 Clement
6 Vanderhaeghe
7 Wilmots
8 Goor
9 É. Mpenza
10 Strupar
11 Verheyen
12 De Vlieger
13 Herpoel
14 Walem
15 Peeters
16 Nilis
17 Léonard
18 Van Kerckhoven
19 Van Meir
20 De Bilde
21 M. Mpenza
22 Hendrikx
Coach: Waseige
|
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There, alongside Régis Genaux and Michaël Goossens, he was part of The Three Musketeers generation – with Roberto Bisconti playing a smaller role – hailed for their sporting talent but with a troublesome character.He won the Belgian Cup in 1993, only 19, having scored in the final against R. Charleroi SC, and also helped the side to two runner-up league places (1992–93 and 1994–95), each time bowing out to Anderlecht.Subsequently, Léonard moved to France where he played with AS Monaco FC, also having a brief stint with OGC Nice. Whilst at Monaco, he scored in the semifinal of the 1997–98 UEFA Champions League against Juventus, in a 4–6 aggregate loss, being the only Belgian player to score at this stage of the competition;[1] in the previous round, he helped oust Manchester United on the away goals rule after a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford.[2]After two Ligue 1 titles with Monaco, to which he contributed with 38 games and two goals combined, Léonard returned to Standard, where he again finished second, in the 2005–06 season, again to Anderlecht. Subsequently, he had short spells abroad, with Feyenoord and FC Rapid București.Léonard ended his career in 2009, at the age of 35, after not being able to find a new club. He subsequently took up writing columns in Belgian newspapers.","title":"Club career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"UEFA Euro 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_2000"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"right back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defender_(association_football)#Full-back"},{"link_name":"Euro 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Euro_96"},{"link_name":"Georges Leekens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Leekens"},{"link_name":"1998 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"Robert Waseige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Waseige"},{"link_name":"2002 World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_FIFA_World_Cup"}],"text":"Léonard played 26 times with Belgium, and was in the team for UEFA Euro 2000, where he appeared in the 2–1 win for the hosts against Sweden. His debut coming in 1994, he was a regular fixture in the next two years, as right back Genaux, but Belgium failed to qualify for Euro 1996.They both lost their place with the arrival of coach Georges Leekens, and Léonard was dropped at the last minute for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Because of a conflict with then coach Robert Waseige, he spent five years without being called after Euro 2000, so he also missed the 2002 World Cup in Japan and South Korea.","title":"International career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belgian Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Cup"},{"link_name":"Ligue 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligue_1"},{"link_name":"1996–97","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_French_Division_1"},{"link_name":"1999–2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_French_Division_1"},{"link_name":"Coupe de la Ligue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupe_de_la_Ligue"},{"link_name":"2002–03","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_Coupe_de_la_Ligue_Final"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Coupe_de_la_Ligue_Final"},{"link_name":"Trophée des Champions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troph%C3%A9e_des_Champions"},{"link_name":"1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_Troph%C3%A9e_des_Champions"},{"link_name":"2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Troph%C3%A9e_des_Champions"}],"text":"Standard LiègeBelgian Cup: 1992–93MonacoLigue 1: 1996–97, 1999–2000\nCoupe de la Ligue: 2002–03; Runner-up 2000–01\nTrophée des Champions: 1997, 2000","title":"Honours"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Monaco 3–2 Juventus\". UEFA.com. 15 April 1998. Retrieved 12 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=1997/matches/round=1168/match=54818/postmatch/lineups/index.html","url_text":"\"Monaco 3–2 Juventus\""}]},{"reference":"\"Monaco and bust for sorry United\". The Independent. 19 March 1998. Archived from the original on 26 May 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-monaco-and-bust-for-sorry-united-1151168.html","url_text":"\"Monaco and bust for sorry United\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-monaco-and-bust-for-sorry-united-1151168.html","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=1997/matches/round=1168/match=54818/postmatch/lineups/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Monaco 3–2 Juventus\""},{"Link":"https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-monaco-and-bust-for-sorry-united-1151168.html","external_links_name":"\"Monaco and bust for sorry United\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football-monaco-and-bust-for-sorry-united-1151168.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/1/https://www.ligue1.com/joueur/leonard-philippe","external_links_name":"Philippe Léonard"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/1/https://www.lfp.fr/joueur/leonard-philippe","external_links_name":"in French"},{"Link":"https://www.national-football-teams.com/player/10110.html","external_links_name":"Philippe Léonard"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150905/http://www.fifa.com/fifa-tournaments/players-coaches/people=154179/index.html","external_links_name":"Philippe Léonard"},{"Link":"https://www.footballdatabase.eu/en/player/details/243","external_links_name":"Philippe Léonard"},{"Link":"https://sans-filtre.fr/philippe-leonard-itineraire-princier/","external_links_name":"Philippe Léonard Interview"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.an
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.an
|
["1 Second level domain","2 Phasing out","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Internet country code top-level domain for the former Netherlands Antilles
.anLogo of the University of the Netherlands Antilles, which administered the .an domainIntroduced1993Removed31 July 2015TLD typeCountry code top-level domainStatusDeleted (succeeded by .cw and .sx)RegistryUniversity of the Netherlands AntillesSponsorUniversity of the Netherlands AntillesIntended useEntities connected with the former Netherlands AntillesRegistration restrictionsRegistrations must correspond to name or trademark of registrant; proof of identity must be shown on registrationStructureRegistrations taken at second level and also at third level beneath some second-level labelsDocumentsRules
.an was the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for the former Netherlands Antilles. It was administered by the University of the Netherlands Antilles. The domain was phased out after the Netherlands Antilles were dissolved in 2010. As of November 2010 the .an domain remained live with over 800 domains registered under .an, including secondary levels. On 31 July 2015, use of the domain was discontinued.
Second level domain
Including google.com.an and youtube.com.an (both delegations to Google's nameservers), yahoo.com.an (delegated to Yahoo's nameservers but no A record for yahoo.com.an or www.yahoo.com.an), and visa.com.an (delegation to ultradns.net's nameservers). With the deletion of AN from the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 register the ISO codes CW (Curaçao), SX (Sint Maarten) and BQ (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba), the ccTLDs .cw, .sx and .bq have been designated (although the last one is not in use).
Phasing out
On 31 December 2013, the University of the Netherlands Antilles began removing inactive .an domain names from their databases and systems. On 31 October 2014, ICANN removed the .an domain from the DNS root servers.
See also
Internet in the Netherlands
Internet in the Netherlands Antilles
ISO 3166-2:AN
.nl – ccTLD for the Netherlands
.eu – ccTLD for the European Union
.aw – ccTLD for Aruba
.bq – ccTLD for the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba)
.cw – ccTLD for Curaçao
.sr – ccTLD for Suriname
.sx – ccTLD for Sint Maarten, the Dutch side of the island.
References
^ ".an". IANA. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
^ "Internetextensie .AN per 31 juli definitief uit de lucht". versgeperst.com. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
^ "AN Zone File". Robert Baskerville's ccTLD analysis data. 2 January 2008. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
^ "Registering .CW Domains". University of Curaçao. Archived from the original on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
External links
IANA .an whois information
vteList of top-level domains for the Kingdom of the NetherlandsNetherlands
.amsterdam
.frl
.nl
Constituencies and Territories
.aw
.cw
.sx
Unassigned
.bq
Deprecated
.an
vteCountry code top-level domainsISO 3166-1
A .ac .ad .ae .af .ag .ai .al .am .ao .aq .ar .as .at .au .aw .ax .az
B .ba .bb .bd .be .bf .bg .bh .bi .bj .bm .bn .bo .br .bs .bt .bw .by .bz
C .ca .cc .cd .cf .cg .ch .ci .ck .cl .cm .cn .co .cr .cu .cv .cw .cx .cy .cz
D .de .dj .dk .dm .do .dz
E .ec .ee .eg .er .es .et .eu
F .fi .fj .fk .fm .fo .fr
G .ga .gd .ge .gf .gg .gh .gi .gl .gm .gn .gp .gq .gr .gs .gt .gu .gw .gy
H .hk .hm .hn .hr .ht .hu
I .id .ie .il .im .in .io .iq .ir .is .it
J .je .jm .jo .jp
K .ke .kg .kh .ki .km .kn .kp .kr .kw .ky .kz
L .la .lb .lc .li .lk .lr .ls .lt .lu .lv .ly
M .ma .mc .md .me .mg .mh .mk .ml .mm .mn .mo .mp .mq .mr .ms .mt .mu .mv .mw .mx .my .mz
N .na .nc .ne .nf .ng .ni .nl .no .np .nr .nu .nz
O .om
P .pa .pe .pf .pg .ph .pk .pl .pm .pn .pr .ps .pt .pw .py
Q .qa
R .re .ro .rs .ru .rw
S .sa .sb .sc .sd .se .sg .sh .si .sk .sl .sm .sn .so .sr .ss .st .su .sv .sx .sy .sz
T .tc .td .tf .tg .th .tj .tk .tl .tm .tn .to .tr .tt .tv .tw .tz
U .ua .ug .uk .us .uy .uz
V .va .vc .ve .vg .vi .vn .vu
W .wf .ws
Y .ye .yt
Z .za .zm .zw
Internationalized (IDN) ccTLDCyrillic scriptArabic scriptBrahmic scriptsChinese charactersOther scripts
.бг (bg, Bulgaria)
.бел (bieł, Belarus)
.ею (eyu, European Union)
.қаз (qaz, Kazakhstan)
.мон (mon, Mongolia)
.мкд (mkd, North Macedonia)
.рф (rf, Russia)
.срб (srb, Serbia)
.укр (ukr, Ukraine)
الجزائر. (al-Jazā’ir, Algeria)
مصر. (Miṣr, Egypt)
بھارت. (Bhārat, India)
ایران. (Irân, Iran)
الاردن. (al-Urdun, Jordan)
فلسطين. (Filasṭin, Palestine)
پاکستان. (Pākistān, Pakistan)
قطر. (Qaṭar)
السعودية. (al-Saudiah, Saudi Arabia)
سوريا. (Sūryā, Syria)
تونس. (Tunis, Tunisia)
امارات. (Emarat, UAE)
عمان. (ʻUmān, Oman)
مليسيا. (Maleesya, Malaysia)
المغرب. (al-Maġrib, Morocco)
سودان. (Sūdān, Sudan)
اليمن. (al-Yaman, Yemen)
.বাংলা (Bāṅla, Bangladesh)
.ভাৰত (Bhārat, India)
.ভারত (Bhārat, India)
.भारत (Bhārat, India)
.భారత్ (Bhārat, India)
.ભારત (Bhārat, India)
.ਭਾਰਤ (Bhārat, India)
.ଭାରତ (Bhārata, India)
.இந்தியா (Indiyā, India)
.ລາວ (Lao, Laos)
.சிங்கப்பூர் (Cinkappūr, Singapore)
.ලංකා (Laṅkā, Sri Lanka)
.இலங்கை (Ilaṅkai, Sri Lanka)
.ไทย (Thai, Thailand)
.中国 (Zhōngguó/Zung1gwok3/Tiong-kok/Chûng-koet, China)
.中國 (Zhōngguó/Zung1gwok3/Tiong-kok/Chûng-koet, China)
.香港 (Xiānggǎng/Hoeng1gong2, Hong Kong)
.澳門 (Àomén/Ou3mun4, Macau)
.澳门 (Àomén/Ou3mun4, Macau)
.新加坡 (Xīnjiāpō/Sin-ka-pho, Singapore)
.台灣 (Táiwān/Tâi-uân/Thòi-vàn, Taiwan)
.台湾 (Táiwān/Tâi-uân/Thòi-vàn, Taiwan)
.հայ (hay, Armenia)
.ευ (ey, European Union)
.გე (ge, Georgia)
.ελ (el, Greece)
.한국 (Han-guk, South Korea)
ישראל. (Yisrael, Israel)
Proposed ccTLDs
.κπ (kp, Cyprus) - .日本 (Nippon, Japan)
OthersReserved / unassignedAllocated / unusedPhased out / deleted
.bl .bq .eh .mf .su .xk
.bv .gb .sj
.an .bu .cs .dd .tp .um .yu .zr
See also: Generic top-level domains
This Internet domain name article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article related to the former Netherlands Antilles is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
|
[{"title":"Internet in the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_in_the_Netherlands"},{"title":"Internet in the Netherlands Antilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_in_the_Netherlands_Antilles"},{"title":"ISO 3166-2:AN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-2:AN"},{"title":".nl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nl"},{"title":".eu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eu"},{"title":".aw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.aw"},{"title":"Aruba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba"},{"title":".bq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bq"},{"title":"Caribbean Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Netherlands"},{"title":"Bonaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaire"},{"title":"Sint Eustatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Eustatius"},{"title":"Saba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saba_(island)"},{"title":".cw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cw"},{"title":"Curaçao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao"},{"title":".sr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sr"},{"title":"Suriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriname"},{"title":".sx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sx"},{"title":"Sint Maarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sint_Maarten"}]
|
[{"reference":"\".an\". IANA. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/an.html","url_text":"\".an\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority","url_text":"IANA"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110426030033/https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/an.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Internetextensie .AN per 31 juli definitief uit de lucht\". versgeperst.com. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.versgeperst.com/nieuws/268890/internetextensie-an-stopt-per-31-juli.html","url_text":"\"Internetextensie .AN per 31 juli definitief uit de lucht\""}]},{"reference":"\"AN Zone File\". Robert Baskerville's ccTLD analysis data. 2 January 2008. Archived from the original on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080119124003/http://www.robert.net/ccTLD/AN","url_text":"\"AN Zone File\""},{"url":"http://www.robert.net/ccTLD/AN","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Registering .CW Domains\". University of Curaçao. Archived from the original on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140817071254/http://www.uoc.cw/ictssite/index.php/domreg/registering-a-cw-domain","url_text":"\"Registering .CW Domains\""},{"url":"http://www.uoc.cw/ictssite/index.php/domreg/registering-a-cw-domain","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070821050549/http://www.una.an/an_domreg/reglement.asp","external_links_name":"Rules"},{"Link":"https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/an.html","external_links_name":"\".an\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110426030033/https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/an.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.versgeperst.com/nieuws/268890/internetextensie-an-stopt-per-31-juli.html","external_links_name":"\"Internetextensie .AN per 31 juli definitief uit de lucht\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080119124003/http://www.robert.net/ccTLD/AN","external_links_name":"\"AN Zone File\""},{"Link":"http://www.robert.net/ccTLD/AN","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140817071254/http://www.uoc.cw/ictssite/index.php/domreg/registering-a-cw-domain","external_links_name":"\"Registering .CW Domains\""},{"Link":"http://www.uoc.cw/ictssite/index.php/domreg/registering-a-cw-domain","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/an.html","external_links_name":"IANA .an whois information"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=.an&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=.an&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_Minister
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Minister (government)
|
["1 Etymology","2 Types of ministers and their name","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]
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Politician who heads a government ministry
"Councillor of state" redirects here. For the differently spelled role it should not be confused for, see Counsellor of State.
"Junior Minister" redirects here. For the position in the government of Northern Ireland, see Junior Minister (Northern Ireland).
Part of the Politics series onExecutive government
Head of state
Monarch
Supreme leader
President
President of the council of state
Government
Head of government ChancellorChief executiveChief ministerFirst ministerPremierPrime ministerPresident of the Council of MinistersPresident of the government
CabinetGovernment formationCabinet collective responsibility
Ministry MinisterSecretary
Other GovernorMayorPresidency
Systems
Monarchy (Constitutional)
Republic (Parliamentary)
Directorial
Parliamentary (Westminster)
Semi-parliamentary (simul simul)
Semi-presidential (cohabitational)
Presidential
Lists
National governments
Heads of state and government
Politics portalvte
A minister is a politician who heads a ministry, making and implementing decisions on policies in conjunction with the other ministers. In some jurisdictions the head of government is also a minister and is designated the 'prime minister', 'premier', 'chief minister', 'chancellor' or other title.
In Commonwealth realm jurisdictions which use the Westminster system of government, ministers are usually required to be members of one of the houses of Parliament or legislature, and are usually from the political party that controls a majority in the lower house of the legislature. In other jurisdictions—such as Belgium, Mexico, Netherlands, Philippines, Slovenia, and Nigeria—the holder of a cabinet-level post or other government official is not permitted to be a member of the legislature. Depending on the administrative arrangements in each jurisdiction, ministers are usually heads of a government department and members of the government's ministry, cabinet and perhaps of a committee of cabinet. Some ministers may be more senior than others, and some may hold the title 'assistant minister' or 'deputy minister'. Some jurisdictions, with a large number of ministers, may designate ministers to be either in the inner or outer ministry or cabinet.
In some jurisdictions—such as Hong Kong, Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and the United States—holders of an equivalent cabinet-level post are called secretaries (e.g., the Home Secretary in the United Kingdom, Secretary of State in the United States). Some holders of a cabinet-level post may have another title, such as 'Attorney-General' or 'Postmaster-General'.
Etymology
Finland's first female ministers were brought to Finnish Parliament shortly after the turn of the 20th century. From left to right: Hedvig Gebhard (1867–1961), member of parliament, and Miina Sillanpää (1866–1952), Minister of Social Affairs, in 1910.
The term 'minister' also is used in diplomacy, for a diplomat of the second class, such as in the title Minister Plenipotentiary, ranking between an Ambassador and a Minister Resident.
The term minister comes from Middle English, deriving from the Old French word ministre, originally minister in Latin, meaning "servant, attendant", which itself was derived from the word 'minus' meaning "less".
In jurisdictions that use the Westminster system of government—such as the United Kingdom and Australia—ministers or their equivalents are selected from the legislature, and usually from the political party that controls a majority in the lower house of the legislature. In jurisdictions with strict separation of powers—such as Belgium, Mexico, Netherlands, Philippines, and the United States—ministers cannot be members of the legislature, and a legislator chosen to become a minister must resign from the legislature.
Normally the leader of the majority party becomes the prime minister, or an office of equivalent function, and selects the other ministers. In the Westminster system, these ministers continue to represent their constituency in parliament while being part of the government. Individuals who are not in parliament may be appointed as a minister, usually in order to bring special skills to the government.
In the United Kingdom, a government minister does not have to be a member of either House of Parliament. In practice, however, convention is that ministers must be members of either the House of Commons or House of Lords in order to be accountable to Parliament. From time to time, Prime Ministers appoint non-parliamentarians as ministers. In recent years such ministers have been appointed to the House of Lords.
Types of ministers and their name
Various countries form ministries as Cabinets (see List of cabinets). Other cabinets are usually included in Politics of ..-articles
Lists of incumbents groups lists of ministers by country
Specific ministers include:
Agriculture minister
Commerce minister
Communications minister
Culture minister
Defence minister
Deputy prime minister
Education minister
Energy minister
Environment minister
Finance minister
Foreign minister
Housing minister
Health minister
Industry minister
Interior minister
Justice minister
Labour minister
Prime minister
Public works minister
Science minister
Sports minister
Tourism minister
Transport minister
Some ministers may hold multiple portfolios and lead several ministries simultaneously, while multiple ministers with separate portfolios may oversee a single ministry, or may also share both ministerial and deputy-ministerial portfolios in different ministries. A cabinet minister can sometimes be in charge of no ministry at all, and is then known as a "minister without portfolio".
See also
Minister of the Crown
Ministry (government department)
Ministry (collective executive)
Notes
^ Once a minister's position is vacant, the minister can be a member of parliament, in accordance with article 57 section 3 of the Dutch constitution.
References
^ "Minister". Oxford Dictionary. Archived from the original on November 19, 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
^ "Minister". Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
^ "Grondwet". wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2021-03-10.
^ a b "Real bridge-builder became Finland's first female government minister - thisisFINLAND". thisisFINLAND. 2017-09-29. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
^ Korppi-Tommola, Aura (2016), Miina Sillanpää - edelläkävijä, Helsinki: Suomen kirjallisuuden seura, ISBN 978-952-222-724-9
^ The word Minister Definition, dictionary.com dictionaries
^ Maer, Lucinda (2017-09-04). "Ministers in the House of Lords".
vteCommon types of government ministers and ministriesLeadership
President
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Counsellor of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counsellor_of_State"},{"link_name":"Junior Minister (Northern Ireland)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_Minister_(Northern_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"politician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politician"},{"link_name":"ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"head of government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government"},{"link_name":"prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth realm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_realm"},{"link_name":"Westminster system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament"},{"link_name":"legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a-4"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria"},{"link_name":"government department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)"},{"link_name":"cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_(government)"},{"link_name":"assistant minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Minister"},{"link_name":"deputy minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_minister"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"secretaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_(title)"},{"link_name":"Home Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Secretary"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Attorney-General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney-General"},{"link_name":"Postmaster-General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmaster-General"}],"text":"\"Councillor of state\" redirects here. For the differently spelled role it should not be confused for, see Counsellor of State.\"Junior Minister\" redirects here. For the position in the government of Northern Ireland, see Junior Minister (Northern Ireland).A minister is a politician who heads a ministry,[1][2] making and implementing decisions on policies in conjunction with the other ministers. In some jurisdictions the head of government is also a minister and is designated the 'prime minister', 'premier', 'chief minister', 'chancellor' or other title.In Commonwealth realm jurisdictions which use the Westminster system of government, ministers are usually required to be members of one of the houses of Parliament or legislature, and are usually from the political party that controls a majority in the lower house of the legislature. In other jurisdictions—such as Belgium, Mexico, Netherlands,[3][note 1] Philippines, Slovenia, and Nigeria—the holder of a cabinet-level post or other government official is not permitted to be a member of the legislature. Depending on the administrative arrangements in each jurisdiction, ministers are usually heads of a government department and members of the government's ministry, cabinet and perhaps of a committee of cabinet. Some ministers may be more senior than others, and some may hold the title 'assistant minister' or 'deputy minister'. Some jurisdictions, with a large number of ministers, may designate ministers to be either in the inner or outer ministry or cabinet.In some jurisdictions—such as Hong Kong, Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and the United States—holders of an equivalent cabinet-level post are called secretaries (e.g., the Home Secretary in the United Kingdom, Secretary of State in the United States). Some holders of a cabinet-level post may have another title, such as 'Attorney-General' or 'Postmaster-General'.","title":"Minister (government)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gebhard-Sillanpaa-1910.jpg"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Finnish Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pp-5"},{"link_name":"Hedvig Gebhard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedvig_Gebhard"},{"link_name":"Miina Sillanpää","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miina_Sillanp%C3%A4%C3%A4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pp-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"second class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_rank"},{"link_name":"Minister Plenipotentiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_Plenipotentiary"},{"link_name":"Ambassador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambassador"},{"link_name":"Minister Resident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_Resident"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"Old French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Westminster system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"separation of powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"majority party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_party"},{"link_name":"prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister"},{"link_name":"constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constituency"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Finland's first female ministers were brought to Finnish Parliament shortly after the turn of the 20th century.[4] From left to right: Hedvig Gebhard (1867–1961), member of parliament, and Miina Sillanpää (1866–1952), Minister of Social Affairs,[4][5] in 1910.The term 'minister' also is used in diplomacy, for a diplomat of the second class, such as in the title Minister Plenipotentiary, ranking between an Ambassador and a Minister Resident.The term minister comes from Middle English, deriving from the Old French word ministre, originally minister in Latin, meaning \"servant, attendant\", which itself was derived from the word 'minus' meaning \"less\".[6]In jurisdictions that use the Westminster system of government—such as the United Kingdom and Australia—ministers or their equivalents are selected from the legislature, and usually from the political party that controls a majority in the lower house of the legislature. In jurisdictions with strict separation of powers—such as Belgium, Mexico, Netherlands, Philippines, and the United States—ministers cannot be members of the legislature, and a legislator chosen to become a minister must resign from the legislature.Normally the leader of the majority party becomes the prime minister, or an office of equivalent function, and selects the other ministers. In the Westminster system, these ministers continue to represent their constituency in parliament while being part of the government. Individuals who are not in parliament may be appointed as a minister, usually in order to bring special skills to the government.In the United Kingdom, a government minister does not have to be a member of either House of Parliament. In practice, however, convention is that ministers must be members of either the House of Commons or House of Lords in order to be accountable to Parliament. From time to time, Prime Ministers appoint non-parliamentarians as ministers. In recent years such ministers have been appointed to the House of Lords.[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cabinets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_(government)"},{"link_name":"List of cabinets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cabinets"},{"link_name":"Politics of ..-articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_politics_by_country_articles"},{"link_name":"Lists of incumbents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_incumbents"},{"link_name":"Agriculture minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_minister"},{"link_name":"Commerce minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce_minister"},{"link_name":"Communications minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications"},{"link_name":"Culture minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_minister"},{"link_name":"Defence minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_minister"},{"link_name":"Deputy prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_prime_minister"},{"link_name":"Education minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_minister"},{"link_name":"Energy minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_minister"},{"link_name":"Environment minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_minister"},{"link_name":"Finance minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_minister"},{"link_name":"Foreign minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_minister"},{"link_name":"Housing minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Housing_minister"},{"link_name":"Health minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_minister"},{"link_name":"Industry minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_minister"},{"link_name":"Interior minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_minister"},{"link_name":"Justice minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_minister"},{"link_name":"Labour minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_minister"},{"link_name":"Prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister"},{"link_name":"Public works minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_works_ministries"},{"link_name":"Science minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Sports minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_minister"},{"link_name":"Tourism minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_minister"},{"link_name":"Transport minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_minister"},{"link_name":"minister without portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio"}],"text":"Various countries form ministries as Cabinets (see List of cabinets). Other cabinets are usually included in Politics of ..-articlesLists of incumbents groups lists of ministers by countrySpecific ministers include:Agriculture minister\nCommerce minister\nCommunications minister\nCulture minister\nDefence minister\nDeputy prime minister\nEducation minister\nEnergy minister\nEnvironment minister\nFinance minister\nForeign minister\nHousing minister\nHealth minister\nIndustry minister\nInterior minister\nJustice minister\nLabour minister\nPrime minister\nPublic works minister\nScience minister\nSports minister\nTourism minister\nTransport ministerSome ministers may hold multiple portfolios and lead several ministries simultaneously, while multiple ministers with separate portfolios may oversee a single ministry, or may also share both ministerial and deputy-ministerial portfolios in different ministries. A cabinet minister can sometimes be in charge of no ministry at all, and is then known as a \"minister without portfolio\".","title":"Types of ministers and their name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-a_4-0"}],"text":"^ Once a minister's position is vacant, the minister can be a member of parliament, in accordance with article 57 section 3 of the Dutch constitution.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Finland's first female ministers were brought to Finnish Parliament shortly after the turn of the 20th century.[4] From left to right: Hedvig Gebhard (1867–1961), member of parliament, and Miina Sillanpää (1866–1952), Minister of Social Affairs,[4][5] in 1910.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Gebhard-Sillanpaa-1910.jpg/170px-Gebhard-Sillanpaa-1910.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Minister of the Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_the_Crown"},{"title":"Ministry (government department)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)"},{"title":"Ministry (collective executive)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_(collective_executive)"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Minister\". Oxford Dictionary. Archived from the original on November 19, 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171119020403/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/minister","url_text":"\"Minister\""},{"url":"https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/minister","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Minister\". Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 17 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/es/diccionario/ingles/minister","url_text":"\"Minister\""}]},{"reference":"\"Grondwet\". wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2021-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001840/2018-12-21","url_text":"\"Grondwet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Real bridge-builder became Finland's first female government minister - thisisFINLAND\". thisisFINLAND. 2017-09-29. Retrieved 2017-10-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://finland.fi/life-society/real-bridge-builder-became-finlands-first-female-government-minister/","url_text":"\"Real bridge-builder became Finland's first female government minister - thisisFINLAND\""}]},{"reference":"Korppi-Tommola, Aura (2016), Miina Sillanpää - edelläkävijä, Helsinki: Suomen kirjallisuuden seura, ISBN 978-952-222-724-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-222-724-9","url_text":"978-952-222-724-9"}]},{"reference":"Maer, Lucinda (2017-09-04). \"Ministers in the House of Lords\".","urls":[{"url":"https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN05226","url_text":"\"Ministers in the House of Lords\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Norway
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Education in Norway
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["1 History of education in Norway","2 Education today","2.1 Primary school (barneskole, grades 1–7, ages 6–12)","2.2 Lower secondary school (ungdomsskole, grades 8–10, ages 13–16)","2.3 Upper secondary school (videregående skole, grades VG1–VG3, ages 16–19)","3 Educators in Norwegian schools","4 Higher education","4.1 Timeline of Norwegian higher education","5 Special education","6 Grading","7 Examinations","8 Academic schedule","8.1 Academic year in Norway","8.2 Breaks","8.3 National holidays","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Education in Norway" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)Education in NorwayNorwegian Ministry ofEducation and ResearchMinister of EducationKari Nessa Nordtun (Ap)National education budget (N/A)BudgetN/AGeneral detailsPrimary languagesNorwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk)System typeNationalCurrent systemKunnskapsløftet, since the 2006–2007 academic yearLiteracy (2015)Total100%Male100%Female100%EnrollmentTotaln/aPrimary99.9% (graduating)SecondaryN/APost secondary82% (graduating)AttainmentSecondary diplomaN/APost-secondary diplomaN/ASecondary and tertiary education divided in academic and vocational systems
Education in Norway is mandatory for all children aged from 6 to 16. Schools are typically divided into two divisions: primary and lower secondary schooling. The majority of schools in Norway are municipal, where local governments fund and manage administration. Primary and lower secondary schools are available free of charge for all Norwegian citizens as a given right.
When primary and lower secondary education is completed, upper secondary schooling is entitled to students for enrollment, which prepares students for higher education or vocational studies.
The school year in Norway runs from mid-August to late June the following year. The Christmas holiday from mid-December to early January historically divides the Norwegian school year into two terms. Presently, the second term begins in January.
History of education in Norway
Organized education in Norway dates as far back as 2000 B.C. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1153, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar.
After the Reformation of Norway in 1537, following the unification with Denmark in 1536, cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school.
In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later, when ambulatory schools (omgangsskoler) were also established. In 1827, Norway introduced the folkeskole ('people's school'), a primary school which became mandatory for seven years in 1889 and nine years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole ('foundation school') was introduced.
Traditionally poorer counties like Finnmark and Hedmark have the highest shares of inhabitants who only have completed the compulsory primary education, with numbers as high as 38%.
Under the Independent Schools Act of 2003, private schooling in Norway has become available. However, very few such schools exist in comparison to Norwegian public schools. Private schools must be founded upon a curriculum used and recognized internationally or an alternative approach to teaching – either religious or pedagogical. These schools must be approved by the government and are heavily grant-aided, and cannot select students based on subjectivity, such as skill or intelligence.
Education today
The Norwegian school system can be divided into three parts: elementary school (barneskole, ages 6–12), lower secondary school (ungdomsskole, ages 13–16), and upper secondary school (videregående skole, ages 16–19). The barneskole and ungdomsskole levels are compulsory, and are commonly referred to as grunnskole ('foundation school').
A Primary School in Norway
Elementary and lower secondary school are mandatory for all children aged 6–16. Before 1997, mandatory education in Norway started at the age of 7. Students often have to change schools when they enter lower secondary school and almost always have to change schools when they enter upper secondary school, as many schools only offer one of the levels.
Primary school (barneskole, grades 1–7, ages 6–12)
In the first year of primary school, students spend most of their time playing educational games and learning social structures, the alphabet, basic addition and subtraction, and basic English skills. In grades 2–7, they are introduced to mathematics, English, science, religion (focusing not only on Christianity but also on all other religions, their purpose, and their history), aesthetics, and music, complemented by geography, history, and social studies in the fifth grade. No official grades are given at this level. However, the teacher often writes a comment, analysis, and sometimes an unofficial grade on tests. Tests are to be taken home and shown to parents. There is also an introductory test to let the teacher know if the student is above average or is in need of some assistance at school.
Lower secondary school (ungdomsskole, grades 8–10, ages 13–16)
When the students enter lower secondary school, at age 12 or 13, they begin being graded on their work. Their grades together with their location in the country will determine whether they get accepted to their upper secondary school of choice or not. From eighth grade, students can choose one elective (valgfag) and one language. Typical offered languages are German, French, and Spanish as well as additional English and Norwegian studies. Before the educational reform of August 2006, students could choose a practical elective instead of the languages. Teens born in 1999 and later could once again choose a practical elective known as (arbeidslivsfag) or career studies upon starting lower secondary school, thus getting the option to choose two electives. The electives vary significantly between schools, even in the same municipality.
A student may take the grade 10 exam in a particular subject early as long as he or she has been granted an exemption from further instruction in the elementary/middle school curriculum of that subject.
In 2009, Norwegian fifteen-year-olds performed better in OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment than other Scandinavian countries, with significant improvement since 2006. In mathematics; however, the top 10% were estimated to lag three years behind the top-scoring students in Shanghai.
Upper secondary school (videregående skole, grades VG1–VG3, ages 16–19)
Secondary education in Norway is primarily based on public schools: In 2007, 93% of upper secondary school students attended public schools.
Until 2005, Norwegian law held private secondary schools to be illegal unless they offered a "religious or pedagogic alternative", so the only private schools in existence were religious (Christian), Steiner/Waldorf, Montessori schools, and Danielsen . The first "standard" private upper secondary schools opened in the fall of 2005.
Videregående is the equivalent to high school.
As of 2017, graduation from videregående skole was at 73%.
Prior to 1994, there were three branches of upper secondary schooling: general (language, history, etc.), mercantile (accounting, etc.), and vocational (electronics, carpentry, etc.) studies. The high school reform of 1994 ("Reform 94") merged these branches into a single system. Among the goals of the reform was that all students should have a certain amount of general studies large enough to make them eligible for higher education later, meaning more theory in vocational studies, and that it should be possible to cross over from one education path to another without losing too much credit. In the old system, two years of carpentry would be wasted if one wanted to switch to general studies, but in the new system one could keep credit for at least half of it.
Since the introduction of the reform Kunnskapsløftet ('the knowledge promise' or 'the lifting of knowledge', the word løfte having two meanings) in the fall of 2006, a student can apply for a general studies (studieforberedelse) or a vocational studies (yrkesfag) path. Inside these main paths, there are many sub-paths to follow. An upper secondary school usually offers general and vocational curriculum. Vocational studies usually follow a typical structure named the "2+2 model": after two years of school training (with workshops and a short internship in industry), the student does an apprenticeship for two years in an enterprise or a public institution. The apprenticeship is divided into one year of training and one year of practical work. Some vocational curricula are nonetheless entirely school-based, and others include three years of apprenticeship instead of two.
The new reform makes the incorporation of IT into the schooling mandatory, and many counties (responsible for the public high schools) offer laptops to general studies students for free or for a small fee. Kunnskapsløftet also makes it harder to switch between electives that are taken in the second and third year in the general studies path.
Students graduating upper secondary school are called russ in Norwegian. They often celebrate with parties and festivities, which are held a few weeks before the final examinations of the final year.
Educators in Norwegian schools
The titles of educators in Norwegian schools vary with the degrees they have.
Preschool teacher (førskolelærer or barnehagelærer): These teachers are primarily employed in kindergartens and the first four grades of primary school. To become a preschool teacher in Norway, a bachelor's degree from a university college is required.
Adjunct teacher (adjunkt): These teachers primarily work between the 5th and 10th grades of lower secondary school, but some are also employed in high schools, usually in minor subjects. To become an adjunct requires a bachelor's degree in a particular subject from a university or university college. Many adjuncts have studied other courses at a lower level, which they teach as a secondary subject (a mathematics teacher may have studied physics at a lower level, but teaches both). In addition, a one-year course in pedagogy is required.
Lecturer (lektor): Lecturers work in upper secondary school and high schools, from 8th grade up to the third year of high school. Lecturers have a master's degree from a university, along with a pedagogy course. Lecturers usually have a more academic approach to teaching than other teachers.
Higher education
Main article: Higher education in Norway
Higher education is anything beyond upper secondary school, and normally lasts three years or more. To be accepted to most higher education schools, a student must have attained a general university admissions certificate (generell studiekompetanse). This can be achieved by taking general studies while in upper secondary school or through the law of 23/5 where a person must be above 23 years of age, have five years of combined schooling and work experience and have passed exams in Norwegian, mathematics, natural sciences, English and social studies. Some degrees also require special electives in second and third grade (e.g. maths and physics for engineering studies.) The majority of higher educational institutions are run by the state and take responsibility for their own instruction, research, and dissemination of knowledge. The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT), a professionally independent agency under the Ministry of Education and Research, assures the quality of higher education in Norway.
The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim.
Where there are more applicants than students admitted, applicants are ranked based on their grades from upper secondary school. To gain access to studies commonly requiring a high GPA, like medicine, law and engineering, many students re-sit their upper secondary school examinations to improve their grades.
Higher education is broadly divided into:
Universities, which concentrate on theoretical subjects (arts, humanities, natural science), supply bachelor (three years), master (five years) and PhD (eight years) titles. Universities also run a number of professional studies including law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and psychology. However, these are generally separate departments that have little to do with the rest of the university institution. Universities can offer their own curricula at any level without external accreditation.
University colleges (høgskole), which supply a wide range of educational choices, including university degrees at bachelor, master and PhD levels, engineering degrees and professional vocations like teacher and nurse. University colleges are required to obtain accreditation from NOKUT for study programmes at the master's and PhD level. The grade system is the same as it is for universities.
Private schools, which tend to specialize in popular subjects with limited capacity in public schools, such as business management, marketing or fine arts. Private schools are not common, although the fraction of students attending private schools is 10% in higher education, compared to 4% in secondary and 1.5% in primary education.
There is no formal distinction between vocational and non-vocational higher education.
Timeline of Norwegian higher education
Before the 19th century the main source for higher education of Norwegians was the University of Copenhagen.
1750: The Norwegian Military Academy is established as the "Free Mathematical School" with officer training and technical disciplines such as geographic surveying, drawing, fortification, and mathematics.
1757: The "Mining Seminar" is established at Kongsberg to train engineers for the Kongsberg Mines. This education was moved to the Royal Frederik's University in Christiania (Oslo) in 1814 (three years after the establishment of this university).
1811: The University of Oslo is established as Universitas Regia Fredericiana modeled on the University of Berlin (the "Humboldt Model").
1859: The Norwegian University of Life Sciences is established as an agricultural school at Ås, Akershus
1910: The Norwegian Institute of Technology is established in Trondheim.
1936: The Norwegian School of Economics is established in Bergen.
1943: The BI Norwegian Business School (BI) is established as a merchant school.
1946: The University of Bergen is established.
1961: The Oslo School of Architecture and Design is established.
1972: The University of Tromsø is established.
2005: Stavanger University College is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Stavanger.
2007: Agder University College (established 1994) is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Agder.
2011: Bodø University College becomes University of Nordland, the eighth university in Norway.
2014: Telemark University College, Buskerud University College and Vestfold University College merge to form the University College of South-Eastern Norway
2018: The University College of South-Eastern Norway gain university status, becoming the University of South-Eastern Norway
Special education
Norway's first large-scale education institution for people with intellectual disabilities was founded in 1898 by educator Emma Hjorth. Since the 1970s, the government has legislated the policy that all children should be educated in local schools. Since then, special education has taken place mostly in ordinary schools. The need for special education in school depends on the individual student's abilities and capabilities. Pupils who cannot manage to yield learning outcomes from the typical teaching style have a right to special education.
In special education, the Educational/Psychological Service maintains highly qualified specialists, educational psychologists, social welfare workers, and kindergarten teachers, playing the role of safety net in society. The Educational/Psychological Service visits school, provides students with help when needed, and assists their family members. In addition to the society system, special educators play a significant role, particularly in the content of their instructions.
According to The Act relating to Universities and Colleges, universities and university colleges must take responsibility for the students' learning environment. Institutions are expected to create an inclusive and flexible learning environment that represents universal design.
Grading
Norway has multiple different grading systems, both unique ones and ones that have been based on foreign grading systems. The former most common system of grades used at university level was based on a scale running from 1.0 (worst) through 6.0 (best) with 4.0 or above being considered passing grades.
The way the new Bologna system was introduced implies that students who had started their studies while the old system still was in effect will graduate with transcripts containing grades from both systems (i.e. both numbers and letters).
Lower levels of education use a scale running from 1 through 6, with 6 being the highest and 2 the lowest passing grade. For non-final tests and mid-term evaluations the grades are often postfixed with + or - (except 6+ and 1-) and it is also common to use grades such as 5/6 or 4/3 indicating borderline grades. However, the grades students get on their final diploma are either 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
Examinations
At the conclusion of their school careers, upper secondary pupils aspire to graduate with a diploma. This is obtained by those who have passed all their subjects, and lists grades which are "based on teachers' determination of overall achievement marks of their own students." As well as these teacher-assigned grades, the students' diplomas may feature one or more examination grades. A minority of students will be chosen at random to sit an exam, a concept called trekkfag in Norwegian. The word fag means 'subject', whilst the verb å trekke can be translated as 'to draw, to pick', as one would describe picking a card from a pack. The dictionary translation of trekkfag is given as a description of the concept: "subjects students may be chosen to sit an exam for."
Academic schedule
Academic year in Norway
In Norway's schools, there are two semesters. The new academic year begins in the middle of August. The first semester begins in August and ends in December. The second semester begins in January and ends in June.
Breaks
In Norway's school, there are several long vacations. For example, after the academic year ends in June, students in Norway have summer vacation, which is eight weeks from the middle of June until the middle of August. They also have Christmas holidays after the first semester ends in December until the second semester begins in January. In addition, in the last week of October, pupils in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools have fall break, with another week-long break (winter break) in the middle of February. Students at universities or university colleges typically do not have fall and winter breaks.
National holidays
In Norway, there are thirteen national holidays that students are free from school. In the middle of April, there are four days of Easter break. Norway celebrates International Workers' Day on May 1 and its Constitution Day on May 17. Furthermore, Norway also celebrates Ascension Day in May, with the exact date depending on the each year. Ten days after Ascension Day, the country celebrates Pentecost, and Whit Monday the next day. Students do not have to attend school on these national holidays. However, some of the holidays are included in the long break. For example, New Year's day and Christmas are national holidays in Norway, but students have Christmas holidays at that time.
See also
List of universities in Norway
Open access in Norway
References
^ "Norway Literacy". indexmundi.com.
^ a b c "General information about education in Norway". Nokut. Retrieved 2022-12-02.
^ Aamodt, Per (1990). "A New Deal for Norwegian Higher Education?". European Journal of Education. 25 (2): 171–185. doi:10.2307/1503087. JSTOR 1503087.
^ Cultice, Wendell (1967). "The School System of Norway". The Clearing House. 42 (2): 119–121. doi:10.1080/00098655.1967.11477461. JSTOR 30183285.
^ "Her bor de med høyest utdanning". Archived from the original on 2016-04-15. Retrieved 2016-05-08.
^ regjeringen.no (2019-10-14). "The Independent Schools Act". Government.no. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "Norway | Eurydice". eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
^ "Act relating to independent schools (The Independent Schools Act) - Lovdata". lovdata.no. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
^ Nilssen, Fred Harald. (2014, 25. juni). Grunnskolen. In Store norske leksikon. .
^ Levatino, Antonina; Ferrer-Esteban, Gerard; Verger, Antoni (May 2024). "Unveiling teachers' work preferences: A conjoint experiment on the implications of school governance reform across three countries". Teaching and Teacher Education. 146: 104631. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104631. ISSN 0742-051X.
^ in Norwegian § 2-1 - Mulighet for å avlegge eksamen før 10. trinn
^ "PISA-Programme for International Student Assessment". Archived from the original on 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2010-12-08.
^ "Statistics Norway: Upper secondary school students by type of study and school ownership". Statistisk Sentralbyrå (Norwegian) - select all regions, all 'studieretning', all 'eierforhold', year 2007 revidert. Click 'vis tabell' ('show table'), compute percentages from result.
^ "Aldri har så mange fullført videregående skole". 29 August 2017.
^ Johnson, Palmer (1936). "The Norwegian System of Public Secondary Education". The School Review. 44.8 (1936): 608–14. doi:10.1086/439985. JSTOR 1080362. S2CID 144518118.
^ a b c "TVET in Norway". UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
^ Nordland, Eva (1969). "Teacher Training for Norwegian Schools". International Review of Education. 15 (1): 65–74. Bibcode:1969IREdu..15...65N. doi:10.1007/BF01428142. JSTOR 3442072. S2CID 145531280.
^ a b "Education – from Kindergarten to Adult Education" (PDF). European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Retrieved 2023-07-21.
^ Simonsen, Eva (2023-01-27). "Emma Hjorth". Norsk biografisk leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2023-07-17.
^ Befring, Edvard (1990-01-01). "Special Education in Norway". International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 37 (2): 125–136. doi:10.1080/0156655900370205. ISSN 1034-912X.
^ Cameron, David Lansing; Lindqvist, Gunilla (2014-07-03). "School district administrators' perspectives on the professional activities and influence of special educators in Norway and Sweden". International Journal of Inclusive Education. 18 (7): 669–685. doi:10.1080/13603116.2013.803609. ISSN 1360-3116. S2CID 144682267.
^ Tveit, Sverre (10 September 2013). "Educational assessment in Norway". Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. 21 (2): 230. doi:10.1080/0969594X.2013.830079. hdl:10852/88050. S2CID 144067411.
^ "Trekkfag (Norwegian to English)". Ordnett.no. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
^ a b "外務省: 世界の学校を見てみよう！ ノルウェー". www.mofa.go.jp. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway (2016). "Norway Data 2015". Data of Norway.
Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. "Upper secondary education" (in Norwegian). Norway.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-11-11. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. "Primary and lower secondary schooling" (in Norwegian). Norway.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-11-11. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
Further reading
(in Japanese) Ishii, Yuri (石井 由理; Yamaguchi University). "Awareness of Global Citizenship in the Norwegian School Curriculum(Educational Philosophy)" (Archive; ノルウェー学校教育課程に見られる地球市民の視点(教育哲学)). International Christian University publications. I-A, Educational studies (国際基督教大学学報. I-A, 教育研究) 43, 29-38, 2001-03. International Christian University. See profile at CiNii. See profile at International Christian University Repository (国際基督教大学リポジトリ). English abstract available.
https://web.archive.org/web/20160327163436/http://www.udir.no/Upload/Brosjyrer/5/Education_in_Norway.pdf
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Education in Norway.
Official authorities
Ministry of Education and Research (Kunnskapsdepartementet)
The Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service (Samordna opptak)
The Education Mirror 2012 yearly publication from The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training with description and statistics on primary and secondary education
The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (Utdanningsdirektoratet / UDIR) contains all syllabuses for elementary through to upper secondary school in Norway.
Reports from international organizations
OECD Education Policy Outlook: Norway
Information on education in Norway, OECD - Contains indicators and information about Norway and how it compares to other OECD and non-OECD countries
Technical and vocational education in Norway, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2013) - Overview of the technical and vocational education system in Norway
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Presently, the second term begins in January.","title":"Education in Norway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"},{"link_name":"B.C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"archdiocese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese"},{"link_name":"cathedral schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_school"},{"link_name":"Trondheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trondheim"},{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen,_Norway"},{"link_name":"Hamar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamar"},{"link_name":"Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"1536","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway"},{"link_name":"Latin schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_school"},{"link_name":"market towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_town"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A_New_Deal_for_Norwegian_Higher_Education-3"},{"link_name":"ambulatory schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulatory_school"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JSTOR-4"},{"link_name":"Finnmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnmark"},{"link_name":"Hedmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedmark"},{"link_name":"primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"pedagogical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Organized education in Norway dates as far back as 2000 B.C.[citation needed] Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1153, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar.After the Reformation of Norway in 1537, following the unification with Denmark in 1536, cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school.[3]In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later, when ambulatory schools (omgangsskoler) were also established. In 1827, Norway introduced the folkeskole ('people's school'), a primary school which became mandatory for seven years in 1889 and nine years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole ('foundation school') was introduced.[4]Traditionally poorer counties like Finnmark and Hedmark have the highest shares of inhabitants who only have completed the compulsory primary education, with numbers as high as 38%.[5]Under the Independent Schools Act of 2003, private schooling in Norway has become available.[6] However, very few such schools exist in comparison to Norwegian public schools. Private schools must be founded upon a curriculum used and recognized internationally or an alternative approach to teaching – either religious or pedagogical.[7] These schools must be approved by the government and are heavily grant-aided, and cannot select students based on subjectivity, such as skill or intelligence.[8]","title":"History of education in Norway"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stranda_skule,_primary_school_in_the_Municipality_of_Sund,_Hordaland,_Norway,_main_entrance_2017-10-25_a.jpg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Norwegian school system can be divided into three parts: elementary school (barneskole, ages 6–12), lower secondary school (ungdomsskole, ages 13–16), and upper secondary school (videregående skole, ages 16–19). The barneskole and ungdomsskole levels are compulsory, and are commonly referred to as grunnskole ('foundation school').A Primary School in NorwayElementary and lower secondary school are mandatory for all children aged 6–16. Before 1997, mandatory education in Norway started at the age of 7. Students often have to change schools when they enter lower secondary school[9] and almost always have to change schools when they enter upper secondary school, as many schools only offer one of the levels.","title":"Education today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_education"},{"link_name":"religions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"},{"link_name":"aesthetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics"},{"link_name":"music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music"},{"link_name":"geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography"},{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"},{"link_name":"social studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies"}],"sub_title":"Primary school (barneskole, grades 1–7, ages 6–12)","text":"In the first year of primary school, students spend most of their time playing educational games and learning social structures, the alphabet, basic addition and subtraction, and basic English skills. 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Their grades together with their location in the country will determine whether they get accepted to their upper secondary school of choice or not. From eighth grade, students can choose one elective (valgfag) and one language. Typical offered languages are German, French, and Spanish as well as additional English and Norwegian studies. Before the educational reform of August 2006, students could choose a practical elective instead of the languages. Teens born in 1999 and later could once again choose a practical elective known as (arbeidslivsfag) or career studies upon starting lower secondary school, thus getting the option to choose two electives.[10] The electives vary significantly between schools, even in the same municipality.A student may take the grade 10 exam in a particular subject early as long as he or she has been granted an exemption from further instruction in the elementary/middle school curriculum of that subject.[11]In 2009, Norwegian fifteen-year-olds performed better in OECDs Programme for International Student Assessment than other Scandinavian countries, with significant improvement since 2006. In mathematics; however, the top 10% were estimated to lag three years behind the top-scoring students in Shanghai.[12]","title":"Education today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_school"},{"link_name":"Steiner/Waldorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldorf_education"},{"link_name":"Montessori schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_school"},{"link_name":"Danielsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danielsen_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"no","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egill_Danielsens_Stiftelse"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNEVOC-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNEVOC-16"},{"link_name":"russ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russefeiring"}],"sub_title":"Upper secondary school (videregående skole, grades VG1–VG3, ages 16–19)","text":"Secondary education in Norway is primarily based on public schools: In 2007, 93% of upper secondary school students attended public schools.[13]\nUntil 2005, Norwegian law held private secondary schools to be illegal unless they offered a \"religious or pedagogic alternative\", so the only private schools in existence were religious (Christian), Steiner/Waldorf, Montessori schools, and Danielsen [no]. The first \"standard\" private upper secondary schools opened in the fall of 2005.\nVideregående is the equivalent to high school.As of 2017, graduation from videregående skole was at 73%.[14]Prior to 1994, there were three branches of upper secondary schooling: general (language, history, etc.), mercantile (accounting, etc.), and vocational (electronics, carpentry, etc.) studies. The high school reform of 1994 (\"Reform 94\") merged these branches into a single system. Among the goals of the reform was that all students should have a certain amount of general studies large enough to make them eligible for higher education later, meaning more theory in vocational studies, and that it should be possible to cross over from one education path to another without losing too much credit. In the old system, two years of carpentry would be wasted if one wanted to switch to general studies, but in the new system one could keep credit for at least half of it.[15]Since the introduction of the reform Kunnskapsløftet ('the knowledge promise' or 'the lifting of knowledge', the word løfte having two meanings) in the fall of 2006, a student can apply for a general studies (studieforberedelse) or a vocational studies (yrkesfag) path. Inside these main paths, there are many sub-paths to follow. An upper secondary school usually offers general and vocational curriculum.[16] Vocational studies usually follow a typical structure named the \"2+2 model\": after two years of school training (with workshops and a short internship in industry), the student does an apprenticeship for two years in an enterprise or a public institution. The apprenticeship is divided into one year of training and one year of practical work. Some vocational curricula are nonetheless entirely school-based, and others include three years of apprenticeship instead of two.[16]The new reform makes the incorporation of IT into the schooling mandatory, and many counties (responsible for the public high schools) offer laptops to general studies students for free or for a small fee. Kunnskapsløftet also makes it harder to switch between electives that are taken in the second and third year in the general studies path.Students graduating upper secondary school are called russ in Norwegian. They often celebrate with parties and festivities, which are held a few weeks before the final examinations of the final year.","title":"Education today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kindergartens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten"},{"link_name":"bachelor's degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"pedagogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The titles of educators in Norwegian schools vary with the degrees they have.Preschool teacher (førskolelærer or barnehagelærer): These teachers are primarily employed in kindergartens and the first four grades of primary school. To become a preschool teacher in Norway, a bachelor's degree from a university college is required.\nAdjunct teacher (adjunkt): These teachers primarily work between the 5th and 10th grades of lower secondary school, but some are also employed in high schools, usually in minor subjects. To become an adjunct requires a bachelor's degree in a particular subject from a university or university college. Many adjuncts have studied other courses at a lower level, which they teach as a secondary subject (a mathematics teacher may have studied physics at a lower level, but teaches both). In addition, a one-year course in pedagogy is required.\nLecturer (lektor): Lecturers work in upper secondary school and high schools, from 8th grade up to the third year of high school. Lecturers have a master's degree from a university, along with a pedagogy course. Lecturers usually have a more academic approach to teaching than other teachers.[17]","title":"Educators in Norwegian schools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"secondary school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Agency_for_Quality_Assurance_in_Education"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Education and Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_and_Research_(Norway)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NTNU_Trondheim_Mainbuilding.jpg"},{"link_name":"Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"University colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_college"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UNEVOC-16"}],"text":"Higher education is anything beyond upper secondary school, and normally lasts three years or more. To be accepted to most higher education schools, a student must have attained a general university admissions certificate (generell studiekompetanse). This can be achieved by taking general studies while in upper secondary school or through the law of 23/5 where a person must be above 23 years of age, have five years of combined schooling and work experience and have passed exams in Norwegian, mathematics, natural sciences, English and social studies. Some degrees also require special electives in second and third grade (e.g. maths and physics for engineering studies.) The majority of higher educational institutions are run by the state and take responsibility for their own instruction, research, and dissemination of knowledge. The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT), a professionally independent agency under the Ministry of Education and Research, assures the quality of higher education in Norway.The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim.Where there are more applicants than students admitted, applicants are ranked based on their grades from upper secondary school. To gain access to studies commonly requiring a high GPA, like medicine, law and engineering, many students re-sit their upper secondary school examinations to improve their grades.Higher education is broadly divided into:Universities, which concentrate on theoretical subjects (arts, humanities, natural science), supply bachelor (three years), master (five years) and PhD (eight years) titles. Universities also run a number of professional studies including law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and psychology. However, these are generally separate departments that have little to do with the rest of the university institution. Universities can offer their own curricula at any level without external accreditation.\nUniversity colleges (høgskole), which supply a wide range of educational choices, including university degrees at bachelor, master and PhD levels, engineering degrees and professional vocations like teacher and nurse. University colleges are required to obtain accreditation from NOKUT for study programmes at the master's and PhD level.[18] The grade system is the same as it is for universities.\nPrivate schools, which tend to specialize in popular subjects with limited capacity in public schools, such as business management, marketing or fine arts. Private schools are not common, although the fraction of students attending private schools is 10% in higher education, compared to 4% in secondary and 1.5% in primary education.There is no formal distinction between vocational and non-vocational higher education.[16]","title":"Higher education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Military Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Military_Academy"},{"link_name":"Kongsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongsberg"},{"link_name":"University of Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oslo"},{"link_name":"University of Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Norwegian University of Life Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_University_of_Life_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Ås","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85s,_Akershus"},{"link_name":"Akershus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akershus"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Trondheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trondheim"},{"link_name":"Norwegian School of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHH"},{"link_name":"Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen"},{"link_name":"BI Norwegian Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BI_Norwegian_Business_School"},{"link_name":"University of Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bergen"},{"link_name":"Oslo School of Architecture and Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo_School_of_Architecture_and_Design"},{"link_name":"University of Tromsø","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Troms%C3%B8"},{"link_name":"University of Stavanger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Stavanger"},{"link_name":"University of Agder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Agder"},{"link_name":"University of Nordland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nordland"},{"link_name":"Telemark University College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemark_University_College"},{"link_name":"Buskerud University College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buskerud_University_College"},{"link_name":"Vestfold University College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestfold_University_College"},{"link_name":"University of South-Eastern Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_South-Eastern_Norway"}],"sub_title":"Timeline of Norwegian higher education","text":"Before the 19th century the main source for higher education of Norwegians was the University of Copenhagen.1750: The Norwegian Military Academy is established as the \"Free Mathematical School\" with officer training and technical disciplines such as geographic surveying, drawing, fortification, and mathematics.\n1757: The \"Mining Seminar\" is established at Kongsberg to train engineers for the Kongsberg Mines. This education was moved to the Royal Frederik's University in Christiania (Oslo) in 1814 (three years after the establishment of this university).\n1811: The University of Oslo is established as Universitas Regia Fredericiana modeled on the University of Berlin (the \"Humboldt Model\").\n1859: The Norwegian University of Life Sciences is established as an agricultural school at Ås, Akershus\n1910: The Norwegian Institute of Technology is established in Trondheim.\n1936: The Norwegian School of Economics is established in Bergen.\n1943: The BI Norwegian Business School (BI) is established as a merchant school.\n1946: The University of Bergen is established.\n1961: The Oslo School of Architecture and Design is established.\n1972: The University of Tromsø is established.\n2005: Stavanger University College is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Stavanger.\n2007: Agder University College (established 1994) is given status as university, thus becoming the University of Agder.\n2011: Bodø University College becomes University of Nordland, the eighth university in Norway.\n2014: Telemark University College, Buskerud University College and Vestfold University College merge to form the University College of South-Eastern Norway\n2018: The University College of South-Eastern Norway gain university status, becoming the University of South-Eastern Norway","title":"Higher education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emma Hjorth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Hjorth"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-19"},{"link_name":"mostly in ordinary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstreaming_(education)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"special education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education"},{"link_name":"educational psychologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologist"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"universal design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_design"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-18"}],"text":"Norway's first large-scale education institution for people with intellectual disabilities was founded in 1898 by educator Emma Hjorth.[19] Since the 1970s, the government has legislated the policy that all children should be educated in local schools. Since then, special education has taken place mostly in ordinary schools.[20] The need for special education in school depends on the individual student's abilities and capabilities. Pupils who cannot manage to yield learning outcomes from the typical teaching style have a right to special education.In special education, the Educational/Psychological Service maintains highly qualified specialists, educational psychologists, social welfare workers, and kindergarten teachers, playing the role of safety net in society. The Educational/Psychological Service visits school, provides students with help when needed, and assists their family members. In addition to the society system, special educators play a significant role, particularly in the content of their instructions.[21]According to The Act relating to Universities and Colleges, universities and university colleges must take responsibility for the students' learning environment. Institutions are expected to create an inclusive and flexible learning environment that represents universal design.[18]","title":"Special education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"grading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_in_education"},{"link_name":"Bologna system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna_system"}],"text":"Norway has multiple different grading systems, both unique ones and ones that have been based on foreign grading systems. The former most common system of grades used at university level was based on a scale running from 1.0 (worst) through 6.0 (best) with 4.0 or above being considered passing grades.The way the new Bologna system was introduced implies that students who had started their studies while the old system still was in effect will graduate with transcripts containing grades from both systems (i.e. both numbers and letters).Lower levels of education use a scale running from 1 through 6, with 6 being the highest and 2 the lowest passing grade. For non-final tests and mid-term evaluations the grades are often postfixed with + or - (except 6+ and 1-) and it is also common to use grades such as 5/6 or 4/3 indicating borderline grades. However, the grades students get on their final diploma are either 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.","title":"Grading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"At the conclusion of their school careers, upper secondary pupils aspire to graduate with a diploma. This is obtained by those who have passed all their subjects, and lists grades which are \"based on teachers' determination of overall achievement marks of their own students.\"[22] As well as these teacher-assigned grades, the students' diplomas may feature one or more examination grades. A minority of students will be chosen at random to sit an exam, a concept called trekkfag in Norwegian. The word fag means 'subject', whilst the verb å trekke can be translated as 'to draw, to pick', as one would describe picking a card from a pack. The dictionary translation of trekkfag is given as a description of the concept: \"subjects students may be chosen to sit an exam for.\"[23]","title":"Examinations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Academic schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%E5%A4%96%E5%8B%99%E7%9C%81:_%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%81%AE%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1%E3%82%92%E8%A6%8B%E3%81%A6%E3%81%BF%E3%82%88%E3%81%86%EF%BC%81_%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC-24"}],"sub_title":"Academic year in Norway","text":"In Norway's schools, there are two semesters. The new academic year begins in the middle of August. The first semester begins in August and ends in December. The second semester begins in January and ends in June.[24]","title":"Academic schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%E5%A4%96%E5%8B%99%E7%9C%81:_%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%81%AE%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1%E3%82%92%E8%A6%8B%E3%81%A6%E3%81%BF%E3%82%88%E3%81%86%EF%BC%81_%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC-24"}],"sub_title":"Breaks","text":"In Norway's school, there are several long vacations. For example, after the academic year ends in June, students in Norway have summer vacation, which is eight weeks from the middle of June until the middle of August. They also have Christmas holidays after the first semester ends in December until the second semester begins in January. In addition, in the last week of October, pupils in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary schools have fall break, with another week-long break (winter break) in the middle of February. Students at universities or university colleges typically do not have fall and winter breaks.[24]","title":"Academic schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Workers' Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day"},{"link_name":"Constitution Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_Day_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Ascension Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascension_Day"},{"link_name":"Pentecost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecost"},{"link_name":"Whit Monday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whit_Monday"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"National holidays","text":"In Norway, there are thirteen national holidays that students are free from school. In the middle of April, there are four days of Easter break. Norway celebrates International Workers' Day on May 1 and its Constitution Day on May 17. Furthermore, Norway also celebrates Ascension Day in May, with the exact date depending on the each year. Ten days after Ascension Day, the country celebrates Pentecost, and Whit Monday the next day. Students do not have to attend school on these national holidays. However, some of the holidays are included in the long break. For example, New Year's day and Christmas are national holidays in Norway, but students have Christmas holidays at that time.[25]","title":"Academic schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yamaguchi University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaguchi_University"},{"link_name":"Awareness of Global Citizenship in the Norwegian School Curriculum(Educational Philosophy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ci.nii.ac.jp/lognavi?name=nels&lang=en&type=pdf&id=ART0008983675"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.webcitation.org/6cj324oqb?url=http://ci.nii.ac.jp/els/110007054213.pdf?id=ART0008983675&type=pdf&lang=en&host=cinii&order_no=&ppv_type=0&lang_sw=&no=1446420780&cp="},{"link_name":"International Christian University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Christian_University"},{"link_name":"See profile at","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110007054213"},{"link_name":"CiNii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiNii"},{"link_name":"See profile at","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//icu.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_view_main_item_detail&item_id=1036&item_no=1&page_id=13&block_id=17"},{"link_name":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160327163436/http://www.udir.no/Upload/Brosjyrer/5/Education_in_Norway.pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160327163436/http://www.udir.no/Upload/Brosjyrer/5/Education_in_Norway.pdf"}],"text":"(in Japanese) Ishii, Yuri (石井 由理; Yamaguchi University). \"Awareness of Global Citizenship in the Norwegian School Curriculum(Educational Philosophy)[permanent dead link]\" (Archive; ノルウェー学校教育課程に見られる地球市民の視点(教育哲学)). International Christian University publications. I-A, Educational studies (国際基督教大学学報. I-A, 教育研究) 43, 29-38, 2001-03. International Christian University. See profile at CiNii. See profile at International Christian University Repository (国際基督教大学リポジトリ). English abstract available.\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160327163436/http://www.udir.no/Upload/Brosjyrer/5/Education_in_Norway.pdf","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A Primary School in Norway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Stranda_skule%2C_primary_school_in_the_Municipality_of_Sund%2C_Hordaland%2C_Norway%2C_main_entrance_2017-10-25_a.jpg/220px-Stranda_skule%2C_primary_school_in_the_Municipality_of_Sund%2C_Hordaland%2C_Norway%2C_main_entrance_2017-10-25_a.jpg"},{"image_text":"The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/NTNU_Trondheim_Mainbuilding.jpg/220px-NTNU_Trondheim_Mainbuilding.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of universities in Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Norway"},{"title":"Open access in Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access_in_Norway"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Norway Literacy\". indexmundi.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.indexmundi.com/norway/literacy.html","url_text":"\"Norway Literacy\""}]},{"reference":"\"General information about education in Norway\". Nokut. Retrieved 2022-12-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nokut.no/en/norwegian-education/general-information-about-education-in-norway/","url_text":"\"General information about education in Norway\""}]},{"reference":"Aamodt, Per (1990). \"A New Deal for Norwegian Higher Education?\". European Journal of Education. 25 (2): 171–185. doi:10.2307/1503087. JSTOR 1503087.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1503087","url_text":"10.2307/1503087"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1503087","url_text":"1503087"}]},{"reference":"Cultice, Wendell (1967). \"The School System of Norway\". The Clearing House. 42 (2): 119–121. doi:10.1080/00098655.1967.11477461. JSTOR 30183285.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00098655.1967.11477461","url_text":"10.1080/00098655.1967.11477461"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/30183285","url_text":"30183285"}]},{"reference":"\"Her bor de med høyest utdanning\". Archived from the original on 2016-04-15. Retrieved 2016-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160415024830/http://tautdanning.no/default.aspx?did=9095962","url_text":"\"Her bor de med høyest utdanning\""},{"url":"http://www.tautdanning.no/default.aspx?did=9095962","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"regjeringen.no (2019-10-14). \"The Independent Schools Act\". Government.no. Retrieved 2022-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/the-independent-schools-act/id426512/","url_text":"\"The Independent Schools Act\""}]},{"reference":"\"Norway | Eurydice\". eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/norway/norway","url_text":"\"Norway | Eurydice\""}]},{"reference":"\"Act relating to independent schools (The Independent Schools Act) - Lovdata\". lovdata.no. Retrieved 2022-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://lovdata.no/dokument/NLE/lov/2003-07-04-84#KAPITTEL_6","url_text":"\"Act relating to independent schools (The Independent Schools Act) - Lovdata\""}]},{"reference":"Levatino, Antonina; Ferrer-Esteban, Gerard; Verger, Antoni (May 2024). \"Unveiling teachers' work preferences: A conjoint experiment on the implications of school governance reform across three countries\". Teaching and Teacher Education. 146: 104631. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104631. ISSN 0742-051X.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104631","url_text":"\"Unveiling teachers' work preferences: A conjoint experiment on the implications of school governance reform across three countries\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tate.2024.104631","url_text":"10.1016/j.tate.2024.104631"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0742-051X","url_text":"0742-051X"}]},{"reference":"\"PISA-Programme for International Student Assessment\". Archived from the original on 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2010-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110120061242/http://www.pisa.no/pisa2009/index.html","url_text":"\"PISA-Programme for International Student Assessment\""},{"url":"http://www.pisa.no/pisa2009/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Statistics Norway: Upper secondary school students by type of study and school ownership\". Statistisk Sentralbyrå (Norwegian) - select all regions, all 'studieretning', all 'eierforhold', year 2007 revidert. Click 'vis tabell' ('show table'), compute percentages from result.","urls":[{"url":"http://statbank.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selectvarval/Define.asp?MainTable=ElevVGsEierfor3&SubjectCode=04&ProductId=04.02&nvl=True&mt=0&pm=y&PLanguage=0&nyTmpVar=true","url_text":"\"Statistics Norway: Upper secondary school students by type of study and school ownership\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistisk_Sentralbyr%C3%A5","url_text":"Statistisk Sentralbyrå"}]},{"reference":"\"Aldri har så mange fullført videregående skole\". 29 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tv2.no/a/9325873/","url_text":"\"Aldri har så mange fullført videregående skole\""}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Palmer (1936). \"The Norwegian System of Public Secondary Education\". The School Review. 44.8 (1936): 608–14. doi:10.1086/439985. JSTOR 1080362. S2CID 144518118.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_School_Review","url_text":"The School Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F439985","url_text":"10.1086/439985"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1080362","url_text":"1080362"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144518118","url_text":"144518118"}]},{"reference":"\"TVET in Norway\". UNESCO-UNEVOC. 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=NOR","url_text":"\"TVET in Norway\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"}]},{"reference":"Nordland, Eva (1969). \"Teacher Training for Norwegian Schools\". International Review of Education. 15 (1): 65–74. Bibcode:1969IREdu..15...65N. doi:10.1007/BF01428142. JSTOR 3442072. S2CID 145531280.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969IREdu..15...65N","url_text":"1969IREdu..15...65N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01428142","url_text":"10.1007/BF01428142"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3442072","url_text":"3442072"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145531280","url_text":"145531280"}]},{"reference":"\"Education – from Kindergarten to Adult Education\" (PDF). European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Retrieved 2023-07-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/Gen_Education_in_Norway.pdf","url_text":"\"Education – from Kindergarten to Adult Education\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Agency_for_Special_Needs_and_Inclusive_Education&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Ministry_of_Education_and_Research","url_text":"Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research"}]},{"reference":"Simonsen, Eva (2023-01-27). \"Emma Hjorth\". Norsk biografisk leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 2023-07-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://nbl.snl.no/Emma_Hjorth","url_text":"\"Emma Hjorth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsk_biografisk_leksikon","url_text":"Norsk biografisk leksikon"}]},{"reference":"Befring, Edvard (1990-01-01). \"Special Education in Norway\". 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S2CID 144682267.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2013.803609","url_text":"\"School district administrators' perspectives on the professional activities and influence of special educators in Norway and Sweden\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13603116.2013.803609","url_text":"10.1080/13603116.2013.803609"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1360-3116","url_text":"1360-3116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144682267","url_text":"144682267"}]},{"reference":"Tveit, Sverre (10 September 2013). \"Educational assessment in Norway\". Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. 21 (2): 230. doi:10.1080/0969594X.2013.830079. hdl:10852/88050. S2CID 144067411.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0969594X.2013.830079","url_text":"10.1080/0969594X.2013.830079"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F88050","url_text":"10852/88050"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144067411","url_text":"144067411"}]},{"reference":"\"Trekkfag (Norwegian to English)\". Ordnett.no. Retrieved 7 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ordnett.no/search?language=en&phrase=trekkfag","url_text":"\"Trekkfag (Norwegian to English)\""}]},{"reference":"\"外務省: 世界の学校を見てみよう！ ノルウェー\". www.mofa.go.jp. Retrieved 2022-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/kids/kuni/0502norway.html","url_text":"\"外務省: 世界の学校を見てみよう！ ノルウェー\""}]},{"reference":"Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway (2016). \"Norway Data 2015\". Data of Norway.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/artikler-og-publikasjoner/_attachment/225816?_ts=14d005c3340","url_text":"\"Norway Data 2015\""}]},{"reference":"Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. \"Upper secondary education\" (in Norwegian). Norway.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-11-11. Retrieved 2007-11-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071111185304/http://www.norway.org.uk/education/education/secondary/secondary.htm","url_text":"\"Upper secondary education\""},{"url":"http://www.norway.org.uk/education/education/secondary/secondary.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. \"Primary and lower secondary schooling\" (in Norwegian). Norway.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-11-11. Retrieved 2007-11-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071111185114/http://www.norway.org.uk/education/education/primary/primary.htm","url_text":"\"Primary and lower secondary schooling\""},{"url":"http://www.norway.org.uk/education/education/primary/primary.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietgenkollegiet
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Tietgenkollegiet
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["1 Architecture","2 Rooms","3 Gallery","4 Literature","5 References","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 55°39′39″N 12°35′24″E / 55.66083°N 12.59000°E / 55.66083; 12.59000Building in Copenhagen, DenmarkTietgenkollegietGeneral informationTown or cityØrestad, CopenhagenCountryDenmarkConstruction started2005Completed2006ClientNordea Danmark FondenDesign and constructionArchitect(s)Lundgaard & TranbergEngineerCOWI A/S
Tietgenkollegiet (English: Tietgen Student Hall), named for Danish financier C.F. Tietgen (1829-1901), is a student residence located in the Ørestad district of Copenhagen, Denmark.
The building has a conspicuous circular shape, inspired by traditional southern Chinese Hakka architecture, and is designed by Danish architects Lundgaard & Tranberg in 2006. The design has won it a RIBA European Award.
Architecture
The round building is seven stories high. Five vertical lines divide the building both visually and functionally into sections and also serve as continuous passages that provide access from outside to the central courtyard and to the different stories. The ground floor has common facilities: a café, auditorium, study and computer rooms, workshops, laundry, music and meeting rooms, and bicycle parking. The apartments are located on the other stories, 12 in each segment. All rooms face the façade and have a view of the surroundings. The common kitchens/auxiliary rooms, lounges, and terraces are located on the central court, bringing residents together.
Its concept focuses on how the accommodation can help encourage the personal and social development of the students. The courtyard, around which all common areas are located, reinforces the idea of community. It also enables the often monotonous student corridor to become not only spatially interesting but unending, linking all student 'houses' on each floor.
Rooms
There are 360 rooms, 10% of which have been designated for international exchange students. The building is circular, with 7 floors and rooms set up in blocks of 12. Each room has its own washroom and there are four sizes to the rooms: 26 sq. metres, 29 sq. metres, 33 sq. metres, and 42 sq. metres, approximately. Each block has shared kitchen and living room, with each living room having a unique set of furniture and other items.
Gallery
Literature
Pernille Stensgaard: Tietgenkollegiet; Nyt Nordisk Forlag (2007). ISBN 978-87-17-03967-4 (in Danish).
Weston, Richard: Tietgen Dormitory - an imaginary journey around a real building; Edition Bløndal (2014). ISBN 9788791567247.
References
^ "Som at få et knus" (PDF). COWIfeature. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ "THE TIETGEN RESIDENCE HALL". 22 November 2020.
^ "Tietgenkollegiet // Copenhagen // Denmark // Lundgaard & Tranberg". archiCentral. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
^ "Tietgenkollegiet". CBS. Archived from the original on 2009-07-04. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tietgenkollegiet.
Tietgenkollegiet home page
Tietgenkollegiet - pictures and facts on www.copenhagenx.dk
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Geographic
MusicBrainz place
55°39′39″N 12°35′24″E / 55.66083°N 12.59000°E / 55.66083; 12.59000
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Satir
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Virginia Satir
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["1 Early years","2 Career as a therapist","3 Work and influence","4 Process of Change Model","5 Career as author","5.1 I Am Me","6 Bibliography","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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American psychotherapist & non-fiction author
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Virginia SatirBorn(1916-06-26)June 26, 1916Neillsville, Wisconsin, USDiedSeptember 10, 1988(1988-09-10) (aged 72)Menlo Park, California, U.S.Alma materMilwaukee State Teachers College (now University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee), (BA, 1936), University of Chicago (MSSA, 1948)Occupation(s)Social worker, therapist, authorKnown forFamily systems therapySpouse(s)Gordon Rodgers (divorced 1949), Norman Satir (divorced 1957)Children2 daughters
Virginia Satir (June 26, 1916 – September 10, 1988) was an American author, clinical social worker and psychotherapist, recognized for her approach to family therapy. Her pioneering work in the field of family reconstruction therapy honored her with the title "Mother of Family Therapy". Her most well-known books are Conjoint Family Therapy, 1964, Peoplemaking, 1972, and The New Peoplemaking, 1988.
She is also known for creating the Virginia Satir Change Process Model, a psychological model developed through clinical studies. Change management and organizational "gurus" of the 1990s and 2000s embrace this model to define how change impacts organizations.
Early years
Virginia Satir
Virginia Satir was born on June 26, 1916 in Neillsville, Wisconsin. She was the eldest of five children born to Oscar Alfred Reinnard Pagenkopf and Minnie (Happe) Pagenkopf. When she was five years old, Satir suffered from appendicitis. Her mother, a devout Christian Scientist, refused to take her to a doctor. By the time Satir's father decided to overrule his wife, the young girl's appendix had ruptured. Doctors were able to save her life, but Satir was forced to stay in the hospital for several months.
When Satir was three years old, she taught herself to read and by age nine, she had read all of the books in the library of her small one-room school.
From early years, Satir demonstrated an interest in family dynamics. When she was five, she decided that she would grow up to be "a children's detective on parents, inclinations that would later become true through her therapeutic practices." She later explained that "I didn't quite know what I would look for, but I realized a lot went on in families that didn't meet the eye."
In 1929, her mother insisted that the family move from their farm to Milwaukee so that Satir could attend high school. Satir's high school years coincided with the Great Depression, and to help her family she took a part-time job and also attended as many courses as she could so that she could graduate early. In 1932, she received her high school diploma and promptly enrolled in Milwaukee State Teachers College (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.) To pay for her education she worked part-time for the Works Projects Administration and for Gimbels Department Store and further supplemented her income by babysitting. She graduated with a bachelor's degree in education, and worked as a teacher for a few years.
During her time as a schoolteacher, she recognized that involved and supportive parents not only help students in the classroom but could also heal family dynamics. Satir began meeting and cooperating with the parents of her students and saw the family system as a reflection of the world at large, stating "if we can heal the family, we can heal the world."
Beginning in 1937, for three summers she took courses at Northwestern University in Chicago. Her interest in families led her to enroll full-time at the University of Chicago School of Social Services Administration where she obtained a master's degree in social work. She finished her coursework for her master's degree in 1943, and completed her thesis for her degree in 1948.
Career as a therapist
After graduating social work school, Satir began working in private practice. She met with her first family in 1951, and by 1955 was working with Illinois Psychiatric Institute, encouraging other therapists to focus on families instead of individual patients. By the end of the decade she had moved to California, where she cofounded the Mental Research Institute (MRI) in Palo Alto, California. MRI received a grant from NIMH in 1962, allowing them to begin the first formal family therapy training program ever offered; Satir was hired as its training director.
Satir's skills and views about the important role the family has and its connection to an individual's problems and/or healing process led her into becoming a renowned therapist.
One of Satir's most novel ideas at the time was that the "presenting issue" or "surface problem" itself was seldom the real problem; rather, how people coped with the issue created the problem. Satir also offered insights into the particular problems that low self-esteem could cause in relationships. In addition to Satir's influence in human sciences, she helped establish organizations with the purpose of educating therapists around the world and granting them with resources to help families and clients.
Long interested in the idea of networking, Satir founded two groups to help individuals find mental health workers or other people who were suffering from similar issues to their own. In 1970, she organized Beautiful People, which later became known as the International Human Learning Resources Network. In 1977 she founded the Avanta Network, which was renamed to the Virginia Satir Global Network in 2010.
Two years later, Satir was appointed to the Steering Committee of the International Family Therapy Association and became a member of the advisory board for the National Council for Self-Esteem.
She has also been recognized with several honorary doctorates, including a 1978 doctorate in Social Sciences from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Honors and awards received
1976: Awarded Gold Medal of "Outstanding and Consistent Service to Mankind" by the University of Chicago.
1978: Awarded honorary doctorate in Social Sciences from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
1982: Selected by the West German Government as one of the twelve most influential leaders in the world today.
1985: Time magazine quotes a colleague, "She can fill any auditorium in the country", after her stellar contribution to the Evolution of Psychotherapy Conference in Phoenix, Arizona.
1985: Selected by the prestigious National Academy of Practice as one of two members to advise on health concerns to the Congress of the United States.
1986: Selected as member of the International Council of Elders, a society developed by the recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize.
1987: Named Honorary Member of the Czechoslovakian Medical Society.
She was honored in the California Social Work Hall of Distinction.
In two national surveys of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and marriage and family therapists, she was voted the most influential therapist.
Work and influence
Satir's entire work was done under the umbrella of "Becoming More Fully Human". From the possibility of a nurturing primary triad of father, mother, and child she conceived a process of Human Validation. She viewed the reconciliation of families as a way to reconcile the world. As she said: "The family is a microcosm. By knowing how to heal the family, I know how to heal the world." (Align, 1988, p. 20) With this overview she established professional training groups in the Satir Model in the Middle East, the East Aisa, Western and Eastern Europe, Central and Latin America, and Russia. The Institute for International Connections, Avanta Network, and the International Human Learning Resources Network are concrete examples of teaching people how to connect with one another and then extend the connections. Her world impact could be summed up in her universal mantra: peace within, peace between, peace among.
In the mid-1970s, her work was extensively studied by the co-founders of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), Richard Bandler and John Grinder, who used it as one of the three fundamental models of NLP. Bandler and Grinder also collaborated with Satir to author Changing With Families for Science and Behavior Books, which bore the subtitle 'A Book About Further Education for Being Human'. The Virginia Satir Global Network, originally named AVANTA by Satir, is an international organization that carries on her work and promotes her approach to family therapy.
In 1984, Satir encouraged marriage and family therapists to shift their focus to relationship education:
We're at a crossroads, an important crossroads of how we view people. That's why it's possible now for all the different kind of therapies to go into education, education for being more fully human, using what we know as a pathology is only something that tells us that something is wrong and then allows us to move towards how we can use this to develop round people. I'm fortunate in being one of the people who pushed my way through to know that people are really round. That's what it means to me to look at people as people who have potential that can be realized, as people who can have dreams and have their dreams work out. What people bring to me in the guise of problems are their ways of living that keep them hampered and pathologically oriented. What we're doing now is seeing how education allows us to move toward more joy, more reality, more connectedness, more accomplishment and more opportunities for people to grow.
Steve Andreas, one of Bandler and Grinder's students, wrote Virginia Satir: The Patterns of Her Magic (1991) in which he summarized the major patterns of Satir's work, and then showed how Satir applied them in a richly annotated verbatim transcript of a videotaped session titled "Forgiving Parents". In this session, Satir works with a woman who hated her mother, and had difficulty connecting with others as a result. Using a variety of role-plays, including a "family reconstruction", this woman came to see her mother as her "best friend", as detailed in a 3½ year follow-up interview.
She died in 1988 in Menlo Park, California, of pancreatic cancer, aged 72.
Process of Change Model
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Another of Satir's work that would have lasting impacts on many fields, including organizational management, is the Process of Change model. This model illustrates how individuals go through change and how they can cope with such change to improve their relationship with each other. The Process of Change Model is divided into four stages: late status quo, chaos, practice and integration, and new status quo.
In the first stage of change, the late status quo, Satir argued the individual is in a predictable environment. Status quo involves a set routine, fixed ideas about the world, and an established behavior. This stage is all about predictability and familiarity.
The second stage of change is chaos. Chaos, as described by Satir, occurs when something in the environment or in the individual changes. This change brings a sense of unfamiliarity and the previously stable routine can no longer be held. In the stage of chaos, here are many strong feelings like sadness, fear, confusion, stress, among others. Satir argues that in the change stage of chaos, therapists must help families and individuals navigate these emotions.
The third stage of change is practice and integration. In this stage new ideas are being implemented and individuals are figuring out what works best. Like any other skill, it requires patience and practice.
The final stage of change is the new status quo. In this stage, the new ideas, behaviors, and changes are not so new anymore. Individuals tend to acclimate to the change, figure out what works, and become better at their new skill.
Satir points out that this change process is not linear. On some occasions, individuals might have found a temporary coping skill or solution, but if it does not bring the desired results, they might regress to the stage of chaos. For this reason, it is important that therapists are aware of this process to help guide their clients.
Career as author
Satir published her first book, Conjoint Family Therapy, in 1964, developed from the training manual she wrote for students at MRI. Her reputation grew with each subsequent book, and she travelled the world to speak on her methods. She also became a Diplomate of the Academy of Certified Social Workers and received the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy's Distinguished Service Award.
Satir often integrated meditations and poetic writing into both her public workshops and writings. One of her most well-known works, "I Am Me," was written by Satir in response to a question posed by an angry teenage girl.
I Am Me
My declaration of self-esteem
I am me
In all the world, there is no one else exactly like me
Everything that comes out of me is authentically mine
because I alone chose it – I own everything about me
My body, my feelings, my mouth, my voice, all my actions,
whether they be to others or to myself – I own my fantasies,
my dreams, my hopes, my fears – I own all my triumphs and
successes, all my failures and mistakes Because I own all of
me, I can become intimately acquainted with me – by so doing
I can love me and be friendly with me in all my parts – I know
there are aspects about myself that puzzle me, and other
aspects that I do not know – but as long as I am
friendly and loving to myself, I can courageously
and hopefully look for solutions to the puzzles
and for ways to find out more about me – However I
look and sound, whatever I say and do, and whatever
I think and feel at a given moment in time is authentically
me – If later some parts of how I looked, sounded, thought
and felt turned out to be unfitting, I can discard that which is
unfitting, keep the rest, and invent something new for that
which I discarded – I can see, hear, feel, think, say, and do
I have the tools to survive, to be close to others, to be
productive, and to make sense and order out of the world of
people and things outside of me – I own me, and
therefore I can engineer me – I am me and
I AM OKAY
Bibliography
Satir, Virginia S. (1972). Peoplemaking. Robert S. Spitzer. ISBN 0-8314-0031-5.
Satir V (1976). Making contact. Millbrae, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-119-1.
Satir V; Bandler R; Grinder J (1976). Changing with families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0051-X.
Satir V (1978). Your many faces. Berkeley, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-120-5.
Satir V; Stachowiak J; Taschman HA (1994). Helping Families to Change. Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-227-5.
Satir V (1983). Conjoint family therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0063-3.
Satir V, Baldwin M (1983). Satir step by step: a guide to creating change in families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0068-4.
Satir V (1988). The new peoplemaking. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0070-6.
Satir V; Gomori M; Banmen J; Gerber JS (1991). The Satir model: family therapy and beyond. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0078-1.
Satir V (1990) . Peoplemaking. Souvenir Press Ltd. ISBN 0-285-64872-1.
Englander-Golden; P; Satir, V. Say It Straight: From Compulsions to Choices, Science and Behavior Books, Palo Alto, CA 1991. ISBN 9780831400743
Satir V (2001). Self Esteem. Berkeley, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 1-58761-094-9.
See also
Family systems therapy
Humanistic psychology
Systems psychology
Carl Whitaker
Sally Pierone
References
^ a b "Virginia (Mildred) Satir". Gale Literature: Contemporary Authors. Gale In Context: Biography. Gale. 1998. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
^ Beaudry, Gilles (March 2002). "The Family Reconstruction Process and Its Evolution to Date: Virginia Satir's Transformational Process". Contemporary Family Therapy. 24 (1): 79–91. doi:10.1023/A:1014373605900. S2CID 142012403.
^ "California Social Work Hall of Distinction". University of Southern California School of Social Work. Archived from the original on October 10, 2007. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
^ "About Virginia Satir". UNC Satir. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
^ a b Cameron, Esther; Green, Mike (2009). Making sense of change management: a complete guide to the models, tools & techniques of organizational change (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page. pp. 36–39. ISBN 9780749453107.
^ "About Virginia Satir". International Human Learning Resources Network. Archived from the original on August 29, 2012.
^ Banmen, John (2002). "The Satir Model: Yesterday and Today". Contemporary Family Therapy. 24: 7–22. doi:10.1023/A:1014365304082. S2CID 140282825.
^ Jones-Smith, Elsie (2012). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy: an integrative approach. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. pp. 529–530. ISBN 9781412910040.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Who Virginia Was and Why She Mattered". The Virginia Satir Global Network. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2018.
^ a b c "The Top 10: The Most Influential Therapists of the Past Quarter-Century". Psychotherapy Networker. 2007. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2012.
^ a b c "Virginia Satir Global Network". The Virginia Satir Global Network. October 2, 2014. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
^ "International Family Therapy Association". International Family Therapy Association. Retrieved March 6, 2015.
^ Robert Dilts and Roxanna Erickson Klein (2006) "Historical: Neuro-linguistic Programming" in The Milton H. Erickson Foundation: Newsletter Summer 2006, 26(2).
^ "Virginia M. Satir, 72, Therapist for Families". The New York Times. September 12, 1988. Retrieved November 1, 2020.
^ "I Am Me Poster". The Virginia Satir Global Network. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
Further reading
Nerin, William F. (1986). Family reconstruction: long day's journey into light. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-70017-8.
DeMaria, Rita (2002). Building Intimate Relationships: Bridging Treatment, Education, and Enrichment. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1583910764.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Virginia Satir.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Virginia Satir.
About Virginia Satir
Obituary in the Los Angeles Times, Sept. 12, 1988
Virginia Satir Biography - Life of American PsychologistBrief biography at Webster.edu
The Virginia Satir Global Network
Satir Institute of the Pacific
Say It Straight Foundation
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Change management and organizational \"gurus\" of the 1990s and 2000s embrace this model to define how change impacts organizations.[5][6][7]","title":"Virginia Satir"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VirginiaSatir4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Neillsville, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neillsville,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"appendicitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendicitis"},{"link_name":"Christian Scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Science"},{"link_name":"appendix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermiform_appendix"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"one-room school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-room_school"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"Milwaukee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"Milwaukee State Teachers College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee_State_Teachers_College"},{"link_name":"University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Milwaukee"},{"link_name":"Works Projects Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_Projects_Administration"},{"link_name":"Gimbels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbels"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"Northwestern University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"}],"text":"Virginia SatirVirginia Satir was born on June 26, 1916 in Neillsville, Wisconsin. She was the eldest of five children born to Oscar Alfred Reinnard Pagenkopf and Minnie (Happe) Pagenkopf. When she was five years old, Satir suffered from appendicitis. Her mother, a devout Christian Scientist, refused to take her to a doctor. By the time Satir's father decided to overrule his wife, the young girl's appendix had ruptured. Doctors were able to save her life, but Satir was forced to stay in the hospital for several months.[8][9]When Satir was three years old, she taught herself to read and by age nine, she had read all of the books in the library of her small one-room school. \nFrom early years, Satir demonstrated an interest in family dynamics. When she was five, she decided that she would grow up to be \"a children's detective on parents, inclinations that would later become true through her therapeutic practices.\"[9] She later explained that \"I didn't quite know what I would look for, but I realized a lot went on in families that didn't meet the eye.\"[9]In 1929, her mother insisted that the family move from their farm to Milwaukee so that Satir could attend high school. Satir's high school years coincided with the Great Depression, and to help her family she took a part-time job and also attended as many courses as she could so that she could graduate early. In 1932, she received her high school diploma and promptly enrolled in Milwaukee State Teachers College (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.) To pay for her education she worked part-time for the Works Projects Administration and for Gimbels Department Store and further supplemented her income by babysitting.[9] She graduated with a bachelor's degree in education, and worked as a teacher for a few years.[citation needed]During her time as a schoolteacher, she recognized that involved and supportive parents not only help students in the classroom but could also heal family dynamics. Satir began meeting and cooperating with the parents of her students and saw the family system as a reflection of the world at large, stating \"if we can heal the family, we can heal the world.\"[9]Beginning in 1937, for three summers she took courses at Northwestern University in Chicago. Her interest in families led her to enroll full-time at the University of Chicago School of Social Services Administration where she obtained a master's degree in social work. She finished her coursework for her master's degree in 1943, and completed her thesis for her degree in 1948.[9]","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Mental Research Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Research_Institute"},{"link_name":"NIMH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Mental_Health"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-networker-10"},{"link_name":"self-esteem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-networker-10"},{"link_name":"networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satirglobal.org-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"National Council for Self-Esteem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Self-Esteem"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"Social Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Sciences"},{"link_name":"University of Wisconsin–Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"California Social Work Hall of Distinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Social_Work_Hall_of_Distinction"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-networker-10"}],"text":"After graduating social work school, Satir began working in private practice. She met with her first family in 1951, and by 1955 was working with Illinois Psychiatric Institute, encouraging other therapists to focus on families instead of individual patients. By the end of the decade she had moved to California, where she cofounded the Mental Research Institute (MRI) in Palo Alto, California. MRI received a grant from NIMH in 1962, allowing them to begin the first formal family therapy training program ever offered; Satir was hired as its training director.[9]Satir's skills and views about the important role the family has and its connection to an individual's problems and/or healing process led her into becoming a renowned therapist.\nOne of Satir's most novel ideas at the time was that the \"presenting issue\" or \"surface problem\" itself was seldom the real problem; rather, how people coped with the issue created the problem.[10] Satir also offered insights into the particular problems that low self-esteem could cause in relationships.[10] In addition to Satir's influence in human sciences, she helped establish organizations with the purpose of educating therapists around the world and granting them with resources to help families and clients.Long interested in the idea of networking, Satir founded two groups to help individuals find mental health workers or other people who were suffering from similar issues to their own. In 1970, she organized Beautiful People, which later became known as the International Human Learning Resources Network. In 1977 she founded the Avanta Network, which was renamed to the Virginia Satir Global Network in 2010.[9][11]Two years later, Satir was appointed to the Steering Committee of the International Family Therapy Association[12] and became a member of the advisory board for the National Council for Self-Esteem.[9]She has also been recognized with several honorary doctorates, including a 1978 doctorate in Social Sciences from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.Honors and awards received[9]1976: Awarded Gold Medal of \"Outstanding and Consistent Service to Mankind\" by the University of Chicago.\n1978: Awarded honorary doctorate in Social Sciences from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.\n1982: Selected by the West German Government as one of the twelve most influential leaders in the world today.\n1985: Time magazine quotes a colleague, \"She can fill any auditorium in the country\", after her stellar contribution to the Evolution of Psychotherapy Conference in Phoenix, Arizona.\n1985: Selected by the prestigious National Academy of Practice as one of two members to advise on health concerns to the Congress of the United States.\n1986: Selected as member of the International Council of Elders, a society developed by the recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize.\n1987: Named Honorary Member of the Czechoslovakian Medical Society.\nShe was honored in the California Social Work Hall of Distinction.\nIn two national surveys of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, and marriage and family therapists, she was voted the most influential therapist.[10]","title":"Career as a therapist"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming"},{"link_name":"Richard Bandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bandler"},{"link_name":"John Grinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Grinder"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dilts_and_Klein_2006-13"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satirglobal.org-11"},{"link_name":"Steve Andreas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Andreas"},{"link_name":"pancreatic cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cancer-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"Satir's entire work was done under the umbrella of \"Becoming More Fully Human\".[9] From the possibility of a nurturing primary triad of father, mother, and child she conceived a process of Human Validation. She viewed the reconciliation of families as a way to reconcile the world. As she said: \"The family is a microcosm. By knowing how to heal the family, I know how to heal the world.\" (Align, 1988, p. 20) With this overview she established professional training groups in the Satir Model in the Middle East, the East Aisa, Western and Eastern Europe, Central and Latin America, and Russia. The Institute for International Connections, Avanta Network, and the International Human Learning Resources Network are concrete examples of teaching people how to connect with one another and then extend the connections. Her world impact could be summed up in her universal mantra: peace within, peace between, peace among.In the mid-1970s, her work was extensively studied by the co-founders of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), Richard Bandler and John Grinder, who used it as one of the three fundamental models of NLP.[13] Bandler and Grinder also collaborated with Satir to author Changing With Families for Science and Behavior Books, which bore the subtitle 'A Book About Further Education for Being Human'. The Virginia Satir Global Network, originally named AVANTA by Satir, is an international organization that carries on her work and promotes her approach to family therapy.[11]In 1984, Satir encouraged marriage and family therapists to shift their focus to relationship education:We're at a crossroads, an important crossroads of how we view people. That's why it's possible now for all the different kind of therapies to go into education, education for being more fully human, using what we know as a pathology is only something that tells us that something is wrong and then allows us to move towards how we can use this to develop round people. I'm fortunate in being one of the people who pushed my way through to know that people are really round. That's what it means to me to look at people as people who have potential that can be realized, as people who can have dreams and have their dreams work out. What people bring to me in the guise of problems are their ways of living that keep them hampered and pathologically oriented. What we're doing now is seeing how education allows us to move toward more joy, more reality, more connectedness, more accomplishment and more opportunities for people to grow.Steve Andreas, one of Bandler and Grinder's students, wrote Virginia Satir: The Patterns of Her Magic (1991) in which he summarized the major patterns of Satir's work, and then showed how Satir applied them in a richly annotated verbatim transcript of a videotaped session titled \"Forgiving Parents\". In this session, Satir works with a woman who hated her mother, and had difficulty connecting with others as a result. Using a variety of role-plays, including a \"family reconstruction\", this woman came to see her mother as her \"best friend\", as detailed in a 3½ year follow-up interview.\nShe died in 1988 in Menlo Park, California, of pancreatic cancer, aged 72.[14][1]","title":"Work and influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satirglobal.org-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"}],"text":"Another of Satir's work that would have lasting impacts on many fields, including organizational management,[5] is the Process of Change model. This model illustrates how individuals go through change and how they can cope with such change to improve their relationship with each other. The Process of Change Model is divided into four stages: late status quo, chaos, practice and integration, and new status quo.In the first stage of change, the late status quo, Satir argued the individual is in a predictable environment. Status quo involves a set routine, fixed ideas about the world, and an established behavior. This stage is all about predictability and familiarity.The second stage of change is chaos. Chaos, as described by Satir, occurs when something in the environment or in the individual changes. This change brings a sense of unfamiliarity and the previously stable routine can no longer be held. In the stage of chaos, here are many strong feelings like sadness, fear, confusion, stress, among others. Satir argues that in the change stage of chaos, therapists must help families and individuals navigate these emotions.[11]The third stage of change is practice and integration. In this stage new ideas are being implemented and individuals are figuring out what works best. Like any other skill, it requires patience and practice.The final stage of change is the new status quo. In this stage, the new ideas, behaviors, and changes are not so new anymore. Individuals tend to acclimate to the change, figure out what works, and become better at their new skill.Satir points out that this change process is not linear. On some occasions, individuals might have found a temporary coping skill or solution, but if it does not bring the desired results, they might regress to the stage of chaos. For this reason, it is important that therapists are aware of this process to help guide their clients.[9]","title":"Process of Change Model"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_Marriage_and_Family_Therapy"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-satir-9"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Satir published her first book, Conjoint Family Therapy, in 1964, developed from the training manual she wrote for students at MRI. Her reputation grew with each subsequent book, and she travelled the world to speak on her methods. She also became a Diplomate of the Academy of Certified Social Workers and received the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy's Distinguished Service Award.[9]Satir often integrated meditations and poetic writing into both her public workshops and writings. One of her most well-known works, \"I Am Me,\" was written by Satir in response to a question posed by an angry teenage girl.[15]","title":"Career as author"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"I Am Me","text":"My declaration of self-esteem\nI am me\nIn all the world, there is no one else exactly like me\nEverything that comes out of me is authentically mine\nbecause I alone chose it – I own everything about me\nMy body, my feelings, my mouth, my voice, all my actions,\nwhether they be to others or to myself – I own my fantasies,\nmy dreams, my hopes, my fears – I own all my triumphs and\nsuccesses, all my failures and mistakes Because I own all of\nme, I can become intimately acquainted with me – by so doing\nI can love me and be friendly with me in all my parts – I know\nthere are aspects about myself that puzzle me, and other\naspects that I do not know – but as long as I am\nfriendly and loving to myself, I can courageously\nand hopefully look for solutions to the puzzles\nand for ways to find out more about me – However I\nlook and sound, whatever I say and do, and whatever\nI think and feel at a given moment in time is authentically\nme – If later some parts of how I looked, sounded, thought\nand felt turned out to be unfitting, I can discard that which is\nunfitting, keep the rest, and invent something new for that\nwhich I discarded – I can see, hear, feel, think, say, and do\nI have the tools to survive, to be close to others, to be\nproductive, and to make sense and order out of the world of\npeople and things outside of me – I own me, and\ntherefore I can engineer me – I am me and\n\nI AM OKAY","title":"Career as author"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0031-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0031-5"},{"link_name":"Making contact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/makingcontact00sati"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89087-119-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89087-119-1"},{"link_name":"Bandler R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bandler"},{"link_name":"Grinder J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Grinder"},{"link_name":"Changing with families","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/changingwithfami00band"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0051-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0051-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89087-120-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89087-120-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56821-227-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56821-227-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0063-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0063-3"},{"link_name":"Satir step by step: a guide to creating change in families","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/satirstepbystepg00sati"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0068-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0068-4"},{"link_name":"The new peoplemaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/newpeoplemaking00satirich"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0070-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0070-6"},{"link_name":"Gomori M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Gomori"},{"link_name":"The Satir model: family therapy and beyond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/satirmodelfamily00sati"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8314-0078-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0078-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-285-64872-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-285-64872-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780831400743","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780831400743"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-58761-094-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58761-094-9"}],"text":"Satir, Virginia S. (1972). Peoplemaking. Robert S. Spitzer. ISBN 0-8314-0031-5.\nSatir V (1976). Making contact. Millbrae, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-119-1.\nSatir V; Bandler R; Grinder J (1976). Changing with families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0051-X.\nSatir V (1978). Your many faces. Berkeley, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-120-5.\nSatir V; Stachowiak J; Taschman HA (1994). Helping Families to Change. Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-227-5.\nSatir V (1983). Conjoint family therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0063-3.\nSatir V, Baldwin M (1983). Satir step by step: a guide to creating change in families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0068-4.\nSatir V (1988). The new peoplemaking. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0070-6.\nSatir V; Gomori M; Banmen J; Gerber JS (1991). The Satir model: family therapy and beyond. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0078-1.\nSatir V (1990) [1972]. Peoplemaking. Souvenir Press Ltd. ISBN 0-285-64872-1.\nEnglander-Golden; P; Satir, V. Say It Straight: From Compulsions to Choices, Science and Behavior Books, Palo Alto, CA 1991. ISBN 9780831400743\nSatir V (2001). Self Esteem. Berkeley, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 1-58761-094-9.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Family reconstruction: long day's journey into light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/familyreconstruc00neri"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-393-70017-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-70017-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1583910764","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1583910764"}],"text":"Nerin, William F. (1986). Family reconstruction: long day's journey into light. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-70017-8.\nDeMaria, Rita (2002). Building Intimate Relationships: Bridging Treatment, Education, and Enrichment. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1583910764.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Virginia Satir","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/VirginiaSatir4.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Family systems therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_systems_therapy"},{"title":"Humanistic psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology"},{"title":"Systems psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_psychology"},{"title":"Carl Whitaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Whitaker"},{"title":"Sally Pierone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_Pierone"}]
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[{"reference":"Satir, Virginia S. (1972). Peoplemaking. Robert S. Spitzer. ISBN 0-8314-0031-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0031-5","url_text":"0-8314-0031-5"}]},{"reference":"Satir V (1976). Making contact. Millbrae, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-119-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/makingcontact00sati","url_text":"Making contact"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89087-119-1","url_text":"0-89087-119-1"}]},{"reference":"Satir V; Bandler R; Grinder J (1976). Changing with families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0051-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bandler","url_text":"Bandler R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Grinder","url_text":"Grinder J"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/changingwithfami00band","url_text":"Changing with families"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0051-X","url_text":"0-8314-0051-X"}]},{"reference":"Satir V (1978). Your many faces. Berkeley, Calif: Celestial Arts. ISBN 0-89087-120-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89087-120-5","url_text":"0-89087-120-5"}]},{"reference":"Satir V; Stachowiak J; Taschman HA (1994). Helping Families to Change. Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-227-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56821-227-5","url_text":"1-56821-227-5"}]},{"reference":"Satir V (1983). Conjoint family therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0063-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0063-3","url_text":"0-8314-0063-3"}]},{"reference":"Satir V, Baldwin M (1983). Satir step by step: a guide to creating change in families. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0068-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/satirstepbystepg00sati","url_text":"Satir step by step: a guide to creating change in families"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0068-4","url_text":"0-8314-0068-4"}]},{"reference":"Satir V (1988). The new peoplemaking. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 0-8314-0070-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/newpeoplemaking00satirich","url_text":"The new peoplemaking"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8314-0070-6","url_text":"0-8314-0070-6"}]},{"reference":"Satir V; Gomori M; Banmen J; Gerber JS (1991). The Satir model: family therapy and beyond. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_March
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Werner March
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["1 Life and work","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
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German architect
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March in January 1944 as a captain in the Wehrmacht
Berlin Olympic Stadium
Olympic medal record
Art competitions
1936 Berlin
Town planning
1936 Berlin
Architecture
Werner Julius March (17 January 1894 – 11 January 1976) was a German architect, son of Otto March (1845–1913), and brother of Walter March, both also well-known German architects. Werner March designed Germany's 1936 Olympic stadium. Werner March was born in Charlottenburg and died in Berlin.
Life and work
For the 1936 Summer Olympics in Germany, March created his most famous work, Berlin Olympic Stadium, which was on the site of the Deutsches Stadion, a stadium designed by his father, Otto March, for use in the 1916 Summer Olympics (which were later cancelled after the outbreak of World War I). It is unclear whether March was influenced to use a more conservative design to suit Nazi tastes (claimed by Albert Speer), or whether March devised a grand, sweeping architecture that anticipated the spirit of the Third Reich.
The stadium, which has a capacity of 74,228, is one of the Germany's major sports venues and was used both for the 1974 and 2006 FIFA World Cup. He also created plans for the Zentralstadion. He designed Carinhall, Hermann Göring's hunting lodge-style country residence near Berlin. During 1956 to 1960 he designed the Cairo International Stadium in Egypt. Designed as a multi-purpose stadium for the Olympic sports, it is primarily used as a venue for football games.
Together with his brother Walter, Werner March won a gold medal in the art competitions at the 1936 Summer Olympics.
See also
Nazi architecture
References
^ "Werner March". Olympedia. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
^ Ladd, Brian (1997), The Ghosts of Berlin: Confronting German History in the Urban Landscape, University of Chicago Press, pp. 142–143, ISBN 0-226-46762-7
^ "Art Contests results for the 1936 Summer Olympics". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
External links
Newspaper clippings about Werner March in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Australia
Netherlands
Poland
Artists
ULAN
People
Deutsche Biographie
Structurae
Trove
Other
IdRef
This article about a German architect is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"title":"Nazi architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_architecture"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_Institute_of_Pathology
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Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
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["1 Overview","2 AFIP and international standardization","3 Disestablishment","4 Continuation as American Institute of Radiologic Pathology","5 Building status and future","6 References","7 External links"]
|
US government medical diagnostic institute
For the Pakistani military facility, see Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (Pakistan).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Armed Forces Institute of Pathology" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology building at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, being renovated in 2020
Southern wing of the building in 2020
The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) (1862 – September 15, 2011) was a U.S. government institution concerned with diagnostic consultation, education, and research in the medical specialty of pathology.
Overview
It was founded in 1862 as the Army Medical Museum in Washington, D.C., on the grounds of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC). It primarily provided second opinion diagnostic consultations on pathologic specimens such as biopsies from military, veteran, and civilian medical, dental, and veterinary sources. The unique character of the AFIP rested in the expertise of its civilian and military staff of diagnostic pathologists whose daily work consisted of the study of cases that are difficult to diagnose owing to their rarity or their variation from the ordinary. The accumulation of such cases has resulted in a rich repository of lesions, numbering over three million, that have been the basis of major pathological studies.
Examples are the published reports on the clinical, pathological, and molecular characteristics of the relatively newly recognized gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
Another special feature of the AFIP was the interaction between its departments in analyzing complex cases. The AFIP's diagnostic departments were based on organ sites—e.g., dermatological, hepatic, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, pulmonary, soft tissue, bone, hematological, neurological, endocrine, and gynecological pathology. In addition, there were specialty departments dealing with infectious and parasitic diseases, molecular studies and environmental pathology. As all of these specialties were located in one institution, rapid collaborative examination of a case was facilitated and interdepartmental collaborative research was the rule rather than the exception. In 2009, the Environmental Protection Agency shut down many of the labs, especially those dealing with anthrax, due to improper storage practices.
Unique to the AFIP was the Department of Radiologic Pathology, which pursued the interface between diagnostic radiology and anatomic pathology. This department was responsible for a course staffed by some of the finest radiologists and attended by most of the US trained radiologists during their residency. A by-product was an unmatched repository of medical cases having extensive radiological images and pathological slides, a great source for studies in this field.
The educational mission of the Institute consisted of formal courses providing continuing medical education (CME) credits for postgraduate medical personnel. A number of these courses had microscope slide study sets for individual examination by the participants as well as authoritative lectures by the AFIP and visiting staff. Fellowships were available as were one-month visits to individual departments.
Building 54, the building occupied by AFIP on the Walter Reed Campus, is unique in that it was designed to be atomic bombproof in 1951. It has no windows and walls are said to be 8-ft thick.
AFIP and international standardization
The AFIP played a critical role in the standardization of pathologic diagnosis of tumors. This was mainly the result of the participation of AFIP staff as panel members and reference center heads in the International Histological Classification of Tumors (IHCT) series of the World Health Organization (WHO). WHO reference and collaborating centers were established at the AFIP in a number of subjects aimed at international standardization of tumor nomenclature, classification, and diagnostic criteria. AFIP staff contributed the largest number of IHCT panel members than any other institution. AFIP staff played key roles in the Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) project of the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AFIP Atlases of Tumor Pathology, published by the American Registry of Pathology were, and still are, monumental contributions to standards in diagnosis throughout the world.
Disestablishment
The Base Realignment and Closure proposal for 2005 included a realignment of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center campus that had as one element the disestablishment of AFIP with relocation of its "military relevant functions" to the National Naval Medical Center (NNMC), Bethesda, Maryland; Dover AFB, Delaware; and Fort Sam Houston, Texas.
The implications of the BRAC and reaction to it by the pathology world resulted in congressional legislation in the National Defense Authorization Act of 2008 (NDAA 2008) establishing a Joint Pathology Center (JPC). This recognized the significant contributions of the AFIP and mandated the JPC to assume many of AFIP's responsibilities in consultation, education, and research, as well as the modernization of its unique tissue repository. AFIP shut its doors on September 15, 2011.
Continuation as American Institute of Radiologic Pathology
Recognizing the educational value of the radiology-pathology correlation course and corresponding vast database of cases, the American College of Radiology has been instrumental in creating the American Institute of Radiologic Pathology (AIRP) to allow continuation of the radiology-pathology course. The first course of the AIRP began in January 2011.
Building status and future
Following the WRAMC's closure in 2011, the AFIP building and other space totaling 12 acres was given to Children's National Hospital to establish its Research & Innovation Campus. When completed, the campus will host a wide variety of medical research, as well as biomedical incubator space and a primary care clinic.
Renovation work started in 2018 and the first phase of the project opened in 2021.
References
^ Henry R.S., The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology - Its First Century 1862 -1962, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, Washington, DC 1964. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 63-60060
^ Stone P., Legacy of Excellence: The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 1862-2011, Borden Institute, US Army Medical Department, Fort Detrick, Maryland 2011.
^ Miettinen M, Sobin, LH, Lasota J. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors of the stomach. A clinicopathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular genetic study of 1765 cases with long-term follow-up. Am J Surg Pathol 2005;29:52-68
^ Levy AD, Taylor LD, Abbott RM et al. Duodenal carcinoids: Imaging Features with Clinicopathologic Comparison. Radiology 2005;237:967-972
^ "Building a Bombproof Institute". devilofhistory.wordpress.com. May 26, 2015.
^ Sobin, LH. The International Histological Classification of Tumors. Bull World Health Organ 1981;59:813-819
^ Lee, C. Pathologists protest defense site's closure: realignment will divvy up functions of the definitive disease clearinghouse. Washington Post, Feb. 4, 2007, p. A10
^ "ASCP Mourns Closure of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology". Genomeweb LLC. Archived from the original on 2012-03-17.
^ "AIRP Launches First Radiologic Pathology Course". American College of Radiology. Archived from the original on 2011-09-28.
^ "DC welcomes the Children's National Research & Innovation Campus". WTOP News. 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2023-10-03.
External links
Joint Pathology Center
Ask Rad Path Radiologic-Pathologic Correlation
Radiology Residents AFIP Group
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
Final issue of The AFIP Letter
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
Israel
United States
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (Pakistan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_Institute_of_Pathology_(Pakistan)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Walter Reed Army Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Medical_Center"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020c.jpg"},{"link_name":"U.S. government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_government"},{"link_name":"pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology"}],"text":"For the Pakistani military facility, see Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (Pakistan).Armed Forces Institute of Pathology building at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, being renovated in 2020Southern wing of the building in 2020The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) (1862 – September 15, 2011) was a U.S. government institution concerned with diagnostic consultation, education, and research in the medical specialty of pathology.","title":"Armed Forces Institute of Pathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"Walter Reed Army Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reed_Army_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"second opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_opinion_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"biopsies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsies"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Environmental Protection Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"anthrax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"microscope slide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope_slide"},{"link_name":"bombproof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bombproof&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"It was founded in 1862 as the Army Medical Museum in Washington, D.C., on the grounds of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center (WRAMC). It primarily provided second opinion diagnostic consultations on pathologic specimens such as biopsies from military, veteran, and civilian medical, dental, and veterinary sources. The unique character of the AFIP rested in the expertise of its civilian and military staff of diagnostic pathologists whose daily work consisted of the study of cases that are difficult to diagnose owing to their rarity or their variation from the ordinary. The accumulation of such cases has resulted in a rich repository of lesions, numbering over three million, that have been the basis of major pathological studies.[1][2]Examples are the published reports on the clinical, pathological, and molecular characteristics of the relatively newly recognized gastrointestinal stromal tumors.[3]Another special feature of the AFIP was the interaction between its departments in analyzing complex cases. The AFIP's diagnostic departments were based on organ sites—e.g., dermatological, hepatic, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, pulmonary, soft tissue, bone, hematological, neurological, endocrine, and gynecological pathology. In addition, there were specialty departments dealing with infectious and parasitic diseases, molecular studies and environmental pathology. As all of these specialties were located in one institution, rapid collaborative examination of a case was facilitated and interdepartmental collaborative research was the rule rather than the exception. In 2009, the Environmental Protection Agency shut down many of the labs, especially those dealing with anthrax, due to improper storage practices.Unique to the AFIP was the Department of Radiologic Pathology, which pursued the interface between diagnostic radiology and anatomic pathology. This department was responsible for a course staffed by some of the finest radiologists and attended by most of the US trained radiologists during their residency. A by-product was an unmatched repository of medical cases having extensive radiological images and pathological slides, a great source for studies in this field.[4]The educational mission of the Institute consisted of formal courses providing continuing medical education (CME) credits for postgraduate medical personnel. A number of these courses had microscope slide study sets for individual examination by the participants as well as authoritative lectures by the AFIP and visiting staff. Fellowships were available as were one-month visits to individual departments.Building 54, the building occupied by AFIP on the Walter Reed Campus, is unique in that it was designed to be atomic bombproof in 1951. It has no windows and walls are said to be 8-ft thick.[5]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"WHO reference and collaborating centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO_Collaborating_Centres"},{"link_name":"Union for International Cancer Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_for_International_Cancer_Control"}],"text":"The AFIP played a critical role in the standardization of pathologic diagnosis of tumors. This was mainly the result of the participation of AFIP staff as panel members and reference center heads in the International Histological Classification of Tumors (IHCT) series of the World Health Organization (WHO).[6] WHO reference and collaborating centers were established at the AFIP in a number of subjects aimed at international standardization of tumor nomenclature, classification, and diagnostic criteria. AFIP staff contributed the largest number of IHCT panel members than any other institution. AFIP staff played key roles in the Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) project of the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The AFIP Atlases of Tumor Pathology, published by the American Registry of Pathology were, and still are, monumental contributions to standards in diagnosis throughout the world.","title":"AFIP and international standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Base Realignment and Closure proposal for 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure,_2005"},{"link_name":"National Naval Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Naval_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"Dover AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_AFB"},{"link_name":"Fort Sam Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sam_Houston"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Base Realignment and Closure proposal for 2005 included a realignment of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center campus that had as one element the disestablishment of AFIP with relocation of its \"military relevant functions\" to the National Naval Medical Center (NNMC), Bethesda, Maryland; Dover AFB, Delaware; and Fort Sam Houston, Texas.The implications of the BRAC and reaction to it by the pathology world resulted in congressional legislation in the National Defense Authorization Act of 2008 (NDAA 2008)[section 722] establishing a Joint Pathology Center (JPC).[7] This recognized the significant contributions of the AFIP and mandated the JPC to assume many of AFIP's responsibilities in consultation, education, and research, as well as the modernization of its unique tissue repository. AFIP shut its doors on September 15, 2011.[8]","title":"Disestablishment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American College of Radiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_College_of_Radiology"},{"link_name":"American Institute of Radiologic Pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Radiologic_Pathology"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Recognizing the educational value of the radiology-pathology correlation course and corresponding vast database of cases, the American College of Radiology has been instrumental in creating the American Institute of Radiologic Pathology (AIRP) to allow continuation of the radiology-pathology course. The first course of the AIRP began in January 2011.[9]","title":"Continuation as American Institute of Radiologic Pathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Children's National Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_National_Hospital"},{"link_name":"incubator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_incubator"},{"link_name":"primary care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_care"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Following the WRAMC's closure in 2011, the AFIP building and other space totaling 12 acres was given to Children's National Hospital to establish its Research & Innovation Campus. When completed, the campus will host a wide variety of medical research, as well as biomedical incubator space and a primary care clinic.Renovation work started in 2018 and the first phase of the project opened in 2021.[10]","title":"Building status and future"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Armed Forces Institute of Pathology building at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, being renovated in 2020","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020a.jpg/220px-Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020a.jpg"},{"image_text":"Southern wing of the building in 2020","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020c.jpg/220px-Old_Walter_Reed_Institute_of_Pathology_2020c.jpg"}]
| null |
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Merit_Cross_(Saxony)
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War Merit Cross (Saxony)
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["1 Appearance","2 References"]
|
AwardWar Merit CrossKriegsverdienstkreuzSaxony War Merit CrossTypeMilitary decorationPresented byKingdom of SaxonyCampaign(s)World War IEstablished30 October 1915Last awarded1918Ribbon of the Cross
The War Merit Cross (German: Kriegsverdienstkreuz) was a military decoration of the Kingdom of Saxony. Established 30 October 1915 by King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony, it was awarded for humanitarian and patriotic work towards the war effort.
Appearance
The War Merit Cross is made of bronze and in the shape of a Latin cross pattée. Between the arms of the cross is a laurel wreath. The obverse bears a circular medallion in the center with the left facing effigy of King Friedrich August III. Circumscribed around the medallion is FRIEDRICH AUGUST KÖNIG V. SACHSEN. In the upper arm is the Saxon crown and the date 1915 on the lower arm. The reverse of the central medallion bears the crowned cipher of King Friedrich August III. The left arm is inscribed WELT- and the right arm inscribed KRIEG (World War).
References
^ "SAXONY, Kingdom. War Merit Cross (SACHSEN - Königreich. Kriegsverdienstkreuz), 1915-1918". Medal-medaille.com. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Documents
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Book of Documents
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["1 Textual history","1.1 Early references","1.2 Han dynasty: Modern and Old Scripts","1.3 Claimed recovery of Old Script texts","1.4 Modern discoveries","2 Contents","2.1 Nature of the chapters","2.2 Traditional organization","3 Dating of the Modern Script chapters","4 Influence in the West","5 Notable translations","6 Notes","7 References","7.1 Citations","7.2 Works cited","8 External links"]
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One of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature
"Shang Shu" redirects here. For the ruler of the state of Jin, see Shang Shu (Jin).
"Shangshu" redirects here. For the place in Anji, Zhejiang, see Shangshu Township.
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Book of Documents A page of an annotated Book of Documents manuscript from the 7th century, held by the Tokyo National MuseumAuthorVarious; compilation traditionally attributed to ConfuciusOriginal title書 *s-taLanguageOld ChineseSubjectCompilation of rhetorical prosePublication placeZhou China
Book of Documents"Book of Documents (Shujing)" using traditional (top) and simplified (bottom) charactersChinese nameTraditional Chinese書經Simplified Chinese书经Literal meaning"Classic of Documents"TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinShūjīngGwoyeu RomatzyhShujingWade–GilesShu1-ching1IPAHakkaRomanizationSu1-gang1Yue: CantoneseYale RomanizationSyū-gīngJyutpingSyu1-ging1IPASouthern MinHokkien POJChu-kengTâi-lôTsu-kingMiddle ChineseMiddle Chinesesho-gengOld ChineseBaxter–Sagart (2014)*s-ta k-lˤengShangshuTraditional Chinese尚書Simplified Chinese尚书Literal meaningVenerated DocumentsTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinShàngshūGwoyeu RomatzyhShanqshuWade–GilesShang4-shu1IPAHakkaRomanizationSong4-su1Yue: CantoneseYale RomanizationSeuhng-syūJyutpingSoeng6-syu1Southern MinHokkien POJSiōng-suTâi-lôSiōng-suMiddle ChineseMiddle Chinesedʒjàng-shoOld ChineseBaxter–Sagart (2014)*dang-s s-taShuTraditional Chinese書Simplified Chinese书Literal meaningDocumentsTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinShūWade–GilesShu1IPAYue: CantoneseYale RomanizationSyūJyutpingSyu1Southern MinHokkien POJChuTâi-lôTsuMiddle ChineseMiddle ChineseʃoOld ChineseBaxter–Sagart (2014)*s-taVietnamese nameVietnamese alphabetKinh ThưHán-Nôm經書Korean nameHangul서경Hanja書經TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationSeogyeongJapanese nameKanji書経HiraganaしょきょうTranscriptionsRomanizationShokyō
Lineage of editions during the Han dynasty
The Book of Documents (Chinese: 書經; pinyin: Shūjīng; Wade–Giles: Shu King) or the Classic of History, is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China, and served as the foundation of Chinese political philosophy for over two millennia.
The Book of Documents was the subject of one of China's oldest literary controversies, between proponents of different versions of the text. A version was preserved from Qin Shi Huang's burning of books and burying of scholars by scholar Fu Sheng, in 29 chapters (piān 篇). This group of texts were referred to as "Modern Script" (jīnwén 今文), because they were written with the script in use at the beginning of the Western Han dynasty.
A longer version of the Documents was said to be discovered in the wall of Confucius's family estate in Qufu by his descendant Kong Anguo in the late 2nd century BC. This new material was referred to as "Old Script" (gǔwén 古文), because they were written in the script that predated the standardization of Chinese script during the Qin. Compared to the Modern Script texts, the "Old Script" material had 16 more chapters. However, this seems to have been lost at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, while the Modern Script text enjoyed circulation, in particular in Ouyang Gao's study, called the Ouyang Shangshu (歐陽尚書). This was the basis of studies by Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan during the Eastern Han.
In 317 AD, Mei Ze presented to the Eastern Jin court a 58-chapter (59 if the preface is counted) Book of Documents as Kong Anguo's version of the text.
This version was accepted, despite the doubts of a few scholars, and later was canonized as part of Kong Yingda's project. It was only in the 17th century that Qing dynasty scholar Yan Ruoqu demonstrated that the "Old Script" were actually fabrications "reconstructed" in the 3rd or 4th centuries AD.
In the transmitted edition, texts are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the legendary reign of Yu the Great, and the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. The Zhou section accounts for over half the text. Some Modern Script chapters are among the earliest examples of Chinese prose, recording speeches from the early years of the Zhou dynasty in the late 11th century BC. Although the other three sections purport to record earlier material, most scholars believe that even the New Script chapters in these sections were composed later than those in the Zhou section, with chapters relating to the earliest periods being as recent as the 4th or 3rd centuries BC.
Textual history
The history of the various versions of the Documents is particularly complex, and has been the subject of a long-running literary and philosophical controversy.
Early references
According to a later tradition, the Book of Documents was compiled by Confucius (551–479 BC) as a selection from a much larger group of documents, with some of the remainder being included in the Yizhoushu.
However, the early history of both texts is obscure.
Beginning with Confucius, writers increasingly drew on the Documents to illustrate general principles, though it seems that several different versions were in use.
Six citations of unnamed Documents chapters appear in the Analects.
Although Confucius invoked the pre-dynastic emperors Yao and Shun, and figures from the Xia and Shang dynasties, he complained of the lack of documentation prior to the Zhou.
Increasing numbers of citations, some with titles, appear in 4th century BC works such as the Mencius, Mozi and Commentary of Zuo.
These authors favoured documents relating to Yao, Shun and the Xia dynasty, chapters now believed to have been written in the Warring States period.
The chapters currently believed to be the oldest (mostly relating to the early Zhou) were little used by Warring States authors, perhaps due to the difficulty of the archaic language or a less familiar world-view.
Fewer than half the passages quoted by these authors are present in the received text.
Authors such as Mencius and Xunzi, while quoting the Documents, refused to accept all of it as genuine.
Their attitude contrasts with the reverence that would be shown to the text in the Han dynasty, when its compilation was attributed to Confucius.
Han dynasty: Modern and Old Scripts
Fu Sheng expounding on the Classic, attributed to Wang Wei (8th century)
Many copies of the work were destroyed in the Burning of Books during the Qin dynasty.
Fu Sheng reconstructed part of the work from hidden copies in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC, at the start of the succeeding Han dynasty. The texts that he transmitted were known as the "Modern Script" (今文 jīn wén) because it was written in the clerical script.
It originally consisted of 29 chapters, but the "Great Speech" 太誓 chapter was lost shortly afterwards and replaced by a new version. The remaining 28 chapters were later expanded into 30 when Ouyang Gao divided the "Pangeng" chapter into three sections.
During the reign of Emperor Wu, renovations of the home of Confucius are said to have uncovered several manuscripts hidden within a wall, including a longer version of the Documents.
These texts were referred to as "Old Script" because they were written in the pre-Qin seal script.
They were transcribed into clerical script and interpreted by Confucius' descendant Kong Anguo.
Han dynasty sources give contradictory accounts of the nature of this find. According to the commonly repeated account of the Book of Han, the "Old Script" texts included the chapters preserved by Fu Sheng, another version of the "Great Speech" chapter and some 16 additional ones.
It is unclear what happened to these manuscripts. According to the Book of Han, Liu Xiang collated the Old Script version against the three main "Modern Script" traditions, creating a version of the Documents that included both groups. This was championed by his son Liu Xin,
who requested in a letter to Emperor Ai the establishment of a boshi position for its study. But this did not happen. Most likely, this edition put together by the imperial librarians was lost in the chaos that ended the Western Han dynasty, and the later movement of the capital and imperial library.
A list of 100 chapter titles was also in circulation; many are mentioned in the Records of the Grand Historian, but without quoting the text of the other chapters.
The shu were designated one of the Five Classics when Confucian works made official by Emperor Wu of Han, and jīng ('classic') was added to its name.
The term Shàngshū 'venerated documents' was also used in the Eastern Han.
The Xiping Stone Classics, set up outside the imperial academy in 175–183 but since destroyed, included a Modern Script version of the Documents.
Most Han dynasty scholars ignored the Old Script version, and it disappeared by the end of the dynasty.
Claimed recovery of Old Script texts
A version of the Documents that included the "Old Script" texts was allegedly rediscovered by the scholar Mei Ze during the 4th century, and presented to the imperial court of the Eastern Jin.
His version consisted of the 31 modern script texts in 33 chapters, and 18 additional old script texts in 25 chapters, with a preface and commentary purportedly written by Kong Anguo. This was presented as Guwen Shangshu 古文尚書, and was widely accepted. It was the basis of the Shàngshū zhèngyì (尚書正義 'Correct interpretation of the Documents') published in 653 and made the official interpretation of the Documents by imperial decree. The oldest extant copy of the text, included in the Kaicheng Stone Classics (833–837), contains all of these chapters.
Since the Song dynasty, starting from Wu Yu (吳棫), many doubts had been expressed concerning the provenance of the allegedly rediscovered "Old Script" texts in Mei Ze's edition. In the 16th century, Mei Zhuo (梅鷟) published a detailed argument that these chapters, as well as the preface and commentary, were forged in the 3rd century AD using material from other historical sources such as the Zuo Commentary and the Records of the Grand Historian. Mei identified the sources from which the forger had cut and pasted text, and even suggested Huangfu Mi as a probable culprit. In the 17th century, Yan Ruoqu's unpublished but widely distributed manuscript entitled Evidential analysis of the Old Script Documents (尚書古文疏證; Shàngshū gǔwén shūzhèng) convinced most scholars that the rediscovered Old Script texts were fabricated in the 3rd or 4th centuries.
Modern discoveries
New light has been shed on the Book of Documents by the recovery between 1993 and 2008 of caches of texts written on bamboo slips from tombs of the state of Chu in Jingmen, Hubei. These texts are believed to date from the late Warring States period, around 300 BC, and thus predate the burning of the books during the Qin dynasty. The Guodian Chu Slips and the Shanghai Museum corpus include quotations of previously unknown passages of the work. The Tsinghua Bamboo Slips includes a version of the transmitted text "Golden Coffer", with minor textual differences, as well as several documents in the same style that are not included in the received text. The collection also includes two documents that the editors considered to be versions of the Old Script texts "Common Possession of Pure Virtue" and "Command to Fu Yue". Other authors have challenged these straightforward identifications.
Contents
In the orthodox arrangement, the work consists of 58 chapters, each with a brief preface traditionally attributed to Confucius, and also includes a preface and commentary, both purportedly by Kong Anguo.
An alternative organization, first used by Wu Cheng, includes only the Modern Script chapters, with the chapter prefaces collected together, but omitting the Kong preface and commentary.
In addition, several chapters are divided into two or three parts in the orthodox form.
Nature of the chapters
With the exception of a few chapters of late date, the chapters are represented as records of formal speeches by kings or other important figures.
Most of these speeches are of one of five types, indicated by their titles:
Consultations (謨 mó) between the king and his ministers (2 chapters),
Instructions (訓 xùn) to the king from his ministers (1 chapter),
Announcements (誥 gào) by the king to his people (8 chapters),
Declarations (誓 shì) by a ruler on the occasion of a battle (6 chapters), and
Commands (命 mìng) by the king to a specific vassal (7 chapters).
Classical Chinese tradition lists six types of Shu, beginning with dian 典, Canons (2 chapters in the Modern corpus).
According to Su Shi (1037–1101), it is possible to single out Eight Announcements of the early Zhou, directed to the Shang people. Their titles only partially correspond to the modern chapters marked as gao (apart from the nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18 that mention the genre, Su Shi names nos. 16 "Zi cai", 19 "Duo shi" and 22 "Duo fang").
As pointed out by Chen Mengjia (1911–1966), announcements and commands are similar, but differ in that commands usually include granting of valuable objects, land or servants to their recipients.
Guo Changbao 过常宝 claims that the graph for announcement (誥), known since the Oracle bone script, also appears on two bronze vessels (He zun and Shi Zhi gui 史簋), as well as in the "six genres" 六辞 of the Zhou li
In many cases a speech is introduced with the phrase Wáng ruò yuē (王若曰 'The king seemingly said'), which also appears on commemorative bronze inscriptions from the Western Zhou period, but not in other received texts.
Scholars interpret this as meaning that the original documents were prepared scripts of speeches, to be read out by an official on behalf of the king.
Traditional organization
The chapters are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the semi-mythical reign of Yu the Great, and the three ancient dynasties of the Xia, Shang and Zhou.
The first two sections – on Yu the Great and the Xia dynasty – contain two chapters each in the Modern Script version, and though they purport to record the earliest material in the Documents, from the 2nd millennium BC, most scholars believe they were written during the Warring States period.
The Shang dynasty section contains five chapters, of which the first two – the "Speech of King Tang" and "Pan Geng" – recount the conquest of the Xia by the Shang and their leadership's migration to a new capital (now identified as Anyang).
The bulk of the Zhou dynasty section concerns the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (r. c. 1040–1006 BC) and the king's uncles, the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao.
The last four Modern Script chapters relate to the later Western Zhou and early Spring and Autumn periods.
Chapters of the Book of Documents
Part
New Text
Orthodoxchapter
Title
虞書Yu
1
1
堯典
Yáo diǎn
Canon of Yao
2
舜典
Shùn diǎn
Canon of Shun
3
大禹謨
Dà Yǔ mó
Counsels of Great Yu
2
4
皋陶謨
Gāo Yáo mó
Counsels of Gao Yao
5
益稷
Yì jì
Yi and Ji
夏書Xia
3
6
禹貢
Yǔ gòng
Tribute of Yu
4
7
甘誓
Gān shì
Speech at Gan
8
五子之歌
Wǔ zǐ zhī gē
Songs of the Five Sons
9
胤征
Yìn zhēng
Punitive Expedition on Yin
商書Shang
5
10
湯誓
Tāng shì
Speech of Tang
11
仲虺之誥
Zhònghuī zhī gào
Announcement of Zhonghui
12
湯誥
Tāng gào
Announcement of Tang
13
伊訓
Yī xùn
Instructions of Yi
14–16
太甲
Tài jiǎ
Great Oath parts 1, 2 & 3
17
咸有一德
Xián yǒu yī dé
Common Possession of Pure Virtue
6
18–20
盤庚
Pán Gēng
Pan Geng parts 1, 2 & 3
21–23
說命
Yuè mìng
Charge to Yue parts 1, 2 & 3
7
24
高宗肜日
Gāozōng róng rì
Day of the Supplementary Sacrifice of King Gaozong
8
25
西伯戡黎
Xībó kān lí
Chief of the West 's Conquest of Li
9
26
微子
Wēizǐ
Weizi
周書Zhou
27–29
泰誓
Tài shì
Great Speech parts 1, 2 & 3
10
30
牧誓
Mù shì
Speech at Muye
31
武成
Wǔ chéng
Successful Completion of the War
11
32
洪範
Hóng fàn
Great Plan
33
旅獒
Lǚ áo
Hounds of Lü
12
34
金滕
Jīn téng
Golden Coffer
13
35
大誥
Dà gào
Great Announcement
36
微子之命
Wēizǐ zhī mìng
Charge to Prince Weizi
14
37
康誥
Kāng gào
Announcement to Kang
15
38
酒誥
Jiǔ gào
Announcement about Drunkenness
16
39
梓材
Zǐ cái
Timber of Rottlera
17
40
召誥
Shào gào
Announcement of Duke Shao
18
41
洛誥
Luò gào
Announcement concerning Luoyang
19
42
多士
Duō shì
Numerous Officers
20
43
無逸
Wú yì
Against Luxurious Ease
21
44
君奭
Jūn shì
Lord Shi
45
蔡仲之命
Cài Zhòng zhī mìng
Charge to Cai Zhong
22
46
多方
Duō fāng
Numerous Regions
23
47
立政
Lì zhèng
Establishment of Government
48
周官
Zhōu guān
Officers of Zhou
49
君陳
Jūn chén
Lord Chen
24
50
顧命
Gù mìng
Testamentary Charge
51
康王之誥
Kāng wáng zhī gào
Proclamation of King Kang
52
畢命
Bì mìng
Charge to the Bi
53
君牙
Jūn Yá
Lord Ya
54
冏命
Jiǒng mìng
Charge to Jiong
25
55
呂刑
Lǚ xíng
Lü on Punishments
26
56
文侯之命
Wén hóu zhī mìng
Charge to Duke Wen of Jin
27
57
費誓
Fèi shì
Speech at Fei
28
58
秦誓
Qín shì
Speech of Duke Mu of Qin
Dating of the Modern Script chapters
Not all of the Modern Script chapters are believed to be contemporaneous with the events they describe, which range from the legendary emperors Yao and Shun to early in the Spring and Autumn period.
Six of these chapters concern figures prior to the first evidence of writing, the oracle bones dating from the reign of the Late Shang king Wu Ding.
Moreover, the chapters dealing with the earliest periods are the closest in language and focus to classical works of the Warring States period.
The five announcements in the Documents of Zhou feature the most archaic language, closely resembling inscriptions found on Western Zhou bronzes in both grammar and vocabulary.
They are considered by most scholars to record speeches of King Cheng of Zhou, as well as the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao, uncles of King Cheng who were key figures during his reign (late 11th century BC). They provide insight into the politics and ideology of the period, including the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, explaining how the once-virtuous Xia had become corrupt and were replaced by the virtuous Shang, who went through a similar cycle ending in their replacement by the Zhou.
The "Timber of Rottlera", "Numerous Officers", "Against Luxurious Ease" and "Numerous Regions" chapters are believed to have been written somewhat later, in the late Western Zhou period.
A minority of scholars, pointing to differences in language between the announcements and Zhou bronzes, argue that all of these chapters are products of a commemorative tradition in the late Western Zhou or early Spring and Autumn periods.
Chapters dealing with the late Shang and the transition to Zhou use less archaic language.
They are believed to have been modelled on the earlier speeches by writers in the Spring and Autumn period, a time of renewed interest in politics and dynastic decline.
The later chapters of the Zhou section are also believed to have been written around this time.
The "Gaozong Rongri" chapter comprises only 82 characters, and its interpretation was already disputed in Western Han commentaries.
Pointing to the similarity of its title to formulas found in the Anyang oracle bone inscriptions, David Nivison proposed that the chapter was written or recorded by a collateral descendant of Wu Ding in the late Shang period some time after 1140 BC.
The "Pan Geng" chapter (later divided into three parts) seems to be intermediate in style between this group and the next. It is the longest speech in the Documents, and is unusual in its extensive use of analogy. Scholars since the Tang dynasty have noted the difficult language of the "Pan Geng" and the Zhou Announcement chapters. Citing the archaic language and worldview, Chinese scholars have argued for a Shang dynasty provenance for the "Pan Geng" chapters, with considerable editing and replacement of the vocabulary by Zhou dynasty authors accounting for the difference in language from Shang inscriptions.
The chapters dealing with the legendary emperors, the Xia dynasty and the transition to Shang are very similar in language to such classics as the Mencius (late 4th century BC).
They present idealized rulers, with the earlier political concerns subordinate to moral and cosmological theory, and are believed to be the products of philosophical schools of the late Warring States period.
Some chapters, particularly the "Tribute of Yu", may be as late as the Qin dynasty.
Influence in the West
When Jesuit scholars prepared the first translations of Chinese Classics into Latin, they called the Documents the "Book of Kings", making a parallel with the Books of Kings in the Old Testament. They saw Shang Di as the equivalent of the Christian God, and used passages from the Documents in their commentaries on other works.
Notable translations
Gaubil, Antoine (1770). Le Chou-king, un des livres sacrés des Chinois, qui renferme les fondements de leur ancienne histoire, les principes de leur gouvernement & de leur morale; ouvrage recueilli par Confucius (in French). Paris: N. M. Tillard.
Medhurst, W. H. (1846). Ancient China. The Shoo King or the Historical Classic. Shanghai: The Mission Press.
Legge, James (1865). The Chinese Classics, volume III: the Shoo King or the Book of Historical Documents. London: Trubner.; rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960. (Full Chinese text with English translation using Legge's own romanization system, with extensive background and annotations.)
part 1: Prolegomena and chapters 1–26 (up to books of Shang)
part 2: chapters 27–58 (books of Zhou), indexes
Legge, James (1879). The Shû king; The religious portions of the Shih king; The Hsiâo king. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Includes a minor revision of Legge's translation.
Couvreur, Séraphin (1897). Chou King, Les Annales de la Chine (in French). Hokkien: Mission Catholique. Reprinted (1999), Paris: You Feng.
Karlgren, Bernhard (1950). "The Book of Documents". Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 22: 1–81. (Modern Script chapters only) Reprinted as a separate volume by Elanders in 1950.
Katō, Jōken 加藤常賢 (1964). Shin kobun Shōsho shūshaku 真古文尚書集釈 (in Japanese). Tokyo: Meiji shoin.
(in Mandarin Chinese) Qu, Wanli 屈萬里 (1969). Shàngshū jīnzhù jīnyì 尚書今注今譯 . Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan.
Waltham, Clae (1971). Shu ching: Book of History. A Modernized Edition of the Translation of James Legge. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
Ikeda, Suitoshi 池田末利 (1976). Shōsho 尚書 (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shūeisha.
Palmer, Martin; Ramsay, Jay; Finlay, Victoria (2014). The Most Venerable Book (Shang Shu) also known as the Shu Jing (The Classic of Chronicles). London: Penguin Books.
Notes
^ The *k-lˤeng (jīng 經) appellation would not have been used until the Han dynasty, after the core Old Chinese period.
^ Or simply as the Shujing or Shangshu (尚书; Shàngshū; 'Venerated Documents')
^ Han Yu used the idiom 佶屈聱牙 (roughly meaning 'unflowing' and 'difficult to say') to describe the Zhou 'Announcements' and the Yin (Shang) 'Pan Geng'.
References
Citations
^ Baxter & Sagart (2014), pp. 327–378.
^ Hou Hanshu 後漢書. Taipei: Dingwen shuju. 1981. p. 79.2556.
^ Liu Qiyu 劉起釪 (2018). Shangshu xue shi 尚書學史 (2nd ed.). Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局. p. 7.
^ a b c Lewis (1999), p. 105.
^ a b Nylan (2001), pp. 134, 158.
^ Allan (2012), pp. 548–549, 551.
^ Allan (2012), p. 550.
^ Nylan (2001), p. 127.
^ Lewis (1999), pp. 105–108.
^ Schaberg (2001), p. 78.
^ Nylan (2001), pp. 127–128.
^ Nylan (2001), p. 130.
^ a b c d Shaughnessy (1993), p. 381.
^ Nylan (1995), p. 26.
^ Liu Qiyü 劉起釘. (1996). Shangshu xue shi 尚書學史. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局. p. 153.
^ Nylan (1995), pp. 28–36.
^ Nylan (1995), p. 48.
^ Hanshu 漢書. pp. 36.1967–1970.
^ a b Brooks (2011), p. 87.
^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 475–477.
^ a b c Shaughnessy (1993), p. 383.
^ a b Shaughnessy (1993), pp. 376–377.
^ Elman (1983), pp. 206–213.
^ a b c Liao (2001).
^ Shaughnessy (2006), pp. 56–58.
^ "First Research Results on Warring States Bamboo Strips Collected by Tsinghua University Released". Tsinghua University News. Tsinghua University. May 26, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-07-25.
^ Li Rui 李銳 (2013). "清华简《傅说之命》研究". Shenzhen Daxue Xuebao. Shehui Kexueban. 深圳大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Shenzhen University (Humanities & Social Sciences). 30 (6): 68–72.
^ Edward L. Shaughnessy (2020). "A Possible Lost Classic: The *She Ming, or *Command to She". T'oung Pao. 106.3–4: 266–308.
^ Allan (2011), p. 3.
^ Allan (2012), p. 552.
^ Shaughnessy (1993), p. 377.
^ 论5尚书6诰体的文化背景
^ Allan (2011), pp. 3–5.
^ Allan (2012), pp. 552–556.
^ Shaughnessy (1993), pp. 378–380.
^ Shaughnessy (1993), pp. 377–380.
^ Nylan (2001), pp. 133–135.
^ Shaughnessy (1999), p. 294.
^ a b c Nylan (2001), p. 133.
^ Shaughnessy (1999), pp. 294–295.
^ Kern (2009), pp. 146, 182–188.
^ Vogelsang (2002), pp. 196–197.
^ Shaughnessy (1993), p. 380.
^ Nivison (2018), pp. 22–23, 27–28.
^ a b Nylan (2001), p. 134.
^ Shih (2013), pp. 818–819.
^ 範文瀾："《盤庚》三篇是無可懷疑的商朝遺文（篇中可能有訓詁改字）"
^ Shaughnessy (1993), p. 378.
^ Meynard, Thierry (2015). The Jesuit Reading of Confucius : The First Complete Translation of the Lunyu (1687) Published in the West. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-28977-2.
Works cited
Allan, Sarah (2011), "What is a shu 書?" (PDF), EASCM Newsletter (4): 1–5.
Allan, Sarah (2012), "On Shu 書 (Documents) and the origin of the Shang shu 尚書 (Ancient Documents) in light of recently discovered bamboo slip manuscripts", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 75 (3): 547–557, doi:10.1017/S0041977X12000547.
Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014). Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.
Brooks, E. Bruce (2011), "The Shu" (PDF), Warring States Papers, 2: 87–90.
Elman, Benjamin A. (1983), "Philosophy (i-li) versus philology (k'ao-cheng)—the jen-hsin Tao-hsin debate" (PDF), T'oung Pao, 69 (4): 175–222, doi:10.1163/156853283x00081, JSTOR 4528296.
Kern, Martin (2009), "Bronze inscriptions, the Shijing and the Shangshu: the evolution of the ancestral sacrifice during the Western Zhou" (PDF), in Lagerwey, John; Kalinowski, Marc (eds.), Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC to 220 AD), Leiden: Brill, pp. 143–200, ISBN 978-90-04-16835-0.
Lewis, Mark Edward (1999), Writing and authority in early China, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-4114-5.
Liao, Mingchun (2001), A Preliminary Study on the Newly-unearthed Bamboo Inscriptions of the Chu Kingdom: An Investigation of the Materials from and about the Shangshu in the Guodian Chu Slips (in Chinese), Taipei: Taiwan Guji Publishing Co., ISBN 957-0414-59-6.
Nivison, David S. (2018) , "The King and the Bird: a Possible Genuine Shang Literary Text and Its Echoes in Later Philosophy and Religion", in Schwartz, Adam C. (ed.), The Nivison Annals : Selected Works of David S. Nivison on Early Chinese Chronology, Astronomy, and Historiography, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 22–28, doi:10.1515/9781501505393-003, ISBN 978-1-5015-0539-3.
Nylan, Michael (1995), "The Ku Wen Documents in Han Times", T'oung Pao, 81 (1/3): 25–50, doi:10.1163/156853295x00024, JSTOR 4528653.
——— (2001), The Five "Confucian" Classics, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08185-5.
Schaberg, David (2001), A patterned past: form and thought in early Chinese historiography, Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00861-8.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1993). "Shang shu 尚書". In Loewe, Michael (ed.). Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley. pp. 376–389. ISBN 978-1-55729-043-4.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999), "Western Zhou history", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 292–351, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2006), Rewriting early Chinese texts, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-6643-8.
Shih, Hsiang-lin (2013), "Shang shu 尚書 (Hallowed writings of antiquity)", in Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping (eds.), Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol. 2): A Reference Guide, Part Two Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 4 China, BRILL, pp. 814–830, ISBN 978-90-04-20164-4.
Vogelsang, Kai (2002), "Inscriptions and proclamations: on the authenticity of the 'gao' chapters in the Book of Documents", Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 74: 138–209.
Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese history: a manual (2nd ed.), Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.
External links
Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Book of Documents (in Chinese)
《尚書》 – Shang Shu at the Chinese Text Project, including both the Chinese text and Legge's English translation (emended to employ pinyin)
Shangshu at the Database of Religious History.
Selections from Legge's Shu Jing (also emended)
Annotated Edition of The Book of Documents
Book of Documents 《尚書》 Chinese text with matching English vocabulary at chinesenotes.com
vteChinese classics and Confucian textsFour Books
Great Learning
Doctrine of the Mean
Analects
Mencius
Five Classics
Classic of Poetry
Book of Documents
Book of Rites
I Ching
Spring and Autumn Annals
Thirteen Classics
Classic of Poetry
Book of Documents
Rites of Zhou
Etiquette and Ceremonial
Book of Rites
I Ching
Commentary of Zuo
Commentary of Gongyang
Commentary of Guliang
Analects
Erya
Classic of Filial Piety
Mencius
San Bai Qian
Three Character Classic
Hundred Family Surnames
Thousand Character Classic
Seven Military Classics
The Art of War
The Methods of the Sima
Six Secret Teachings
Wei Liaozi
Wu Zi
Three Strategies of Huang Shigong
Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong
Mathematics
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
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Bai Hu Tong
Biographies of Exemplary Women
Classic of Music
Four Books for Women
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School Sayings of Confucius
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Xunzi
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For the ruler of the state of Jin, see Shang Shu (Jin).\"Shangshu\" redirects here. For the place in Anji, Zhejiang, see Shangshu Township.Lineage of editions during the Han dynastyThe Book of Documents (Chinese: 書經; pinyin: Shūjīng; Wade–Giles: Shu King) or the Classic of History,[b] is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorical prose attributed to figures of ancient China, and served as the foundation of Chinese political philosophy for over two millennia.The Book of Documents was the subject of one of China's oldest literary controversies, between proponents of different versions of the text. A version was preserved from Qin Shi Huang's burning of books and burying of scholars by scholar Fu Sheng, in 29 chapters (piān 篇). This group of texts were referred to as \"Modern Script\" (jīnwén 今文), because they were written with the script in use at the beginning of the Western Han dynasty.A longer version of the Documents was said to be discovered in the wall of Confucius's family estate in Qufu by his descendant Kong Anguo in the late 2nd century BC. This new material was referred to as \"Old Script\" (gǔwén 古文), because they were written in the script that predated the standardization of Chinese script during the Qin. Compared to the Modern Script texts, the \"Old Script\" material had 16 more chapters. However, this seems to have been lost at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, while the Modern Script text enjoyed circulation, in particular in Ouyang Gao's [zh] study, called the Ouyang Shangshu (歐陽尚書). This was the basis of studies by Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan during the Eastern Han.[2][3]In 317 AD, Mei Ze presented to the Eastern Jin court a 58-chapter (59 if the preface is counted) Book of Documents as Kong Anguo's version of the text.\nThis version was accepted, despite the doubts of a few scholars, and later was canonized as part of Kong Yingda's project. It was only in the 17th century that Qing dynasty scholar Yan Ruoqu demonstrated that the \"Old Script\" were actually fabrications \"reconstructed\" in the 3rd or 4th centuries AD.In the transmitted edition, texts are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the legendary reign of Yu the Great, and the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. The Zhou section accounts for over half the text. Some Modern Script chapters are among the earliest examples of Chinese prose, recording speeches from the early years of the Zhou dynasty in the late 11th century BC. Although the other three sections purport to record earlier material, most scholars believe that even the New Script chapters in these sections were composed later than those in the Zhou section, with chapters relating to the earliest periods being as recent as the 4th or 3rd centuries BC.[4][5]","title":"Book of Documents"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The history of the various versions of the Documents is particularly complex, and has been the subject of a long-running literary and philosophical controversy.","title":"Textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Confucius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius"},{"link_name":"Yizhoushu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yizhoushu"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2012548%E2%80%93549,_551-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2012550-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001127-10"},{"link_name":"Analects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects"},{"link_name":"Yao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yao"},{"link_name":"Shun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Shun"},{"link_name":"Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Shang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Mencius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius_(book)"},{"link_name":"Mozi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozi"},{"link_name":"Commentary of Zuo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentary_of_Zuo"},{"link_name":"Warring States period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999105%E2%80%93108-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaberg200178-12"},{"link_name":"Mencius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius"},{"link_name":"Xunzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xun_Kuang"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001127%E2%80%93128-13"}],"sub_title":"Early references","text":"According to a later tradition, the Book of Documents was compiled by Confucius (551–479 BC) as a selection from a much larger group of documents, with some of the remainder being included in the Yizhoushu.[6]\nHowever, the early history of both texts is obscure.[7]\nBeginning with Confucius, writers increasingly drew on the Documents to illustrate general principles, though it seems that several different versions were in use.[8]Six citations of unnamed Documents chapters appear in the Analects.\nAlthough Confucius invoked the pre-dynastic emperors Yao and Shun, and figures from the Xia and Shang dynasties, he complained of the lack of documentation prior to the Zhou.\nIncreasing numbers of citations, some with titles, appear in 4th century BC works such as the Mencius, Mozi and Commentary of Zuo.\nThese authors favoured documents relating to Yao, Shun and the Xia dynasty, chapters now believed to have been written in the Warring States period.\nThe chapters currently believed to be the oldest (mostly relating to the early Zhou) were little used by Warring States authors, perhaps due to the difficulty of the archaic language or a less familiar world-view.[9]\nFewer than half the passages quoted by these authors are present in the received text.[10]\nAuthors such as Mencius and Xunzi, while quoting the Documents, refused to accept all of it as genuine.\nTheir attitude contrasts with the reverence that would be shown to the text in the Han dynasty, when its compilation was attributed to Confucius.[11]","title":"Textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wang_Wei_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wang Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)"},{"link_name":"Burning of Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars"},{"link_name":"Qin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Fu Sheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_Sheng_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"clerical script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerical_script"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001130-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993381-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan199526-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han"},{"link_name":"seal script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_script"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993381-15"},{"link_name":"Kong Anguo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong_Anguo"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993381-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan199528%E2%80%9336-18"},{"link_name":"Book of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Han"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993381-15"},{"link_name":"Liu Xiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"Liu Xin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Xin_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan199548-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Records of the Grand Historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks201187-21"},{"link_name":"Five Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Classics"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wu of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Han"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2000475%E2%80%93477-22"},{"link_name":"Xiping Stone Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiping_Stone_Classics"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993383-23"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrooks201187-21"}],"sub_title":"Han dynasty: Modern and Old Scripts","text":"Fu Sheng expounding on the Classic, attributed to Wang Wei (8th century)Many copies of the work were destroyed in the Burning of Books during the Qin dynasty.\nFu Sheng reconstructed part of the work from hidden copies in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC, at the start of the succeeding Han dynasty. The texts that he transmitted were known as the \"Modern Script\" (今文 jīn wén) because it was written in the clerical script.[12][13]\nIt originally consisted of 29 chapters, but the \"Great Speech\" 太誓 chapter was lost shortly afterwards and replaced by a new version.[14] The remaining 28 chapters were later expanded into 30 when Ouyang Gao divided the \"Pangeng\" chapter into three sections.[15]During the reign of Emperor Wu, renovations of the home of Confucius are said to have uncovered several manuscripts hidden within a wall, including a longer version of the Documents.\nThese texts were referred to as \"Old Script\" because they were written in the pre-Qin seal script.[13]\nThey were transcribed into clerical script and interpreted by Confucius' descendant Kong Anguo.[13]\nHan dynasty sources give contradictory accounts of the nature of this find.[16] According to the commonly repeated account of the Book of Han, the \"Old Script\" texts included the chapters preserved by Fu Sheng, another version of the \"Great Speech\" chapter and some 16 additional ones.[13]\nIt is unclear what happened to these manuscripts. According to the Book of Han, Liu Xiang collated the Old Script version against the three main \"Modern Script\" traditions, creating a version of the Documents that included both groups. This was championed by his son Liu Xin,[17]\nwho requested in a letter to Emperor Ai the establishment of a boshi position for its study.[18] But this did not happen. Most likely, this edition put together by the imperial librarians was lost in the chaos that ended the Western Han dynasty, and the later movement of the capital and imperial library.A list of 100 chapter titles was also in circulation; many are mentioned in the Records of the Grand Historian, but without quoting the text of the other chapters.[19]The shu were designated one of the Five Classics when Confucian works made official by Emperor Wu of Han, and jīng ('classic') was added to its name.\nThe term Shàngshū 'venerated documents' was also used in the Eastern Han.[20]\nThe Xiping Stone Classics, set up outside the imperial academy in 175–183 but since destroyed, included a Modern Script version of the Documents.[21]\nMost Han dynasty scholars ignored the Old Script version, and it disappeared by the end of the dynasty.[19]","title":"Textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mei Ze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei_Ze"},{"link_name":"Eastern Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265-420)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993383-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993376%E2%80%93377-24"},{"link_name":"Kaicheng Stone Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaicheng_Stone_Classics"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993383-23"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Zuo Commentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuo_Commentary"},{"link_name":"Records of the Grand Historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian"},{"link_name":"Huangfu Mi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangfu_Mi"},{"link_name":"Yan Ruoqu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_Ruoqu"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElman1983206%E2%80%93213-25"}],"sub_title":"Claimed recovery of Old Script texts","text":"A version of the Documents that included the \"Old Script\" texts was allegedly rediscovered by the scholar Mei Ze during the 4th century, and presented to the imperial court of the Eastern Jin.[21]\nHis version consisted of the 31 modern script texts in 33 chapters, and 18 additional old script texts in 25 chapters, with a preface and commentary purportedly written by Kong Anguo.[22] This was presented as Guwen Shangshu 古文尚書, and was widely accepted. It was the basis of the Shàngshū zhèngyì (尚書正義 'Correct interpretation of the Documents') published in 653 and made the official interpretation of the Documents by imperial decree. The oldest extant copy of the text, included in the Kaicheng Stone Classics (833–837), contains all of these chapters.[21]Since the Song dynasty, starting from Wu Yu (吳棫), many doubts had been expressed concerning the provenance of the allegedly rediscovered \"Old Script\" texts in Mei Ze's edition. In the 16th century, Mei Zhuo (梅鷟) published a detailed argument that these chapters, as well as the preface and commentary, were forged in the 3rd century AD using material from other historical sources such as the Zuo Commentary and the Records of the Grand Historian. Mei identified the sources from which the forger had cut and pasted text, and even suggested Huangfu Mi as a probable culprit. In the 17th century, Yan Ruoqu's unpublished but widely distributed manuscript entitled Evidential analysis of the Old Script Documents (尚書古文疏證; Shàngshū gǔwén shūzhèng) convinced most scholars that the rediscovered Old Script texts were fabricated in the 3rd or 4th centuries.[23]","title":"Textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"texts written on bamboo slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips"},{"link_name":"state of Chu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Chu"},{"link_name":"Jingmen, Hubei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingmen,_Hubei"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiao2001-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiao2001-26"},{"link_name":"Guodian Chu Slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guodian_Chu_Slips"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiao2001-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy200656%E2%80%9358-27"},{"link_name":"Tsinghua Bamboo Slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips"},{"link_name":"Fu Yue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_Yue"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Modern discoveries","text":"New light has been shed on the Book of Documents by the recovery between 1993 and 2008 of caches of texts written on bamboo slips from tombs of the state of Chu in Jingmen, Hubei.[24] These texts are believed to date from the late Warring States period, around 300 BC, and thus predate the burning of the books during the Qin dynasty.[24] The Guodian Chu Slips and the Shanghai Museum corpus include quotations of previously unknown passages of the work.[24][25] The Tsinghua Bamboo Slips includes a version of the transmitted text \"Golden Coffer\", with minor textual differences, as well as several documents in the same style that are not included in the received text. The collection also includes two documents that the editors considered to be versions of the Old Script texts \"Common Possession of Pure Virtue\" and \"Command to Fu Yue\".[26] Other authors have challenged these straightforward identifications.[27][28]","title":"Textual history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wu Cheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Cheng_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993376%E2%80%93377-24"}],"text":"In the orthodox arrangement, the work consists of 58 chapters, each with a brief preface traditionally attributed to Confucius, and also includes a preface and commentary, both purportedly by Kong Anguo.\nAn alternative organization, first used by Wu Cheng, includes only the Modern Script chapters, with the chapter prefaces collected together, but omitting the Kong preface and commentary.\nIn addition, several chapters are divided into two or three parts in the orthodox form.[22]","title":"Contents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan20113-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2012552-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993377-33"},{"link_name":"Su Shi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Shi"},{"link_name":"Chen Mengjia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Mengjia"},{"link_name":"Oracle bone script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_script"},{"link_name":"He zun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_zun"},{"link_name":"Zhou li","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_li"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"bronze inscriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan20113%E2%80%935-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllan2012552%E2%80%93556-36"}],"sub_title":"Nature of the chapters","text":"With the exception of a few chapters of late date, the chapters are represented as records of formal speeches by kings or other important figures.[29][30]\nMost of these speeches are of one of five types, indicated by their titles:[31]Consultations (謨 mó) between the king and his ministers (2 chapters),\nInstructions (訓 xùn) to the king from his ministers (1 chapter),\nAnnouncements (誥 gào) by the king to his people (8 chapters),\nDeclarations (誓 shì) by a ruler on the occasion of a battle (6 chapters), and\nCommands (命 mìng) by the king to a specific vassal (7 chapters).Classical Chinese tradition lists six types of Shu, beginning with dian 典, Canons (2 chapters in the Modern corpus).According to Su Shi (1037–1101), it is possible to single out Eight Announcements of the early Zhou, directed to the Shang people. Their titles only partially correspond to the modern chapters marked as gao (apart from the nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18 that mention the genre, Su Shi names nos. 16 \"Zi cai\", 19 \"Duo shi\" and 22 \"Duo fang\").As pointed out by Chen Mengjia (1911–1966), announcements and commands are similar, but differ in that commands usually include granting of valuable objects, land or servants to their recipients.Guo Changbao 过常宝 claims that the graph for announcement (誥), known since the Oracle bone script, also appears on two bronze vessels (He zun and Shi Zhi gui 史[臣+舌]簋), as well as in the \"six genres\" 六辞 of the Zhou li[32][clarification needed]In many cases a speech is introduced with the phrase Wáng ruò yuē (王若曰 'The king seemingly said'), which also appears on commemorative bronze inscriptions from the Western Zhou period, but not in other received texts.\nScholars interpret this as meaning that the original documents were prepared scripts of speeches, to be read out by an official on behalf of the king.[33][34]","title":"Contents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yu the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Shang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Warring States period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"},{"link_name":"King Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_of_Shang"},{"link_name":"Pan Geng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Geng"},{"link_name":"Anyang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyang"},{"link_name":"King Cheng of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Cheng_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Duke of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Duke of Shao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Shao"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993378%E2%80%93380-37"}],"sub_title":"Traditional organization","text":"The chapters are grouped into four sections representing different eras: the semi-mythical reign of Yu the Great, and the three ancient dynasties of the Xia, Shang and Zhou.\nThe first two sections – on Yu the Great and the Xia dynasty – contain two chapters each in the Modern Script version, and though they purport to record the earliest material in the Documents, from the 2nd millennium BC, most scholars believe they were written during the Warring States period.\nThe Shang dynasty section contains five chapters, of which the first two – the \"Speech of King Tang\" and \"Pan Geng\" – recount the conquest of the Xia by the Shang and their leadership's migration to a new capital (now identified as Anyang).\nThe bulk of the Zhou dynasty section concerns the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (r. c. 1040–1006 BC) and the king's uncles, the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao.\nThe last four Modern Script chapters relate to the later Western Zhou and early Spring and Autumn periods.[35]","title":"Contents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yao"},{"link_name":"Shun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Shun"},{"link_name":"Spring and Autumn period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993377%E2%80%93380-38"},{"link_name":"oracle bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bones"},{"link_name":"Late Shang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Shang"},{"link_name":"Wu Ding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Ding"},{"link_name":"Warring States period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001133%E2%80%93135-39"},{"link_name":"King Cheng of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Cheng_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Duke of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Duke of Shao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Shao"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1999294-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001133-41"},{"link_name":"Mandate of Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1999294%E2%80%93295-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001133-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKern2009146,_182%E2%80%93188-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogelsang2002196%E2%80%93197-44"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001133-41"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999105-6"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993380-45"},{"link_name":"oracle bone inscriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_inscriptions"},{"link_name":"David Nivison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Shepherd_Nivison"},{"link_name":"Wu Ding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Ding"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENivison201822%E2%80%9323,_27%E2%80%9328-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001134-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShih2013818%E2%80%93819-48"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999105-6"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001134-47"},{"link_name":"Qin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENylan2001134,_158-7"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaughnessy1993378-51"}],"text":"Not all of the Modern Script chapters are believed to be contemporaneous with the events they describe, which range from the legendary emperors Yao and Shun to early in the Spring and Autumn period.[36]\nSix of these chapters concern figures prior to the first evidence of writing, the oracle bones dating from the reign of the Late Shang king Wu Ding.\nMoreover, the chapters dealing with the earliest periods are the closest in language and focus to classical works of the Warring States period.[37]The five announcements in the Documents of Zhou feature the most archaic language, closely resembling inscriptions found on Western Zhou bronzes in both grammar and vocabulary.\nThey are considered by most scholars to record speeches of King Cheng of Zhou, as well as the Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao, uncles of King Cheng who were key figures during his reign (late 11th century BC).[38][39] They provide insight into the politics and ideology of the period, including the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, explaining how the once-virtuous Xia had become corrupt and were replaced by the virtuous Shang, who went through a similar cycle ending in their replacement by the Zhou.[40]\nThe \"Timber of Rottlera\", \"Numerous Officers\", \"Against Luxurious Ease\" and \"Numerous Regions\" chapters are believed to have been written somewhat later, in the late Western Zhou period.[39]\nA minority of scholars, pointing to differences in language between the announcements and Zhou bronzes, argue that all of these chapters are products of a commemorative tradition in the late Western Zhou or early Spring and Autumn periods.[41][42]Chapters dealing with the late Shang and the transition to Zhou use less archaic language.\nThey are believed to have been modelled on the earlier speeches by writers in the Spring and Autumn period, a time of renewed interest in politics and dynastic decline.[39][4]\nThe later chapters of the Zhou section are also believed to have been written around this time.[43]\nThe \"Gaozong Rongri\" chapter comprises only 82 characters, and its interpretation was already disputed in Western Han commentaries.\nPointing to the similarity of its title to formulas found in the Anyang oracle bone inscriptions, David Nivison proposed that the chapter was written or recorded by a collateral descendant of Wu Ding in the late Shang period some time after 1140 BC.[44]The \"Pan Geng\" chapter (later divided into three parts) seems to be intermediate in style between this group and the next.[45] It is the longest speech in the Documents, and is unusual in its extensive use of analogy.[46] Scholars since the Tang dynasty have noted the difficult language of the \"Pan Geng\" and the Zhou Announcement chapters.[c] Citing the archaic language and worldview, Chinese scholars have argued for a Shang dynasty provenance for the \"Pan Geng\" chapters, with considerable editing and replacement of the vocabulary by Zhou dynasty authors accounting for the difference in language from Shang inscriptions.[47]The chapters dealing with the legendary emperors, the Xia dynasty and the transition to Shang are very similar in language to such classics as the Mencius (late 4th century BC).\nThey present idealized rulers, with the earlier political concerns subordinate to moral and cosmological theory, and are believed to be the products of philosophical schools of the late Warring States period.[4][45]\nSome chapters, particularly the \"Tribute of Yu\", may be as late as the Qin dynasty.[5][48]","title":"Dating of the Modern Script chapters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Books of Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"Old Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament"},{"link_name":"Shang Di","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_Di"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"When Jesuit scholars prepared the first translations of Chinese Classics into Latin, they called the Documents the \"Book of Kings\", making a parallel with the Books of Kings in the Old Testament. They saw Shang Di as the equivalent of the Christian God, and used passages from the Documents in their commentaries on other works.[49]","title":"Influence in the West"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gaubil, Antoine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Gaubil"},{"link_name":"Le Chou-king, un des livres sacrés des Chinois, qui renferme les fondements de leur ancienne histoire, les principes de leur gouvernement & de leur morale; ouvrage recueilli par Confucius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lechoukingundes00conggoog"},{"link_name":"Medhurst, W. H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Henry_Medhurst"},{"link_name":"Ancient China. The Shoo King or the Historical Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ancientchinasho00chingoog"},{"link_name":"Legge, James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Legge"},{"link_name":"part 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/chineseclassics07legggoog"},{"link_name":"part 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/chineseclassics01minggoog"},{"link_name":"The Shû king; The religious portions of the Shih king; The Hsiâo king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sacredbooksofch03conf"},{"link_name":"Sacred Books of the East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East"},{"link_name":"Couvreur, Séraphin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9raphin_Couvreur"},{"link_name":"Chou King, Les Annales de la Chine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/chine_ancienne/B_livres_canoniques_Grands_Kings/B_03_Chou_king/Chou_king.html"},{"link_name":"Karlgren, Bernhard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren"},{"link_name":"\"The Book of Documents\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/Bulletin22"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/Bulletin22/page/n8"}],"text":"Gaubil, Antoine (1770). Le Chou-king, un des livres sacrés des Chinois, qui renferme les fondements de leur ancienne histoire, les principes de leur gouvernement & de leur morale; ouvrage recueilli par Confucius [The Shūjīng, one of the Sacred Books of the Chinese, which contains the Foundations of their Ancient History, the Principles of their Government and their Morality; Material collected by Confucius] (in French). Paris: N. M. Tillard.\nMedhurst, W. H. (1846). Ancient China. The Shoo King or the Historical Classic. Shanghai: The Mission Press.\nLegge, James (1865). The Chinese Classics, volume III: the Shoo King or the Book of Historical Documents. London: Trubner.; rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960. (Full Chinese text with English translation using Legge's own romanization system, with extensive background and annotations.)\npart 1: Prolegomena and chapters 1–26 (up to books of Shang)\npart 2: chapters 27–58 (books of Zhou), indexes\nLegge, James (1879). The Shû king; The religious portions of the Shih king; The Hsiâo king. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Includes a minor revision of Legge's translation.\nCouvreur, Séraphin (1897). Chou King, Les Annales de la Chine [Shujing, the Annals of China] (in French). Hokkien: Mission Catholique. Reprinted (1999), Paris: You Feng.\nKarlgren, Bernhard (1950). \"The Book of Documents\". Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 22: 1–81. (Modern Script chapters only) Reprinted as a separate volume by Elanders in 1950.\nKatō, Jōken 加藤常賢 (1964). Shin kobun Shōsho shūshaku 真古文尚書集釈 [Authentic 'Old Text' Shàngshū, with Collected Commentary] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Meiji shoin.\n(in Mandarin Chinese) Qu, Wanli 屈萬里 (1969). Shàngshū jīnzhù jīnyì 尚書今注今譯 [The Book of Documents, with Modern Annotations and Translation]. Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan.\nWaltham, Clae (1971). Shu ching: Book of History. A Modernized Edition of the Translation of James Legge. Chicago: Henry Regnery.\nIkeda, Suitoshi 池田末利 (1976). Shōsho 尚書 [Shàngshū] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shūeisha.\nPalmer, Martin; Ramsay, Jay; Finlay, Victoria (2014). The Most Venerable Book (Shang Shu) also known as the Shu Jing (The Classic of Chronicles). London: Penguin Books.","title":"Notable translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-appellation_1-0"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Old Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chinese"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"Han Yu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Yu"}],"text":"^ The *k-lˤeng (jīng 經) appellation would not have been used until the Han dynasty, after the core Old Chinese period.\n\n^ Or simply as the Shujing or Shangshu (尚书; Shàngshū; 'Venerated Documents')\n\n^ Han Yu used the idiom 佶屈聱牙 (roughly meaning 'unflowing' and 'difficult to say') to describe the Zhou 'Announcements' and the Yin (Shang) 'Pan Geng'.","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Lineage of editions during the Han dynasty","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Lineage_of_editions_of_the_Shangshu_during_the_Han_dynasty_.png/220px-Lineage_of_editions_of_the_Shangshu_during_the_Han_dynasty_.png"},{"image_text":"Fu Sheng expounding on the Classic, attributed to Wang Wei (8th century)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Wang_Wei_001.jpg/220px-Wang_Wei_001.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Gaubil, Antoine (1770). Le Chou-king, un des livres sacrés des Chinois, qui renferme les fondements de leur ancienne histoire, les principes de leur gouvernement & de leur morale; ouvrage recueilli par Confucius [The Shūjīng, one of the Sacred Books of the Chinese, which contains the Foundations of their Ancient History, the Principles of their Government and their Morality; Material collected by Confucius] (in French). Paris: N. M. Tillard.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Gaubil","url_text":"Gaubil, Antoine"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lechoukingundes00conggoog","url_text":"Le Chou-king, un des livres sacrés des Chinois, qui renferme les fondements de leur ancienne histoire, les principes de leur gouvernement & de leur morale; ouvrage recueilli par Confucius"}]},{"reference":"Medhurst, W. H. (1846). Ancient China. The Shoo King or the Historical Classic. Shanghai: The Mission Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Henry_Medhurst","url_text":"Medhurst, W. H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ancientchinasho00chingoog","url_text":"Ancient China. The Shoo King or the Historical Classic"}]},{"reference":"Legge, James (1865). The Chinese Classics, volume III: the Shoo King or the Book of Historical Documents. London: Trubner.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Legge","url_text":"Legge, James"}]},{"reference":"Legge, James (1879). The Shû king; The religious portions of the Shih king; The Hsiâo king. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 3. Oxford: Clarendon Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sacredbooksofch03conf","url_text":"The Shû king; The religious portions of the Shih king; The Hsiâo king"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Books_of_the_East","url_text":"Sacred Books of the East"}]},{"reference":"Couvreur, Séraphin (1897). Chou King, Les Annales de la Chine [Shujing, the Annals of China] (in French). Hokkien: Mission Catholique.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9raphin_Couvreur","url_text":"Couvreur, Séraphin"},{"url":"http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/chine_ancienne/B_livres_canoniques_Grands_Kings/B_03_Chou_king/Chou_king.html","url_text":"Chou King, Les Annales de la Chine"}]},{"reference":"Karlgren, Bernhard (1950). \"The Book of Documents\". Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 22: 1–81.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren","url_text":"Karlgren, Bernhard"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Bulletin22","url_text":"\"The Book of Documents\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Bulletin22/page/n8","url_text":"1"}]},{"reference":"Katō, Jōken 加藤常賢 (1964). Shin kobun Shōsho shūshaku 真古文尚書集釈 [Authentic 'Old Text' Shàngshū, with Collected Commentary] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Meiji shoin.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Qu, Wanli 屈萬里 (1969). Shàngshū jīnzhù jīnyì 尚書今注今譯 [The Book of Documents, with Modern Annotations and Translation]. Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Waltham, Clae (1971). Shu ching: Book of History. A Modernized Edition of the Translation of James Legge. Chicago: Henry Regnery.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ikeda, Suitoshi 池田末利 (1976). Shōsho 尚書 [Shàngshū] (in Japanese). Tokyo: Shūeisha.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmer, Martin; Ramsay, Jay; Finlay, Victoria (2014). The Most Venerable Book (Shang Shu) also known as the Shu Jing (The Classic of Chronicles). London: Penguin Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hou Hanshu 後漢書. Taipei: Dingwen shuju. 1981. p. 79.2556.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Liu Qiyu 劉起釪 (2018). Shangshu xue shi 尚書學史 (2nd ed.). Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Liu Qiyü 劉起釘. (1996). Shangshu xue shi 尚書學史. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局. p. 153.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hanshu 漢書. pp. 36.1967–1970.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"First Research Results on Warring States Bamboo Strips Collected by Tsinghua University Released\". Tsinghua University News. Tsinghua University. May 26, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110725180238/http://news.tsinghua.edu.cn/publish/newsen/6057/2011/20110304172109458964142/20110304172109458964142_.html","url_text":"\"First Research Results on Warring States Bamboo Strips Collected by Tsinghua University Released\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsinghua_University","url_text":"Tsinghua University"},{"url":"http://news.tsinghua.edu.cn/publish/newsen/6057/2011/20110304172109458964142/20110304172109458964142_.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Li Rui 李銳 (2013). \"清华简《傅说之命》研究\". Shenzhen Daxue Xuebao. Shehui Kexueban. 深圳大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Shenzhen University (Humanities & Social Sciences). 30 (6): 68–72.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Edward L. Shaughnessy (2020). \"A Possible Lost Classic: The *She Ming, or *Command to She\". T'oung Pao. 106.3–4: 266–308.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Meynard, Thierry (2015). The Jesuit Reading of Confucius : The First Complete Translation of the Lunyu (1687) Published in the West. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-28977-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28977-2","url_text":"978-90-04-28977-2"}]},{"reference":"Allan, Sarah (2011), \"What is a shu 書?\" (PDF), EASCM Newsletter (4): 1–5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Allan","url_text":"Allan, Sarah"},{"url":"http://www.zo.uni-heidelberg.de/md/zo/eascm/eascm_news_4.pdf","url_text":"\"What is a shu 書?\""}]},{"reference":"Allan, Sarah (2012), \"On Shu 書 (Documents) and the origin of the Shang shu 尚書 (Ancient Documents) in light of recently discovered bamboo slip manuscripts\", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 75 (3): 547–557, doi:10.1017/S0041977X12000547.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X12000547","url_text":"10.1017/S0041977X12000547"}]},{"reference":"Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014). Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-994537-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-994537-5","url_text":"978-0-19-994537-5"}]},{"reference":"Brooks, E. Bruce (2011), \"The Shu\" (PDF), Warring States Papers, 2: 87–90.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.umass.edu/wsp/sinica/wsp2-087-090.pdf","url_text":"\"The Shu\""}]},{"reference":"Elman, Benjamin A. (1983), \"Philosophy (i-li) versus philology (k'ao-cheng)—the jen-hsin Tao-hsin debate\" (PDF), T'oung Pao, 69 (4): 175–222, doi:10.1163/156853283x00081, JSTOR 4528296.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/PHILOSOPHY_(I-LI)_VERSUS_PHILOLOGY_(K'AO-CHENG)--THE_JEN-HSIN_TAO-HSIN_DEBATE.pdf","url_text":"\"Philosophy (i-li) versus philology (k'ao-cheng)—the jen-hsin Tao-hsin debate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%27oung_Pao","url_text":"T'oung Pao"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853283x00081","url_text":"10.1163/156853283x00081"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528296","url_text":"4528296"}]},{"reference":"Kern, Martin (2009), \"Bronze inscriptions, the Shijing and the Shangshu: the evolution of the ancestral sacrifice during the Western Zhou\" (PDF), in Lagerwey, John; Kalinowski, Marc (eds.), Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC to 220 AD), Leiden: Brill, pp. 143–200, ISBN 978-90-04-16835-0.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.princeton.edu/~mkern/Ancestors.pdf","url_text":"\"Bronze inscriptions, the Shijing and the Shangshu: the evolution of the ancestral sacrifice during the Western Zhou\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16835-0","url_text":"978-90-04-16835-0"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, Mark Edward (1999), Writing and authority in early China, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-4114-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4114-5","url_text":"978-0-7914-4114-5"}]},{"reference":"Liao, Mingchun (2001), A Preliminary Study on the Newly-unearthed Bamboo Inscriptions of the Chu Kingdom: An Investigation of the Materials from and about the Shangshu in the Guodian Chu Slips (in Chinese), Taipei: Taiwan Guji Publishing Co., ISBN 957-0414-59-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-0414-59-6","url_text":"957-0414-59-6"}]},{"reference":"Nivison, David S. (2018) [1984], \"The King and the Bird: a Possible Genuine Shang Literary Text and Its Echoes in Later Philosophy and Religion\", in Schwartz, Adam C. (ed.), The Nivison Annals : Selected Works of David S. Nivison on Early Chinese Chronology, Astronomy, and Historiography, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 22–28, doi:10.1515/9781501505393-003, ISBN 978-1-5015-0539-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Shepherd_Nivison","url_text":"Nivison, David S."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781501505393-003","url_text":"10.1515/9781501505393-003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5015-0539-3","url_text":"978-1-5015-0539-3"}]},{"reference":"Nylan, Michael (1995), \"The Ku Wen Documents in Han Times\", T'oung Pao, 81 (1/3): 25–50, doi:10.1163/156853295x00024, JSTOR 4528653.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Nylan","url_text":"Nylan, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853295x00024","url_text":"10.1163/156853295x00024"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528653","url_text":"4528653"}]},{"reference":"——— (2001), The Five \"Confucian\" Classics, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-08185-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08185-5","url_text":"978-0-300-08185-5"}]},{"reference":"Schaberg, David (2001), A patterned past: form and thought in early Chinese historiography, Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00861-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00861-8","url_text":"978-0-674-00861-8"}]},{"reference":"Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1993). \"Shang shu 尚書\". In Loewe, Michael (ed.). Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China; Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley. pp. 376–389. ISBN 978-1-55729-043-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_L._Shaughnessy","url_text":"Shaughnessy, Edward L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55729-043-4","url_text":"978-1-55729-043-4"}]},{"reference":"Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999), \"Western Zhou history\", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 292–351, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Ancient_China","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Ancient China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8","url_text":"978-0-521-47030-8"}]},{"reference":"Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2006), Rewriting early Chinese texts, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-6643-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6643-8","url_text":"978-0-7914-6643-8"}]},{"reference":"Shih, Hsiang-lin (2013), \"Shang shu 尚書 (Hallowed writings of antiquity)\", in Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping (eds.), Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol. 2): A Reference Guide, Part Two Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 4 China, BRILL, pp. 814–830, ISBN 978-90-04-20164-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20164-4","url_text":"978-90-04-20164-4"}]},{"reference":"Vogelsang, Kai (2002), \"Inscriptions and proclamations: on the authenticity of the 'gao' chapters in the Book of Documents\", Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 74: 138–209.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese history: a manual (2nd ed.), Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_Porter_Wilkinson","url_text":"Wilkinson, Endymion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00249-4","url_text":"978-0-674-00249-4"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metz_Cathedral
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Metz Cathedral
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["1 History","1.1 Early churches","1.2 The Ottonian or Pre-Romanesque cathedral","1.3 The Gothic Cathedral","1.4 Gothic Completion and neoclassical additions (16th–18th century)","1.5 The Revolution to the 21st century","1.6 Timeline of construction","2 Exterior","2.1 West Front and the Portal of Christ","2.2 Portal of the Virgin","2.3 Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde","2.4 Bell Tower of La Mutte, Chapter Tower and Horloge Tower","2.5 Transept","2.6 Chevet","3 Interior","3.1 Nave","3.2 Transept and choir","3.3 Apse, disambulatory, and radiating chapels","4 Painting and sculpture","5 Stained glass","5.1 Early glass (13th century)","5.2 14th–15th century glass","5.3 16th century glass","5.4 20th century – modern windows","6 Organs","7 Crypt","8 Treasury","9 See also","10 References","11 Bibliography","12 External links"]
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Coordinates: 49°07′12″N 6°10′31″E / 49.12°N 6.1754°E / 49.12; 6.1754Catholic cathedral in Metz, France
For other uses of "Metz", see Metz (disambiguation).
Metz CathedralCathedral of Saint Stephen, MetzCathédrale Saint Étienne de MetzMetz Cathedral from the southReligionAffiliationCatholic ChurchDistrictDiocese of MetzRiteRomanEcclesiastical or organizational statusCathedralLeadershipPierre RaffinYear consecrated11 April 1552StatusActiveLocationLocationMetz, FranceGeographic coordinates49°07′12″N 6°10′31″E / 49.12°N 6.1754°E / 49.12; 6.1754ArchitectureTypeChurchStyleFrench Gothic; Gothic RevivalGroundbreaking1220 (1220)Completed1550 (1550)SpecificationsDirection of façadeWestLength136 metres (446 ft)Height (max)88 metres (289 ft) (Mutte tower)MaterialsJaumont Stone
Monument historiqueOfficial name: Cathédrale Saint Étienne de MetzDesignated1930Reference no.PA00106817DenominationÉgliseWebsitewww.cathedrale-metz.fr
Metz Cathedral is the cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Metz, the seat of the bishops of Metz. It is dedicated to Saint Stephen. The diocese dates back at least to the 4th century and the present cathedral building was begun in the early 14th century. In the mid-14th century, it was joined to the collegiate church of Notre-Dame, and given a new transept and late Gothic chevet, finished between 1486 and 1520. The cathedral treasury displays a rich collection assembled over the long centuries of the history of the Metz diocese and include sacred vestments and items used for the Eucharist.
Metz Cathedral has the third-highest nave of cathedrals in France (41.41 meters (135.9 ft)), after the cathedrals of Amiens and Beauvais . It is nicknamed la Lanterne du Bon Dieu ("the Good Lord's lantern"), on account of its displaying the largest expanse of stained glass in the world, totalling 6,496 m2 (69,920 sq ft). The stained glass windows include works by Gothic and Renaissance master glass makers Hermann von Münster, Theobald of Lixheim, and Valentin Bousch. Later artistic styles are represented by Charles-Laurent Maréchal (Romanticism), Roger Bissière (Tachism), Jacques Villon (Cubism), Marc Chagall, and Kimsooja.
History
Early churches
A Gallo-Roman oppidum, or fortified town, called Diuodron Medimatriques, occupied the site from at least the first century B.C. It became a stop on the trade route between Lyon and Treves, and was an imperial residence during the Roman Empire between 306 and 390. The presence of the first bishop, Clement, is recorded in 346.
The cathedral was built on an ancient site dating to the 5th century and dedicated to Saint Stephen. It is said to have contained a collection of his relics. According to Gregory of Tours, the shrine of Saint Stephen was the sole structure spared during the sack of 451 by Attila's Huns. It was a royal residence of the grandsons of Clovis, king of the Franks, and of Theudebert I, who became the Merovingian ruler in 534.
Gregory of Tours mentioned the existence of the church in 584, and a cathedral under the archbishop Arnoul is mentioned in 616. The Archbishop and Saint Chrodegang (742-766) is mentioned in accounts of the time as a papal envoy to the Franks. He is credited with introducing the Roman liturgy and chants, with the support of King of the Franks, Pepin, between 751 and 768. Chrodegang is also credited with establishing the first cathedral chapter in western Europe, and also the first cathedral close, combining chapels, dormitory, refectory, and other functional buildings. This system was formally adopted by other Frankish cathedrals under the Capitulary of Aix-en-Chapelle of 816. This first cloister, on the south side of the cathedral where the Place des Armes is located, survived until its demolition in 1754.
The Ottonian or Pre-Romanesque cathedral
The Romanesque or Ottonian cathedral in 1055 imagined by Auguste Migette (1862)
In 843, after long disputes between Charlemagne's successors, the Holy Roman Empire was divided into four parts. In 870, Metz and its province Lorraine allied with East Francia while remaining an autonomous duchy. In 962, when Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, restored the Empire, Lorraine was designated as the autonomous Duchy of Lorraine, with Metz as its capital. It maintained this status until 1766, when it formally became part of France.
The construction of a new cathedral began under bishop Thierry I between 965 and 984, and was completed under his second successor Thierry II of Luxembourg, between 1006 and 1047. It was built in what was later called Ottonian style, a form of pre-Romanesque. This church had two towers and three bays on the west front, a nave with three vessels, and a larger tower over the transept. Because of its placement on a terrace next to the Moselle River, the cathedral could not have the traditional east to west orientation from the choir to the west front. Instead, it was oriented on an axis from southeast to northwest. The roof, following a regional tradition, was covered with tiles of white limestone.
A smaller church, the Collegiale of Notre-Dame-la-Ronde, was built close to the old cathedral in the 8th century, and was entirely rebuilt between 1200 and 1207 to be oriented directly with the axis of the cathedral. The complex of early buildings also included the cloister and a palace for the archbishop, where the market square is located today.
The Gothic Cathedral
Metz and the cathedral in the 17th century
City centre and the cathedral in the 17th century
The reconstruction of the cathedral in the Gothic style was proposed in about 1220 by the bishop of Metz, Conrad III of Scharfenberg, the chancellor of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. The work began under James of Lotharingia (French: Jacques de Lorraine, German: Jakob von Lothringen), the head of the chapter, who became bishop in 1239. Construction began at the west end of the nave and continued to the transept and the old choir, which was still in place until the end of the 15th century. The vault of the new structure was not planned to be higher than 30–35 meters.
The plan integrated the neighbouring Collegiate church of Our Lady into the western end of the cathedral, which resulted in the absence of a traditional west-end portal. The south-western porch of the cathedral became the entrance of the former collegiate church.
The nave, with the exception of its vaults, was probably finished between 1245 and 1250. Then a decision was taken to make the cathedral much taller, with the addition of a new level of large windows about forty meters high, equal in height to the two levels below. New more massive columns were added, and the triforium between the arcades and high windows was enlarged and strengthened to support the greater weight. Between 1250 and 1255 the south side walls west of the transept were also strengthened to support the new higher walls. The south façade was also built higher to match the greater height of the new nave. The piers of the flying buttresses were also reconstructed, doubling their height. In about 1270–75, the tower of the Chapter was raised to the height of the cornice of the new nave.
Since the new nave was now twice as high as planned, the towers also had to be made taller. Between 1275 and 1280, A second level and the beginning of a third level were added to the Tour de la Mutte. By 1359 the nave was entirely covered, but work on the upper walls continued for another twenty years. In 1380–81, the canons of the cathedral decided to demolish the wall which separated the cathedral from the adjoining nave of the church of Our Lady. This was resisted by the clergy of the collegiate church, but the work went ahead, modified by the installation of a grill between the two naves. In 1381 the cathedral chapter engaged the glassmaker Herman of Münster to make a rose window for the west front, which was finished in 1392.
There was a lull of nearly a century before major work was resumed on the construction of the transept and the choir. In 1388 a wooden belfry was installed by the city government on the La Mutte tower, and a new chapel, the Bishop's Chapel, was added on the lower south aisle in 1443. Its patron, Bishop Conrad Bayer of Boppard, died a few days after the chapel was consecrated, and was interred within it in 1459.
In 1468 a serious fire broke out on the new balustrade of the roof. In the years before the fire, from 1452 to 1467, there had been a bitter dispute between the city leaders and the cathedral authorities over who was responsible for the maintenance and safety of cathedral property, which Bishop George of Baden ended by excommunicating the city leaders. When the fire broke out, the city leaders refused to assist the clergy in fighting the fire, only sending men to put out the fire on the bell tower, which was owned by the city. Relations thereafter between the city and clerical authorities were strained.
The last work on the La Mutte bell tower was completed between 1477 and 1483. The stone shaft forty meters high was topped by a tall spire, giving it a total height of almost ninety meters. The finished cathedral was consecrated on 11 April 1552.
Gothic Completion and neoclassical additions (16th–18th century)
Welcoming King Henry IV to Metz with fireworks – 1603
Blondel's classical portal, added in 1766
The cathedral in about 1800
Work continued into the 16th century to rebuild the remaining Romanesque portions into the Gothic style. The old choir was demolished in 1503. A few weeks later, the old Romanesque south transept fell. The next year work began on the new transept, and the final flying buttress of the choir was installed ion 1506. The new construction largely followed the original Gothic style.
A new canonical choir was built beginning in 1519 next to the sanctuary, at the crossing of the transept. An ornate rood screen was installed between the choir and the nave, with sculpture by Mansuy Gauvain, and new choir stalls were installed. The choir was completed with a new altar and a small organ in the triforium above the rood screen. A project was also begun to create a new grand portal on the west end. The work was begun but was halted in 1552 by the entry into the city of the army of King Henry II of France. Work did not resume until 1761.
Metz and the Duchy of Lorraine formally retained their independent status, but the French political and cultural influence grew from 1737 until 1766, when France formally annexed the Duchy. In 1741, proponents of the new French classical style, popular in Paris, proposed to redecorate the choir of Metz Cathedral in the new style. They presented a neoclassical program for the choir by the royal sculptor from Paris, Sébastien Slodtz. However, Slotdtz's proposed decoration was fiercely resisted by the more conservative chapter and was finally rejected in 1762.
In 1754 another large modification was begun by the governor of Metz. He destroyed the old cloisters next to the church, with their chapels and arcades, with the intention of creating a parade ground for official celebrations. However, this project was abandoned in 1758. Instead, the space was filled by a group of houses, shops and a large pavilion.
Another classical addition to the cathedral was proposed in 1755 by the royal architect Jacques-François Blondel. He was commissioned by the Royal Academy of Architecture to build a Neoclassical Doric portico which would serve as the main entrance to the cathedral. This was funded partially by Louis XV, to celebrate his recovery from a serious illness from which he had nearly died in Metz in 1744. It was duly built between 1764 and 1766, However, the work on this new portal caused more problems; it was found that the portico would block some of the stained glass windows, and the digging of the deep foundations for the portico immediately created weaknesses in the west front and north buttress.
The Revolution to the 21st century
The fire of 1877
Drawing of the cathedral in 1905 by Albert Robida
The cathedral in 1907 with the new portal and decorated gable
The troops of Maréchal Foch parade past the cathedral (1918)
In the years before the French Revolution in 1789, many of the Gothic tombs and monuments of the cathedral were removed, or put into lower aisles to accommodate the new classical taste. The Revolution greatly accelerated the destruction. The cathedral chapter was formally abolished in 1790, and the cathedral was declared a simple parish and episcopal church. The old rood screen, made in 1555. was destroyed and replaced by a circular platform or stage in the transept. From 1793 to 1794, the cathedral was officially termed a "Temple of Reason". It was turned into a legal church in 1795, and services resumed, but it was not formally returned to the Catholic Church until 1802.
The cathedral was in a deplorable state in the early 19th century. The vaults shook when the bells in the tower rang. The arch supporting the right side of the bell tower was broken, and the windows of the tower had to be removed. The arch was finally replaced in 1829. Weaknesses of the foundation made the new portico unsteady. The wood of the belfry of the Chapter tower was rotting, and falling in pieces onto the street below; workmen refused to enter the unstable tower. The government finally agreed to finance the complete reconstruction of the tower of La Mutte, which was completed in 1843. The government of Emperor Louis-Napoleon promised a full restoration of the cathedral.
Following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Lorraine and Metz were taken from France in 1871 and annexed to the new German Empire. In 1877, the cathedral was heavily damaged by a major fire caused by fireworks. The King of Prussia and Emperor William I took a particular interest in the rebuilding of Metz Cathedral, to win the support of the population.
Cathedral all en volute (vaults), where the wind sings as in a flute, and then responds the Mutte, the great voice of the Good Lord!
— Paul Verlaine, Ode to Metz, Invectives, 1896.
A young architect from Munich, Paul Tornow, became master of works of the cathedral in 1874 and held the position for thirty-two years, until 1906. He first constructed a new roof, built on a metal frame, which raised its height by 3.5 meters. He then removed the collection of structures that had been built up against the walls, and restored the Chapel of Notre-Dame-de-Mont-Carmel, which had previously belonged to the adjoining church of Notre-Dame-la-Rond. He reopened the windows which had been blocked by the 19th-century construction. He also cleared out the crypt of the cathedral, which had been turned into a storeroom for the neighbouring shops in the gallery. Between 1874 and 1877 he restored the vaults and buttresses that had been weakened by age and the fire. Between 1898 and 1903 he removed Blondel's classical portico over the portal.
The new portal was the subject of careful study by Tornow. He decided upon a 14th-century Gothic style, in harmony with the rose window. With the French sculptor Auguste Dujardin, he visited twenty-one cathedrals in Burgundy, the Ile-de-France, Normandy and Champagne, taking photographs to act as the basis for his design. The final plan adapted elements of the 13th and 14th centuries, and borrowed particularly from the portals of Auxerre Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral and Amiens Cathedral. He also rebuilt triangular gables at the top of the north and south facades in the late Gothic style, with spires and pinnacles. The new south portal was completed and inaugurated on 14 May 1903. The final project of the exterior renovation was the La Mutte tower, which was granted back to the church by the city, which had taken it as the municipal bell tower.
Major restoration and rebuilding also took place inside the cathedral, under another architect, Wilhelm Schmitz. He enlarged the choir, restored damaged windows, constructed new choir stalls, and installed a new stone choir screen, new altars, and new bronze doors for the west portal. In 1914 war interrupted the work. In 1918, at the end of the First World War, Lorraine and the cathedral were returned to France. The forty-four new choir stalls, made in Colmar in 1914, were finally installed 1922.
Between the First and Second World Wars, little funding was available to restore or improve the cathedral; the only significant addition was a new bishop's chair, installed in 1932. However, after the Second World War, chief architect Robert Renaud began a campaign to restore and renew the art. He had a copy made and installed of the angel-musician statue which had decorated the roof–it had been blown down in a storm in 1952. In 1965, a stained glass window of David and Bathsheba, designed by Marc Chagall was installed in Bay 9, along with windows by other contemporary artists.
Until 1960 all the furnishings of the cathedral were either original Gothic or recreations of Gothic. That year the cathedral began to acquire modern works of furniture and art, including windows designed by Marc Chagall, Jacques Villon and other artists.
In 1999 another wind storm broke loose a pinnacle from the roof, which fell through the roof of the sacristy, requiring major work. The west rose window also showed signs of weakness, due to the absence of a supporting buttress on the west, and began to crack. It was reinforced with two steel supports between 1995 and 2000. The La Mutte tower was restored beginning in 2009, including the restoration of the bells and their mechanism.
Timeline of construction
984 – c. 1040 Construction of an Ottonian basilica over an ancient shrine dedicated to Saint Stephen
c. 1180 – 1207 Construction of a chapel in Early Gothic style on the west side of the basilica
1220 Beginning of the construction of the Gothic cathedral within the foundations of the Ottonian basilica, construction of the aisles
1265–1285 Construction of the triforia and the two bell towers
1285 – c. 1290 Elevation of the westwork within the foundations of a Gothic chapel from the 12th century
1290s Construction of the vaults of the nave and the supporting flying buttresses
c. 1300–1330s Construction of the Lady Chapel
1380 Junction between the former Gothic chapel and the nave
1384 Creation of the stained glass tympanum of the west facade and the rose window by master glass maker Hermann von Münster
1478–1483 Elevation of the spire
1486–1490s Construction of the northern transept
1504 Creation of the stained glass tympanum of the northern transept by master glass maker Theobald of Lixheim
c. 1490–1500s Construction of the Gothic choir and east end
1504–1520s Construction of the southern transept
1518–1539 Stained glass by master glass maker Valentin Bousch, including the tympanum on the southern transept
1761–1764 Neoclassical refurbishment conducted by Jacques-François Blondel
c.1850–1880s Destruction of the ornaments of Jacques-François Blondel
1889–1903 Construction of a Neogothic portal on the west front
1965–1967 Stained glass windows of Marc Chagall
Exterior
Metz Cathedral is a Rayonnant Gothic edifice built of the local yellow Jaumont limestone. As in French Gothic architecture, the building is compact, with slight projection of the transepts and subsidiary chapels. However, it displays singular, distinctive characteristics in both its ground plan and architecture compared to most other cathedrals. Because of the topography of the Moselle valley in Metz, the common west–east axis of the ground plan could not be applied and the church is oriented north-northeast. Moreover, unlike the French and German Gothic cathedrals having three portals surmounted by a rose window and two large towers, this one has a single porch at its western front. The entrance is to the side of the building through another portal placed at the south-western side of the narthex, avoiding the usual alignment of the entrance with the choir.
The nave is supported by flying buttresses and culminates at 41.41 metres (135.9 ft) high, making it one of the highest naves in the world. The height of the nave is contrasted by the relatively low height of the aisles at 14.3 metres (47 ft) high, reinforcing the sensation of height of the nave. This feature permitted the architects to create large, tall expanses of stained glass. Throughout its history the cathedral has been subjected to architectural and ornamental modifications with successive additions of Neoclassical and Neogothic elements.
West Front and the Portal of Christ
West Front – the Portal of Christ, Horloge tower on right
Tympanum of the Portal of Christ
Statue of Saint Daniel, originally modelled after William II of Germany
Top of the west facade
The portal of the west front, typically the main entrance of a cathedral, in Metz is a secondary entrance. The original Gothic portal was replaced by a classical entrance in 1724, which was replaced by the current Neo-Gothic portal in 1903, called "Christ the King." It was designed by architect Paul Tornow and artist Auguste Dujardin. It is lavishly filled with sculpture including column-statues in niches above smaller sculptures in the soubassement. The tympanum over the portal, largely inspired by the Tympanum of Amiens Cathedral, illustrates the Last Judgement, with Christ as the central figure, between two figures representing the Church the Synagogue. The portal is flanked by four 4-meter-tall statues of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. The statue of Daniel was originally given the features of the German Emperor of the time, William II, who commissioned the Portal before the First World War. The moustaches were removed during the German occupation of Metz in World War II.
Portal of the Virgin
South side - Portal of the Virgin Mary
Tympanum of the Portal of the Virgin
Statue of Saint Clement on the Portal of the Virgin
Sculpture of the Portal of the Virgin
The Portal of the Virgin, in the south side facing the Place d'Armes, was constructed before 1225. It was the main entrance of the cathedral until the 18th century, and it most probably occupied the same place as the entrance of the earlier pre-Romanesque cathedral. It was covered over and seriously degraded during the addition of classical features in the 18th century, and was not uncovered until 1867. It was then lowered by a meter and a half. A majority of the sculpture, was recreated by Auguste Dujardin, and other portions were restored. It was not formally opened until 1885. The sculpture depicts scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary, culminating at the top of the arch with the crowning of the Virgin by Christ. Recent research found traces of orange, red and green pigment, indicating that the original portal sculpture was brightly colored.
Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde
Sculpture around the portal
Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde
13th-century sculpture around the portal; The story of David and Goliath (above) and the martyrdom of Saint Maurice (bottom)
The Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde, on the northwest side, dates to 1260–65 and is the oldest and most simply decorated entry to the cathedral. In the 18th century, it was given a classical canopy to harmonise with the other classical features, but it still retains panels of the 13th-century sculpture and carved stonework resembling fabric around the doorway. Similar design from the same period is found at Reims Cathedral.
Bell Tower of La Mutte, Chapter Tower and Horloge Tower
La Mutte tower (center) and Horloge tower (left)
Top of the La Mutte tower
The Chapter Tower
The south tower of the cathedral, called "La Mutte", was both the cathedral and municipal bell tower; it was built in 1324 and the municipal bell, called La Mutte, was installed there in 1381. This bell was rung in case of fires, approaching enemies or important civic events. After a fire in 1468, a new upper stage of the tower and a spire was constructed on top, bringing the height to ninety meters. It has two platforms where watchmen were posted to look out for fires or approaching enemies.
The present major city bell in the tower is named "La Mutte" and was cast in 1605. It weighs 11,000 kilograms (24,250 pounds). A second bell, called Tocsin, made in 1501, weighs 1500 kilos, and is rung to signal the end of the day; along with a third small bell, called Mademoiselle de Tourmel, made in 1802 and recast in 1875. It weighs just 45 kilograms.
The Chapter Tower (Tour de Chapitre), was built at the same time, at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, and in the same style and plan as the tower of La Mutte. This tower also contains a portal to the cathedral, the Portal of St. Stephen. The medieval sculpture was nearly all destroyed by the end of the 18th century, with the exception of a scene on the lintel of the stoning of Saint Stephen, and two scenes from the life of St. Clement.
The west front of the cathedral receives support from a massive buttress on the north, while on the south the facade gets support from the Tower of the Horloge, an eight-sided tower, more slender and shorter than the tower of La Mutte, whose lower portion, with sections of white stone, probably belonged to the original collegiate built in 1207. It is capped by an octagonal belfry and an open pyramid, which were added in 1896. The exterior of this tower features an angel holding a sundial, decorated with the coat of arms of the city, and the date 1504. This tower formally belonged to the city of Metz, and contains a second set of cathedral bells. The largest bell, which sounds the hours, was made in 1413, and weighs 2000 kilograms; a smaller bell sounds the quarter hours, and was made 1398 (60 kilograms); and there is a third bell from the 16th century (also weighing 60 kilograms).
Transept
Flamboyant facade of the north transept
The cathedral from the south, with transept to the right
Facade with great window of the south transept
The transept and the chevet at the northeast end of the cathedral were constructed together between 1487 and 1450. In this part of the cathedral, the vaults reach a height of 45 meters. The triangular north transept gable was a later addition of Neo-Gothic, made in 1886 in the 15th-century style. It is crowned with a statue of the Virgin Mary, marking the chapel of the Virgin. The south transept facade has a matching gable made in 1883–85, in the more ornate flamboyant style. It is crowned by two statues, Saint Nicholas and a local medieval bishop, Saint Goëry. There is also a flamboyant gable over the large south window, also an elaborate flamboyant style, with curves and counter-curves. It was damaged by the 19th-century fire and was replaced. At the top is a statue of Saint Stephen, the patron saint of the cathedral.
Chevet
Towers and chapel windows of the chevet
Buttresses that support the high wall of the chevet
The chevet, at the southeast end of the cathedral, was built between 1503 and 1508 atop the earlier Romanesque crypt and the earlier Rayonnant style chapels. It contains the apse and disambulatory, and three radiating chapels; the axis chapel of the Virgin; and chapels of the Sacred Heart and Notre-Dame of Mount-Carmel. The doorway to Rue du Vivier was added in 1889.
The chapels are separated by the massive buttresses and arches which support the upper walls. The buttresses themselves are decorated with spires, which give them extra weight. The windows of the upper walls are topped with pointed arches and pinnacles, and the chevet is flanked by two additional slender towers with spires on either side of the choir, which give additional support to the structure. On the north is the Tower of the Boule d'Or or Tower of the Pomme d'Or (Named for a gilded copper apple ornament on top of the spire before the Revolution); and to south, the Tower of Charlemagne. This tower has a stairway that gives access to the terraces, triforium, and the narrow pathway around the edge of the roof of the choir.
Interior
Nave
The nave, looking toward the choir
The pulpit in the nave
The three-part elevation of the nave
The nave is the portion of a cathedral, usually at the west end, where the worshippers are seated. The nave of Metz Cathedral is noted for its exceptional height, harmony, and especially the great quantity of stained glass that entirely fills the upper walls, the largest area of glass of any cathedral. It has the traditional elevation of Gothic cathedrals of the 13th century, with three levels; an arcade of pointed arches supported by large pillars on the ground floor, 12.65 meters high; above that a triforium with windows. six meters high; above that a decorative band of two friezes with sculpted foliage and drapery; and above that the high windows extending upwards 25.5 meters into the vaults. Slender colonettes run up the walls between the windows from the arcade pillars to support the vaults. The pillars of the arcade, consisting of bundled columns, also have decoration; sculpted grapevines and other vegetal designs, from about 1245.
The four-part rib vaults of the nave vaults are exceptionally high; between 41.2 and 42.6 meters, exceeded in height only by those of Beauvais Cathedral (48 meters), matching those of Amiens Cathedral (42.3. meters), and taller than those of Reims Cathedral (38 meters). The collateral aisles on either side of the nave are not nearly as high; just 13.3 meters, but they also have walls largely filled with stained glass.
Transept and choir
The south transept, with the organ below
The modern furnishings in the choir by Mattia Bonetti
Detail at the choir stalls (1912)
The red marble statue of the Virgin of Lourdes on the lateral altar of the transept
The Transept and choir were built later than the nave, between 1487 and 1520, with elaborate decoration in the flamboyant style of the late Gothic in the tracery of the windows and the pillars. Nonetheless, the builders respected the elevations and distribution of space on the walls established in the nave at the end of the 13th century. The high windows of the nave were the model for the high windows in the transept and the choir.
Parts of the north transept also serve an important structural purpose; the section of the transept where it meets the nave, made about 1300, also serves a buttress for the arches of the nave where they meet the transept. Each level of the transept also has narrow coursières, or passageways, built in the wall on the interior and exterior of the transept.
The vaults of the transept meet the vaults of the nave and choir at the central crossing. The transept is 46.80 metres (153.5 ft) high and 16.34 metres (53.6 ft) wide. The vault in the center of the crossing has additional decorative lierne and tiercon ribs, which form a star, and a large keystone, 1.7 meters high and 3.7 meters across, at the meeting point.
The choir of a cathedral, where the clergy traditionally worships, is usually long, but because of the unusual topography under the cathedral, the choir in Metz is relatively short, and raised up by twelve steps from the transept.
The modern liturgical furniture in the choir was created by the Swiss-born French artist Mattia Bonetti between 2004 and 2006. It includes an altar, Ambon or tribune, and cathedre, or bishop's chair. They are made of bronze, marble and oak, with a motif of reeds gently blowing in the wind, against a dark background.
The Altar of Notre Dame de Lourdes made of red marble in 1911 by the Munich sculptor Max Heilmaler, It was subject to many later alterations. It depicts the Virgin in a red marble mandorle. The additional sculpture of the Announciation, also by Heilmaler. Below the altar a depiction of Christ being presented at the Temple, by Caspar Weis.
With it is the retable made of gilded and painted oak, It was originally made for the altar of a chapel at the shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes, where it was placed in 1245. It depicts the Virgin, with the moon at her feet, with figures of Saint Barbara and Saint Catherine. It was removed from that church in 1912 because the church authorities in Lourdes felt it clashed with the simplicity of the decor there.
The choir stalls are a prominent feature in the centre of the Choir. They were made by Théophile Klem of Colmar between 1913 and 1914, but they were not put into place until 1922–23. Carvings also decorate They decorate the screen of the choir made in 1912.
Apse, disambulatory, and radiating chapels
Triptych dedicated to Saint Anne in the disambulatory
Beyond the choir is the apse, with a semicircular passage, the disambulatory, which leads to the three chapels at the end of the cathedral. The central chapel is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the left chapel to Saint Joseph, and the right chapel to Saint Livier.
The following picture presents the ground plan of Saint-Stephen of Metz and the position of the architectural elements:
Number
Architectural element
Plan of Metz Cathedral
1
Westwork
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2
Porch
3
Portal Portal of the Virgin
4
Narthex
5
Side chapel Blessed Sacrament chapel
6
Spire Mutte tower
7
Lady Chapel
8
Aisle
9
Organ
10
Southern transept
11
Entrance of the crypt
12
Apse chapel
13
Ambulatory
14
Apse (Chevet)
15
East end
16
Apse chapel
17
Northern transept
18
Aisle
19
Bell tower Capitulum tower
20
Altar candle
21
Nave
22
Crossing of the transept
23
Altar
24
Lectern
25
Choir (choirstalls)
26
Axis
The elements 1, 2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 19, 21, 22, 23, and 25 constitute the axis (south-southwest/north-northeast, respectively). On its exterior, the cathedral is 136 metres (446 ft) long.
Painting and sculpture
Epitaph of Jacques Poulain, with Fresco of the Virgin (14th c.)
Tomb of a bishop
Tomb of Bishop Dupont des Loges (died 1896) by Emmanuel Hannaux (1923)
The chapels of the transept were decorated in the 14th century with murals on the columns, which served as epitaphs for prominent church figures. These were covered over with plaster in the remodelling of the 17th century and rediscovered and restored between 1840 and 1909. One good example is the painted epitaph of Jacques Poulain, from 1379, located on the north side at the sixth pillar.
Stained glass
The stained glass windows of the cathedral range in date from the 13th century to the 20th century, and cover an area of 6500 square meters; the cathedral has the most stained glass of any medieval religious monument.
The early windows resemble mosaics, made of very small pieces of thick, deeply-colored glass bound together by thin strips of lead. The later windows became much larger and thinner, as glassmaking technology improved, with support of iron bars and stone tracery. They were often colored with silver stain, and enamel paints which could be etched to give different shades and three dimensions, more closely resembling Renaissance paintings. The later Gothic periods also made greater use of grisaille, glass colored white, grey or other pale colors, to bring more light into the interior, and to highlight the colored glass.
Most of the original glass was removed in the centuries after the Middle Ages. Most of the glass today is restored or a more modern replacement.
The windows of Metz were made by the master craftsmen including Hermann von Münster in the fourteenth century, and Valentin Bousch in the sixteenth. In the twentieth century, the artist Marc Chagall created three stained glass windows for the cathedral between 1958 and 1968. Roger Bissière and Jacques Villon provided designs for further windows, including the complete chapel of the Holy Sacrament.
Early glass (13th century)
The oldest glass of the cathedral. Located on one side of the southern transept, Scenes from Life of Saint Paul (13th century)
Detail of early glass
The earliest glass in the cathedral, from the third quarter of the 13th century, is found in the central bay of the Chapel of Notre-Dame-La-Rond, on the north side of the cathedral near the portal of that name. The glass was originally all in one window, but was separated and now is displayed in two parts in the lower portions of the bays. In the north (Bay 33) are the lancet windows which illustrate the genealogy of Christ and the Virgin Mary, as well as the prophets and apostles. In the South (Bay 28) is the oculus of the original window, with the crowning of the Virgin. This window very unusually depicts the Virgin to the left of Christ, who is presenting the crown to her with his left hand. A similar arrangement from the same period is found in Strasbourg Cathedral.
14th–15th century glass
Western rose window at Metz by Hermann von Munster
Inner rose window by Hermann von Munster
Detail of the West Rose Window
Adoration of the Magi by Hermann von Munster (1390)
A number of important windows were installed in the 14th century, including the great rose window of the western facade. This window was the work of Hermann von Munster, who created an ambitious program of windows. Other windows he designed were placed in the north and south arms of the transept, the west bay and the north and south arms of the transept.
16th century glass
The north transept windows by Theobald of Lixheim
Detail of north transept windows
Detail of north transept windows – apostles
The most prominent examples of 16th-century glass are the windows of the north face of the transept, made by Theobald of Lixheim in 1504, and the windows of the south face of the transept, made by Valentin Bousch between 1521 and 1536. The figures of the last clearly show the influence of the Renaissance, with a full use of perspective, shading, giving the windows a close resemblance to Renaissance paintings.
20th century – modern windows
Windows by Jacques Villon
Between 1954 and 1958 most of the upper windows of the nave were replaced with windows designed to harmonize with the early Gothic windows by Jean Gaudin, who had restored the windows of Amiens Cathedral. Then, in 1956, Robert Renaud, chief architect of the Center of National Monuments, commissioned a group of windows for the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament designed by the cubist-impressionist Jacques Villon, the brother of pioneer modernist Marcel Duchamp, then eighty years old. The windows are composed of intersecting lines and planes of different colors, represents the Last Supper and Crucifixion, surrounded by abstract images of earlier Biblical symbols; the rock of Mount Horeb, the Marriage at Cana, the Book of Exodus and a lamb representing Easter. They were installed in 1957.
Two other abstract windows were made by Roger Bissière for the portal of La Mutte and the portal of the Tower of the Chapter. The former, facing the rising sun, has warm abstract colors, while the latter window, facing the sunset, has cool colors.
The best-known windows are those designed by Marc Chagall. They were commissioned at the same time that he was chosen by André Malraux, French Minister of Culture, to decorate the central dome of the Paris Opera. The first, in Bay 17 of the west of the north transept, made between 1958 and 1961, depicts Genesis and the creation, the original sin, and the expulsion from Eden. Two additional groups were made for two bays in the north disambulatory (bays 11 and 9). They were made between 1961 and 1967, and depict Old Testament scenes, including Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, the Sacrifice of Abraham, the Burning Bush, and other events. The final series done by Chagall was created between 1968 and 1970 in the west triforium. These windows are "Grand Bouquet", a composition of birds and flowers and a rainbow on a background of nacre (Bays 111 and 113) and "Petit Bouquet" (Bays 107–109).
Number
Master glass maker
Plan of Saint-Stephen of Metz
1
Hermann von Münster's windows
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
Jacques Villon's windows
3
Valentin Bousch's windows
4
Valentin Bousch's windows
5
Marc Chagall's windows
6
Theobald of Lixheim's windows
7
Marc Chagall's windows
8
Roger Bissière's windows
Organs
The modern organ, placed in the south transept
The Renaissance organ, now on the triforium of the nave (1537)
Metz Cathedral has two organs. The modern and larger organ is located in the transept. The smaller and older instrument, called the "Renaissance", is perched on the triforium of the last traverse of the nave, closest to the choir. It was placed there above the former rood screen to accompany ceremonies of the clergy taking place within the choir. It was made in 1537, and while the instrument has been regularly modified and updated, the wooden buffet or cabinet is original.
Crypt
The crypt beneath the transept and apse
The Graouilly, a dragon figure carried in processions, now in the cathedral crypt
The original romanesque crypt beneath the choir was enlarged at the beginning of the 16th century to serve as a foundation for the new chevet. and contains ambulatory leading to three chapels. It was originally largely filled with tombs, It now serves as a museum of cathedral history.
The crypt displays the Graouilly, a large figure of the mythical dragon which was said in legend to been slain by Saint Clement in about 1000 AD. It was carried in religious processions in Metz beginning the 13th century and was described by Rabelais after his stay in Metz in 1546–47. The body of the current Graouilly is made of canvas covering a metal frame is from the 19th century, while the head is wood from an 18th-century effigy of the creature.
Treasury
The Treasury, located in the Sacristy
The Ring of saint Arnoul (7th century)
The treasury of the cathedral, located in the old sacristy next to the south transept, lost most of its precious objects during the French Revolution, when they were taken away to be melted down for their gold or stripped of their jewels. The most famous item in the Treasury is the reputed "Cape of Charlemagne", a garment probably made in the 12th century. It is made of purple silk with three large eagles embroidered with gold, whose wings are decorated with roses and griffons. It was further adorned during the Renaissance with a plus a hood embroidered with silver. The treasury also displays a large Bishop's ring made of stone and gold, called the Ring of Saint Arnoul, made in the 7th century. It is one of the oldest Bishop's rings still existing.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metz Cathedral.
Gothic cathedrals and churches
French Gothic architecture
List of highest church naves
List of tallest churches
List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe
Mont Saint-Quentin in Moselle Valley
References
^ Base Mérimée: PA00106817, Ministère français de la Culture. (in French)
^ a b "Official website of the Saint-Stephen Cathedral" (in French). Retrieved 29 June 2012.
^ "Official website of the Bishopric of Metz" (in French). Retrieved 6 January 2013.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 3.
^ "INA Archive (1969) Trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, ORTF" (VIDEO) (in French). Retrieved 2 July 2012.
^ "INA Archive (1980) Patrimoine: trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, France 3 régions" (VIDEO) (in French). Retrieved 2 July 2012.
^ a b Jolin J.L. (2001) La lanterne du Bon Dieu. Eds. Serpnoise. ISBN 2-87692-495-1. (in French)
^ a b c d e Wagner 2013, p. 7.
^ Vallery-Radot J. (1931): La cathédrale de Metz, description archéologique. Eds A. Picard, Paris. (in French)
^ "Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594 A.D.) Historiae, Libri X. The Latin Library" (in Latin). Retrieved 6 January 2013.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 11.
^ Marot P. (1931): La cathédrale de Metz, histoire de la construction. Eds A. Picard, Paris. (in French)
^ a b c d e f g h "Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 10th to 13th century" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
^ a b c d e f g h i Wagner 2013, p. 12.
^ Villes A. (2004): Remarques sur les campagnes de construction de la cathédrale de Metz au XIIieme siecle. Bulletin Monumental 162, Paris (in French)
^ a b c d e f g "Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 14th to 16th century" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
^ Lejeaux J. (1931): La cathédrale de Metz, L'œuvre de Blondel à Metz. Eds A. Picard, Paris. (in French)
^ a b c d e "Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 17th to 20th century" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 19.
^ a b c d Wagner 2013, p. 24.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 21.
^ a b c Wagner 2013, p. 67.
^ Ariane Isler-de Jongh: A Stained-Glass Window from Flavigny-sur-Moselle, Metropolitan Museum Journal, 33, 1998. Online, (p. 155).
^ Wagner 2013, p. 30.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 33.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 37.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 35.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 38.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 31.
^ a b c Wagner 2013, p. 41.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 45.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 49.
^ a b c d Wagner 2013, p. 73.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 71.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 53.
^ Brisac 1994, p. 7–11.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 54.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 55-57.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 55.
^ a b Wagner 2013, p. 72.
^ Wagner 2013, p. 75.
Bibliography
Brisac, Catherine (1994). Le Vitrail (in French). Paris: La Martinière. ISBN 2-73-242117-0.
Wagner, Pierre Édouard (2013). Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Metz (in French). Centre des monuments nationaux, Éditions du patrimoine. ISBN 978-2-7577-0262-8.
External links
Photos
Denis Krieger, extensive collection of stained glass photos on Flickr
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metz (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metz_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Metz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Metz"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cathedral-2"},{"link_name":"bishops of Metz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Metz"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"chevet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevet"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20133-4"},{"link_name":"cathedral treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_treasury"},{"link_name":"Eucharist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cathedral-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"third-highest nave of cathedrals in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_church_naves"},{"link_name":"Amiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Beauvais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauvais_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"stained glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stained_glass-7"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_art"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_art"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"Valentin Bousch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Bousch"},{"link_name":"Charles-Laurent Maréchal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Laurent_Mar%C3%A9chal"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Roger Bissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Tachism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachisme"},{"link_name":"Jacques Villon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Villon"},{"link_name":"Cubism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"Kimsooja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimsooja"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stained_glass-7"}],"text":"Catholic cathedral in Metz, FranceFor other uses of \"Metz\", see Metz (disambiguation).Metz Cathedral is the cathedral of the Catholic Diocese of Metz,[2] the seat of the bishops of Metz.[3] It is dedicated to Saint Stephen. The diocese dates back at least to the 4th century and the present cathedral building was begun in the early 14th century. In the mid-14th century, it was joined to the collegiate church of Notre-Dame, and given a new transept and late Gothic chevet, finished between 1486 and 1520.[4] The cathedral treasury displays a rich collection assembled over the long centuries of the history of the Metz diocese and include sacred vestments and items used for the Eucharist.[2][5][6]Metz Cathedral has the third-highest nave of cathedrals in France (41.41 meters (135.9 ft)), after the cathedrals of Amiens and Beauvais . It is nicknamed la Lanterne du Bon Dieu (\"the Good Lord's lantern\"), on account of its displaying the largest expanse of stained glass in the world, totalling 6,496 m2 (69,920 sq ft).[7] The stained glass windows include works by Gothic and Renaissance master glass makers Hermann von Münster, Theobald of Lixheim, and Valentin Bousch. Later artistic styles are represented by Charles-Laurent Maréchal (Romanticism), Roger Bissière (Tachism), Jacques Villon (Cubism), Marc Chagall, and Kimsooja.[7]","title":"Metz Cathedral"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oppidum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppidum"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon"},{"link_name":"Treves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treves"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20137-8"},{"link_name":"Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20137-8"},{"link_name":"Gregory of Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine"},{"link_name":"Attila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Clovis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_I"},{"link_name":"Theudebert I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebert_I"},{"link_name":"Merovingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingian"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20137-8"},{"link_name":"Gregory of Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"Chrodegang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrodegang"},{"link_name":"Pepin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepin_the_Short"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20137-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner20137-8"}],"sub_title":"Early churches","text":"A Gallo-Roman oppidum, or fortified town, called Diuodron Medimatriques, occupied the site from at least the first century B.C. It became a stop on the trade route between Lyon and Treves, and was an imperial residence during the Roman Empire between 306 and 390. The presence of the first bishop, Clement, is recorded in 346.[8]The cathedral was built on an ancient site dating to the 5th century and dedicated to Saint Stephen.[9] It is said to have contained a collection of his relics.[8] According to Gregory of Tours, the shrine of Saint Stephen was the sole structure spared during the sack of 451 by Attila's Huns.[10] It was a royal residence of the grandsons of Clovis, king of the Franks, and of Theudebert I, who became the Merovingian ruler in 534.[8]Gregory of Tours mentioned the existence of the church in 584, and a cathedral under the archbishop Arnoul is mentioned in 616. The Archbishop and Saint Chrodegang (742-766) is mentioned in accounts of the time as a papal envoy to the Franks. He is credited with introducing the Roman liturgy and chants, with the support of King of the Franks, Pepin, between 751 and 768. Chrodegang is also credited with establishing the first cathedral chapter in western Europe, and also the first cathedral close, combining chapels, dormitory, refectory, and other functional buildings. This system was formally adopted by other Frankish cathedrals under the Capitulary of Aix-en-Chapelle of 816.[8] This first cloister, on the south side of the cathedral where the Place des Armes is located, survived until its demolition in 1754.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commencement_r%C3%A9publique_messine_Auguste_Migette_1862.jpg"},{"link_name":"Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture"},{"link_name":"Ottonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian"},{"link_name":"Auguste Migette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Migette"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"Lorraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorraine"},{"link_name":"East Francia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia"},{"link_name":"Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Ottonian style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_architecture"},{"link_name":"Moselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moselle"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201311-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201311-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"}],"sub_title":"The Ottonian or Pre-Romanesque cathedral","text":"The Romanesque or Ottonian cathedral in 1055 imagined by Auguste Migette (1862)In 843, after long disputes between Charlemagne's successors, the Holy Roman Empire was divided into four parts. In 870, Metz and its province Lorraine allied with East Francia while remaining an autonomous duchy. In 962, when Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, restored the Empire, Lorraine was designated as the autonomous Duchy of Lorraine, with Metz as its capital. It maintained this status until 1766, when it formally became part of France.The construction of a new cathedral began under bishop Thierry I between 965 and 984, and was completed under his second successor Thierry II of Luxembourg, between 1006 and 1047. It was built in what was later called Ottonian style, a form of pre-Romanesque. This church had two towers and three bays on the west front, a nave with three vessels, and a larger tower over the transept. Because of its placement on a terrace next to the Moselle River, the cathedral could not have the traditional east to west orientation from the choir to the west front. Instead, it was oriented on an axis from southeast to northwest. The roof, following a regional tradition, was covered with tiles of white limestone.[11]A smaller church, the Collegiale of Notre-Dame-la-Ronde, was built close to the old cathedral in the 8th century, and was entirely rebuilt between 1200 and 1207 to be oriented directly with the axis of the cathedral. The complex of early buildings also included the cloister and a palace for the archbishop, where the market square is located today.[11] [12][13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vue_de_Metz_et_descente_de_croix_Barra_%26_De_Nom%C3%A9.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_de_Metz_(cathedrale).JPG"},{"link_name":"Conrad III of Scharfenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_III_of_Scharfenberg"},{"link_name":"Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"Collegiate church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_church"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"canons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Herman of Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"Boppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boppard"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"George of Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_of_Baden"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"}],"sub_title":"The Gothic Cathedral","text":"Metz and the cathedral in the 17th century\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCity centre and the cathedral in the 17th centuryThe reconstruction of the cathedral in the Gothic style was proposed in about 1220 by the bishop of Metz, Conrad III of Scharfenberg, the chancellor of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. The work began under James of Lotharingia (French: Jacques de Lorraine, German: Jakob von Lothringen), the head of the chapter, who became bishop in 1239.[14] Construction began at the west end of the nave and continued to the transept and the old choir, which was still in place until the end of the 15th century. The vault of the new structure was not planned to be higher than 30–35 meters.[14]The plan integrated the neighbouring Collegiate church of Our Lady into the western end of the cathedral, which resulted in the absence of a traditional west-end portal. The south-western porch of the cathedral became the entrance of the former collegiate church.[13][15]The nave, with the exception of its vaults, was probably finished between 1245 and 1250. Then a decision was taken to make the cathedral much taller, with the addition of a new level of large windows about forty meters high, equal in height to the two levels below. New more massive columns were added, and the triforium between the arcades and high windows was enlarged and strengthened to support the greater weight. Between 1250 and 1255 the south side walls west of the transept were also strengthened to support the new higher walls. The south façade was also built higher to match the greater height of the new nave. The piers of the flying buttresses were also reconstructed, doubling their height. In about 1270–75, the tower of the Chapter was raised to the height of the cornice of the new nave.[14]Since the new nave was now twice as high as planned, the towers also had to be made taller. Between 1275 and 1280, A second level and the beginning of a third level were added to the Tour de la Mutte. By 1359 the nave was entirely covered, but work on the upper walls continued for another twenty years. In 1380–81, the canons of the cathedral decided to demolish the wall which separated the cathedral from the adjoining nave of the church of Our Lady. This was resisted by the clergy of the collegiate church, but the work went ahead, modified by the installation of a grill between the two naves. In 1381 the cathedral chapter engaged the glassmaker Herman of Münster to make a rose window for the west front, which was finished in 1392. [14]There was a lull of nearly a century before major work was resumed on the construction of the transept and the choir. In 1388 a wooden belfry was installed by the city government on the La Mutte tower, and a new chapel, the Bishop's Chapel, was added on the lower south aisle in 1443. Its patron, Bishop Conrad Bayer of Boppard, died a few days after the chapel was consecrated, and was interred within it in 1459. [14]In 1468 a serious fire broke out on the new balustrade of the roof. In the years before the fire, from 1452 to 1467, there had been a bitter dispute between the city leaders and the cathedral authorities over who was responsible for the maintenance and safety of cathedral property, which Bishop George of Baden ended by excommunicating the city leaders. When the fire broke out, the city leaders refused to assist the clergy in fighting the fire, only sending men to put out the fire on the bell tower, which was owned by the city. Relations thereafter between the city and clerical authorities were strained. [14]The last work on the La Mutte bell tower was completed between 1477 and 1483. The stone shaft forty meters high was topped by a tall spire, giving it a total height of almost ninety meters. The finished cathedral was consecrated on 11 April 1552.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20201017Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz_1603.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_vor_der_Restaurierung_,_v._1877.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale-et-pont-des-Basses-Grilles-%C3%A0-Metz.jpeg"},{"link_name":"rood screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rood_screen"},{"link_name":"Henry II of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_France"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"Sébastien Slodtz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Slodtz"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"Jacques-François Blondel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Fran%C3%A7ois_Blondel"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture"},{"link_name":"Louis XV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XV"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201312-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-third-18"}],"sub_title":"Gothic Completion and neoclassical additions (16th–18th century)","text":"Welcoming King Henry IV to Metz with fireworks – 1603\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBlondel's classical portal, added in 1766\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe cathedral in about 1800Work continued into the 16th century to rebuild the remaining Romanesque portions into the Gothic style. The old choir was demolished in 1503. A few weeks later, the old Romanesque south transept fell. The next year work began on the new transept, and the final flying buttress of the choir was installed ion 1506. The new construction largely followed the original Gothic style. \nA new canonical choir was built beginning in 1519 next to the sanctuary, at the crossing of the transept. An ornate rood screen was installed between the choir and the nave, with sculpture by Mansuy Gauvain, and new choir stalls were installed. The choir was completed with a new altar and a small organ in the triforium above the rood screen. A project was also begun to create a new grand portal on the west end. The work was begun but was halted in 1552 by the entry into the city of the army of King Henry II of France. Work did not resume until 1761.[14]Metz and the Duchy of Lorraine formally retained their independent status, but the French political and cultural influence grew from 1737 until 1766, when France formally annexed the Duchy. In 1741, proponents of the new French classical style, popular in Paris, proposed to redecorate the choir of Metz Cathedral in the new style. They presented a neoclassical program for the choir by the royal sculptor from Paris, Sébastien Slodtz. However, Slotdtz's proposed decoration was fiercely resisted by the more conservative chapter and was finally rejected in 1762.In 1754 another large modification was begun by the governor of Metz. He destroyed the old cloisters next to the church, with their chapels and arcades, with the intention of creating a parade ground for official celebrations. However, this project was abandoned in 1758. Instead, the space was filled by a group of houses, shops and a large pavilion.[14]Another classical addition to the cathedral was proposed in 1755 by the royal architect Jacques-François Blondel. He was commissioned by the Royal Academy of Architecture to build a Neoclassical Doric portico which would serve as the main entrance to the cathedral. This was funded partially by Louis XV, to celebrate his recovery from a serious illness from which he had nearly died in Metz in 1744. It was duly built between 1764 and 1766, However, the work on this new portal caused more problems; it was found that the portico would block some of the stained glass windows, and the digging of the deep foundations for the portico immediately created weaknesses in the west front and north buttress.[14] [17][18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_-_Incendie_cath%C3%A9drale,_le_7_mai_1877.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_Metz_Robida.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Robida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Robida"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euch._Kongress,_Metz_1907_-_18e_Congr%C3%A8s_Euch._Metz_1907_FIC_MUT_0770.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Etienne_-_Entr%C3%A9e_du_mar%C3%A9chal_Foch_dans_la_ville_de_Metz_-_Metz_-_M%C3%A9diath%C3%A8que_de_l%27architecture_et_du_patrimoine_-_APZ0007321.jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201319-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201319-19"},{"link_name":"Franco-Prussian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War"},{"link_name":"William I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Paul Verlaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Verlaine"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201324-20"},{"link_name":"Auxerre Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxerre_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Chartres Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Amiens Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-third-18"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201321-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201324-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201324-20"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201367-22"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"Jacques Villon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Villon"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201367-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201324-20"}],"sub_title":"The Revolution to the 21st century","text":"The fire of 1877\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDrawing of the cathedral in 1905 by Albert Robida\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe cathedral in 1907 with the new portal and decorated gable\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe troops of Maréchal Foch parade past the cathedral (1918)In the years before the French Revolution in 1789, many of the Gothic tombs and monuments of the cathedral were removed, or put into lower aisles to accommodate the new classical taste. The Revolution greatly accelerated the destruction. The cathedral chapter was formally abolished in 1790, and the cathedral was declared a simple parish and episcopal church. The old rood screen, made in 1555. was destroyed and replaced by a circular platform or stage in the transept. From 1793 to 1794, the cathedral was officially termed a \"Temple of Reason\". It was turned into a legal church in 1795, and services resumed, but it was not formally returned to the Catholic Church until 1802.[19]The cathedral was in a deplorable state in the early 19th century. The vaults shook when the bells in the tower rang. The arch supporting the right side of the bell tower was broken, and the windows of the tower had to be removed. The arch was finally replaced in 1829. Weaknesses of the foundation made the new portico unsteady. The wood of the belfry of the Chapter tower was rotting, and falling in pieces onto the street below; workmen refused to enter the unstable tower. The government finally agreed to finance the complete reconstruction of the tower of La Mutte, which was completed in 1843. The government of Emperor Louis-Napoleon promised a full restoration of the cathedral.[19]Following the Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, Lorraine and Metz were taken from France in 1871 and annexed to the new German Empire. In 1877, the cathedral was heavily damaged by a major fire caused by fireworks. The King of Prussia and Emperor William I took a particular interest in the rebuilding of Metz Cathedral, to win the support of the population.Cathedral all en volute (vaults), where the wind sings as in a flute, and then responds the Mutte, the great voice of the Good Lord!\n\n\n — Paul Verlaine, Ode to Metz, Invectives, 1896.A young architect from Munich, Paul Tornow, became master of works of the cathedral in 1874 and held the position for thirty-two years, until 1906. He first constructed a new roof, built on a metal frame, which raised its height by 3.5 meters. He then removed the collection of structures that had been built up against the walls, and restored the Chapel of Notre-Dame-de-Mont-Carmel, which had previously belonged to the adjoining church of Notre-Dame-la-Rond. He reopened the windows which had been blocked by the 19th-century construction. He also cleared out the crypt of the cathedral, which had been turned into a storeroom for the neighbouring shops in the gallery. Between 1874 and 1877 he restored the vaults and buttresses that had been weakened by age and the fire. Between 1898 and 1903 he removed Blondel's classical portico over the portal.[20]The new portal was the subject of careful study by Tornow. He decided upon a 14th-century Gothic style, in harmony with the rose window. With the French sculptor Auguste Dujardin, he visited twenty-one cathedrals in Burgundy, the Ile-de-France, Normandy and Champagne, taking photographs to act as the basis for his design. The final plan adapted elements of the 13th and 14th centuries, and borrowed particularly from the portals of Auxerre Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral and Amiens Cathedral. He also rebuilt triangular gables at the top of the north and south facades in the late Gothic style, with spires and pinnacles.[18][21] The new south portal was completed and inaugurated on 14 May 1903. The final project of the exterior renovation was the La Mutte tower, which was granted back to the church by the city, which had taken it as the municipal bell tower.[20]Major restoration and rebuilding also took place inside the cathedral, under another architect, Wilhelm Schmitz. He enlarged the choir, restored damaged windows, constructed new choir stalls, and installed a new stone choir screen, new altars, and new bronze doors for the west portal. In 1914 war interrupted the work. In 1918, at the end of the First World War, Lorraine and the cathedral were returned to France. The forty-four new choir stalls, made in Colmar in 1914, were finally installed 1922.[20]Between the First and Second World Wars, little funding was available to restore or improve the cathedral; the only significant addition was a new bishop's chair, installed in 1932. However, after the Second World War, chief architect Robert Renaud began a campaign to restore and renew the art. He had a copy made and installed of the angel-musician statue which had decorated the roof–it had been blown down in a storm in 1952. In 1965, a stained glass window of David and Bathsheba, designed by Marc Chagall was installed in Bay 9, along with windows by other contemporary artists.[22]Until 1960 all the furnishings of the cathedral were either original Gothic or recreations of Gothic. That year the cathedral began to acquire modern works of furniture and art, including windows designed by Marc Chagall, Jacques Villon and other artists.[22]In 1999 another wind storm broke loose a pinnacle from the roof, which fell through the roof of the sacristy, requiring major work. The west rose window also showed signs of weakness, due to the absence of a supporting buttress on the west, and began to crack. It was reinforced with two steel supports between 1995 and 2000. The La Mutte tower was restored beginning in 2009, including the restoration of the bells and their mechanism.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ottonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_architecture"},{"link_name":"shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine"},{"link_name":"Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"Early Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"Ottonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_architecture"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"triforia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triforium"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"vaults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first-13"},{"link_name":"Lady Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_chapel"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"tympanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tympanum_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"rose window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_window"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"tympanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tympanum_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-16"},{"link_name":"Valentin Bousch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Bousch"},{"link_name":"tympanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tympanum_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jongh155-23"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture"},{"link_name":"Jacques-François Blondel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Fran%C3%A7ois_Blondel"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-third-18"},{"link_name":"ornaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornament_(art)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-third-18"},{"link_name":"Neogothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-third-18"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201367-22"}],"sub_title":"Timeline of construction","text":"984 – c. 1040 Construction of an Ottonian basilica over an ancient shrine dedicated to Saint Stephen[13]\nc. 1180 – 1207 Construction of a chapel in Early Gothic style on the west side of the basilica[13]\n1220 Beginning of the construction of the Gothic cathedral within the foundations of the Ottonian basilica, construction of the aisles[13]\n1265–1285 Construction of the triforia and the two bell towers[13]\n1285 – c. 1290 Elevation of the westwork within the foundations of a Gothic chapel from the 12th century[13]\n1290s Construction of the vaults of the nave and the supporting flying buttresses[13]\nc. 1300–1330s Construction of the Lady Chapel[16]\n1380 Junction between the former Gothic chapel and the nave[16]\n1384 Creation of the stained glass tympanum of the west facade and the rose window by master glass maker Hermann von Münster\n1478–1483 Elevation of the spire[16]\n1486–1490s Construction of the northern transept[16]\n1504 Creation of the stained glass tympanum of the northern transept by master glass maker Theobald of Lixheim\nc. 1490–1500s Construction of the Gothic choir and east end[16]\n1504–1520s Construction of the southern transept[16]\n1518–1539 Stained glass by master glass maker Valentin Bousch, including the tympanum on the southern transept[23]\n1761–1764 Neoclassical refurbishment conducted by Jacques-François Blondel[18]\nc.1850–1880s Destruction of the ornaments of Jacques-François Blondel[18]\n1889–1903 Construction of a Neogothic portal on the west front[18]\n1965–1967 Stained glass windows of Marc Chagall[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rayonnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayonnant"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Jaumont limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_de_Jaumont"},{"link_name":"French Gothic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"topography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography"},{"link_name":"Moselle valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moselle_valley"},{"link_name":"portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"porch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porch"},{"link_name":"narthex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narthex"},{"link_name":"flying buttresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_buttress"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture"},{"link_name":"Neogothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture"}],"text":"Metz Cathedral is a Rayonnant Gothic edifice built of the local yellow Jaumont limestone. As in French Gothic architecture, the building is compact, with slight projection of the transepts and subsidiary chapels. However, it displays singular, distinctive characteristics in both its ground plan and architecture compared to most other cathedrals. Because of the topography of the Moselle valley in Metz, the common west–east axis of the ground plan could not be applied and the church is oriented north-northeast. Moreover, unlike the French and German Gothic cathedrals having three portals surmounted by a rose window and two large towers, this one has a single porch at its western front. The entrance is to the side of the building through another portal placed at the south-western side of the narthex, avoiding the usual alignment of the entrance with the choir.The nave is supported by flying buttresses and culminates at 41.41 metres (135.9 ft) high, making it one of the highest naves in the world. The height of the nave is contrasted by the relatively low height of the aisles at 14.3 metres (47 ft) high, reinforcing the sensation of height of the nave. This feature permitted the architects to create large, tall expanses of stained glass. Throughout its history the cathedral has been subjected to architectural and ornamental modifications with successive additions of Neoclassical and Neogothic elements.","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_-_Cathedral_5.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz,_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Etienne-PM_49698.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz_-_portail_principal_(22).JPG"},{"link_name":"William II of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_II_of_Germany"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sommet_de_la_fa%C3%A7ade_sud_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz_(juin_2019).JPG"},{"link_name":"Amiens Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Last Judgement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Judgement"},{"link_name":"William II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_II_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201330-24"}],"sub_title":"West Front and the Portal of Christ","text":"West Front – the Portal of Christ, Horloge tower on right\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTympanum of the Portal of Christ\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatue of Saint Daniel, originally modelled after William II of Germany\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTop of the west facadeThe portal of the west front, typically the main entrance of a cathedral, in Metz is a secondary entrance. The original Gothic portal was replaced by a classical entrance in 1724, which was replaced by the current Neo-Gothic portal in 1903, called \"Christ the King.\" It was designed by architect Paul Tornow and artist Auguste Dujardin. It is lavishly filled with sculpture including column-statues in niches above smaller sculptures in the soubassement. The tympanum over the portal, largely inspired by the Tympanum of Amiens Cathedral, illustrates the Last Judgement, with Christ as the central figure, between two figures representing the Church the Synagogue. The portal is flanked by four 4-meter-tall statues of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. The statue of Daniel was originally given the features of the German Emperor of the time, William II, who commissioned the Portal before the First World War. The moustaches were removed during the German occupation of Metz in World War II.[24]","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_portail_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz_(4972181384).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz,_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Etienne-PM_49566.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ClemensvonMetzL1110975_(2).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz,_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Etienne-PM_49565.jpg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201333-25"}],"sub_title":"Portal of the Virgin","text":"South side - Portal of the Virgin Mary\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTympanum of the Portal of the Virgin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatue of Saint Clement on the Portal of the Virgin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSculpture of the Portal of the VirginThe Portal of the Virgin, in the south side facing the Place d'Armes, was constructed before 1225. It was the main entrance of the cathedral until the 18th century, and it most probably occupied the same place as the entrance of the earlier pre-Romanesque cathedral. It was covered over and seriously degraded during the addition of classical features in the 18th century, and was not uncovered until 1867. It was then lowered by a meter and a half. A majority of the sculpture, was recreated by Auguste Dujardin, and other portions were restored. It was not formally opened until 1885. The sculpture depicts scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary, culminating at the top of the arch with the crowning of the Virgin by Christ. Recent research found traces of orange, red and green pigment, indicating that the original portal sculpture was brightly colored.[25]","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20201017Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz05.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_cathedrale_Saint-Etienne_portail_facade_nord-ouest.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Saint-Etienne_portail_Notre-Dame-la-Ronde_panneau_4.JPG"},{"link_name":"Reims Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reims_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201337-26"}],"sub_title":"Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde","text":"Sculpture around the portal\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPortal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t13th-century sculpture around the portal; The story of David and Goliath (above) and the martyrdom of Saint Maurice (bottom)The Portal of Notre-Dame-La-Ronde, on the northwest side, dates to 1260–65 and is the oldest and most simply decorated entry to the cathedral. In the 18th century, it was given a classical canopy to harmonise with the other classical features, but it still retains panels of the 13th-century sculpture and carved stonework resembling fabric around the doorway. Similar design from the same period is found at Reims Cathedral. [26]","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Northern_Facade_Metz_Cathedral.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tour_de_la_Mutte_(f%C3%A8che)_-_Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz_57.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Cath%C3%A9drale_St._%C3%89tienne_4.jpg"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201335-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201335-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201338-28"}],"sub_title":"Bell Tower of La Mutte, Chapter Tower and Horloge Tower","text":"La Mutte tower (center) and Horloge tower (left)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTop of the La Mutte tower\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Chapter TowerThe south tower of the cathedral, called \"La Mutte\", was both the cathedral and municipal bell tower; it was built in 1324 and the municipal bell, called La Mutte, was installed there in 1381. This bell was rung in case of fires, approaching enemies or important civic events. After a fire in 1468, a new upper stage of the tower and a spire was constructed on top, bringing the height to ninety meters. It has two platforms where watchmen were posted to look out for fires or approaching enemies.[27]The present major city bell in the tower is named \"La Mutte\" and was cast in 1605. It weighs 11,000 kilograms (24,250 pounds). A second bell, called Tocsin, made in 1501, weighs 1500 kilos, and is rung to signal the end of the day; along with a third small bell, called Mademoiselle de Tourmel, made in 1802 and recast in 1875. It weighs just 45 kilograms.[27]The Chapter Tower (Tour de Chapitre), was built at the same time, at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, and in the same style and plan as the tower of La Mutte. This tower also contains a portal to the cathedral, the Portal of St. Stephen. The medieval sculpture was nearly all destroyed by the end of the 18th century, with the exception of a scene on the lintel of the stoning of Saint Stephen, and two scenes from the life of St. Clement.[28]The west front of the cathedral receives support from a massive buttress on the north, while on the south the facade gets support from the Tower of the Horloge, an eight-sided tower, more slender and shorter than the tower of La Mutte, whose lower portion, with sections of white stone, probably belonged to the original collegiate built in 1207. It is capped by an octagonal belfry and an open pyramid, which were added in 1896. The exterior of this tower features an angel holding a sundial, decorated with the coat of arms of the city, and the date 1504. This tower formally belonged to the city of Metz, and contains a second set of cathedral bells. The largest bell, which sounds the hours, was made in 1413, and weighs 2000 kilograms; a smaller bell sounds the quarter hours, and was made 1398 (60 kilograms); and there is a third bell from the 16th century (also weighing 60 kilograms).","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Cath%C3%A9drale_St._%C3%89tienne_Querschiff_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_centre_ville_crop.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Cath%C3%A9drale_St._%C3%89tienne_Querschiff_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"flamboyant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamboyant"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201331-29"}],"sub_title":"Transept","text":"Flamboyant facade of the north transept\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe cathedral from the south, with transept to the right\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFacade with great window of the south transeptThe transept and the chevet at the northeast end of the cathedral were constructed together between 1487 and 1450. In this part of the cathedral, the vaults reach a height of 45 meters. The triangular north transept gable was a later addition of Neo-Gothic, made in 1886 in the 15th-century style. It is crowned with a statue of the Virgin Mary, marking the chapel of the Virgin. The south transept facade has a matching gable made in 1883–85, in the more ornate flamboyant style. It is crowned by two statues, Saint Nicholas and a local medieval bishop, Saint Goëry. There is also a flamboyant gable over the large south window, also an elaborate flamboyant style, with curves and counter-curves. It was damaged by the 19th-century fire and was replaced. At the top is a statue of Saint Stephen, the patron saint of the cathedral.[29]","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20201017Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz02.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20201017Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz03.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rayonnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayonnant"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201331-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201341-30"}],"sub_title":"Chevet","text":"Towers and chapel windows of the chevet\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tButtresses that support the high wall of the chevetThe chevet, at the southeast end of the cathedral, was built between 1503 and 1508 atop the earlier Romanesque crypt and the earlier Rayonnant style chapels. It contains the apse and disambulatory, and three radiating chapels; the axis chapel of the Virgin; and chapels of the Sacred Heart and Notre-Dame of Mount-Carmel. The doorway to Rue du Vivier was added in 1889.[29]The chapels are separated by the massive buttresses and arches which support the upper walls. The buttresses themselves are decorated with spires, which give them extra weight. The windows of the upper walls are topped with pointed arches and pinnacles, and the chevet is flanked by two additional slender towers with spires on either side of the choir, which give additional support to the structure. On the north is the Tower of the Boule d'Or or Tower of the Pomme d'Or (Named for a gilded copper apple ornament on top of the spire before the Revolution); and to south, the Tower of Charlemagne. This tower has a stairway that gives access to the terraces, triforium, and the narrow pathway around the edge of the roof of the choir.[30]","title":"Exterior"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Interior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_F_PM_049599.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kathedraal_van_Metz_preekstoel_24-07-2018_12-58-11.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedrale_saint-etienne_metz020.jpg"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201345-31"},{"link_name":"triforium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triforium"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201345-31"},{"link_name":"Beauvais Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauvais_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Amiens Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Reims Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reims_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201341-30"}],"sub_title":"Nave","text":"The nave, looking toward the choir\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe pulpit in the nave\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe three-part elevation of the naveThe nave is the portion of a cathedral, usually at the west end, where the worshippers are seated. The nave of Metz Cathedral is noted for its exceptional height, harmony, and especially the great quantity of stained glass that entirely fills the upper walls, the largest area of glass of any cathedral.[31] It has the traditional elevation of Gothic cathedrals of the 13th century, with three levels; an arcade of pointed arches supported by large pillars on the ground floor, 12.65 meters high; above that a triforium with windows. six meters high; above that a decorative band of two friezes with sculpted foliage and drapery; and above that the high windows extending upwards 25.5 meters into the vaults. Slender colonettes run up the walls between the windows from the arcade pillars to support the vaults. The pillars of the arcade, consisting of bundled columns, also have decoration; sculpted grapevines and other vegetal designs, from about 1245. [31]The four-part rib vaults of the nave vaults are exceptionally high; between 41.2 and 42.6 meters, exceeded in height only by those of Beauvais Cathedral (48 meters), matching those of Amiens Cathedral (42.3. meters), and taller than those of Reims Cathedral (38 meters). [30] The collateral aisles on either side of the nave are not nearly as high; just 13.3 meters, but they also have walls largely filled with stained glass.","title":"Interior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_(2012.08)_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AltarinselMetzerDomL1110986_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mattia Bonetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattia_Bonetti"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_(57)_cath%C3%A9drale_St_Etienne_36.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedrale_Saint-Etienne_de_Metz_-_vierge.jpg"},{"link_name":"flamboyant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamboyant"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201341-30"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201349-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201349-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201373-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201373-33"},{"link_name":"Notre Dame de Lourdes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201373-33"},{"link_name":"Colmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colmar"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201373-33"}],"sub_title":"Transept and choir","text":"The south transept, with the organ below\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe modern furnishings in the choir by Mattia Bonetti\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail at the choir stalls (1912)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe red marble statue of the Virgin of Lourdes on the lateral altar of the transeptThe Transept and choir were built later than the nave, between 1487 and 1520, with elaborate decoration in the flamboyant style of the late Gothic in the tracery of the windows and the pillars. Nonetheless, the builders respected the elevations and distribution of space on the walls established in the nave at the end of the 13th century. The high windows of the nave were the model for the high windows in the transept and the choir.[30]Parts of the north transept also serve an important structural purpose; the section of the transept where it meets the nave, made about 1300, also serves a buttress for the arches of the nave where they meet the transept. Each level of the transept also has narrow coursières, or passageways, built in the wall on the interior and exterior of the transept.[32]The vaults of the transept meet the vaults of the nave and choir at the central crossing. The transept is 46.80 metres (153.5 ft) high and 16.34 metres (53.6 ft) wide. The vault in the center of the crossing has additional decorative lierne and tiercon ribs, which form a star, and a large keystone, 1.7 meters high and 3.7 meters across, at the meeting point.[32]The choir of a cathedral, where the clergy traditionally worships, is usually long, but because of the unusual topography under the cathedral, the choir in Metz is relatively short, and raised up by twelve steps from the transept.The modern liturgical furniture in the choir was created by the Swiss-born French artist Mattia Bonetti between 2004 and 2006. It includes an altar, Ambon or tribune, and cathedre, or bishop's chair. They are made of bronze, marble and oak, with a motif of reeds gently blowing in the wind, against a dark background.[33]The Altar of Notre Dame de Lourdes made of red marble in 1911 by the Munich sculptor Max Heilmaler, It was subject to many later alterations. It depicts the Virgin in a red marble mandorle. The additional sculpture of the Announciation, also by Heilmaler. Below the altar a depiction of Christ being presented at the Temple, by Caspar Weis.[33]With it is the retable made of gilded and painted oak, It was originally made for the altar of a chapel at the shrine of Notre Dame de Lourdes, where it was placed in 1245. It depicts the Virgin, with the moon at her feet, with figures of Saint Barbara and Saint Catherine. It was removed from that church in 1912 because the church authorities in Lourdes felt it clashed with the simplicity of the decor there.[33]The choir stalls are a prominent feature in the centre of the Choir. They were made by Théophile Klem of Colmar between 1913 and 1914, but they were not put into place until 1922–23. Carvings also decorate They decorate the screen of the choir made in 1912. [33]","title":"Interior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz_-_int%C3%A9rieur_(02).JPG"}],"sub_title":"Apse, disambulatory, and radiating chapels","text":"Triptych dedicated to Saint Anne in the disambulatoryBeyond the choir is the apse, with a semicircular passage, the disambulatory, which leads to the three chapels at the end of the cathedral. The central chapel is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the left chapel to Saint Joseph, and the right chapel to Saint Livier.The following picture presents the ground plan of Saint-Stephen of Metz and the position of the architectural elements:","title":"Interior"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz,_Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Etienne-PM_49683.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint_%C3%89tienne_de_Metz_(6231673809).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tombe_Dupont_des_Loges.JPG"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201371-34"}],"text":"Epitaph of Jacques Poulain, with Fresco of the Virgin (14th c.)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTomb of a bishop\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTomb of Bishop Dupont des Loges (died 1896) by Emmanuel Hannaux (1923)The chapels of the transept were decorated in the 14th century with murals on the columns, which served as epitaphs for prominent church figures. These were covered over with plaster in the remodelling of the 17th century and rediscovered and restored between 1840 and 1909. One good example is the painted epitaph of Jacques Poulain, from 1379, located on the north side at the sixth pillar.[34]","title":"Painting and sculpture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stained glass windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass_window"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201353-35"},{"link_name":"silver stain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_stain"},{"link_name":"grisaille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grisaille"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrisac19947%E2%80%9311-36"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"Valentin Bousch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Bousch"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"Roger Bissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Jacques Villon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Villon"}],"text":"The stained glass windows of the cathedral range in date from the 13th century to the 20th century, and cover an area of 6500 square meters; the cathedral has the most stained glass of any medieval religious monument.[35]The early windows resemble mosaics, made of very small pieces of thick, deeply-colored glass bound together by thin strips of lead. The later windows became much larger and thinner, as glassmaking technology improved, with support of iron bars and stone tracery. They were often colored with silver stain, and enamel paints which could be etched to give different shades and three dimensions, more closely resembling Renaissance paintings. The later Gothic periods also made greater use of grisaille, glass colored white, grey or other pale colors, to bring more light into the interior, and to highlight the colored glass.\nMost of the original glass was removed in the centuries after the Middle Ages. Most of the glass today is restored or a more modern replacement.[36]The windows of Metz were made by the master craftsmen including Hermann von Münster in the fourteenth century, and Valentin Bousch in the sixteenth. In the twentieth century, the artist Marc Chagall created three stained glass windows for the cathedral between 1958 and 1968. Roger Bissière and Jacques Villon provided designs for further windows, including the complete chapel of the Holy Sacrament.","title":"Stained glass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vitrail_(XIIIe_si%C3%A8cle)-cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Cath%C3%A9drale_Vitraux_121209_07.jpg"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201354-37"}],"sub_title":"Early glass (13th century)","text":"The oldest glass of the cathedral. Located on one side of the southern transept, Scenes from Life of Saint Paul (13th century)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail of early glassThe earliest glass in the cathedral, from the third quarter of the 13th century, is found in the central bay of the Chapel of Notre-Dame-La-Rond, on the north side of the cathedral near the portal of that name. The glass was originally all in one window, but was separated and now is displayed in two parts in the lower portions of the bays. In the north (Bay 33) are the lancet windows which illustrate the genealogy of Christ and the Virgin Mary, as well as the prophets and apostles. In the South (Bay 28) is the oculus of the original window, with the crowning of the Virgin. This window very unusually depicts the Virgin to the left of Christ, who is presenting the crown to her with his left hand. A similar arrangement from the same period is found in Strasbourg Cathedral.[37]","title":"Stained glass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Verriere_ouest.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Munster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Munster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Cath%C3%A9drale_St._%C3%89tienne_Innen_Rosette_07.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Munster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Munster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedrale_saint-etienne_metz075.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoration_des_rois_mages_1390_Herman_von_Munster_08947.JPG"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Munster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Munster"},{"link_name":"Hermann von Munster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Munster"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201355-57-38"}],"sub_title":"14th–15th century glass","text":"Western rose window at Metz by Hermann von Munster\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tInner rose window by Hermann von Munster\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail of the West Rose Window\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAdoration of the Magi by Hermann von Munster (1390)A number of important windows were installed in the 14th century, including the great rose window of the western facade. This window was the work of Hermann von Munster, who created an ambitious program of windows. Other windows he designed were placed in the north and south arms of the transept, the west bay and the north and south arms of the transept.[38]","title":"Stained glass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Metz_-_vitrail_(02).JPG"},{"link_name":"Theobald of Lixheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theobald_of_Lixheim&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Saint-%C3%89tienne_Transept_nord_866.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_Saint-%C3%89tienne_Transept_nord_896.jpg"},{"link_name":"Theobald of Lixheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theobald_of_Lixheim&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Valentin Bousch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Bousch"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201355-39"}],"sub_title":"16th century glass","text":"The north transept windows by Theobald of Lixheim\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail of north transept windows\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDetail of north transept windows – apostlesThe most prominent examples of 16th-century glass are the windows of the north face of the transept, made by Theobald of Lixheim in 1504, and the windows of the south face of the transept, made by Valentin Bousch between 1521 and 1536. The figures of the last clearly show the influence of the Renaissance, with a full use of perspective, shading, giving the windows a close resemblance to Renaissance paintings.[39]","title":"Stained glass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_Villon_Stained_Glass_Windows,_Metz.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jacques Villon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Villon"},{"link_name":"Amiens Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Jacques Villon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Villon"},{"link_name":"Marcel Duchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp"},{"link_name":"Mount Horeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Horeb"},{"link_name":"Marriage at Cana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_at_Cana"},{"link_name":"Book of Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"Roger Bissière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bissi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"André Malraux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux"},{"link_name":"Paris Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Opera"}],"sub_title":"20th century – modern windows","text":"Windows by Jacques VillonBetween 1954 and 1958 most of the upper windows of the nave were replaced with windows designed to harmonize with the early Gothic windows by Jean Gaudin, who had restored the windows of Amiens Cathedral. Then, in 1956, Robert Renaud, chief architect of the Center of National Monuments, commissioned a group of windows for the Chapel of the Holy Sacrament designed by the cubist-impressionist Jacques Villon, the brother of pioneer modernist Marcel Duchamp, then eighty years old. The windows are composed of intersecting lines and planes of different colors, represents the Last Supper and Crucifixion, surrounded by abstract images of earlier Biblical symbols; the rock of Mount Horeb, the Marriage at Cana, the Book of Exodus and a lamb representing Easter. They were installed in 1957.Two other abstract windows were made by Roger Bissière for the portal of La Mutte and the portal of the Tower of the Chapter. The former, facing the rising sun, has warm abstract colors, while the latter window, facing the sunset, has cool colors.The best-known windows are those designed by Marc Chagall. They were commissioned at the same time that he was chosen by André Malraux, French Minister of Culture, to decorate the central dome of the Paris Opera. The first, in Bay 17 of the west of the north transept, made between 1958 and 1961, depicts Genesis and the creation, the original sin, and the expulsion from Eden. Two additional groups were made for two bays in the north disambulatory (bays 11 and 9). They were made between 1961 and 1967, and depict Old Testament scenes, including Moses receiving the Ten Commandments, the Sacrifice of Abraham, the Burning Bush, and other events. The final series done by Chagall was created between 1968 and 1970 in the west triforium. These windows are \"Grand Bouquet\", a composition of birds and flowers and a rainbow on a background of nacre (Bays 111 and 113) and \"Petit Bouquet\" (Bays 107–109).","title":"Stained glass"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedrale_Saint-Etienne_de_Metz_-_orgue.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201372-40"}],"text":"The modern organ, placed in the south transept\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Renaissance organ, now on the triforium of the nave (1537)Metz Cathedral has two organs. The modern and larger organ is located in the transept. The smaller and older instrument, called the \"Renaissance\", is perched on the triforium of the last traverse of the nave, closest to the choir. It was placed there above the former rood screen to accompany ceremonies of the clergy taking place within the choir. It was made in 1537, and while the instrument has been regularly modified and updated, the wooden buffet or cabinet is original.[40]","title":"Organs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MetzerDomKryptaL1120360_(2).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metz_-F-,_2010,_Cripta_della_Cattedrale_il_drago_Graoully._(4714314013).jpg"},{"link_name":"Rabelais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabelais"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201372-40"}],"text":"The crypt beneath the transept and apse\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Graouilly, a dragon figure carried in processions, now in the cathedral cryptThe original romanesque crypt beneath the choir was enlarged at the beginning of the 16th century to serve as a foundation for the new chevet. and contains ambulatory leading to three chapels. It was originally largely filled with tombs, It now serves as a museum of cathedral history.The crypt displays the Graouilly, a large figure of the mythical dragon which was said in legend to been slain by Saint Clement in about 1000 AD. It was carried in religious processions in Metz beginning the 13th century and was described by Rabelais after his stay in Metz in 1546–47. The body of the current Graouilly is made of canvas covering a metal frame is from the 19th century, while the head is wood from an 18th-century effigy of the creature. [40]","title":"Crypt"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MetzerDomSakristeiL1120299_(2).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RingArnulfL1120311_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWagner201375-41"}],"text":"The Treasury, located in the Sacristy\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Ring of saint Arnoul (7th century)The treasury of the cathedral, located in the old sacristy next to the south transept, lost most of its precious objects during the French Revolution, when they were taken away to be melted down for their gold or stripped of their jewels. The most famous item in the Treasury is the reputed \"Cape of Charlemagne\", a garment probably made in the 12th century. It is made of purple silk with three large eagles embroidered with gold, whose wings are decorated with roses and griffons. It was further adorned during the Renaissance with a plus a hood embroidered with silver. The treasury also displays a large Bishop's ring made of stone and gold, called the Ring of Saint Arnoul, made in the 7th century. It is one of the oldest Bishop's rings still existing.[41]","title":"Treasury"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-73-242117-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-73-242117-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-7577-0262-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7577-0262-8"}],"text":"Brisac, Catherine (1994). Le Vitrail (in French). Paris: La Martinière. ISBN 2-73-242117-0.\nWagner, Pierre Édouard (2013). Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Metz (in French). Centre des monuments nationaux, Éditions du patrimoine. ISBN 978-2-7577-0262-8.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"title":"Metz Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-%C3%89tienne_de_Metz"},{"title":"Gothic cathedrals and churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_cathedrals_and_churches"},{"title":"French Gothic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Gothic_architecture"},{"title":"List of highest church naves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_church_naves"},{"title":"List of tallest churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_churches"},{"title":"List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Gothic_Cathedrals_in_Europe"},{"title":"Mont Saint-Quentin in Moselle Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Saint-Quentin_in_Moselle_Valley"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Official website of the Saint-Stephen Cathedral\" (in French). Retrieved 29 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cathedrale-metz.fr/","url_text":"\"Official website of the Saint-Stephen Cathedral\""}]},{"reference":"\"Official website of the Bishopric of Metz\" (in French). Retrieved 6 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://metz.catholique.fr/","url_text":"\"Official website of the Bishopric of Metz\""}]},{"reference":"\"INA Archive (1969) Trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, ORTF\" (VIDEO) (in French). Retrieved 2 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ina.fr/art-et-culture/architecture/video/SXF01013690/tresors-de-la-cathedrale-de-metz.fr.html","url_text":"\"INA Archive (1969) Trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, ORTF\""}]},{"reference":"\"INA Archive (1980) Patrimoine: trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, France 3 régions\" (VIDEO) (in French). Retrieved 2 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ina.fr/economie-et-societe/religion/video/SXC02003845/patrimoine-tresor-de-la-cathedrale-de-metz.fr.html","url_text":"\"INA Archive (1980) Patrimoine: trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, France 3 régions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594 A.D.) Historiae, Libri X. The Latin Library\" (in Latin). Retrieved 6 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours.html","url_text":"\"Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594 A.D.) Historiae, Libri X. The Latin Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 10th to 13th century\" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wM8NgPiGUs","url_text":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 10th to 13th century\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/-wM8NgPiGUs","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 14th to 16th century\" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMOIvAWDY44","url_text":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 14th to 16th century\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/sMOIvAWDY44","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 17th to 20th century\" (VIDEO). Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 6 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1evIHE503Jk","url_text":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 17th to 20th century\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/1evIHE503Jk","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brisac, Catherine (1994). Le Vitrail (in French). Paris: La Martinière. ISBN 2-73-242117-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-73-242117-0","url_text":"2-73-242117-0"}]},{"reference":"Wagner, Pierre Édouard (2013). Cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Metz (in French). Centre des monuments nationaux, Éditions du patrimoine. ISBN 978-2-7577-0262-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7577-0262-8","url_text":"978-2-7577-0262-8"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Metz_Cathedral¶ms=49.12_N_6.1754_E_type:landmark_region:FR","external_links_name":"49°07′12″N 6°10′31″E / 49.12°N 6.1754°E / 49.12; 6.1754"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Metz_Cathedral¶ms=49.12_N_6.1754_E_type:landmark_region:FR","external_links_name":"49°07′12″N 6°10′31″E / 49.12°N 6.1754°E / 49.12; 6.1754"},{"Link":"http://www.cathedrale-metz.fr/","external_links_name":"www.cathedrale-metz.fr"},{"Link":"https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00106817","external_links_name":"PA00106817"},{"Link":"http://www.cathedrale-metz.fr/","external_links_name":"\"Official website of the Saint-Stephen Cathedral\""},{"Link":"http://metz.catholique.fr/","external_links_name":"\"Official website of the Bishopric of Metz\""},{"Link":"http://www.ina.fr/art-et-culture/architecture/video/SXF01013690/tresors-de-la-cathedrale-de-metz.fr.html","external_links_name":"\"INA Archive (1969) Trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, ORTF\""},{"Link":"http://www.ina.fr/economie-et-societe/religion/video/SXC02003845/patrimoine-tresor-de-la-cathedrale-de-metz.fr.html","external_links_name":"\"INA Archive (1980) Patrimoine: trésor de la cathédrale de Metz, Lorraine soir, France 3 régions\""},{"Link":"http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours.html","external_links_name":"\"Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594 A.D.) Historiae, Libri X. The Latin Library\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wM8NgPiGUs","external_links_name":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 10th to 13th century\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/-wM8NgPiGUs","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sMOIvAWDY44","external_links_name":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 14th to 16th century\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/sMOIvAWDY44","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1evIHE503Jk","external_links_name":"\"Timeline of the construction of Metz Cathedral, from 17th to 20th century\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/1evIHE503Jk","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.metmuseum.org/research/metpublications/A_Stained_Glass_Window_from_Flavigny_sur_Moselle_The_Metropolitan_Museum_Journal_v_33_1998","external_links_name":"Online"},{"Link":"http://www.gotik-romanik.de/Metz%20Thumbnails/Thumbnails.html","external_links_name":"Photos"},{"Link":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/98676624@N05/collections/72157638659466665/","external_links_name":"Denis Krieger, extensive collection of stained glass photos"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/134839691","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4367719-8","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987011257527205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50074540","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=494/21684","external_links_name":"Vatican"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/place/0152f0ca-4afb-4e21-90b6-33989a9ea583","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz place"},{"Link":"https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00106817","external_links_name":"Mérimée"},{"Link":"https://structurae.net/structures/20002884","external_links_name":"Structurae"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_curve
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Reverse curve
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["1 See also","2 References"]
|
Type of curve on a pathway
Railroad reverse ("S") curve
In civil engineering, a reverse curve (or "S" curve) is a section of the horizontal alignment of a highway or rail route in which a curve to the left or right is followed immediately by a curve in the opposite direction.
On highways in the United States reverse curves are often announced by the posting of a W1-4L sign (left–right reverse curve) or a W1-4R sign (right–left reverse curve), as called for in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.
On rail routes, reverse curves can cause buffer-locking. On the Northeast Corridor in the United States, these also hinder the development of high-speed rail.
See also
S bridge
Road curve
Track geometry
References
^ Mundrey (2000). Railway Track Engineering. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 164–179. ISBN 9780074637241.
^ Harry Rubey (1956). Route Surveys and Construction. Macmillan Publishers. pp. 86–88.
^ Federal Highway Administration (1971). Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 67.
^ "Analysis: Long road ahead for improving Northeast Corridor speeds".
This rail-transport related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This engineering-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MUTCD_W1-4L.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Railroad_%22S%22_Curve.jpg"},{"link_name":"civil engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_on_Uniform_Traffic_Control_Devices"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"buffer-locking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffers_and_chain_coupler#Buffer-locking"},{"link_name":"Northeast Corridor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Corridor"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"high-speed rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-speed_rail_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Railroad reverse (\"S\") curveIn civil engineering, a reverse curve (or \"S\" curve) is a section of the horizontal alignment of a highway or rail route in which a curve to the left or right is followed immediately by a curve in the opposite direction.[1][2]On highways in the United States reverse curves are often announced by the posting of a W1-4L sign (left–right reverse curve) or a W1-4R sign (right–left reverse curve), as called for in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.[3]On rail routes, reverse curves can cause buffer-locking. On the Northeast Corridor in the United States, these also hinder the development of high-speed rail.[4]","title":"Reverse curve"}]
|
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/MUTCD_W1-4L.svg/100px-MUTCD_W1-4L.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Railroad reverse (\"S\") curve","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Railroad_%22S%22_Curve.jpg/220px-Railroad_%22S%22_Curve.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"S bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S_bridge"},{"title":"Road curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_curve"},{"title":"Track geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_geometry"}]
|
[{"reference":"Mundrey (2000). Railway Track Engineering. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 164–179. ISBN 9780074637241.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PzA3N6eP4TYC&pg=PA164","url_text":"Railway Track Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education","url_text":"McGraw-Hill Education"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780074637241","url_text":"9780074637241"}]},{"reference":"Harry Rubey (1956). Route Surveys and Construction. Macmillan Publishers. pp. 86–88.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G35kAAAAMAAJ&q=railway+%22reverse+curve%22","url_text":"Route Surveys and Construction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers","url_text":"Macmillan Publishers"}]},{"reference":"Federal Highway Administration (1971). Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 67.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Highway_Administration","url_text":"Federal Highway Administration"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j98qAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA67","url_text":"Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Government_Printing_Office","url_text":"U.S. Government Printing Office"}]},{"reference":"\"Analysis: Long road ahead for improving Northeast Corridor speeds\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.trains.com/trn/news-reviews/news-wire/analysis-long-road-ahead-for-improving-northeast-corridor-speeds/","url_text":"\"Analysis: Long road ahead for improving Northeast Corridor speeds\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PzA3N6eP4TYC&pg=PA164","external_links_name":"Railway Track Engineering"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G35kAAAAMAAJ&q=railway+%22reverse+curve%22","external_links_name":"Route Surveys and Construction"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j98qAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA67","external_links_name":"Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways"},{"Link":"https://www.trains.com/trn/news-reviews/news-wire/analysis-long-road-ahead-for-improving-northeast-corridor-speeds/","external_links_name":"\"Analysis: Long road ahead for improving Northeast Corridor speeds\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reverse_curve&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reverse_curve&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-commissioning_unit
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Pre-Commissioning Unit
|
["1 See also","2 References"]
|
Pre-commissioning unit (PRECOMUNIT or PCU) is a designation used by the United States Navy to describe vessels under construction prior to their official commissioning. For example, prior to her commissioning, USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) had been described by the Navy as " PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78)". Such descriptions can appear in the media as well.
"PCU" is a temporary, descriptive term, and is not a ship prefix or a part of the ship's official name. Until they are commissioned, U.S. Navy vessels are officially identified by their given name and hull number, such as Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78).
A "PCU" is also the entity that the ships staff is assigned to for training while the ship is being constructed and fitted-out. Prior to reporting to the ship, sailors will report to a PCU at one of two fleet training centers, located at either Naval Station Norfolk or Naval Base San Diego.
See also
List of current United States Navy ships
References
^ a b "PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Welcomes 60 New Crew Members" (Press release). Navy News Service. 6 June 2013. NNS130606-12. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
^ "PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Begins Builder's Sea Trials". navy.mil.
^ "Navy accepted the carrier Ford into the fleet, with commissioning set for this summer". navytimes.com. June 2017.
^ "New aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford rescues sailor". chicagotribune.com. 14 April 2017.
^ "Ship Naming in the United States Navy". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 9 January 2020. The prefix "USS," meaning "United States Ship," is used in official documents to identify a commissioned ship of the Navy. It applies to a ship while she is in commission. Before commissioning, or after decommissioning, she is referred to by name, with no prefix.
^ "Milpersman 1306-802, Surface Ships Undergoing Construction/Conversion" (PDF). United States Navy. 27 April 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
vte United States Navy
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vteLife cycle of a Navy shipService life
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This United States military article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Naval Station Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Station_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Naval Base San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Base_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"A \"PCU\" is also the entity that the ships staff is assigned to for training while the ship is being constructed and fitted-out. Prior to reporting to the ship, sailors will report to a PCU at one of two fleet training centers, located at either Naval Station Norfolk or Naval Base San Diego.[6]","title":"Pre-Commissioning Unit"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of current United States Navy ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_Navy_ships"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Welcomes 60 New Crew Members\" (Press release). Navy News Service. 6 June 2013. NNS130606-12. Retrieved 24 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=74667","url_text":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Welcomes 60 New Crew Members\""}]},{"reference":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Begins Builder's Sea Trials\". navy.mil.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.navy.mil/Resources/Photo-Gallery/igphoto/2001728695/","url_text":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Begins Builder's Sea Trials\""}]},{"reference":"\"Navy accepted the carrier Ford into the fleet, with commissioning set for this summer\". navytimes.com. June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.navytimes.com/news/your-navy/2017/06/01/navy-accepted-the-carrier-ford-into-the-fleet-with-commissioning-set-for-this-summer/","url_text":"\"Navy accepted the carrier Ford into the fleet, with commissioning set for this summer\""}]},{"reference":"\"New aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford rescues sailor\". chicagotribune.com. 14 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/sd-pg-ford-rescue-photogallery.html","url_text":"\"New aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford rescues sailor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ship Naming in the United States Navy\". Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 9 January 2020. The prefix \"USS,\" meaning \"United States Ship,\" is used in official documents to identify a commissioned ship of the Navy. It applies to a ship while she is in commission. Before commissioning, or after decommissioning, she is referred to by name, with no prefix.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/heritage/customs-and-traditions0/ship-naming.html","url_text":"\"Ship Naming in the United States Navy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Milpersman 1306-802, Surface Ships Undergoing Construction/Conversion\" (PDF). United States Navy. 27 April 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.public.navy.mil/bupers-npc/reference/milpersman/1000/1300Assignment/Documents/1306-802.pdf","url_text":"\"Milpersman 1306-802, Surface Ships Undergoing Construction/Conversion\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy","url_text":"United States Navy"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=74667","external_links_name":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Welcomes 60 New Crew Members\""},{"Link":"https://www.navy.mil/Resources/Photo-Gallery/igphoto/2001728695/","external_links_name":"\"PCU Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) Begins Builder's Sea Trials\""},{"Link":"https://www.navytimes.com/news/your-navy/2017/06/01/navy-accepted-the-carrier-ford-into-the-fleet-with-commissioning-set-for-this-summer/","external_links_name":"\"Navy accepted the carrier Ford into the fleet, with commissioning set for this summer\""},{"Link":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/sd-pg-ford-rescue-photogallery.html","external_links_name":"\"New aircraft carrier Gerald R. Ford rescues sailor\""},{"Link":"https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/heritage/customs-and-traditions0/ship-naming.html","external_links_name":"\"Ship Naming in the United States Navy\""},{"Link":"http://www.public.navy.mil/bupers-npc/reference/milpersman/1000/1300Assignment/Documents/1306-802.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Milpersman 1306-802, Surface Ships Undergoing Construction/Conversion\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pre-Commissioning_Unit&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lyons_%26_Co.
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J. Lyons and Co.
|
["1 Origins and early history","2 Products and image","2.1 Corner Houses","2.2 Restaurants","2.3 Hotels","2.4 Biscuits company","3 Other activities","3.1 Supporting the war effort","3.2 Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten's wedding cake","3.3 Contribution to computing in business","4 Decline","5 Notable employees","6 Leadership","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
|
British food and lodging conglomerate
Lyons' Tea advertising sign
Lyons' Cakes sign
J. Lyons & Co. was a British restaurant chain store, food manufacturing, and hotel conglomerate founded in 1884 by Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein. Lyons’ first teashop opened in Piccadilly, London in 1894, and from 1909 they developed into a chain of teashops, with the firm becoming a staple of the High Street in the UK. At its peak the chain numbered around 200 cafes. The teashops provided for tea and coffee, with food choices consisting of hot dishes and sweets, cold dishes and sweets, and buns, cakes and rolls.
Making their first cakes and pastries in 1894, several Lyons cake products are still available on grocers' shelves, including Lyons' treacle tart, Lyons' Bakewell tart, Lyons' Battenberg, and Lyons' trifle sponges, which are sold by Premier Foods. The company is also known for its pioneering use of computers in the office.
Origins and early history
English Heritage blue plaque commemorating co-founder, Joseph Lyons, at Hammersmith Road, London
The company began as a collaboration between a group of entrepreneurs, the professional artist Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, as a spin off from the Salmon & Gluckstein tobacco company. In 1894 the company started a teashop in Piccadilly, London, and from 1909 developed this into a chain of teashops which would ultimately number around 200 locations. The company also ran high class restaurants, founding the Trocadero in 1895, and hotels including the Strand Palace, opened in 1909, the Regent Palace, opened in 1915, and the Cumberland Hotel, opened in 1933, all in London. In 1918, to increase sales in northern England, Lyons bought the old established tea company Horniman & Sons. From the 1930s Lyons began to develop a pioneering range of teas, biscuits and cakes that were sold in grocery stores across the world. Lyons was appointed to run the company, and it was named after him.
J. Lyons & Co. was a pioneer in introducing computers to business. Between 1951 and 1963, the company manufactured and sold a range of LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) computers.
Products and image
Lyons' Cafe in Reading, Berkshire, 1945
Lyons’ Battenberg cake, produced in the 1930s
The company was a substantial food manufacturer, with factories at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith, and from 1921 at Greenford, producing bread, cakes, pies, tea, coffee and ice cream. Lyons branded cakes included treacle tarts, Lyons Bakewell tart, Lyons Battenberg, and Lyons trifle sponges.
To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of teashops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, and for the Lyons Corner Houses in the West End of London. The teashops provided for tea and coffee, with hot dishes and sweets, cold dishes and sweets, and buns, cakes and rolls. Lyons’ teashops were slightly more up market than their ABC (Aerated Bread Company) competitors. They were notable for their interior design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Bernard being consultant artistic director. Until the 1940s they had a certain working-class chic, but by the 1950s and 1960s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea and eat a snack or an inexpensive meal. The teashops always had a bakery counter at the front, and their signs, art nouveau gold lettering on white, were a familiar landmark. Before the Second World War service was to the table by uniformed waitresses, known as 'Nippies'; after the war the teashops converted to cafeteria service.
Corner Houses
Customers at Lyons' Corner House on Coventry Street, London, 1942
Lyons' Corner Houses, which first appeared in 1909 and remained until 1977, were noted for their art deco style. Situated on or near the corners of Coventry Street, Strand and Tottenham Court Road, they and the Maisons Lyons at Marble Arch and in Shaftesbury Avenue were large buildings on four or five floors, the ground floor of which was a food hall with counters for delicatessen, sweets and chocolates, cakes, fruit, flowers and other products. In addition, they possessed hairdressing salons, telephone booths, theatre booking agencies and at one period a twice-a-day food delivery service. On the other floors were several restaurants, each with a different theme and all with their own musicians. For a time the Corner Houses were open 24 hours a day, and at their peak each branch employed around 400 staff. They featured window displays, and, in the post-war period, the Corner Houses were smarter and grander than the local tea shops. The artist Kay Lipton designed all the windows for the Corner Houses under the supervision of Norman Joseph, the director post-war. Between 1896 and 1965 Lyons owned the Trocadero, which was similar in size and style to the Corner Houses.
Restaurants
Entrance to Throgmorton restaurant
Lyons' Corner House Brasserie with band, Coventry Street, London, 1942
As well as the tea shops and Corner Houses, Lyons ran other large restaurants such as the Angel Cafe Restaurant in Islington and the Throgmorton in Throgmorton Street in the City of London. Its chains have included Steak Houses (1961–1988), Wimpy Bars (1953–1976), Baskin-Robbins (1974–present) and Dunkin' Donuts (1989–present).
Hotels
The Regent Palace Hotel, Glasshouse Street, London was operated by Strand Hotels Limited, a subsidiary of J. Lyons and Company and opened on 16 May 1915. Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel (Marble Arch, London), Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, White's Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that they operated until the demise of the group in the mid-1970s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London.
Biscuits company
In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool. Six years later, Lyons changed the company's name to Symbol Biscuits Ltd. and began selling biscuits under the Symbol and Lyons brand names: one of their innovations was Maryland Cookies in 1956. In 1990, Lyons changed the Symbol Biscuits name to Lyons Biscuits Ltd.
Other activities
Supporting the war effort
Lyons‘ memorials to World Wars I (column) and II (wall) at Margravine Cemetery, London
The rearmament period just before World War II saw a big expansion in the number of Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs), which were British government-owned. However, due to shortages of management resources some ROFs were run as agency factories; and J. Lyons and Co. ran at least one, ROF Elstow. The management and stock control systems needed in the ROFs, in respect of control of raw materials and "perishable" finished products, were somewhat similar to those used in the catering business; and J. Lyons was ideally suited to this task. They do not appear to have any involvement in managing these after 1945, when the ROFs started to run down.
Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten's wedding cake
Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten were offered many cakes from well-wishers around the world for their wedding on 20 November 1947. Of these they accepted only 12, including one from J. Lyons and Co.
They created a three-tiered cake, mounted on a silver stand, made by F E Jacobs, chief decorator of J Lyons’ Ornamental Department. It stood 1.8 metres high and weighed 63 kg. The first and second tiers featured specially commissioned 10 cm blue and white Wedgwood Jasper vases set in alcoves behind silver pillars, with smaller vases on the third tier. The cake's panels depicted Princess Elizabeth's coat of arms, the couple's initials and a Naval crown. Atop the third tier sat a larger Jasper vase, filled with fresh flowers and trailing orange blossom.
Contribution to computing in business
The top management of Lyons, with its background in the use of mechanical adding machines, saw the necessity of new electrical computers for organising the distribution of cakes and other highly perishable goods. They, therefore, substantially financed the University of Cambridge's Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) which was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service, and built their own programmable digital computers and became the first user of these in businesses, with the LEO I digital computer: the Lyons Electronic Office I, designed and built by Dr John Pinkerton under the leadership of John Simmons. It handled the company's accounts and logistics. Lyons also included the weather forecast to ensure goods carried by their "fresh produce" delivery vans were not wasted in large quantities. Google chairman Eric Schmidt called this "the world's first office computer", built in 1951. A subsidiary LEO Computers Ltd was formed in 1954 and went on to build 11 Leo II and 94 Leo III computers that were sold worldwide.
One of the ardent users of LEO computers was the General Post Office (GPO), who bought them in the mid/late 1960s to produce telephone bills. They were kept going until 1981, helped by buying other companies' redundant machines and using them for spare parts.
Decline
Lyons Corner House recreated in the Museum of London
The company was losing money in the 1960s but remained under the control of the Salmon family, descended from a founding partner. Lyons began to close some of its London tea shops and hotels; in 1963 it also merged its LEO Computers business with English Electric's computer interests to form the jointly owned English Electric LEO.
In 1964, Lyons sold their half-stake; and English Electric merged the company with Marconi's computer interests to form English Electric LEO Marconi Computers. A continuing problem in the British computer industry was both lack of investment capital and competition with the much larger U.S. computer companies, such as IBM. English Electric LEO Marconi Computers merged with other companies to form International Computers Limited (ICL) which was bought by Fujitsu in 1990.
In 1978, Lyons was acquired by Allied Breweries and became part of the resulting Allied Lyons. It fell on hard economic times in the late 1980s; and was sold, eventually being broken up with its ice cream and ice lolly products, which were branded as Lyons Maid, being sold to Nestlé. Other parts that were sold off included Lyons Cakes (sold to RHM and ending up as part of their Manor Bakeries subsidiary which also makes Mr Kipling's Cakes) and Ready Brek cereal (ending up being owned by Weetabix Limited). At the end of 1994, Lyons sold Lyons Biscuits to Hillsdown Holdings, which later sold it to a U.S. investment firm which subsequently sold it to British biscuit manufacturer Burton's Foods. Lyons’ cake products, such as Bakewell tart and Battenberg, are owned by Premier Foods.
The J. Lyons & Co. papers are now stored in the London Metropolitan Archives. The niece and nephew of the Gluckstein brothers were Gluck, a painter; and Louis Gluckstein, a Conservative politician. A descendant of the Salmon side of the original partnership is Nigella Lawson.
Notable employees
Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked as a chemist for the company prior to becoming a barrister and then a Conservative Party MP. While working for the company she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream.
Peter Bird began work operating the LEO computer and rose to be a director of Lyons Computer Services. He later wrote a history of the company and its computers.
Leadership
Caricature of co-founder Sir Joseph Lyons in Vanity Fair, 1910
The chairmen of J. Lyons were:
1894–1917 Sir Joseph Lyons
1917–1922 Montague Gluckstein
1923–1928 Alfred Salmon
1928–1941 Sir Isidore Salmon MP
1941–1950 Harry Salmon JP
1950–1956 Major Montague Isidore Gluckstein
1956–1960 Isidore Montague Gluckstein
1960–1965 Barnett Alfred Salmon
1965–1968 Sir Samuel Isidore Salmon JP (Mayor of Hammersmith 1968/69)
1968–1972 Geoffrey Salmon
1972–1977 Brian Lawson Salmon
1977–1981 Neil Lawson Salmon
See also
United Kingdom portalCompanies portalFood portal
Horniman's Tea, once the largest tea company in the world, selling prepackaged tea, once owned by Lyons
List of tea houses,
J. Lyons and Co., Greenford
References
^ a b "Bawden and battenberg: the Lyons teashop lithographs". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
^ Joan Comay, Who's who in Jewish History: After the Period of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995) p. 240
^ "J. Lyons & Co. The Tea Department". Retrieved 26 July 2020.
^ Roy Poter, London: A Social History (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1998)
^ Joan Comay, Who's who in Jewish History: After the Period of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995) p.240
^ a b "Leo Computers Society". www.leo-computers.org.uk. Retrieved 27 May 2018.
^ "How to make the perfect battenberg cake". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
^ Brigid Keane, Olive Portnoy (1992). "English Tearoom". In Harlan Walker (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1991: Public Eating; Proceedings. Prospect Books. ISBN 978-0-907325-47-5.
^ "J. Lyons & Co catering outlets". Retrieved 28 March 2009.
^ a b Bird, Peter (2002). "Symbol Biscuits Ltd (Lyons Biscuits Ltd)". Retrieved 5 November 2007.
^ Bates, 1946
^ "And then lose count!". Reveille. London, UK. 28 October 1947. p. 3.
^ "Princess Elizabeth's Wedding Cake; With a Wedge Prepared". Illustrated London News. London, UK. 22 November 1947. p. 8.
^ a b Christine Flinn. "Queen Elizabeth's Wedding Cakes". www.christineflinn.co.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
^ "Why Lyon's Leo was the Met Office's cup of tea". The Times. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
^ London School of Economics. "About L E O". Archived from the original on 11 January 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2009.
^ "Google's Eric Schmidt criticises education in the UK". BBC News. 26 August 2011.
^ "Lyons". Grocery Partners. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
^ Bilmes, Alex. Say what you like about Nigella Lawson Archived 7 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine. Q, 2001. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
^ "Margaret Thatcher". Number 10 Downing Street - The official site of the British Prime Minister.
^ Land, Frank (10 September 2017). "Peter Bird obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
^ Baird, Peter (25 January 2012). "Site describing J. Lyons & Co national caterer and food manufacturer".
Further reading
Bates, H. E. (1946). The Tinkers of Elstow: the Story of the Royal Ordnance Factory run by J. Lyons and Company Limited for the Ministry of Supply for the World War of 1939–1945. Privately published,
Bird, Peter J. (1994). LEO: the First Business Computer. Wokingham: Hasler Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-9521651-0-4.
Bird, Peter (2000). The First Food Empire. A History of J. Lyons & Co. Phillmore. Chichester, West Sussex. ISBN 1-86077-132-7.
Ferry, Georgina (2003). A Computer Called LEO. Lyons Teashops and the World's First Office Computer. Fourth Estate. London. ISBN 1-84115-185-8. (Published in United States 2004, Hammersmith: Harper Perennial. ISBN 1-84115-186-6.)
Caminer, David, John Aris, Peter Hermon and Frank Land (eds). (1996, 1998). User-Driven Innovation (published in the United States as LEO: The incredible Story of the World's first Business Computer). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-009501-9,
Harding, Thomas (2019). Legacy : one family, a cup of tea and the company that took on the world. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 978-1785150890.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to J. Lyons and Co..
"Designing Britain 1945–1975: Lyons Corner House". Archived from the original on 12 February 2004. Retrieved 8 March 2004.
"The papers of John Simmons". (relating to the Lyons computerization)
"LEO Computers Society".
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Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of teashops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, and for the Lyons Corner Houses in the West End of London.[8] The teashops provided for tea and coffee, with hot dishes and sweets, cold dishes and sweets, and buns, cakes and rolls. Lyons’ teashops were slightly more up market than their ABC (Aerated Bread Company) competitors. They were notable for their interior design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Bernard being consultant artistic director. Until the 1940s they had a certain working-class chic, but by the 1950s and 1960s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea and eat a snack or an inexpensive meal. The teashops always had a bakery counter at the front, and their signs, art nouveau gold lettering on white, were a familiar landmark. 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Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel (Marble Arch, London), Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, White's Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that they operated until the demise of the group in the mid-1970s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London.","title":"Products and image"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biscuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscuits"},{"link_name":"Blackpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool"},{"link_name":"Maryland Cookies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland_Cookies"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symbol_Biscuits-10"}],"sub_title":"Biscuits company","text":"In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool. Six years later, Lyons changed the company's name to Symbol Biscuits Ltd. and began selling biscuits under the Symbol and Lyons brand names: one of their innovations was Maryland Cookies in 1956. In 1990, Lyons changed the Symbol Biscuits name to Lyons Biscuits Ltd.[10]","title":"Products and image"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:J_Lyons_and_Company_war_memorials,_Margravine_Cemetery_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Margravine Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margravine_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"rearmament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_re-armament"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Royal Ordnance Factories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ordnance_Factory"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"ROF Elstow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROF_Elstow"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Supporting the war effort","text":"Lyons‘ memorials to World Wars I (column) and II (wall) at Margravine Cemetery, LondonThe rearmament period just before World War II saw a big expansion in the number of Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs), which were British government-owned. However, due to shortages of management resources some ROFs were run as agency factories; and J. Lyons and Co. ran at least one, ROF Elstow.[11] The management and stock control systems needed in the ROFs, in respect of control of raw materials and \"perishable\" finished products, were somewhat similar to those used in the catering business; and J. Lyons was ideally suited to this task. They do not appear to have any involvement in managing these after 1945, when the ROFs started to run down.","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Princess Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"Philip Mountbatten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Philip,_Duke_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"many cakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Elizabeth_and_Philip_Mountbatten%27s_wedding_cakes"},{"link_name":"wedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_of_Princess_Elizabeth_and_Philip_Mountbatten"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Christine_Flinn-14"},{"link_name":"Wedgwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedgwood"},{"link_name":"Jasper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasperware"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Christine_Flinn-14"}],"sub_title":"Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten's wedding cake","text":"Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten were offered many cakes from well-wishers around the world for their wedding on 20 November 1947.[12] Of these they accepted only 12, including one from J. Lyons and Co.[13]They created a three-tiered cake, mounted on a silver stand, made by F E Jacobs, chief decorator of J Lyons’ Ornamental Department. It stood 1.8 metres high and weighed 63 kg.[14] The first and second tiers featured specially commissioned 10 cm blue and white Wedgwood Jasper vases set in alcoves behind silver pillars, with smaller vases on the third tier. The cake's panels depicted Princess Elizabeth's coat of arms, the couple's initials and a Naval crown. Atop the third tier sat a larger Jasper vase, filled with fresh flowers and trailing orange blossom.[14]","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator"},{"link_name":"digital computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer"},{"link_name":"LEO I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEO_(computer)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Eric Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leo_Computers_Society-6"}],"sub_title":"Contribution to computing in business","text":"The top management of Lyons, with its background in the use of mechanical adding machines, saw the necessity of new electrical computers for organising the distribution of cakes and other highly perishable goods. They, therefore, substantially financed the University of Cambridge's Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) which was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service, and built their own programmable digital computers and became the first user of these in businesses, with the LEO I digital computer: the Lyons Electronic Office I, designed and built by Dr John Pinkerton under the leadership of John Simmons. It handled the company's accounts and logistics. Lyons also included the weather forecast to ensure goods carried by their \"fresh produce\" delivery vans were not wasted in large quantities.[15][16] Google chairman Eric Schmidt called this \"the world's first office computer\", built in 1951.[17] A subsidiary LEO Computers Ltd was formed in 1954 and went on to build 11 Leo II and 94 Leo III computers that were sold worldwide.[6]\nOne of the ardent users of LEO computers was the General Post Office (GPO), who bought them in the mid/late 1960s to produce telephone bills. They were kept going until 1981, helped by buying other companies' redundant machines and using them for spare parts.","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lyons_Corner_House_recreation,_Museum_of_London.JPG"},{"link_name":"Museum of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_London"},{"link_name":"LEO Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEO_(computer)"},{"link_name":"English Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric"},{"link_name":"Marconi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"International Computers Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_Limited"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu"},{"link_name":"Allied Breweries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Breweries"},{"link_name":"Allied Lyons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Domecq"},{"link_name":"ice cream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_cream"},{"link_name":"ice lolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_lolly"},{"link_name":"Lyons Maid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyons_Maid"},{"link_name":"Nestlé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"RHM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_Hovis_McDougall"},{"link_name":"Mr Kipling's Cakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr_Kipling"},{"link_name":"Ready Brek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ready_Brek"},{"link_name":"Weetabix Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weetabix_Limited"},{"link_name":"Burton's Foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton%27s_Biscuit_Company"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Symbol_Biscuits-10"},{"link_name":"Bakewell tart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakewell_tart"},{"link_name":"Battenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battenberg_cake"},{"link_name":"Premier Foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_Foods"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"London Metropolitan Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Metropolitan_Archives"},{"link_name":"Gluck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluck_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Louis Gluckstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Gluckstein"},{"link_name":"Nigella Lawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigella_Lawson"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Lyons Corner House recreated in the Museum of LondonThe company was losing money in the 1960s but remained under the control of the Salmon family, descended from a founding partner. Lyons began to close some of its London tea shops and hotels; in 1963 it also merged its LEO Computers business with English Electric's computer interests to form the jointly owned English Electric LEO.In 1964, Lyons sold their half-stake; and English Electric merged the company with Marconi's computer interests to form English Electric LEO Marconi Computers. A continuing problem in the British computer industry was both lack of investment capital and competition with the much larger U.S. computer companies, such as IBM. English Electric LEO Marconi Computers merged with other companies to form International Computers Limited (ICL) which was bought by Fujitsu in 1990.In 1978, Lyons was acquired by Allied Breweries and became part of the resulting Allied Lyons. It fell on hard economic times in the late 1980s; and was sold, eventually being broken up with its ice cream and ice lolly products, which were branded as Lyons Maid, being sold to Nestlé. Other parts that were sold off included Lyons Cakes (sold to RHM and ending up as part of their Manor Bakeries subsidiary which also makes Mr Kipling's Cakes) and Ready Brek cereal (ending up being owned by Weetabix Limited). At the end of 1994, Lyons sold Lyons Biscuits to Hillsdown Holdings, which later sold it to a U.S. investment firm which subsequently sold it to British biscuit manufacturer Burton's Foods.[10] Lyons’ cake products, such as Bakewell tart and Battenberg, are owned by Premier Foods.[18]The J. Lyons & Co. papers are now stored in the London Metropolitan Archives. The niece and nephew of the Gluckstein brothers were Gluck, a painter; and Louis Gluckstein, a Conservative politician. A descendant of the Salmon side of the original partnership is Nigella Lawson.[19]","title":"Decline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"MP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Peter Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bird_(IT_manager)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Land-21"}],"text":"Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked as a chemist for the company prior to becoming a barrister and then a Conservative Party MP. While working for the company she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream.[20]Peter Bird began work operating the LEO computer and rose to be a director of Lyons Computer Services. He later wrote a history of the company and its computers.[21]","title":"Notable employees"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Joseph_Lyons_Vanity_Fair.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vanity Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Sir Joseph Lyons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Lyons_(caterer)"},{"link_name":"Montague Gluckstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague_Gluckstein"},{"link_name":"Alfred Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Salmon"},{"link_name":"Isidore Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_Salmon"},{"link_name":"Harry Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Salmon_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Montague Isidore Gluckstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague_Isidore_Gluckstein"},{"link_name":"Isidore Montague Gluckstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_Montague_Gluckstein"},{"link_name":"Sir Samuel Isidore Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Samuel_Isidore_Salmon"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Salmon"},{"link_name":"Brian Lawson Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Lawson_Salmon"}],"text":"Caricature of co-founder Sir Joseph Lyons in Vanity Fair, 1910The chairmen of J. Lyons were:[22]1894–1917 Sir Joseph Lyons\n1917–1922 Montague Gluckstein\n1923–1928 Alfred Salmon\n1928–1941 Sir Isidore Salmon MP\n1941–1950 Harry Salmon JP\n1950–1956 Major Montague Isidore Gluckstein\n1956–1960 Isidore Montague Gluckstein\n1960–1965 Barnett Alfred Salmon\n1965–1968 Sir Samuel Isidore Salmon JP (Mayor of Hammersmith 1968/69)\n1968–1972 Geoffrey Salmon\n1972–1977 Brian Lawson Salmon\n1977–1981 Neil Lawson Salmon","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9521651-0-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9521651-0-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-86077-132-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86077-132-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-84115-185-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84115-185-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-84115-186-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84115-186-6"},{"link_name":"Caminer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Caminer"},{"link_name":"Frank Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Land"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-009501-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-009501-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1785150890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1785150890"}],"text":"Bates, H. E. (1946). The Tinkers of Elstow: the Story of the Royal Ordnance Factory run by J. Lyons and Company Limited for the Ministry of Supply for the World War of 1939–1945. Privately published,\nBird, Peter J. (1994). LEO: the First Business Computer. Wokingham: Hasler Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-9521651-0-4.\nBird, Peter (2000). The First Food Empire. A History of J. Lyons & Co. Phillmore. Chichester, West Sussex. ISBN 1-86077-132-7.\nFerry, Georgina (2003). A Computer Called LEO. Lyons Teashops and the World's First Office Computer. Fourth Estate. London. ISBN 1-84115-185-8. (Published in United States 2004, Hammersmith: Harper Perennial. ISBN 1-84115-186-6.)\nCaminer, David, John Aris, Peter Hermon and Frank Land (eds). (1996, 1998). User-Driven Innovation (published in the United States as LEO: The incredible Story of the World's first Business Computer). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-009501-9,\nHarding, Thomas (2019). Legacy : one family, a cup of tea and the company that took on the world. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 978-1785150890.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Lyons' Tea advertising sign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lyons_Tea_enamel_sign_at_the_GCR.jpg/220px-Lyons_Tea_enamel_sign_at_the_GCR.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons' Cakes sign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lyons_Cakes_enamel_sign_at_the_GCR.jpg/220px-Lyons_Cakes_enamel_sign_at_the_GCR.jpg"},{"image_text":"English Heritage blue plaque commemorating co-founder, Joseph Lyons, at Hammersmith Road, London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Sir_Joseph_Lyons_1847-1917_Pioneer_of_mass_catering_lived_here.jpg/170px-Sir_Joseph_Lyons_1847-1917_Pioneer_of_mass_catering_lived_here.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons' Cafe in Reading, Berkshire, 1945","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/A_Picture_of_a_Southern_Town-_Life_in_Wartime_Reading%2C_Berkshire%2C_England%2C_UK%2C_1945_D25380.jpg/170px-A_Picture_of_a_Southern_Town-_Life_in_Wartime_Reading%2C_Berkshire%2C_England%2C_UK%2C_1945_D25380.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons’ Battenberg cake, produced in the 1930s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Lyons_battenberg_cake.jpg/170px-Lyons_battenberg_cake.jpg"},{"image_text":"Customers at Lyons' Corner House on Coventry Street, London, 1942","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Customers_enjoying_afternoon_tea_at_Lyon%27s_Corner_House_on_Coventry_Street%2C_London%2C_1942._D6573.jpg/220px-Customers_enjoying_afternoon_tea_at_Lyon%27s_Corner_House_on_Coventry_Street%2C_London%2C_1942._D6573.jpg"},{"image_text":"Entrance to Throgmorton restaurant","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_Throgmorton_Restaurant_J_Lyons_and_Co_detail.jpg/220px-The_Throgmorton_Restaurant_J_Lyons_and_Co_detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons' Corner House Brasserie with band, Coventry Street, London, 1942","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/A_busy_scene_at_Lyons_Corner_House_Brasserie%2C_Coventry_Street%2C_London%2C_1942._D6570.jpg/220px-A_busy_scene_at_Lyons_Corner_House_Brasserie%2C_Coventry_Street%2C_London%2C_1942._D6570.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons‘ memorials to World Wars I (column) and II (wall) at Margravine Cemetery, London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/J_Lyons_and_Company_war_memorials%2C_Margravine_Cemetery_01.jpg/220px-J_Lyons_and_Company_war_memorials%2C_Margravine_Cemetery_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lyons Corner House recreated in the Museum of London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Lyons_Corner_House_recreation%2C_Museum_of_London.JPG/170px-Lyons_Corner_House_recreation%2C_Museum_of_London.JPG"},{"image_text":"Caricature of co-founder Sir Joseph Lyons in Vanity Fair, 1910","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Sir_Joseph_Lyons_Vanity_Fair.jpg/150px-Sir_Joseph_Lyons_Vanity_Fair.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"United Kingdom portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom"},{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg"},{"title":"Food portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food"},{"title":"Horniman's Tea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horniman%27s_Tea"},{"title":"List of tea houses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tea_houses"},{"title":"J. Lyons and Co., Greenford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co.,_Greenford"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Bawden and battenberg: the Lyons teashop lithographs\". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/jul/12/bawden-battenberg-lyons-teashops-lithographs","url_text":"\"Bawden and battenberg: the Lyons teashop lithographs\""}]},{"reference":"\"J. Lyons & Co. The Tea Department\". Retrieved 26 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kzwp.com/lyons1/tea.htm","url_text":"\"J. Lyons & Co. The Tea Department\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leo Computers Society\". www.leo-computers.org.uk. Retrieved 27 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leo-computers.org.uk/","url_text":"\"Leo Computers Society\""}]},{"reference":"\"How to make the perfect battenberg cake\". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/jan/14/how-to-make-the-perfect-battenberg-cake","url_text":"\"How to make the perfect battenberg cake\""}]},{"reference":"Brigid Keane, Olive Portnoy (1992). \"English Tearoom\". In Harlan Walker (ed.). Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1991: Public Eating; Proceedings. Prospect Books. ISBN 978-0-907325-47-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FrWgDRkS90EC&pg=PA157","url_text":"\"English Tearoom\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Symposium_on_Food_and_Cookery","url_text":"Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-907325-47-5","url_text":"978-0-907325-47-5"}]},{"reference":"\"J. Lyons & Co catering outlets\". Retrieved 28 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kzwp.com/lyons/cornerhouses.htm","url_text":"\"J. Lyons & Co catering outlets\""}]},{"reference":"Bird, Peter (2002). \"Symbol Biscuits Ltd (Lyons Biscuits Ltd)\". Retrieved 5 November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kzwp.com/lyons/symbol.htm","url_text":"\"Symbol Biscuits Ltd (Lyons Biscuits Ltd)\""}]},{"reference":"\"And then lose count!\". Reveille. London, UK. 28 October 1947. p. 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002402/19471028/019/0003","url_text":"\"And then lose count!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Princess Elizabeth's Wedding Cake; With a Wedge Prepared\". Illustrated London News. London, UK. 22 November 1947. p. 8.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001578/19471122/033/0008","url_text":"\"Princess Elizabeth's Wedding Cake; With a Wedge Prepared\""}]},{"reference":"Christine Flinn. \"Queen Elizabeth's Wedding Cakes\". www.christineflinn.co.uk. Retrieved 3 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.christineflinn.co.uk/history-of-piping-styles/","url_text":"\"Queen Elizabeth's Wedding Cakes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why Lyon's Leo was the Met Office's cup of tea\". The Times. Retrieved 26 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/why-lyons-leo-was-the-met-offices-cup-of-tea-jf58blg63","url_text":"\"Why Lyon's Leo was the Met Office's cup of tea\""}]},{"reference":"London School of Economics. \"About L E O\". Archived from the original on 11 January 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110111183112/http://is2.lse.ac.uk/leo/About_LEO.htm","url_text":"\"About L E O\""},{"url":"http://is2.lse.ac.uk/leo/About_LEO.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Google's Eric Schmidt criticises education in the UK\". BBC News. 26 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14683133","url_text":"\"Google's Eric Schmidt criticises education in the UK\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lyons\". Grocery Partners. Retrieved 27 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.grocerypartners.co.uk/range/lyons","url_text":"\"Lyons\""}]},{"reference":"\"Margaret Thatcher\". Number 10 Downing Street - The official site of the British Prime Minister.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/margaret-thatcher-2/","url_text":"\"Margaret Thatcher\""}]},{"reference":"Land, Frank (10 September 2017). \"Peter Bird obituary\". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/10/peter-bird-obituary","url_text":"\"Peter Bird obituary\""}]},{"reference":"Baird, Peter (25 January 2012). \"Site describing J. Lyons & Co national caterer and food manufacturer\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kzwp.com/lyons/directors.htm","url_text":"\"Site describing J. Lyons & Co national caterer and food manufacturer\""}]},{"reference":"Harding, Thomas (2019). Legacy : one family, a cup of tea and the company that took on the world. London: William Heinemann. ISBN 978-1785150890.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1785150890","url_text":"978-1785150890"}]},{"reference":"\"Designing Britain 1945–1975: Lyons Corner House\". Archived from the original on 12 February 2004. Retrieved 8 March 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040212224107/http://www.brighton.ac.uk/designingbritain/html/lyons.html","url_text":"\"Designing Britain 1945–1975: Lyons Corner House\""},{"url":"http://www.brighton.ac.uk/designingbritain/html/lyons.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The papers of John Simmons\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.warwick.ac.uk/services/library/mrc/ead/363col.htm","url_text":"\"The papers of John Simmons\""}]},{"reference":"\"LEO Computers Society\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leo-computers.org.uk/","url_text":"\"LEO Computers Society\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity_belt_(BDSM)
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Chastity belt (BDSM)
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["1 Purpose","2 Male chastity belts","3 Female chastity belts","4 Male chastity cages","4.1 Safety","5 Manufacture","6 Erotica","7 See also","8 References"]
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Device to prevent sexual activity in BDSM play
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Chastity belt" BDSM – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Antique chastity belt, complete with waistbelt and padlock. From the Wellcome Collection
Chastity belts are a type of chastity device used in BDSM as part of the practice of orgasm denial, to prevent the wearer from engaging in certain types of sexual activity without the permission of the dominant, who acts as "keyholder", possessing the key that unlocks the chastity belt. Without access to the key, the wearer usually cannot take off the chastity belt or device. Dominants may also enjoy long-distance chastity with their sub by keeping the key in a third location that the chastity wearer cannot access by themself.
Chastity belts and devices prevent sexual intercourse, masturbation and oral sex involving the wearer's genitals. There are designs suitable for both men and women. Chastity belts may be worn during a session of BDSM play, for a limited period or as a long-term arrangement. Users who choose to wear a chastity device often have a chastity fetish, and therefore enjoy the experience of being in chastity.
Within the BDSM community, the month of October, also known as "locktober" is an annual challenge in which people with a chastity fetish try to stay in chastity for the entire month.
Purpose
The wearer of the belt is usually regarded as the submissive in a BDSM relationship. This is a part of the wider practice of orgasm denial. Some say that it increases submissiveness in people. It has often been reported that when worn, the chastity belt frequently evokes sexual frustration in the wearer, which the wearer may find erotic and exciting.
The putting on of a chastity belt by a partner, is usually an indication of the dominance of the "keyholder" over the wearer's sexual activities. By accepting the chastity belt the wearer accepts surrender of control over their sexual behavior to a partner, who may grant permission to the wearer to engage in sexual activity by removing the belt. The dominant may decide when, where, how, how often, and even if, the submissive is allowed sexual release.
In a dynamic between a dominant and submissive, the dom may wear the chastity key on a necklace as a symbol of domination over their submissive. They may delay their gratification, play games centered on tease and denial, or give them ruined orgasms Social media may be incorporated into the erotic games, for instance by using social media to ask to vote how much longer the submissive must remain in chastity. The loss of control over their sexual responses may arouse them and or give them mental pleasure.
Most modern belt designs cannot prevent wearers from physically touching their genitals but they do usually prevent masturbation. Penis cages (see below) may hold the penis firmly but they may also be loose and, although intercourse is rendered impossible, they may make manual stimulation, even to orgasm, a possibility. The most effective masturbation prevention requires design features that incorporate genital piercings or full tight encapsulation of the genital area.
There are many online forums for users to discuss their experience of staying in chastity.
Male chastity belts
A male Carrara chastity belt
Modern chastity belts for men generally follow the traditional "Florentine" pattern (named after the historical reference to chastity belts in Florence in the 15th century military manual Bellifortis), with a band around the waist or hips and a "shield" that runs between the legs to cover the genitals.
Some male chastity devices are not practical for long term wear due to sanitary constraints. On belts intended for long-term wear, the shield should accommodate the wearer's hygienic needs:
The shield is commonly a flat band with a slot through which the labia can protrude to breathe and through which urine can pass.
Belts with a "thong" arrangement have a single strap running up between the buttocks to the waistband. This may be a plastic-coated cable or a thin, curved metal rod, and there may be an opening in the thong to allow defecation.
Belts with a "V"-arrangement have a pair of chains or cables attached together at the bottom of the shield and apart towards the back of waistband in a "V" to leave the rear open.
A penis tube is secured behind the front shield. In some designs, the testicles are covered by special cages. Most high-security chastity belts are made out of stainless steel, although fiberglass composite belts have also been made. Most belt designs are secured with padlocks. For travel a plastic device with a numbered plastic seal. The more secure designs have their padlocks' shackles hidden to make cutting the shackle difficult.
Female chastity belts
Pierced inner labia with chastity piercing
Chastity belts of the so-called Florentine type also exist for women. As in the standard Florentine design, a circular horizontal band encircles the waist and a shield is attached to the front of the waist belt. The shield extends downwards to cover the genital areas of the wearer and is attached to the back of the waist belt.
Modern belts usually are made with features and accessories to accommodate erotic fantasy and BDSM play. For example, a slot in the shield may hold a dildo inside the wearer's vagina, which cannot be removed except by the keyholder. Some have a perforated cover (sometimes called the "secondary shield") over this slot to prevent the wearer from being pinched when sitting. The cover may also prevent direct masturbation by preventing access to the labia. Anal shields which forcibly retain butt plugs inside the wearer are a common accessory. The shield can be designed to work with genital piercings for greater security.
While chastity belts may prevent masturbation, it may still be possible for the wearer to achieve orgasm. If the wearer is capable of achieving orgasm through pressing their vulva, the act of "tribbing" with a partner, or achieving orgasm through thoughts alone (referred to as a "non-genitally stimulated orgasm"), a chastity belt will not prevent the orgasm from occurring.
Male chastity cages
A side by side comparison of an uncaged uncircumcised penis and a caged penis. In a stainless steel nub-style cage with a screw-style lock.
A popular type of chastity device for males is commonly referred to as a chastity cage, penis cage, chastity device or chastity tube. They are almost exclusively used as a sex toy and in BDSM play, and may enclose a man's penis in order to make an erection uncomfortable or impossible if the male becomes sexually aroused, and prevent sexual intercourse, masturbation, oral sex involving the wearer's genitals and some other forms of sexual activity. A chastity cage may be combined with toys such as a shock collar or ball crusher.
Most chastity cages consist of a ring seated around the base of the penis behind the scrotum and a tube or penis cage that holds the penis, with the two parts mating together with a hinge or pin. The penis cage is designed so that the penis inside cannot be stimulated directly with hands and fingers. The tip of the penis cage is perforated to allow urine to pass and the design may incorporate vents to facilitate long-term wearing and cleaning. The flaccid penis is inserted into the cage and is held at a downwards angle so as to make an erection uncomfortable or impossible. Some designs have an extra short penis cage into which the penis may be squeezed to restrict it even more than in a regular penis cage. Other designs incorporate a tip covering the glans through which a catheter is fixed, and the tip is then secured by short straps which confine the penis and are fixed to the ring seated behind the scrotum.
The ring and cage are usually secured together with a lock or with a tamper-evident plastic security seal. When the device is locked, the testicles are trapped in the gap between the ring and the penis cage which is narrow enough to prevent the testicles and penis from being pulled out. The testicles are usually held in a fixed position, exposed beneath the cage although some designs have an additional cup that prevents easy access to the entire genital area.
Chastity cages can be manufactured out of a strong plastic material such as polycarbonate, ABS, or they may be made from silicone which greatly reduces their cost and weight compared with stainless steel versions. New information implies that caution should be taken before using a device made from BPA containing plastics such as polycarbonate. A device made from ABS plastic is a safer alternative to polycarbonate plastic due to polycarbonate leaching BPA through long term contact with the skin. BPA can cause an estrogen response leading to hormone imbalances and possible shrinkage of the penis through the leaching of endocrine disrupting chemicals directly through the skin.
Most chastity cages are intended for long-term or indefinite wear and may include a lock with keys retained by a key-holder, or a plastic locking device which incorporates an identity number so that the wearer may be locked by a remote key-holder. When combined with such a tamper-evident plastic seal, plastic chastity cages permit easier access through airport security or other security restricted areas that require passage through metal detectors.
A plastic male / penised-person chastity cage worn at Folsom Street Fair
A commonly used type of chastity cage made of plastic
Extreme micro chastity
A lock inserted through the chastity piercing in the penis
Safety
A chastity cage must be properly sized, fitted and adjusted in order to be secure and not damage the genitals. Ring size and spacing are the two most important adjustments that can be made. A ring that is too tight will cut off blood flow while one that is too loose will not be secure. Metal chastity belts and chastity cages intended for long term wear should be made out of medical grade stainless steel or titanium, to reduce the risks of metal allergies and metal toxicity.
Penile strangulation, as a result of not being able to remove a device placed around the penis (not necessarily a chastity belt), has occurred in a wide spectrum of age groups, so care must be taken to avoid constriction with a chastity belt. In 2008, an incident was reported of a woman having to be cut free from a titanium chastity device after losing the keys, due to pressure on the genitals.
One of the most common misconceptions is that chastity cages prevent erections from occurring. While they do control erections, they do not prevent them as this would require dangerously cutting off the blood flow to the penis.
Manufacture
Most modern chastity belt designs are descended from Hal Higginbottom's designs from 1956. Sometimes modern Florentine-style belts are described as "Tollyboy-style" or "Tollyboy-type" belts as references to his company's original design.
Human anatomy varies very widely from person to person and steel belts intended for long-term use are bespoke (custom-made) items. The manufacture of such belts, being quite a specific niche, is necessarily a cottage industry. Many firms have come and gone over the years.
In 1969, Time magazine and various newspapers in 1978 ran stories about David Renwick, a British chastity belt maker who claimed to have a thriving business making belts for a worldwide clientele.
In 1971, the Hugessen firm of Halstead, Essex, that made chastity belts, won tax exempt status on the basis that their products were birth control devices. In 1974, a story was widely published in magazines and newspapers about the firm's bankruptcy.
A.L. Enterprises, of Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, that sells the CB series of plastic chastity cages, was started by Doris and Frank Miller in the 2000. Doris and Frank Miller are considered pioneers in the modern chastity belt. They died in 2017. The company they founded was sold to investors in 2018. World Cage female chastity was founded in 2020 by the Miller's daughter Nikki Yates, the former CEO of A.L. Enterprises from 2007 to 2017.
Although no reliable statistics are available on the use of chastity belts, anecdotal reports from manufacturers suggest that most belts sold in Europe and the U.S. are for women, and that of the male belts ordered, relatively few are used as rape prevention devices.
Erotica
Chastity belts have made appearances in erotica. Esar Levine's 1931 Chastity Belts: An Illustrated History of the Bridling of Men compiled erotica of men in chastity belts, with commentary. Contemporary websites such as Literotica and SmutMD have hundreds of eroticas written by amateur writers about both male and female chastity.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chastity devices (BDSM).
Chastity piercing
Cock and ball torture
Cuckquean fetishism
Cuckold fetishism
Erotic sexual denial
Gender affirmation
References
^ Victoria (27 February 2019). "How to do Long-Distance Chastity - Keep his chastity cage locked!". Hypno Victoria. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
^ Kelleher, Patrick (22 October 2021). "Meet the kink enthusiasts locking up their penises for Locktober". PinkNews. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
^ "What is Male Chastity?". ChastityLifestyle.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
^ Hsieh, Carina (13 June 2018). "8 Things You Need to Know About Orgasm Denial". Cosmopolitan. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
^ "An Introduction to Male Chastity". Petticoated.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ "5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023". 8 February 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
^ a b Egan, Danielle (17 August 2005). "Lock-Up: Chastity Belts Are on the 'Incline'". The Tyee. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
^ Stephanie (29 October 2022). "What's the Meaning of Wearing A Key Around Your Neck?". A Fashion Blog. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ "5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023". 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
^ "What is Male Chastity? - Definition from Kinkly". Kinkly.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ "5 Games for Teasing Your Partner in Chastity". Kinkly.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ "Chastity Forums - Index page". chastityforums.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
^ Cassella, Carly (8 April 2022). "Case Study Shows It's Possible to Orgasm Using Only Your Mind". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
^ Emling, Shelley (13 May 2001). "A lock on love". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
^ Seth Abramovitch (29 June 2018). "Death in a Hollywood Sex Dungeon: How a Top Agency Executive's "Mummification" Ritual Ended in Tragedy". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 1 July 2018. A chastity cage is a device which locks around a flaccid penis, preventing erections; only the master holds the key to unlock it, giving him control over when the wearer can get an erection
^ Sun, The (27 July 2018). "Study warns plastics could be shrinking penises". New York Post. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
^ Bornehag Carl-Gustaf; Carlstedt Fredrik; Jönsson Bo AG.; Lindh Christian H.; Jensen Tina K.; Bodin Anna; Jonsson Carin; Janson Staffan; Swan Shanna H. (1 January 2015). "Prenatal Phthalate Exposures and Anogenital Distance in Swedish Boys". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (1): 101–107. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408163. PMC 4286276. PMID 25353625.
^ Hood, Ernie (October 2005). "Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender?". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113 (10): A670–A677. doi:10.1289/ehp.113-a670. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1281309. PMID 16203228.
^ Cross, Beach; Levy, Sadhra; Sorahan, McRoy. "Manufacture, Processing and Use of Stainless Steel: A Review of the Health Effects" (PDF). Institute of Occupational Health, University of Birmingham, UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
^ Silberstein J, Grabowski J, Lakin C, Goldstein I (July 2008). "Penile constriction devices: case report, review of the literature, and recommendations for extrication". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 5 (7): 1747–57. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00848.x. PMID 18507720.
^ "Woman cut free from 'S&M' chastity belt by firemen (From Your Local Guardian)". Yourlocalguardian.co.uk. 6 July 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
^ "Why female chastity? Everything you wanted to know about cock cages but were too afraid to ask". www.sexyfunworld.com. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
^ Barton, Laura (12 February 2004). "Chastity begins at home". The Guardian.
^ "Antiques: Iron Belt". Time. 30 May 1969. Archived from the original on 21 May 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
^ "Chastity belt maker does lots of business". Montreal Gazette. 1 June 1978. p. 40. Retrieved 12 September 2011.
^ Classen, Albrecht (2007). The medieval chastity belt: a myth-making process. Macmillan. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-1-4039-7558-4.
^ "Swingtime in England". The Bulletin. 7 April 1973. p. 48. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ "Robin Hugessen (left) chastity belt manufacturer, and (right) Mr. Bob Nicholson, leather craftsman, with chastity belt". Getty Images. 19 November 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ "Leather Craftsman, Bob Nicholson, (left) and chastity belt manufacture, Robin Hugessen with chastity belts, Mr. Hugessen wears a chastity belt crown". Getty Images. 21 December 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ "Chastity belt manufacturer Robin Hugessen (foreground) and leather craftsman Bob Nicholson (in background) with chastity belts. Mr. Hugessen wears a crown made from a chastity belt". Getty Images. 21 December 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ "Chastity Belt Firm in London Falls To Creditors". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 25 July 1974. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
^ "Worlds Only Chastity Belt Firm Folds". St Petersburg Times. 28 June 1974. p. 7-A. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
^ Keefe, Jenny (13 June 2004). "Getting Medieval". Sheffield Base. Archived from the original on 13 June 2004.
^ "James Cummins Bookseller". Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
^ Slade, Joseph W. (2001). Pornography and Sexual Representation: A Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 416. ISBN 9780313315206.
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From the Wellcome CollectionChastity belts are a type of chastity device used in BDSM as part of the practice of orgasm denial, to prevent the wearer from engaging in certain types of sexual activity without the permission of the dominant, who acts as \"keyholder\", possessing the key that unlocks the chastity belt. Without access to the key, the wearer usually cannot take off the chastity belt or device. Dominants may also enjoy long-distance chastity with their sub by keeping the key in a third location that the chastity wearer cannot access by themself.[1]Chastity belts and devices prevent sexual intercourse, masturbation and oral sex involving the wearer's genitals. There are designs suitable for both men and women. Chastity belts may be worn during a session of BDSM play, for a limited period or as a long-term arrangement. Users who choose to wear a chastity device often have a chastity fetish, and therefore enjoy the experience of being in chastity.Within the BDSM community, the month of October, also known as \"locktober\" is an annual challenge in which people with a chastity fetish try to stay in chastity for the entire month.[2]","title":"Chastity belt (BDSM)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"submissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submissive_(BDSM)"},{"link_name":"orgasm denial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_sexual_denial#As_a_form_of_control"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hsieh2018-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"sexual frustration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_frustration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tyee-7"},{"link_name":"dominance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_(BDSM)"},{"link_name":"sexual behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexual_behavior"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"ruined orgasms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_sexual_denial"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"genital piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercing"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The wearer of the belt is usually regarded as the submissive in a BDSM relationship. This is a part of the wider practice of orgasm denial.[3][4] Some say that it increases submissiveness in people.[5][6] It has often been reported that when worn, the chastity belt frequently evokes sexual frustration in the wearer, which the wearer may find erotic and exciting.[7]The putting on of a chastity belt by a partner, is usually an indication of the dominance of the \"keyholder\" over the wearer's sexual activities. By accepting the chastity belt the wearer accepts surrender of control over their sexual behavior to a partner, who may grant permission to the wearer to engage in sexual activity by removing the belt. The dominant may decide when, where, how, how often, and even if, the submissive is allowed sexual release.In a dynamic between a dominant and submissive, the dom may wear the chastity key on a necklace as a symbol of domination over their submissive.[8] They may delay their gratification, play games centered on tease and denial, or give them ruined orgasms[9][10] Social media may be incorporated into the erotic games, for instance by using social media to ask to vote how much longer the submissive must remain in chastity.[11] The loss of control over their sexual responses may arouse them and or give them mental pleasure.Most modern belt designs cannot prevent wearers from physically touching their genitals but they do usually prevent masturbation. Penis cages (see below) may hold the penis firmly but they may also be loose and, although intercourse is rendered impossible, they may make manual stimulation, even to orgasm, a possibility. The most effective masturbation prevention requires design features that incorporate genital piercings or full tight encapsulation of the genital area.There are many online forums for users to discuss their experience of staying in chastity.[12]","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carrara_female.jpg"},{"link_name":"historical reference to chastity belts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity_belt#Historical_usage"},{"link_name":"Bellifortis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellifortis"}],"text":"A male Carrara chastity beltModern chastity belts for men generally follow the traditional \"Florentine\" pattern (named after the historical reference to chastity belts in Florence in the 15th century military manual Bellifortis), with a band around the waist or hips and a \"shield\" that runs between the legs to cover the genitals.Some male chastity devices are not practical for long term wear due to sanitary constraints. On belts intended for long-term wear, the shield should accommodate the wearer's hygienic needs:The shield is commonly a flat band with a slot through which the labia can protrude to breathe and through which urine can pass.\nBelts with a \"thong\" arrangement have a single strap running up between the buttocks to the waistband. This may be a plastic-coated cable or a thin, curved metal rod, and there may be an opening in the thong to allow defecation.\nBelts with a \"V\"-arrangement have a pair of chains or cables attached together at the bottom of the shield and apart towards the back of waistband in a \"V\" to leave the rear open.A penis tube is secured behind the front shield. In some designs, the testicles are covered by special cages. Most high-security chastity belts are made out of stainless steel, although fiberglass composite belts have also been made. Most belt designs are secured with padlocks. For travel a plastic device with a numbered plastic seal. The more secure designs have their padlocks' shackles hidden to make cutting the shackle difficult.","title":"Male chastity belts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Keuschheit.jpg"},{"link_name":"erotic fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_fantasy"},{"link_name":"dildo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dildo"},{"link_name":"vagina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagina"},{"link_name":"labia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labia_(genitalia)"},{"link_name":"butt plugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butt_plugs"},{"link_name":"genital piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercings"},{"link_name":"\"tribbing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribadism"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Pierced inner labia with chastity piercingChastity belts of the so-called Florentine type also exist for women. As in the standard Florentine design, a circular horizontal band encircles the waist and a shield is attached to the front of the waist belt. The shield extends downwards to cover the genital areas of the wearer and is attached to the back of the waist belt.Modern belts usually are made with features and accessories to accommodate erotic fantasy and BDSM play. For example, a slot in the shield may hold a dildo inside the wearer's vagina, which cannot be removed except by the keyholder. Some have a perforated cover (sometimes called the \"secondary shield\") over this slot to prevent the wearer from being pinched when sitting. The cover may also prevent direct masturbation by preventing access to the labia. Anal shields which forcibly retain butt plugs inside the wearer are a common accessory. The shield can be designed to work with genital piercings for greater security.While chastity belts may prevent masturbation, it may still be possible for the wearer to achieve orgasm. If the wearer is capable of achieving orgasm through pressing their vulva, the act of \"tribbing\" with a partner, or achieving orgasm through thoughts alone (referred to as a \"non-genitally stimulated orgasm\"), a chastity belt will not prevent the orgasm from occurring.[13]","title":"Female chastity belts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CagedComparision_-_Cleaned.jpg"},{"link_name":"sex toy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_toy"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"erection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erection"},{"link_name":"sexually aroused","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_arousal"},{"link_name":"sexual intercourse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_intercourse"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"shock collar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_collar"},{"link_name":"ball crusher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cock_and_ball_torture_(sexual_practice)#Ball_crusher"},{"link_name":"security seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_seal"},{"link_name":"polycarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate"},{"link_name":"ABS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene"},{"link_name":"silicone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone"},{"link_name":"BPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisphenol_A"},{"link_name":"ABS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABS_plastic"},{"link_name":"polycarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate"},{"link_name":"polycarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate"},{"link_name":"BPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisphenol_A"},{"link_name":"BPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisphenol_A"},{"link_name":"estrogen response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrogen_response_element"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"endocrine disrupting chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruptor"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"airport security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_security"},{"link_name":"metal detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_detectors#Security_screening"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SabulumRE_(49063989063).jpg"},{"link_name":"Folsom Street Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folsom_Street_Fair"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plastic_chastity_cage.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Micro_Chastity_Cage.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apadravya_locked_up_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"chastity piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity_piercing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neosteel_Chastity_Belt_Upwards.png"}],"text":"A side by side comparison of an uncaged uncircumcised penis and a caged penis. In a stainless steel nub-style cage with a screw-style lock.A popular type of chastity device for males is commonly referred to as a chastity cage, penis cage, chastity device or chastity tube. They are almost exclusively used as a sex toy and in BDSM play,[14] and may enclose a man's penis in order to make an erection uncomfortable or impossible if the male becomes sexually aroused, and prevent sexual intercourse, masturbation, oral sex involving the wearer's genitals and some other forms of sexual activity.[15] A chastity cage may be combined with toys such as a shock collar or ball crusher.Most chastity cages consist of a ring seated around the base of the penis behind the scrotum and a tube or penis cage that holds the penis, with the two parts mating together with a hinge or pin. The penis cage is designed so that the penis inside cannot be stimulated directly with hands and fingers. The tip of the penis cage is perforated to allow urine to pass and the design may incorporate vents to facilitate long-term wearing and cleaning. The flaccid penis is inserted into the cage and is held at a downwards angle so as to make an erection uncomfortable or impossible. Some designs have an extra short penis cage into which the penis may be squeezed to restrict it even more than in a regular penis cage. Other designs incorporate a tip covering the glans through which a catheter is fixed, and the tip is then secured by short straps which confine the penis and are fixed to the ring seated behind the scrotum.The ring and cage are usually secured together with a lock or with a tamper-evident plastic security seal. When the device is locked, the testicles are trapped in the gap between the ring and the penis cage which is narrow enough to prevent the testicles and penis from being pulled out. The testicles are usually held in a fixed position, exposed beneath the cage although some designs have an additional cup that prevents easy access to the entire genital area.Chastity cages can be manufactured out of a strong plastic material such as polycarbonate, ABS, or they may be made from silicone which greatly reduces their cost and weight compared with stainless steel versions. New information implies that caution should be taken before using a device made from BPA containing plastics such as polycarbonate. A device made from ABS plastic is a safer alternative to polycarbonate plastic due to polycarbonate leaching BPA through long term contact with the skin. BPA can cause an estrogen response leading to hormone imbalances and possible shrinkage of the penis[16][17] through the leaching of endocrine disrupting chemicals directly through the skin.[18]Most chastity cages are intended for long-term or indefinite wear and may include a lock with keys retained by a key-holder, or a plastic locking device which incorporates an identity number so that the wearer may be locked by a remote key-holder. When combined with such a tamper-evident plastic seal, plastic chastity cages permit easier access through airport security or other security restricted areas that require passage through metal detectors.A plastic male / penised-person chastity cage worn at Folsom Street Fair\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA commonly used type of chastity cage made of plastic\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tExtreme micro chastity\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA lock inserted through the chastity piercing in the penis","title":"Male chastity cages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StainlessSteelHealth-19"},{"link_name":"Penile strangulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_strangulation"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Penile_incarceration-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Safety","text":"A chastity cage must be properly sized, fitted and adjusted in order to be secure and not damage the genitals. Ring size and spacing are the two most important adjustments that can be made. A ring that is too tight will cut off blood flow while one that is too loose will not be secure. Metal chastity belts and chastity cages intended for long term wear should be made out of medical grade stainless steel or titanium, to reduce the risks of metal allergies and metal toxicity.[19]Penile strangulation, as a result of not being able to remove a device placed around the penis (not necessarily a chastity belt), has occurred in a wide spectrum of age groups, so care must be taken to avoid constriction with a chastity belt.[20] In 2008, an incident was reported of a woman having to be cut free from a titanium chastity device after losing the keys, due to pressure on the genitals.[21]One of the most common misconceptions is that chastity cages prevent erections from occurring. While they do control erections, they do not prevent them as this would require dangerously cutting off the blood flow to the penis.[22]","title":"Male chastity cages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"bespoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bespoke"},{"link_name":"cottage industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottage_industry"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MontrealGazette-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ClassenMythMakingProcess-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheBulletin-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GettyImages1-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GettyImages2-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GettyImages3-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JetHugessen1-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StPetersburgHugessen1-32"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tyee-7"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"Most modern chastity belt designs are descended from Hal Higginbottom's designs from 1956.[23] Sometimes modern Florentine-style belts are described as \"Tollyboy-style\" or \"Tollyboy-type\" belts as references to his company's original design.Human anatomy varies very widely from person to person and steel belts intended for long-term use are bespoke (custom-made) items. The manufacture of such belts, being quite a specific niche, is necessarily a cottage industry. Many firms have come and gone over the years.In 1969, Time magazine[24] and various newspapers in 1978[25] ran stories about David Renwick, a British chastity belt maker who claimed to have a thriving business making belts for a worldwide clientele.In 1971, the Hugessen firm of Halstead, Essex, that made chastity belts, won tax exempt status on the basis that their products were birth control devices.[26][27][28][29][30] In 1974, a story was widely published in magazines[31] and newspapers[32] about the firm's bankruptcy.A.L. Enterprises, of Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, that sells the CB series of plastic chastity cages, was started by Doris and Frank Miller in the 2000.[7] Doris and Frank Miller are considered pioneers in the modern chastity belt. They died in 2017. The company they founded was sold to investors in 2018. World Cage female chastity was founded in 2020 by the Miller's daughter Nikki Yates, the former CEO of A.L. Enterprises from 2007 to 2017.Although no reliable statistics are available on the use of chastity belts, anecdotal reports from manufacturers suggest that most belts sold in Europe and the U.S. are for women, and that of the male belts ordered, relatively few are used as rape prevention devices.[33]","title":"Manufacture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"erotica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotica"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Literotica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literotica"}],"text":"Chastity belts have made appearances in erotica. Esar Levine's 1931[34] Chastity Belts: An Illustrated History of the Bridling of Men compiled erotica of men in chastity belts, with commentary.[35] Contemporary websites such as Literotica and SmutMD have hundreds of eroticas written by amateur writers about both male and female chastity.","title":"Erotica"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Antique chastity belt, complete with waistbelt and padlock. From the Wellcome Collection","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Chastity_belt%2C_complete_with_waistbelt_and_padlock._Wellcome_M0012511.jpg/220px-Chastity_belt%2C_complete_with_waistbelt_and_padlock._Wellcome_M0012511.jpg"},{"image_text":"A male Carrara chastity belt","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Carrara_female.jpg/220px-Carrara_female.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pierced inner labia with chastity piercing","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Keuschheit.jpg/152px-Keuschheit.jpg"},{"image_text":"A side by side comparison of an uncaged uncircumcised penis and a caged penis. In a stainless steel nub-style cage with a screw-style lock.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/CagedComparision_-_Cleaned.jpg/272px-CagedComparision_-_Cleaned.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Chastity devices (BDSM)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chastity_devices_(BDSM)"},{"title":"Chastity piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity_piercing"},{"title":"Cock and ball torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cock_and_ball_torture"},{"title":"Cuckquean fetishism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckquean"},{"title":"Cuckold fetishism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckold_fetishism"},{"title":"Erotic sexual denial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_sexual_denial"},{"title":"Gender affirmation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_affirmation"}]
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[{"reference":"Victoria (27 February 2019). \"How to do Long-Distance Chastity - Keep his chastity cage locked!\". Hypno Victoria. Retrieved 2 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://hypnovictoria.com/index.php/2019/02/27/long-distance-chastity/","url_text":"\"How to do Long-Distance Chastity - Keep his chastity cage locked!\""}]},{"reference":"Kelleher, Patrick (22 October 2021). \"Meet the kink enthusiasts locking up their penises for Locktober\". PinkNews. Retrieved 2 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thepinknews.com/2021/10/22/locktober-chastity-cage-kink/","url_text":"\"Meet the kink enthusiasts locking up their penises for Locktober\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is Male Chastity?\". ChastityLifestyle.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 6 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060505011430/http://www.chastitylifestyle.com/chastity/what_is_male_chastity_.html","url_text":"\"What is Male Chastity?\""},{"url":"http://www.chastitylifestyle.com/chastity/what_is_male_chastity_.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hsieh, Carina (13 June 2018). \"8 Things You Need to Know About Orgasm Denial\". Cosmopolitan. Retrieved 12 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/a21271473/orgasm-denial/","url_text":"\"8 Things You Need to Know About Orgasm Denial\""}]},{"reference":"\"An Introduction to Male Chastity\". Petticoated.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080314212908/http://www.petticoated.com/chastity2.html","url_text":"\"An Introduction to Male Chastity\""}]},{"reference":"\"5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023\". 8 February 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://sexualalpha.com/female-chastity-belts/","url_text":"\"5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023\""}]},{"reference":"Egan, Danielle (17 August 2005). \"Lock-Up: Chastity Belts Are on the 'Incline'\". The Tyee. Retrieved 22 May 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://thetyee.ca/Life/2005/08/17/ChastityBelts/","url_text":"\"Lock-Up: Chastity Belts Are on the 'Incline'\""}]},{"reference":"Stephanie (29 October 2022). \"What's the Meaning of Wearing A Key Around Your Neck?\". A Fashion Blog. Retrieved 11 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.afashionblog.com/wearing-a-key-around-your-neck/","url_text":"\"What's the Meaning of Wearing A Key Around Your Neck?\""}]},{"reference":"\"5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023\". 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://sexualalpha.com/female-chastity-belts/","url_text":"\"5 Best Female Chastity Belts To Wear In 2023\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is Male Chastity? - Definition from Kinkly\". Kinkly.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kinkly.com/definition/1169/male-chastity","url_text":"\"What is Male Chastity? - Definition from Kinkly\""}]},{"reference":"\"5 Games for Teasing Your Partner in Chastity\". Kinkly.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kinkly.com/5-games-for-teasing-your-partner-in-chastity/2/14597","url_text":"\"5 Games for Teasing Your Partner in Chastity\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chastity Forums - Index page\". chastityforums.com. Retrieved 11 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://chastityforums.com/","url_text":"\"Chastity Forums - Index page\""}]},{"reference":"Cassella, Carly (8 April 2022). \"Case Study Shows It's Possible to Orgasm Using Only Your Mind\". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 2 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencealert.com/case-study-shows-it-s-possible-to-orgasm-through-mental-thoughts-only","url_text":"\"Case Study Shows It's Possible to Orgasm Using Only Your Mind\""}]},{"reference":"Emling, Shelley (13 May 2001). \"A lock on love\". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on 25 May 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070525080025/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_20010513/ai_n10700637","url_text":"\"A lock on love\""},{"url":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_20010513/ai_n10700637","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Seth Abramovitch (29 June 2018). \"Death in a Hollywood Sex Dungeon: How a Top Agency Executive's \"Mummification\" Ritual Ended in Tragedy\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 1 July 2018. A chastity cage is a device which locks around a flaccid penis, preventing erections; only the master holds the key to unlock it, giving him control over when the wearer can get an erection","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/death-a-hollywood-sex-dungeon-how-a-top-agency-executives-mummification-ritual-ended-tragedy-1123815","url_text":"\"Death in a Hollywood Sex Dungeon: How a Top Agency Executive's \"Mummification\" Ritual Ended in Tragedy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]},{"reference":"Sun, The (27 July 2018). \"Study warns plastics could be shrinking penises\". New York Post. Retrieved 24 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://nypost.com/2018/07/26/study-warns-plastics-could-be-shrinking-penises/","url_text":"\"Study warns plastics could be shrinking penises\""}]},{"reference":"Bornehag Carl-Gustaf; Carlstedt Fredrik; Jönsson Bo AG.; Lindh Christian H.; Jensen Tina K.; Bodin Anna; Jonsson Carin; Janson Staffan; Swan Shanna H. (1 January 2015). \"Prenatal Phthalate Exposures and Anogenital Distance in Swedish Boys\". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (1): 101–107. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408163. PMC 4286276. PMID 25353625.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4286276","url_text":"\"Prenatal Phthalate Exposures and Anogenital Distance in Swedish Boys\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1408163","url_text":"10.1289/ehp.1408163"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4286276","url_text":"4286276"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25353625","url_text":"25353625"}]},{"reference":"Hood, Ernie (October 2005). \"Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender?\". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113 (10): A670–A677. doi:10.1289/ehp.113-a670. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1281309. PMID 16203228.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1281309","url_text":"\"Are EDCs Blurring Issues of Gender?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.113-a670","url_text":"10.1289/ehp.113-a670"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0091-6765","url_text":"0091-6765"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1281309","url_text":"1281309"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16203228","url_text":"16203228"}]},{"reference":"Cross, Beach; Levy, Sadhra; Sorahan, McRoy. \"Manufacture, Processing and Use of Stainless Steel: A Review of the Health Effects\" (PDF). Institute of Occupational Health, University of Birmingham, UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314235728/http://www.worldstainless.org/NR/rdonlyres/E0D2EF7D-02BE-447B-AC72-D68A0278055A/4913/1999HealthEffectsofStainlessSteels.pdf","url_text":"\"Manufacture, Processing and Use of Stainless Steel: A Review of the Health Effects\""},{"url":"http://www.worldstainless.org/NR/rdonlyres/E0D2EF7D-02BE-447B-AC72-D68A0278055A/4913/1999HealthEffectsofStainlessSteels.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Silberstein J, Grabowski J, Lakin C, Goldstein I (July 2008). \"Penile constriction devices: case report, review of the literature, and recommendations for extrication\". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 5 (7): 1747–57. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00848.x. PMID 18507720.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1743-6109.2008.00848.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00848.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18507720","url_text":"18507720"}]},{"reference":"\"Woman cut free from 'S&M' chastity belt by firemen (From Your Local Guardian)\". Yourlocalguardian.co.uk. 6 July 2008. Retrieved 6 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.yourlocalguardian.co.uk/news/2381033.man_cut_free_from_sm_chastity_belt_by_firemen/","url_text":"\"Woman cut free from 'S&M' chastity belt by firemen (From Your Local Guardian)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why female chastity? Everything you wanted to know about cock cages but were too afraid to ask\". www.sexyfunworld.com. Retrieved 24 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sexyfunworld.com/why-male-chastity","url_text":"\"Why female chastity? Everything you wanted to know about cock cages but were too afraid to ask\""}]},{"reference":"Barton, Laura (12 February 2004). \"Chastity begins at home\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,1146122,00.html","url_text":"\"Chastity begins at home\""}]},{"reference":"\"Antiques: Iron Belt\". Time. 30 May 1969. Archived from the original on 21 May 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070521204303/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840133,00.html","url_text":"\"Antiques: Iron Belt\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840133,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chastity belt maker does lots of business\". Montreal Gazette. 1 June 1978. p. 40. Retrieved 12 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=IwowAAAAIBAJ&pg=1231,204301&dq=chastity-belt&hl=en","url_text":"\"Chastity belt maker does lots of business\""}]},{"reference":"Classen, Albrecht (2007). The medieval chastity belt: a myth-making process. Macmillan. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-1-4039-7558-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/medievalchastity00clas","url_text":"The medieval chastity belt: a myth-making process"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/medievalchastity00clas/page/n189","url_text":"179"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7558-4","url_text":"978-1-4039-7558-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Swingtime in England\". The Bulletin. 7 April 1973. p. 48. Retrieved 2 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-1413731904/view?sectionId=nla.obj-1642395125&partId=nla.obj-1413793102#page/n47/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Swingtime in England\""}]},{"reference":"\"Robin Hugessen (left) chastity belt manufacturer, and (right) Mr. Bob Nicholson, leather craftsman, with chastity belt\". Getty Images. 19 November 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gettyimages.ie/detail/news-photo/robin-hugessen-chastity-belt-manufacturer-and-mr-bob-news-photo/1081417074","url_text":"\"Robin Hugessen (left) chastity belt manufacturer, and (right) Mr. Bob Nicholson, leather craftsman, with chastity belt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leather Craftsman, Bob Nicholson, (left) and chastity belt manufacture, Robin Hugessen with chastity belts, Mr. Hugessen wears a chastity belt crown\". Getty Images. 21 December 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gettyimages.in/detail/news-photo/leather-craftsman-bob-nicholson-and-chastity-belt-news-photo/1081417086","url_text":"\"Leather Craftsman, Bob Nicholson, (left) and chastity belt manufacture, Robin Hugessen with chastity belts, Mr. Hugessen wears a chastity belt crown\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chastity belt manufacturer Robin Hugessen (foreground) and leather craftsman Bob Nicholson (in background) with chastity belts. Mr. Hugessen wears a crown made from a chastity belt\". Getty Images. 21 December 1971. Retrieved 2 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gettyimages.in/detail/news-photo/leather-craftsman-bob-nicholson-and-chastity-belt-news-photo/1081417086https://www.gettyimages.ch/detail/nachrichtenfoto/chastity-belt-manufacturer-robin-hugessen-and-leather-nachrichtenfoto/1081417078","url_text":"\"Chastity belt manufacturer Robin Hugessen (foreground) and leather craftsman Bob Nicholson (in background) with chastity belts. Mr. Hugessen wears a crown made from a chastity belt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chastity Belt Firm in London Falls To Creditors\". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 25 July 1974. Retrieved 25 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ycoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA5","url_text":"\"Chastity Belt Firm in London Falls To Creditors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Worlds Only Chastity Belt Firm Folds\". St Petersburg Times. 28 June 1974. p. 7-A. Retrieved 2 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HOxRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=S3MDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5918%2C1815934","url_text":"\"Worlds Only Chastity Belt Firm Folds\""}]},{"reference":"Keefe, Jenny (13 June 2004). \"Getting Medieval\". Sheffield Base. Archived from the original on 13 June 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20040613120206/http://www.sheffieldbase.com/story.php?s=321","url_text":"\"Getting Medieval\""},{"url":"http://www.sheffieldbase.com/story.php?s=321","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"James Cummins Bookseller\". Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120311001801/http://www.jamescumminsbookseller.com/store/19497.htm","url_text":"\"James Cummins Bookseller\""},{"url":"http://www.jamescumminsbookseller.com/store/19497.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Slade, Joseph W. (2001). Pornography and Sexual Representation: A Reference Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 416. ISBN 9780313315206.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZaGTZySRzeYC&pg=PA416","url_text":"Pornography and Sexual Representation: A Reference Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313315206","url_text":"9780313315206"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Invasion_of_Russia
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French invasion of Russia
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["1 Names","2 Background","3 Declaration of war","4 Logistics","4.1 Provisions and transportation","4.2 Combat service and support and medicine","4.3 Ammunition","5 Invasion","5.1 Crossing the Russian border","5.2 March on Vilna","5.3 March on Vitebsk and Minsk","5.4 March on Smolensk","5.5 The Battle of Borodino","5.6 Capture of Moscow","5.7 Retreat","5.8 Cold weather","5.9 Summary","6 Historical assessment","6.1 Grande Armée","6.2 Imperial Russian Army","6.3 Losses","6.4 Aftermath","6.5 Historiography","6.6 German invasion","6.7 Cultural impact","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","9.1 Sources","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
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1812 conflict during the Napoleonic Wars
"Russian campaign" redirects here. For other uses, see Russian campaign (disambiguation).
"Second Polish War" redirects here. For the 1794 uprising, see Kościuszko Uprising.
"Patriotic War of 1812" redirects here. For the 1812–15 conflict in North America, see War of 1812.
French invasion of RussiaPart of the Napoleonic WarsTop to bottom, left to right:
French soldiers struggling with thirst and heat by Albrecht Adam
The end of Borodino battle by Vasily Vereshchagin
Moscow burning by Viktor Mazurovsky
French soldiers attacked by Russian Cossacks
Crossing the Berezina River by Victor Adam
Marshal Ney at the Kowno redoubt by Auguste Raffet
Date24 June – 14 December 1812(5 months, 2 weeks and 6 days)LocationRussian EmpireResult
Russian victoryBelligerents
France
Poland
Duchy of Warsaw
Lithuania
Italy
Naples
Rhine Confederation
Saxony
Bavaria
Westphalia
Württemberg
Hesse
Berg
Baden
Switzerland
Spain
French allies: Austria Prussia Denmark-Norway
RussiaCommanders and leaders
List
Napoleon I
Pierre Augereau
Eugène de Beauharnais
Jean-Baptiste Bessières
Jérôme Bonaparte
Louis-Nicolas Davout
Jean-Andoche Junot
François Joseph Lefebvre
Étienne Macdonald
Édouard Mortier
Joachim Murat
Michel Ney
Nicolas Oudinot
Józef Poniatowski
Jean Reynier
Laurent Saint-Cyr
Ambroży Mikołaj Skarżyński
Karl von Schwarzenberg
Claude Victor
Johann Yorck
List
Alexander I
Pyotr Bagration †
Mikhail Barclay de Tolly
Alexander von Benckendorff
Levin von Bennigsen
Pavel Chichagov
Eufemiusz Czaplic
Dmitry Dokhturov
Dmitry Golitsyn
Yakov Kulnev †
Mikhail Kutuzov
Charles de Lambert
Mikhail Miloradovich
Vasily Orlov-Denisov
Alexander Osterman-Tolstoy
Fabian Osten-Sacken
Peter von der Pahlen
Matvei Platov
Nikolay Raevsky
Pavel Stroganov
Alexander Tormasov
Nikolay Tuchkov †
Peter Wittgenstein
Aleksey Yermolov
Strength
450,000 – 685,000 total:
449,000 First wave
134,000 Borodino
108,000 Maloyaroslavets
33,000 Berezina
508,000 – 723,000 total:
98,000 First wave
118,000 Borodino
129,000 Maloyaroslavets
126,000 BerezinaCasualties and losses
434,000 - 500,000
284,000 - 350,000 dead
100,000 killed in combat
200,000 died from other causes
50,000 died in captivity
50,000 wounded
50,000 deserted
50,000-100,000 prisoners
410,000
210,000 dead
150,000 wounded
50,000 deserted
Total military and civilian deaths:c. 1,000,000
vteFrench invasion of Russia
Grodno
Mir
Ekau
Saltanovka
Riga
Ostrovno
Kobrin
1st Vitebsk
Klyastitsy
Inkovo
Swolna
Gorodechno
1st Krasnoi
Smolensk
1st Polotsk
Valutino
Dahlenkirchen
Shevardino
Borodino
Mozhaysk
Zvenigorod
Moscow
Mesoten
Ustyluh
Tarutino
2nd Polotsk
Maloyaroslavets
Chashniki
Vyazma
2nd Vitebsk
Liaskowa
Nowo Schwerschen
Smoliani
Wolkowisk
Kaidanowo
2nd Krasnoi
Borisov
Loschniza
Berezina
Pleshchenitsy
French invasion of Russia
500km300miles
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 Prussian corps Napoleon Austrian corps
The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign (French: Campagne de Russie) and in Russia as the Patriotic War of 1812 (Russian: Оте́чественная война́ 1812 го́да, romanized: Otéchestvennaya voyná 1812 góda), was initiated by Napoleon with the aim of compelling the Russian Empire to comply with the continental blockade of the United Kingdom. Widely studied, Napoleon's incursion into Russia stands as a focal point in military history, recognized as among the most devastating military endeavors globally. In a span of fewer than six months, the campaign exacted a staggering toll, claiming the lives of nearly a million soldiers and civilians.
On 24 June 1812 and subsequent days, the initial wave of the multinational Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River, marking the entry from the Duchy of Warsaw into Russia. Employing extensive forced marches, Napoleon rapidly advanced his army of nearly half a million individuals through Western Russia, encompassing present-day Belarus, in a bid to dismantle the disparate Russian forces led by Barclay de Tolly and Pyotr Bagration totaling approximately 180,000–220,000 soldiers at that juncture. Despite losing half of his men within six weeks due to extreme weather conditions, diseases and scarcity of provisions, Napoleon emerged victorious in the Battle of Smolensk. However, the Russian Army, now commanded by Mikhail Kutuzov, opted for a strategic retreat, employing attrition warfare against Napoleon compelling the invaders to rely on an inadequate supply system, incapable of sustaining their vast army in the field.
The fierce Battle of Borodino, located 110 kilometres (70 mi) west of Moscow, concluded as a narrow victory for the French although Napoleon was not able to beat the Russian army and Kutuzov could not stop the French. At the Council at Fili Kutuzov made the critical decision not to defend the city but to orchestrate a general withdrawal, prioritizing the preservation of the Russian army. On 14 September, Napoleon and his roughly 100,000-strong army took control of Moscow, only to discover it deserted, and set ablaze by its military governor Fyodor Rostopchin. Remaining in Moscow for five weeks, Napoleon awaited a peace proposal that never materialized. Due to favorable weather conditions, Napoleon delayed his retreat and, hoping to secure supplies, began a different route westward than the one the army had devastated on the way there. However, after losing the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, he was compelled to retrace his initial path.
As early November arrived, snowfall and frost complicated the retreat. Shortages of food and winter attire for the soldiers and provision for the horses, combined with guerilla warfare from Russian peasants and Cossacks, resulted in significant losses. More than half of the soldiers perished from exhaustion, typhus, and the unforgiving continental climate.
During the Battle of Krasnoi, Napoleon faced a critical scarcity of cavalry and artillery due to severe snowfall and icy conditions. Employing a strategic maneuver, he deployed the Old Guard against Miloradovich, who obstructed the primary road to Krasny, effectively isolating him from the main army. Davout successfully broke through, Eugene de Beauharnais and Michel Ney were forced to take a detour. Despite the consolidation of several retreating French corps with the main army, by the time they reached the Berezina, Napoleon commanded only around 49,000 troops alongside 40,000 stragglers of little military significance. On 5 December, Napoleon departed from the army at Smorgonie in a sled and returned to Paris. Within a few days, an additional 20,000 people succombed to the bitter cold and diseases carried by lice. Murat and Ney assumed command, pressing forward but leaving over 20,000 men in the hospitals of Vilnius. The remnants of the principal armies, disheartened, crossed the frozen Niemen and the Bug.
While exact figures remain elusive due to the absence of meticulous records, estimations varied and often included exaggerated counts, overlooking auxiliary troops. Napoleon's initial force upon entering Russia exceeded 450,000 men, accompanied by over 150,000 horses, approximately 25,000 wagons and nearly 1,400 artillery pieces. However, the surviving count dwindled to a mere 120,000 men (excluding early deserters); signifying a staggering loss of approximately 380,000 lives throughout the campaign, half of which resulted from diseases. This catastrophic outcome shattered Napoleon's once-untarnished reputation of invincibility.
Names
The French invasion is known as the Russian campaign, the Second Polish War, the Second Polish campaign, the Patriotic War of 1812, or the War of 1812. It should not be confused with the Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война, Velikaya Otechestvennaya Voyna), a term for the German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The "Patriotic War of 1812" is also occasionally referred to as simply the "War of 1812", a term which should not be confused with the conflict between Great Britain and the United States, also known as the War of 1812. In Russian literature written before the Russian revolution, the war was occasionally described as "the invasion of twelve languages" (Russian: нашествие двенадцати языков). Napoleon termed this war the "Second Polish War" in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots. Though the stated goal of the war was the resurrection of the Polish state on the territories of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern territories of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine), in fact, this issue was of no real concern to Napoleon.
Background
The French Empire in 1812
From 1792 onwards, France found itself frequently embroiled in conflicts with major European powers, a direct aftermath of the French Revolution. Napoleon, rising to power in 1799 and assuming autocratic rule over France, orchestrated numerous military campaigns that led to the establishment of the first French empire. Starting in 1803, the Napoleonic Wars served as a testament to Napoleon's military prowess. He secured victories in the War of the Third Coalition (1803–1806, leading to the dissolution of the thousand-year-old Holy Roman Empire), the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807), and the War of the Fifth Coalition (1809).
In 1807, following a French triumph at Friedland Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit along the Neman River. These treaties progressively solidified Russia's alignment with France, allowing Napoleon to exert dominance over neighboring states. The accord rendered Russia an ally of France, leading to their adoption of the Continental System, a blockade aimed at the United Kingdom. However, the treaty imposed significant economic strain on Russia, prompting Tsar Alexander to break away from the Continental blockade on December 31, 1810. This decision left Napoleon without his primary foreign policy tool against the United Kingdom.
The Treaty of Schönbrunn, concluding the 1809 conflict between Austria and France included a clause that transferred Western Galicia from Austria and annexing it to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. This move was seen unfavorably by Russia, perceiving the territory's annexation as a potential threat for a French invasion point. Russia's foreign Minister Nikolay Rumyantsev advocated for a closer alliance with France in response.
In an attempt to secure greater cooperation from Russia, Napoleon initially pursued an alliance by proposing marriage to Anna Pavlovna, the youngest sister of Alexander. However, he ultimately married Marie Louise, the daughter of the Austrian emperor. Subsequently, France and Austria solidified their relationship by signing an alliance treaty on 14 March 1812.
In March 1811, Marshal Davout received orders to clandestinely prepare for a demonstration of military strength aimed at impressing Russia. This plan involved deploying (Dutch) troops to Magdeburg and occupying the Baltic ports Stettin and Danzig. During this period, Napoleon's physical and mental condition underwent changes. He experienced weight gain and increasing susceptibility to various health issues. In May 1812 he left his palace in Saint-Cloud; one month later he arrived in Toruń.
Declaration of war
Main article: 1812 French declaration of war on Russia
Committed to Catherine the Great's expansion policy, Alexander I issued an ultimatum in April 1812, demanding the evacuation of French troops from Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. When Napoleon chose war over retreat, between June 8 and 20, the troops remained in constant motion, enduring arduous marches amid intense heat. Napoleon's primary objective was to defeat the Imperial Russian Army and compel Czar Alexander I to rejoin to the Continental System. From 21–22 June 1812, Bonaparte stayed at Vilkaviškis Manor (in Polish: Wilkowiszky). There Napoleon announced the following proclamation:
Soldiers, the second Polish war is begun. The first terminated at Friedland, and at Tilsit, Russia vowed an eternal alliance with France, and war with the English. She now breaks her vows and refuses to give any explanation of her strange conduct until the French eagles have repassed the Rhine, and left our allies at her mercy. Russia is hurried away by a fatality: her destinies will be fulfilled. Does she think us degenerated? Are we no more the soldiers who fought at Austerlitz? She places us between dishonour and war—our choice cannot be difficult. Let us then march forward; let us cross the Niemen and carry the war into her country. This second Polish war will be as glorious for the French arms as the first has been, but the peace we shall conclude shall carry with it its own guarantee, and will terminate the fatal influence which Russia for fifty years past has exercised in Europe.
Logistics
French attack by infantry
The invasion of Russia starkly highlights the pivotal role of logistics in military strategy, particularly in situations where the available terrain cannot sustain the large number of deployed troops. Napoleon meticulously prepared for supplying his army, significantly surpassing the logistical efforts of previous campaigns. To sustain the Grande Armée and its operations, twenty train battalions with 7,848 vehicles, were mobilized to provide a 40-day supply. Extensive magazines were strategically set up in towns and cities across Poland and East Prussia, while the Vistula river valley was developed into a vital supply base in 1811–1812. Intendant/Quartermaster General Dumas organized five supply lines from the Rhine to the Vistula, establishing administrative headquarters in three arrondissements in French-controlled Germany and Poland. This logistical preparation served as a significant trial of Napoleon's administrative and logistical acumen, with his focus in the first half of 1812 dedicated mainly to provisioning his invading army.
Napoleon's study of Russian geography and history, including Charles XII's invasion of 1708–1709, reinforced his understanding of the imperative to transport as many supplies as possible. The French Army's prior experience operating in the sparsely populated and underdeveloped regions of Poland and East Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) also informed their approach.
However, nothing was to go as planned, because Napoleon had failed to take into account conditions that were totally different from what he had known so far.
Napoleon and the Grande Armée were accustomed to utilizing the method of living off the land, which proved successful in the densely populated and agriculturally prosperous regions of central Europe, characterized by a well-connected network of roads. Swift forced marches had disoriented the traditional Austrian and Prussian armies, relying extensively on foraging for sustenance. Colonel Pion documented the logistical challenges that this strategy imposed on the army:
There is no fodder for the horses; as usual there is no order or administration; the Army must live by the sword, and even on Prussian territory and with their allies, the troops pillage atrociously, as if they were in an enemy’s country.
During the campaign, the widespread death and depletion of horses emerged as a significant issue. Forced marches often forced troops to go without essential supplies, as supply wagons struggled to keep pace; The scarcity of roads, frequently turned to mud by rainstorms (rasputitsa), further impeded horse-drawn wagons and artillery.
In thinly populated and agriculturally sparse regions, the lack of food and water led to casualties among troops and their mounts, exposing them to waterborne diseases from drinking contaminated water and consuming spoiled food and forage. While the foremost sections of the army received whatever provisions could be supplied, formations behind them suffered from starvation. During the attack phase, Vilna stood as the most advanced magazine in the operational area. Beyond that point, the army had to rely solely on its own resources.
Provisions and transportation
Danzig contained enough provisions to feed 400,000 men for 50 days. Breslau, Plock and Wyszogród were turned into grain depots, milling vast quantities of flour for delivery to Thorn, where 60,000 biscuits were produced every day. A large bakery was established at Villenberg (Braniewo County). 50,000 cattle were collected to follow the army. After the invasion began, large magazines were constructed at Kovno (Kaunas), Vilna (Vilnius), and Minsk, with the Vilna base having enough rations to feed 100,000 men for 40 days. It also contained 27,000 muskets, 30,000 pairs of shoes along with brandy and wine. Medium-sized depots were established at Vitebsk, Orsha, and Smolensk, and several small ones throughout the Russian interior. The French also captured numerous intact Russian supply dumps, which the Russians had failed to destroy or empty, and Moscow itself was filled with food. Twenty train battalions provided most of the transportation, with a combined load of 8,390 tons. Twelve of these battalions had a total of 3,024 heavy wagons drawn by four horses each, four had 2,424 one-horse light wagons and four had 2,400 wagons drawn by oxen. Auxiliary supply convoys were formed on Napoleon's orders in early June 1812, using vehicles requisitioned in East Prussia. Marshal Nicolas Oudinot's IV Corps alone took 600 carts formed into six companies. The wagon trains were supposed to carry enough bread, flour and medical supplies for 300,000 men for two months.
The standard heavy wagons, well-suited for the dense and partially paved road networks of Germany and France, proved too cumbersome for the sparse and primitive Russian dirt tracks, further damaged by the unstable weather. Many horses also died during the march towards Vilnius through forests which lacked the necessary fodder, slowing even further the transport of supplies for Napoleon's troops. The supply route from Smolensk to Moscow was therefore entirely dependent on light wagons with small loads. Central to the problem were the expanding distances to supply magazines and the fact that no supply wagon could keep up with a forced marched infantry column. The weather itself became an issue, where, according to historian Richard K. Riehn:
The thunderstorms of the 29th turned into other downpours, turning the tracks—some diarists claim there were no roads in Lithuania—into bottomless mires. Wagons sank up to their hubs; horses dropped from exhaustion; men lost their boots. Stalled wagons became obstacles that forced men around them and stopped supply wagons and artillery columns. Then came the sun which would bake the deep ruts into canyons of concrete, where horses would break their legs and wagons their wheels. Jean-François Boulart reported:Then on June 29th came a fresh and awful and extraordinary storm; such a terrible tempest had not been known in the memory of man.Thunder and lightning burst forth from every side of the horizon; soldiers were struck dead; torrents of rain flooded the bivouacs; the downpour lasted all the next day.The heavy losses to disease, hunger and desertion in the early months of the campaign were in large part due to the inability to transport provisions quickly enough to the troops. The Intendance administration failed to distribute with sufficient rigor the supplies that were built up or captured. By that, despite all these preparations, the Grande Armée was not self-sufficient logistically and still depended on foraging to a significant extent.
Inadequate supplies played a key role in the losses suffered by the army as well. Davidov and other Russian campaign participants record wholesale surrenders of starving members of the Grande Armée even before the onset of the frosts. Caulaincourt describes men swarming over and cutting up horses that slipped and fell, even before the horse had been killed. Other accounts describe eating the flesh of horses still walking, too cold to react in pain; drinking blood and preparing black pudding was popular. The French simply were unable to feed their army. Starvation led to a general loss of cohesion. Constant harassment of the French Army by Cossacks added to the losses during the retreat.
Though starvation caused horrendous casualties in Napoleon's army, losses arose from other sources as well. The main body of Napoleon's Grande Armée diminished by a third in just the first eight weeks of the campaign, before the major battle was fought. This loss in strength was in part due to diseases such as diphtheria, dysentery and typhus and the need for garrison supply centres. There are eyewitness reports of cannibalism in November 1812.
Combat service and support and medicine
Nine pontoon companies, three pontoon trains with 100 pontoons each, two companies of marines, nine sapper companies, six miner companies and an engineer park were deployed for the invasion force. Large-scale military hospitals were created at Warsaw, Thorn, Breslau, Marienburg, Elbing and Danzig, while hospitals in East Prussia (Königsberg), had beds for 28,000. Also in: Wilna, Disna, and Vitepsk.
Ammunition
Napoleon stopped at Castle Malbork, a large military warehouse
A significant arsenal was established in Warsaw, forming a crucial part of the logistical infrastructure. The distribution of artillery was concentrated across strategic locations at Magdeburg, Küstrin, Stettin, Danzig and Glogau.
Magdeburg contained a siege artillery train housing 100 heavy guns and storing 462 cannons, two million paper cartridges and 300,000 pounds/135 tonnes of gunpowder;
Danzig had a siege train with 130 heavy guns and 300,000 pounds of gunpowder;
Stettin contained 263 guns, a million cartridges and 200,000 pounds/90 tonnes of gunpowder;
Küstrin contained 108 guns and a million cartridges;
Glogau contained 108 guns, a million cartridges and 100,000 pounds/45 tonnes of gunpowder.
Modlin Fortress near Warsaw, Thorn and Malbork (Marienburg) served as vital ammunition and supply depots.
Troops gathered in Thorn, Königsberg, Znamensk, Insterburg, and Gumbinnen, where Napoleon arrived on 18 June. Meanwhile, Davout had ordered his I corps to pillage the town. The corps coming from Warsaw used the Suwałki Gap. Several corps, except X Corps, passed Marijampolė before arriving at the river Neman. On 23 June Napoleon arrived at Naugardiškė, south of Kaunas.
Invasion
See also: List of battles of the French invasion of Russia
Crossing the Russian border
Main article: Order of battle of the French invasion of Russia
On the border of Nieman 1812 by Christian Wilhelm von Faber du Faur
After two days of preparation, the invasion commenced on Wednesday, 24 June 1812 with Napoleon's army crossing the border. The army was split up into five columns:
The left wing under Macdonald with the X Corps of 30,000 men (half of them Prussians) crossed the Niemen at Tilsit on the 24th. He moved north in Courland but did not succeed in occupying Riga. Early August he occupied Dunaburg; early September he returned to Riga with his entire force. On 18 December, a few days after the French left the Russian Empire, he drew back to Königsberg, followed by Peter Wittgenstein. On 25 December one of his generals Yorck von Wartenburg found himself isolated because the Russian army blocked the road. After five days he was urged by his officers (and in the presence of Carl von Clausewitz), at least to neutralization of his troops and an armistice. Yorck's resolution had enormous consequences.
In the evening of June 23, Morand, accompanied by sappers, occupied the other side of the Niemen. Around noon, the next morning, Napoleon, followed by the Imperial Guard (47,000), crossed the river on one of the three pontoon bridges nearby Napoleon's Hill. Afterwards, Murat's cavalry and three corps crossed the river destined for Vilnius. Then they followed Barclay de Toll's First Army of the West to Drissa and Polotsk.
Cavalry corps of Murat (32,000) advanced to Vilnius and Polotsk in the vanguard.
I Corps of Davout (72,000), the strongest corps, left Vilnius on 1 July and occupied Minsk a week later. His goal was to cut off Pyotr Bagration from Barclay de Tolly. He already had lost a third of his men but beat Bagration at Mogilev and then went to Smolensk, where he joined the main army.
II Corps of Oudinot (37,000) crossed the Niemen and the Viliya to combat Peter Wittgenstein, who protected the road to St Petersburg. Oudinot didn't succeed in joining up with Macdonald and joined the VIth corps. For two months these corps kept Wittgenstein at a distance until the Second Battle of Polotsk.
III Corps of Ney (39,000) defended downstream the 4th pontoon bridge at Aleksotas which could be used to escape; he then went to Polotsk. Second Central force crossed at Pilona 20 km upstream.
IV Corps of Beauharnais (45,000 Italians) crossed the Niemen near Pilona. Napoleon's stepson had orders to avoid Vilnius on his way to Vitebsk.
VI Corps of St. Cyr (25,000 Bavarians) crossed at Pilona. He was to throw himself between the two Russian armies and cut off all communication between them. He followed the II Corps to Polotsk, forming the northern flank. Both corps never saw Moscow. With French forces moving through different routes in the direction of Polotsk and Vitebsk, the first major engagement took place on 25 July at the Battle of Ostrowno.
Right flank force under Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (62,000). He crossed the Niemen near Grodno on 1 July, and moved towards Bagration's (second western) army. It seems he was advancing slowly so the stragglers could catch up. On the order of Napoleon Davout secretly took over the command on 6 July. The Battle of Mir was a tactical victory for the Russians; Jerome let Platov escape by deploying too few of Józef Poniatowski's troops. Jérôme left the army after being criticised by Davout. He went home at the end of July, taking a small battalion of guards with him.
IV Cavalry Corps of Latour Maubourg (8,000) joined Davout.
V Corps (36,000 (Polish) soldiers) under Poniatowski joined Davout and went to Mogilev and Smolensk. Polish legions, including Lithuanians formed the largest foreign contingent.
VIII Corps (17,000 Westphalians) under Vandamme who was sent home in early July. Jérôme Bonaparte took over but resigned on 15 July when he found out Davout had been secretly given the command. Early August the command was given to Junot. In the Battle of Smolensk (1812) Junot was sent to bypass the left flank of the Russian army, but he got lost and was unable to carry out this operation. Junot, a heavy drinker, was blamed for allowing the Russian army to retreat arriving too late at the Battle of Valutino. After the Battle of Borodino he had only 2,000 men left. In July 1813, Junot jumped out of a window; he died a few days later.
The right or southern wing under Schwarzenberg (34,000) crossed the Western Bug on a pontoon bridge at Drohiczyn on 2 July. Tormasov's third army prevented him from joining up with Davout. When Tormasov occupied Brest (Belarus) at the end of July, Schwarzenberg and Reynier were cut off from supplies. On 18 September the Austrians withdrew when Pavel Chichagov arrived from the south and seized Minsk on 18 November. On 14 December 1812 Schwarzenberg crossed the border.
VII Corps of Reynier (17,000 Saxons) stayed in the Grodno region and cooperated with Schwarzenberg to protect the Duchy of Warsaw against Tormasov.
During the campaign reinforcements of 80,000 and the baggage trains with 30,000 men were sent on different dates. In November, the division of Durutte assisted Reynier. In December Loison was sent to help extricate the remnants of the Grand Army in its retreat. Within a few days many of Loison's unexperienced soldiers died of the extreme cold. Napoleon arrested him for not marching with his division to the front.
IX Corps of Victor (33,000). The majority was sent to Smolensk in early September; he took over the command from St. Cyr. At the end of October, he retreated, losing significant supplies in Vitebsk to Wittgenstein. Victor and H.W. Daendels were ordered to cover the retreat to the Berezina.
XI Corps of Augerau was part of the reserve. It was created later in the late summer. It contained an entire division of reformed deserters. This corps, based in Poland did not participate in military operations in Russia until November/December. Augereau never left Berlin; his younger brother general Jean-Pierre and his troops were compelled to surrender to the partisans Aleksandr Figner and Denis Davydov on 9 November.
March on Vilna
27 June, 1812. Quartier Général at Mykoliškiai
Napoleon initially met little resistance and moved quickly into the enemy's territory in spite of the transport of more than 1,100 cannons, being opposed by the Russian armies with more than 900 cannons. But the roads in this area of Lithuania were actually small dirt tracks through areas of birched woodland and marshes. At the beginning of the war supply lines already simply could not keep up with the forced marches of the corps and rear formations always suffered the worst privations.
On the 25th of June Murat's reserve cavalry provided the vanguard with Napoleon, the Imperial guard and Davout's 1st Corps following behind. Napoleon spent the night and the next day in Kaunas, allowing only his guards, not even the generals to enter the city. The next day he rushed towards the capital Vilna, pushing the infantry forward in columns that suffered from stifling heat, heavy rain and more heat. The central group marched 110 kilometres (70 mi) in two days. Ney's III Corps marched down the road to Sudervė, with Oudinot marching on the other side of the Viliya river.
Since the end of April, the Russian headquarters was centred in Vilna but on June 24 couriers rushed news about the crossing of the Niemen to Barclay de Tolley. Before the night had passed, orders were sent out to Bagration and Platov, who commanded the Cossacks, to take the offensive. Alexander left Vilna on June 26 and Barclay assumed overall command.
Napoleon reached Vilna on 28 June with only light skirmishing but leaving more than 5,000 dead horses in his wake. These horses were vital to bringing up further supplies to an army in desperate need; he was forced to leave up to 100 guns and up to 500 artillery wagons. Napoleon had supposed that Alexander would sue for peace at this point and was to be disappointed; it would not be his last disappointment. Balashov demanded that the French returned across the Niemen before negotiations. Barclay continued to retreat to Drissa, deciding that the concentration of the 1st and 2nd armies was his first priority.
Several days after crossing the Niemen, a number of soldiers began to develop high fevers and a red rash on their bodies. Typhus had made its appearance. On 29/30 June, a violent thunderstorm struck Lithuania during the night and continued for several hours or a day.
The results were most disastrous to the French forces. The movement of troops was impeded or absolutely checked and the vast troop and supply trains on the Vilnius-Kaunas Road became disorganized. The existing roads became little better than quagmires causing the horses to break down under the additional strain. The delay and frequent loss of these supply trains caused both troops and horses to suffer. Napoleon's forces traditionally were well supplied by his transportation corps, but they proved inadequate during the invasion.
The foraging in Lithuania proved hard as the land was mostly barren and forested. The supplies of forage were less than that of Poland, and two days of forced marching made a bad supply situation worse. Some 50,000 stragglers and deserters became a lawless mob warring with the local peasantry in all-out guerrilla war, which further hindered supplies reaching the Grande Armée. Central to the problem were the expanding distances to supply magazines and the fact that no supply wagon could keep up with a forced marched infantry column.
A Lieutenant Mertens—a Württemberger serving with Ney's III Corps—reported in his diary that oppressive heat followed by cold nights and rain left them with dead horses and camping in swamp-like conditions with dysentery and fever raging through the ranks with hundreds in a field hospital that had to be set up for the purpose. He reported the times, dates and places of events, reporting new thunderstorms on 6 July and men dying of sunstroke a few days later. Rapid forced marches quickly caused desertion, suicide and starvation, and exposed the troops to filthy water and disease, while the logistics trains lost horses by the thousands, further exacerbating the problems.
March on Vitebsk and Minsk
Cossacks feigning retreat against Polish uhlans at the Battle of Mir
General Raevsky leading a detachment of the Russian Imperial Guard at the Battle of Saltanovka
Although Barclay wanted to give battle, he assessed it as a hopeless situation and ordered Vilna's magazines burned and its bridge dismantled. Wittgenstein moved his command to Klaipeda, passing beyond Macdonald and Oudinot's operations with Wittgenstein's rear guard clashing with Oudinout's forward elements. Barclay continued his retreat and, with the exception of the occasional rearguard clash, remained unhindered in his movements ever further east.
The operation intended to split Bagration's forces from Barclay's forces by driving to Vilna had cost the French forces 25,000 losses from all causes in a few days. Strong probing operations were advanced from Vilna towards Nemenčinė, Molėtai in the north and Ashmyany in the east, the location of Bagration on his way to Minsk. Bagration ordered Platov and Dokhturov to distract the enemy.
Murat advanced to Nemenčinė on July 1, running into elements of Dmitry Dokhturov's III Russian Cavalry Corps. Napoleon assumed this was Bagration's 2nd Army and rushed out, before being told it was not. Napoleon then attempted to use Davout, Jerome, and Eugene out on his right in a hammer and anvil to catch Bagration and to destroy the 2nd Army in an operation before reaching Minsk. This operation had failed to produce results on his left.
Conflicting orders and lack of information had almost placed Bagration in a bind marching into Davout; however, Jerome could not arrive in time over the same mud tracks, supply problems, and weather, that had so badly affected the rest of the Grande Armée. Command disputes between Jerome, Vandamme and Davout would not help the situation.
In the first two weeks of July, the Grande Armée lost 100,000 men due to sickness and desertion. On 8 July Dirk van Hogendorp was appointed as Governor of Lithuania organizing hospitals for the wounded in Vilnius and supplies for the army; Louis Henri Loison was appointed in Königsberg. The main problem was forage from East Prussia. For three weeks, the Dutch soldiers had hardly seen bread and only eaten soup.
Davout had lost 10,000 men marching to Minsk, which he reached on the 8th and would not attack Bagration without Jerome joining him. He ordered Polish cavalry to search for the thousands of looting soldiers who stayed behind. Davout left the city after four days where a Polish governor was appointed; Joseph Barbanègre had to organize the logistics. Davout crossed the Berezina and ran into the Battle of Mogilev with Bagration; he went to Orsha, and crossed the Dniepr on his way to Smolensk. Davout thought Bagration had some 60,000 men and Bagration thought Davout had 70,000. Bagration was getting orders from both Alexander's staff and Barclay (which Barclay didn't know) and left Bagration without a clear picture of what was expected of him and the general situation. This stream of confused orders to Bagration had him upset with Barclay, which would have repercussions later.
After five weeks, the loss of troops from disease and desertion had reduced Napoleon's effective fighting strength to about half. Ney and his corps were given ten days to recover and search for food. Jakob Walter describes his foraging experience during Russia's scorched earth tactics:Finally we arrived at Polotsk, a large city on the other side of the Western Dvina River. In this region I once left the bivouac to seek provisions. There were eight of us, and we came to a very distant village. Here we searched all the houses. There were no peasants left. I later realized how heedless I had been, since each one ran into a house alone, broke open everything that was covered, and searched all the floors and still nothing was found. Finally, when we assembled and were ready to leave, I once more inspected a little hut somewhat removed from the village. Around it from top to bottom were heaped bundles of hemp and shives, which I tore down; and, as I worked my way to the ground, sacks full of flour appeared. Now I joyfully called all my comrades so that we might dispose of the booty. In the village we saw sieves; these we took to sift the flour mixed with chaff an inch long; and, after that, we refilled the sacks. ... Then the question of carrying and dividing the grain arose, but it occurred to me that I had seen a horse in one of the houses. Everyone immediately hurried to find the horse. We found two instead of one, but unfortunately they were both colts, and one could not be used at all. We took the largest, placed two sacks on it, and started out very slowly. While we were marching there, the Russians saw us from a distance with this booty; and at the same moment we saw a troop of peasants in the valley, about fifty. These ran toward us. What could we do but shoot at them?
March on Smolensk
Napoleon and Poniatowski with the burning city of Smolensk
The total length of the city wall around the Smolensk Kremlin was 6.5 kilometres, with a height of up to 19 metres and a width of up to 5.2 metres, and a total of 38 watchtowers. The Kremlin lost nine towers because of the bombardment and fire.
Exactly at midnight, on July 16, Napoleon left Vilnius. On 19 July the Tsar left the army in Polotsk and headed for Moscow, taking the discredited Von Phull with him. Barclay, the Russian commander-in-chief, refused to fight despite Bagration's urgings. Several times he attempted to establish a strong defensive position, but each time the French advance was too quick for him to finish preparations and he was forced to retreat once more. When the French Army progressed further (under conditions of extreme heat and drought, rivers and wells filled with carrion) it encountered serious problems in foraging, aggravated by the scorched earth tactics of the Russian forces.From Smolensk to Moshaisk the war displayed its horrible work of destruction: all the roads, fields, and woods lay as though sown with people, horses, wagons, burned villages and cities; everything looked like the complete ruin of all that lived. In particular, we saw ten dead Russians to one of our men, although every day our numbers fell off considerably. In order to pass throughAfter the battle of Vitebsk Napoleon discovered that the Russians were able to slip away during the night. The city, at the intersection of important trade routes, and the palace of Alexander of Württemberg would be his base for the next two weeks. His army needed to recover and rest, but Napoleon asked himself what to do next.
According to Antoine-Henri Jomini, Napoleon planned not to go further than Smolensk and make Vilnius his headquarters for the winter. However, he could not go back at the end of July. His position was unfavourable according to Adam Zamoyski. There was the heat—also at night—and the lack of supplies. He had lost a third of his army due to sickness and straggling. The Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) had come to an end as Kutuzov signed the Treaty of Bucharest and the Russian general Pavel Chichagov headed north-west. His former ally Bernadotte broke off relations with France and entered into an alliance with Russia (Treaty of Örebro). Mid-July Napoleon's brother Jérome resigned and decided to go home. (For Napoleon he lost the opportunity to destroy the Russian armies separately.)
On 4 August the corps of Barclay and Bagration finally succeeded to unite in Smolensk. On 5 August they held a council of war. Under pressure, Barclay de Tolly decided to launch an offensive. (The French army arrived on Russian territory before the Partitions of Poland). A Russian force was sent west. Napoleon hoped that the Russian advance would lead to the long-desired battle and the unification of the Russian armies forced Napoleon to change his plans. On 14 August, Ney crossed the Dniepr and won the first Battle of Krasnoi. The next day Napoleon celebrated his 43rd birthday with a review of the army. In the late afternoon, Murat's cavalry and Ney's infantry closed up to the western side of Smolensk. The main body of the army did not come up until late the next day.
The Battle of Smolensk (1812) on August 16–18 became the first real confrontation. Napoleon surrounded the southern bank of the Dniepr, while the northern bank was guarded by Barclay's army. When Bagration moved further east, to prevent the French from crossing the river and attacking the Russians from behind, Napoleon began the attack on the Smolensk Kremlin in the evening. In the middle of the night Barclay de Tolly withdrew his troops from the burning city to avoid a big battle with no chance of victory. When the French army moved in the Russians left on the east side. Ney, Junot and Oudinot tried to halt their army. The Battle of Valutino could have been decisive but the Russians succeeded to escape via a diversion on the road to Moscow. The French discussed their options or prepare for a new attack after winter. Napoleon pressed his army on after the Russians. Murat implored him to stop, but Napoleon could see nothing but Moscow. After five or six days Napoleon invited the wounded Tuchkov to write the tsar his readiness for peace negotiations; then the general was sent to Paris as honorary prisoner. On 24 August, the Grande Armée marched out on the Old Smolensk road, 30 feet wide; Eugene on the left, Poniatowski on the right and Murat in the centre, with the Emperor, the Guard, I Corps and III Corps in the second line. Joseph Barbanègre was appointed commander of the devastated city and had to organise new supplies.
Kutuzov in command
Meanwhile, Wittgenstein was forced to retreat to the north after the First Battle of Polotsk. Bagration asked Aleksey Arakcheyev to organize the militia, as Barclay had led the French right into the capital. Political pressure on Barclay to give battle and the general's continuing reluctance to do so led to his removal after the defeat. On 20 August he was replaced in his position as commander-in-chief by the popular veteran Mikhail Kutuzov. The former head of the St. Petersburg militia and a member of the State Council arrived on the 29th at Tsaryovo-Zaymishche, a border village. The weather was still unbearably hot and Kutuzov went on with Barclay's successful strategy, using attrition warfare instead of risking the army in an open battle. Napoleon's superiority in numbers was almost eliminated. The Russian Army fell back ever deeper into Russia's empty and forested interior as Napoleon continued to move east. Unable because of political pressure to give up Moscow without a fight, Kutuzov took up a defensive position some 120 kilometres (75 mi) before Moscow at Borodino.
The Battle of Borodino
Main article: Battle of Borodino
Napoleon and his staff at Borodino by Vasily Vereshchagin
The Battle of Borodino, fought on 7 September 1812, was the largest battle of the French invasion of Russia, involving more than 250,000 troops and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. The Grande Armée attacked the Imperial Russian Army near the village of Borodino, west of the town of Mozhaysk, and eventually captured the main positions on the battlefield but failed to destroy the Russian army. About a third of Napoleon's soldiers were killed or wounded; Russian losses, while heavier, could be replaced due to Russia's large population, since Napoleon's campaign took place on Russian soil.
The battle ended with the Russian Army, while out of position, still offering resistance. The state of exhaustion of the French forces and the lack of recognition of the state of the Russian Army led Napoleon to remain on the battlefield with his army, instead of engaging in the forced pursuit that had marked other campaigns that he had conducted. The entirety of the Guard was still available to Napoleon, and in refusing to use it he lost this singular chance to destroy the Russian Army. Borodino was a pivotal point in the campaign, as it was the last offensive action fought by Napoleon in Russia. By withdrawing, the Russian Army preserved its combat strength, eventually allowing it to force Napoleon out of the country.
Borodino was the bloodiest day of battle in the Napoleonic Wars. The Russian Army could only muster half of its strength on September 8. Kutuzov chose to act in accordance with his scorched earth tactics and retreat, leaving the road to Moscow open. Kutuzov also ordered the evacuation of the city.
By this point the Russians had managed to draft large numbers of reinforcements (volunteers) into the army, bringing the Russian army to their peak strength in 1812 of 904,000, with perhaps 100,000 in the vicinity of Moscow—the remnants of Kutuzov's army from Borodino partially reinforced.
Both armies began to move and rebuild. The Russian retreat was significant for two reasons: firstly, the move was to the south and not the east; secondly, the Russians immediately began operations that would continue to deplete the French forces. Platov, commanding the rear guard on September 8, offered such strong resistance that Napoleon remained on the Borodino field. On the following day, Miloradovich assumed command of the rear guard, adding his forces to the formation.
On 8 September the Russian army began retreating east from Borodino. They camped outside Mozhaysk. When the village of Mozhaysk was captured by the French on the 9th, the Grande Armée rested for two days to recover. Napoleon asked Berthier to send reinforcements from Smolensk to Moscow and from Minsk to Smolensk. The French Army began to move out on September 10 with the still ill Napoleon not leaving until the 12th. Some 18,000 men were ordered in from Smolensk, and Marshal Victor's corps supplied another 25,000.
Capture of Moscow
Main article: French occupation of Moscow
Napoleon watching the fire of Moscow in September 1812
On 10 September the main quarter of the Russian army was situated at Bolshiye Vyazyomy. Kutuzov settled in a Vyazyomy Manor on the high road to Moscow. The owner was Dmitry Golitsyn, who entered military service again. The next day Tsar Alexander signed a document that Kutuzov was promoted General Field Marshal, the highest military rank of the Imperial Russian Army. Russian sources suggest Kutuzov wrote a number of orders and letters to Rostopchin, the Moscow military governor, about saving the city or the army. On 12 September 1812, the main forces of Kutuzov departed from the village, now Golitsyno and camped near Odintsovo, 20 km to the west, followed by Mortier and Joachim Murat's vanguard. Napoleon, who suffered from a cold and lost his voice, spent the night at Vyazyomy Manor (on the same sofa in the library) within 24 hours. On Sunday afternoon the Russian military council at Fili discussed the risks and agreed to abandon Moscow without fighting. Leo Tolstoy wrote Fyodor Rostopchin was invited also and explained the difficult decision in quite a few remarkable chapters in his book War and Peace. This came at the price of losing Moscow, whose population was evacuated. Miloradovich would not give up his rearguard duties until September 14, allowing Moscow to be evacuated. Miloradovich finally retreated under a flag of truce. Kutuzov withdrew to the southeast of Moscow.
On September 14, 1812, Napoleon moved into Moscow. However, he was surprised to have received no delegation from the city. Before the order was received to evacuate Moscow, the city had a population of approximately 270,000 people. 48 hours later three quarters of Moscow was reduced to ashes by arson. Although Saint Petersburg was the political capital at that time, Napoleon had occupied Moscow, the spiritual capital of Russia, but Alexander I decided that there could not be peaceful coexistence with Napoleon. There would be no appeasement. On 19 September Murat lost sight of Kutuzov who changed direction and turned west to Podolsk and Tarutino where he would be more protected by the surrounding hills and the Nara river. On 3 October Kutuzov and his entire staff arrived at Tarutino and camped there for two weeks. He controlled the three-pronged roads from Obninsk to Kaluga and Medyn so that Napoleon could not turn south or southwest. This position not only allowed him to harass the French lines of communication but also stay in contact with the Russian forces under Tormasov and Chichagov, commander of the Army of the Danube. He was also well placed to watch over the workshops and arms factories in nearby Tula and Briansk.Kutuzov's food supplies and reinforcements were mostly coming up through Kaluga from the fertile and populous southern provinces, his new deployment gave him every opportunity to feed his men and horses and rebuild their strength. He refused to attack; he was happy for Napoleon to stay in Moscow for as long as possible, avoiding complicated movements and manoeuvres. Kutuzov avoided frontal battles involving large masses of troops in order to reinforce his army and to wait there for Napoleon's retreat. This tactic was sharply criticised by Chief of Staff Bennigsen and others, but also by Tsar Alexander. Barclay de Tolly interrupted his service for five months and settled in Nizhny Novgorod. Each side avoided the other and seemed no longer to wish to get into a fight. On 5 October, on order of Napoleon, the French ambassador Jacques Lauriston left Moscow to meet Kutuzov at his headquarters. Kutuzov agreed to meet, despite the orders of the Tsar. On 10 October Murat complained to Belliard about the lack of food and fodder; each day he lost 200 men captured by Russians. On 18 October, at dawn during breakfast, Murat's camp in a forest was surprised by an attack by forces led by Bennigsen, known as Battle of Winkovo. Bennigsen was supported by Kutuzov from his headquarters at distance. Bennigsen asked Kutuzov to provide troops for the pursuit. However, Kutuzov refused.
Retreat
Kalmyks and Bashkirs attacking French troops at the Berezina
As the Tsar remained unresponsive and Napoleon took advantage of the unusually fine and warm weather lasting into October, he lingered in Moscow beyond his welcome. After five weeks, the French Army finally left the city on 19 October, a rainy day. Despite still numbering 108,000 strong, Napoleon's forces suffered a significant blow with the near-destruction of Murat's cavalry in the Battle of Tarutino. Lacking clear direction or adequate supplies, the army began its retreat from the region, facing the prospect of even worse disasters ahead. Napoleon traveled along the Old Kaluga road, heading south in search of untouched, prosperous territories. His goal was to avoid the destruction caused on the previous eastward march, opting instead for alternative routes, particularly the westward path through Medyn. Evading Kutuzov became Napoleon's main priority, but he encountered an obstacle in his progress.
The Battle of Maloyaroslavets, a testament to Kutuzov's strategic acumen, forced the French Army to retrace its steps along the Old Smolensk road, reversing their previous eastward advance. Kutuzov's tactical brilliance extended further as he employed partisan tactics, repeatedly striking at vulnerable points to prevent any potential southern retreat. As the French retreat devolved into chaos, bands of Cossacks (under Matvei Platov, Vasily Orlov-Denisov and Denis Davydov) along with agile Russian cavalry, launched relentless assaults on isolated French units foraging for supplies. Maintaining a fully supplied army became an insurmountable challenge due to the vast stretches of uninterrupted forests. The absence of grazing fields and fodder took a heavy toll on the surviving horses, resulting in the demise of nearly all of them due to either starvation or their use as sustenance by starving soldiers. Depleted of their mounts, the French cavalry faced dissolution, compelling generals and troopers alike to proceed on foot. The scarcity of horses also forced the abandonment of numerous cannons, limbers and caissons, a loss that significantly weakened Napoleon's forces in subsequent campaigns. A wagon or a piece of artillery could not be transported across even the smallest ravine without the loss of 12 to 15 horses. Starvation and disease ravaged the troops, exacerbating their already dire circumstances. Defeats at Vyazma, Polotsk and Krasny further diminished the strength of the Grande Armée. In a letter to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, his father-in-law, Napoleon would later lament these setbacks:
The story of the Krasnoye affair, where I was said to have retired at a gallop, is a flat fabrication. The so-called Viceroy affair is false. It's true that from November 7th to the 16th, with the thermometer falling to 18 and even 22 degrees, 30,000 of my cavalry and artillery horses died; I abandoned several thousand ambulance wagons and baggage cars for lack of horses. The roads were covered in ice. In this terrible cold storm, the bivouac became unbearable for my people; many moved away in the evening in search of houses and shelter; I had no cavalry left to protect them. The Cossacks picked up several thousand.
Russian forces also seized control of the French supply depots at Polotsk, Vitebsk and Minsk, dealing a severe blow to Napoleon's already faltering campaign. However, the convergence of forces led by Victor, Oudinot and Dombrowski at the Bobr bolstered the numerical strength of the Grande Armée back up to approximately 49,000 French combatants alongside some 40,000 stragglers. Despite this reinforcement, as all French corps advanced towards Borisov, they encountered another critical obstacle: the strategic bridge needed to cross the Berezina River had been destroyed by the Russian army. The ensuing Battle of Berezina, marked the campaign's final significant engagement, and proved to be a disastrous culmination for the French. Compounding their plight, the onset of thaw caused the ice to melt, necessitating the construction of two bridges. From a military standpoint, the subsequent escape could be deemed a strategic victory for the French, albeit amidst substantial losses. However, it also represented a missed opportunity for the Russians, who laid blame on Pavel Chichagov for his failure to fully capitalize on the situation.
On 3 December Napoleon published the 29th Bulletin in which he informed the outside world for the first time of the catastrophic state of his army. He abandoned the army on 5 December and returned home on a sled, leaving the sick Murat in command. In the following weeks, the Grande Armée shrank further, and on 14 December 1812, it left Russian territory.
Cold weather
Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, painting by Adolph Northen
Following the campaign, a saying arose that "General Winter" defeated Napoleon, alluding to the Russian Winter. Minard's map shows that the opposite is true as the French losses were highest in the summer and autumn, due to inadequate preparation of logistics resulting in insufficient supplies, while many troops were also killed by disease. Thus the outcome of the campaign was decided long before the cold weather became a factor.
When winter arrived on 6 November with a blizzard, the army was still equipped with summer clothing and did not have the means to protect themselves from the cold or snow. It had also failed to forge caulkin shoes for the horses to enable them to traverse roads that had become iced over. The most devastating effect of the cold weather upon Napoleon's forces occurred during their retreat. Starvation and gangrene coupled with hypothermia led to the loss of tens of thousands of men. Heavy loot was thrown away; much of the artillery was left behind. The intense cold enfeebled the brain of those whose health had already suffered, especially of those who had had dysentery, but soon, while the cold increased daily, its pernicious effect was noticed in all.
In his memoir, Napoleon's close adviser Armand de Caulaincourt recounted scenes of massive loss, and offered a vivid description of mass death through hypothermia:
The cold was so intense that bivouacking was no longer supportable. Bad luck to those who fell asleep by a campfire! Furthermore, disorganization was perceptibly gaining ground in the Guard. One constantly found men who, overcome by the cold, had been forced to drop out and had fallen to the ground, too weak or too numb to stand. Ought one to help them along—which practically meant carrying them. They begged one to let them alone. There were bivouacs all along the road—ought one to take them to a campfire? Once these poor wretches fell asleep they were dead. If they resisted the craving for sleep, another passer-by would help them along a little farther, thus prolonging their agony for a short while, but not saving them, for in this condition the drowsiness engendered by cold is irresistibly strong.
This befell a Grande Armée that was ill-equipped for cold weather. The French deficiencies in equipment caused by the assumption that their campaign would be concluded before the cold weather set in were a large factor in the number of casualties they suffered. After a few days of thaw, the temperature dropped again 23 November. From the Berezina, the retreat was nothing but utter flight. The preservation of war materiel and military positions was no longer considered. When the night-time temperature dropped to minus 35 degrees Celsius it proved catastrophic for Loison's untried soldiers. Some suffered from snow blindness. Within three days, his division of 15,000 soldiers lost 12,000 men without a battle.
Summary
In Napoleon's Russian Campaign, Riehn sums up the limitations of Napoleon's logistics as follows:
The military machine Napoleon the artilleryman had created was perfectly suited to fight short, violent campaigns, but whenever a long-term sustained effort was in the offing, it tended to expose feet of clay. In the end, the logistics of the French military machine proved wholly inadequate. The experiences of short campaigns had left the French supply services completed unprepared for Russia, and this was despite the precautions Napoleon had taken. There was no quick remedy that might have repaired these inadequacies from one campaign to the next. The limitations of horse-drawn transport and the road networks to support it were simply not up to the task. Indeed, modern militaries have long been in agreement that Napoleon's military machine at its apex, and the scale on which he attempted to operate with it in 1812 and 1813, had become an anachronism that could succeed only with the use of railroads and the telegraph. And these had not yet been invented.
Napoleon lacked the apparatus to efficiently move so many troops across such large distances of hostile territory. The French supply depots established in the Russian interior failed in their purpose as supplies could not be moved quickly enough. The French train battalions did their best, but the distances, the speed required, and the poor conditions they labored under meant that the demands Napoleon placed on them were too great. Napoleon's demand of a speedy advance by the Grande Armée over a network of dirt roads that dissolved into deep mires further broke down his logistical network as weakened draft animals collapsed from overwork and vehicles that could not be repaired broke down. As the graph of Charles Joseph Minard, given below, shows, the Grande Armée incurred the majority of its losses during the march to Moscow during the summer and autumn.
Historical assessment
Grande Armée
On 24 June 1812, around 400,000–500,000 men of the Grande Armée, the largest army assembled up to that point in European history, crossed the border into Russia and headed towards Moscow. Anthony Joes wrote in the Journal of Conflict Studies that figures on how many men Napoleon took into Russia and how many eventually came out vary widely. Georges Lefebvre says that Napoleon crossed the Niemen with over 600,000 soldiers, only half of whom were from France, the others being mainly Poles and Germans. Felix Markham thinks that 450,000 crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812. When Ney and the rearguard recrossed the Niemen on December 14, he had barely a thousand men fit for action. James Marshall-Cornwall says 510,000 Imperial troops entered Russia. Eugene Tarle believes that 420,000 crossed with Napoleon and 150,000 eventually followed, for a grand total of 570,000. Richard K. Riehn provides the following figures: 685,000 men marched into Russia in 1812, of whom around 355,000 were French; 31,000 soldiers marched out again in some sort of military formation, with perhaps another 35,000 stragglers, for a total of fewer than 70,000 known survivors. Adam Zamoyski estimated that between 550,000 and 600,000 French and allied troops (including reinforcements) operated beyond the Niemen, of which as many as 400,000 troops died but this includes deaths of prisoners during captivity.
Minard's famous infographic (see below) depicts the march ingeniously by showing the size of the advancing army, overlaid on a rough map, as well as the retreating soldiers together with temperatures recorded (as much as 30 below zero on the Réaumur scale (−38 °C, −36 °F)) on their return. The numbers on this chart have 422,000 crossing the Neman with Napoleon, 22,000 taking a side trip early on in the campaign, 100,000 surviving the battles en route to Moscow and returning from there; only 4,000 survive the march back, to be joined by 6,000 that survived from that initial 22,000 in the feint attack northward; in the end, only 10,000 crossed the Neman back out of the initial 422,000.
Imperial Russian Army
Main article: List of Russian commanders in the Patriotic War of 1812
Barclay de Tolly the Minister of War and field commander of the First Western Army and General of Infantry served as the Commander in Chief of the Russian Armies. According to Tolstoy in War and Peace (Book X) he was unpopular and regarded as a foreigner by Bagration who was higher in rank but had to follow his orders. Kutuzov replaced Barclay and acted as Commander-in-chief during the retreat following the Battle of Smolensk.
As irregular cavalry, the Cossack horsemen of the Russian steppes were best suited to reconnaissance, scouting and harassing the enemy's flanks and supply lines.
These forces, however, could count on reinforcements from the second line, which totalled 129,000 men and 8,000 Cossacks with 434 guns and 433 rounds of ammunition.
Of these, about 105,000 men were actually available for the defence against the invasion. In the third line were the 36 recruit depots and militias, which came to a total of approximately 161,000 men of various and highly disparate military values, of which about 133,000 actually took part in the defence.
Thus, the grand total of all the forces was 488,000 men, of which about 428,000 gradually came into action against the Grande Armee. This bottom line, however, includes more than 80,000 Cossacks and militiamen, as well as about 20,000 men who garrisoned the fortresses in the operational area. The majority of the officer corps came from the aristocracy. About 7% of the officer corps came from the Baltic German nobility from the governorates of Estonia and Livonia. Because the Baltic German nobles tended to be better educated than the ethnic Russian nobility, the Baltic Germans were often favoured with positions in high command and various technical positions. The Russian Empire had no universal educational system, and those who could afford it had to hire tutors or send their children to private schools. The educational level of the Russian nobility and gentry varied enormously depending on the quality of the tutors and private schools, with some Russian nobles being extremely well educated while others were just barely literate. The Baltic German nobility was more inclined to invest in their children's education than the ethnic Russian nobility, which led to the government favouring them when granting officers' commissions. Of the 800 doctors in the Russian Army in 1812, almost all of them were Baltic Germans. The British historian Dominic Lieven noted that, at the time, the Russian elite defined Russianness in terms of loyalty to the House of Romanov rather in terms of language or culture, and as the Baltic German aristocrats were very loyal, they were considered and considered themselves to be Russian despite speaking German as their first language.
Sweden, Russia's only ally, did not send supporting troops, but the alliance made it possible to withdraw the 45,000-man Russian corps Steinheil from Finland and use it in the later battles (20,000 men were sent to Riga and Polotsk).
Losses
Napoleon's retreat, surrounded by the Old Guards after the Battle of Krasnoi. Painting by Vasily Vereshchagin
Painting Napoleon in Smorgon by Zygmunt Rozwadowski
Napoleon lost more than 500,000 men in Russia. Out of an original force of 615,000, only 110,000 frostbitten and half-starved survivors stumbled back. Desgenettes took care of wounded. Marshall Lefebvre arrived with Louise Fusil who was one of the few women who survived the retreat. It is questionable if Ida Saint Elme, ‘Courtisane de la Grande Armée’, was another one.
It is estimated that of the 612,000 combatants who entered Russia only 112,000 returned to the frontier. Among the casualties, 100,000 are thought to have been killed in action, 200,000 to have died from other causes, 50,000 to have been left sick in hospitals, 50,000 to have deserted, and 100,000 to have been taken as prisoners of war. The French themselves lost 70,000 in action and 120,000 wounded, as against the non-French contingents' 30,000 and 60,000. Russian casualties have been estimated at 200,000 killed, 50,000 dispersed or deserting, and 150,000 wounded.
Recent Russian studies show that Russians captured over 110,000 prisoners during the six-month-long campaign. The harsh winter, as well as popular violence, malnutrition, sickness and hardships during transportation, meant that two-thirds of these men (and women) perished within weeks of captivity. Official reports from forty-eight Russian provinces reveal that 65,503 prisoners had died in Russia by February 1813. Other 39,645 were still held prisoner by the same date, including a group of 50 women and 7 children.
Hay has argued that the destruction of the Dutch contingent (15,000) of the Grande Armée was not a result of the death of most of its members. Rather, its various units disintegrated and the troops scattered. Later, some of its personnel were collected and reorganised into the new Dutch army.
Most of the Prussian contingent survived thanks to the Convention of Tauroggen and almost the whole Austrian contingent under Schwarzenberg withdrew successfully. The Russians formed the Russian-German Legion from other German prisoners and deserters.
Russian casualties in the few open battles are comparable to the French losses, but civilian losses along the devastating campaign route were much higher than the military casualties. In total, despite earlier estimates giving figures of several million dead, around one million were killed, including civilians—fairly evenly split between the French and Russians. Military losses amounted to 300,000 French, about 72,000 Poles, 50,000 Italians, 80,000 Germans, and 61,000 from 16 other nations. As well as the loss of human life, the French also lost some 150,000 horses and over 1,300 artillery pieces.
The losses of the Russian armies are difficult to assess. The 19th-century historian Michael Bogdanovich assessed reinforcements of the Russian armies during the war using the Military Registry archives of the General Staff. According to this, the reinforcements totalled 134,000 men. The main army at the time of capture of Vilna in December had 70,000 men, whereas its number at the start of the invasion had been about 150,000. Thus, total losses would come to 210,000 men. Of these, about 40,000 returned to duty. Losses of the formations operating in secondary areas of operations as well as losses in militia units were about 40,000. Thus, he came up with the number of 210,000 men and militiamen. According to Dominic Lieven Russian espionage (Alexander Chernyshyov, Karl Nesselrode) was well organized. The Russian light cavalry was superior from the start with a good supply of horses; the musketeers were not.
Aftermath
The Russian victory over the French Army in 1812 was a significant blow to Napoleon's ambitions of European dominance. This war was the reason the other coalition allies triumphed once and for all over Napoleon. His army was shattered and morale was low, both for French troops still in Russia, fighting battles just before the campaign ended, and for the troops on other fronts. Napoleon alone was able to maintain any semblance of order; with his disappearance, Murat and the other officers lost all authority.
"Enlistment in the Cossacks of captured Poles of Napoleon's army, 1813". Painting of Nikolay Karazin, 1881
In January 1813 the French army gathered behind the Vistula some 23,000 strong. The Austrian and Prussian troops mustered some 35,000 men in addition. The number of deserters and stragglers having left Russia alive is unknown by definition. The number of new inhabitants of Russia is unknown. The number of prisoners is estimated at around 100,000, of whom more than 50,000 died in captivity.
The War of the Sixth Coalition started in 1813 as the Russian campaign was decisive for the Napoleonic Wars and led to Napoleon's defeat and exile on the island of Elba. For Russia, the term Patriotic War (an English rendition of the Russian Отечественная война) became a symbol for a strengthened national identity that had a great effect on Russian patriotism in the 19th century. A series of revolutions followed, starting with the Decembrist revolt of 1825 and ending with the February Revolution of 1917.
Historiography
Minard's Map of French casualties see also Attrition warfare against Napoleon. Compare on Minard's Map the location of Vilna.
The British historian Dominic Lieven wrote that much of the historiography about the campaign for various reasons distorts the story of the Russian war against France in 1812–14. The number of Western historians who are fluent in French or German vastly outnumbers those who are fluent in Russian, which has the effect that many Western historians simply ignore Russian language sources when writing about the campaign because they cannot read them.
According to von Lieven, memoirs written by French veterans of the campaign together with much of the work done by French historians show the influence of "orientalism", which depicted Russia as a strange, backward, exotic and barbaric "Asian" nation that was intrinsically inferior to the West, especially France. The picture drawn by the French is that of a vastly superior army being defeated by geography, the climate and just plain bad fortune. German-language sources are not as hostile to the Russians as French sources, but many of the Prussian officers such as Carl von Clausewitz (who did not speak Russian) who joined the Russian Army to fight against the French found service with a foreign army both frustrating and strange, and their accounts reflected these experiences. Lieven compared those historians who use Clausewitz's account of his time in Russian service as their main source for the 1812 campaign to those historians who might use an account written by a Free French officer who did not speak English who served with the British Army in World War II as their main source for the British war effort in the Second World War.
In Russia, the official historical line until 1917 was that the peoples of the Russian Empire had rallied together in defence of the throne against a foreign invader. Because many of the younger Russian officers in the 1812 campaign took part in the Decembrist uprising of 1825, their roles in history were erased at the order of Emperor Nicholas I. Likewise, because many of the officers who were also veterans who stayed loyal during the Decembrist uprising went on to become ministers in the tyrannical regime of Emperor Nicholas I, they had a negative reputation among the radical intelligentsia of 19th century Russia. For example, Count Alexander von Benckendorff is thought by von Lievewn to have achieved good results militarily in 1812 commanding a Cossack company, but because he later become the Chief of the Third Section Of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery as the secret police were called, was one of the closest friends of Nicholas I and is infamous for his persecution of Russia's national poet Alexander Pushkin, he is not well remembered in Russia and his role in 1812 is usually ignored.
Furthermore, the 19th century was a great age of nationalism and there was a tendency by historians in the Allied nations to give the lion's share of the credit for defeating France to their own respective nation with British historians claiming that it was the United Kingdom that played the most important role in defeating Napoleon; Austrian historians giving that honour to their nation; Russian historians writing that it was Russia that played the greatest role in the victory, and Prussian and later German historians writing that it was Prussia that made the difference. In such a context, various historians liked to diminish the contributions of their allies. Von Lieven's account doesn't mention the influence of Polish national feeling on convictions concerning the war, which were also significant, also in the aftermath.
The hall of military fame in the Winter Palace with portraits of Russian generals
Leo Tolstoy was not a historian, but his popular 1869 historical novel War and Peace, which depicted the war as a triumph of what Lieven called the "moral strength, courage and patriotism of ordinary Russians" with military leadership a negligible factor, has shaped the popular understanding of the war in both Russia and abroad from the 19th century onward. A recurring theme of War and Peace is that certain events are just fated to happen, and there is nothing that a leader can do to challenge destiny, a view of history that dramatically discounts leadership as a factor in history. During the Soviet period, historians engaged in what Lieven called huge distortions to make history fit with Communist ideology, with Marshal Kutuzov and Prince Bagration transformed into peasant generals, Alexander I alternatively ignored or vilified, and the war becoming a massive "People's War" fought by the ordinary people of Russia with almost no involvement on the part of the government. During the Cold War, many Western historians were inclined to see Russia as "the enemy", and there was a tendency to downplay and dismiss Russia's contributions to the defeat of Napoleon. As such, Napoleon's claim that the Russians did not defeat him and he was just the victim of fate in 1812 was very appealing to many Western historians.
Russian historians tended to focus on the French invasion of Russia in 1812 and ignore the campaigns in 1813–1814 fought in Germany and France, because a campaign fought on Russian soil was regarded as more important than campaigns abroad and because in 1812 the Russians were commanded by the ethnic Russian Kutuzov while in the campaigns in 1813–1814 the senior Russian commanders were mostly ethnic Germans, being either Baltic German nobility or Germans who had entered Russian service. At the time the conception held by the Russian elite was that the Russian empire was a multi-ethnic entity, in which the Baltic German aristocrats in service to the House of Romanov were considered part of that elite—an understanding of what it meant to be Russian defined in terms of dynastic loyalty rather than language, ethnicity, and culture that does not appeal to those later Russians who wanted to see the war as purely a triumph of ethnic Russians.
One consequence of this is that many Russian historians liked to disparage the officer corps of the Imperial Russian Army because of the high proportion of Baltic Germans serving as officers, which further reinforces the popular stereotype that the Russians won despite their officers rather than because of them. Furthermore, Emperor Alexander I often gave the impression at the time that he found Russia a place that was not worthy of his ideals, and he cared more about Europe as a whole than about Russia. Alexander's conception of a war to free Europe from Napoleon lacked appeal to many nationalist-minded Russian historians, who preferred to focus on a campaign in defence of the homeland rather than what Lieven called Alexander's rather "murky" mystical ideas about European brotherhood and security. Lieven observed that for every book written in Russia on the campaigns of 1813–1814, there are a hundred books on the campaign of 1812 and that the most recent Russian grand history of the war of 1812–1814 gave 490 pages to the campaign of 1812 and 50 pages to the campaigns of 1813–1814. Lieven noted that Tolstoy ended War and Peace in December 1812 and that many Russian historians have followed Tolstoy in focusing on the campaign of 1812 while ignoring the greater achievements of campaigns of 1813–1814 that ended with the Russians marching into Paris.
Napoleon did not touch serfdom in Russia. What the reaction of the Russian peasantry would have been if he had lived up to the traditions of the French Revolution, bringing liberty to the serfs, is an intriguing question.
German invasion
Academics have drawn parallels between the French invasion of Russia and Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of 1941. David Stahel writes:
Historical comparisons reveal that many fundamental points that denote Hitler's failure in 1941 were actually foreshadowed in past campaigns. The most obvious example is Napoleon's ill-fated invasion of Russia in 1812. The German High Command's inability to grasp some of the essential hallmarks of this military calamity highlights another angle of their flawed conceptualization and planning in anticipation of Operation Barbarossa. Like Hitler, Napoleon was the conqueror of Europe and foresaw his war on Russia as the key to forcing England to make terms. Napoleon invaded with the intention of ending the war in a short campaign centred on a decisive battle in western Russia. As the Russians withdrew, Napoleon's supply lines grew and his strength was in decline from week to week. The poor roads and harsh environment took a deadly toll on both horses and men, while politically Russia's oppressed serfs remained, for the most part, loyal to the aristocracy. Worse still, while Napoleon defeated the Russian Army at Smolensk and Borodino, it did not produce a decisive result for the French and each time left Napoleon with the dilemma of either retreating or pushing deeper into Russia. Neither was really an acceptable option, the retreat politically and the advance militarily, but in each instance, Napoleon opted for the latter. In doing so the French emperor outdid even Hitler and successfully took the Russian capital in September 1812, but it counted for little when the Russians simply refused to acknowledge defeat and prepared to fight on through the winter. By the time Napoleon left Moscow to begin his infamous retreat, the Russian campaign was doomed.
The invasion by Germany was called the Great Patriotic War by the Soviet government, to evoke comparisons with the victory by Alexander I over Napoleon's invading army. In addition, the Germans, like the French, took solace from the notion they had been defeated by the Russian winter, rather than the Russians themselves or their own mistakes.
Cultural impact
Palace Square with Alexander Column
An event of epic proportions and momentous importance for European history, the French invasion of Russia has been the subject of much discussion among historians. The campaign's sustained role in Russian popular culture may be seen in Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture, and the identification of it with the German invasion during World War II, which became known as the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union.
See also
France portal
Antony's Parthian War, a Roman invasion of Parthian Empire, which is widely compared to Napoleon's invasion of Russia
Arches of Triumph in Novocherkassk, a monument built in 1817 to commemorate the victory over the French
General Confederation of Kingdom of Poland
Kutuzov (film)
List of battles of the French invasion of Russia
List of In Our Time programmes, including "Napoleon's retreat from Moscow"
Nadezhda Durova
Vasilisa Kozhina
War and Peace (film series)
War and Peace (opera), an opera by Prokofiev
Notes
^ During this period, Moscow held considerable significance but Saint Petersburg served as a capital from 1712 to 1918.
^ 50,000 were Austrians, Prussians, and other Germans, 20,000 were Poles, and just 35,000 were Frenchmen.
^ French: Campagne de Russie
^ French: seconde guerre de la Pologne
^ French: seconde campagne de Pologne
^ Russian: Отечественная война 1812 года, romanized: Otechestvennaya voyna 1812 goda
^ The "Grande Armée" is estimated between 450 and 600,000 soldiers, half of them foreigners. About 120,000 were young conscripts; 50,000 volunteers, perhaps 3,000 women and some children. A Dutch general noted that all commanders exaggerated the number of their soldiers in order to look good.
^ Karl Ludwig von Phull was responsible for the initial plan for the defence of Russia - the retreat to the fortified camp at Drissa.
^ On the day before he left the capital he met with Madame de Stael, one of Napoleon's main opponents. A few weeks earlier she also had visited Miloradovich and Rostopchin the governors of Kyiv and Moscow.
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^ CG12 - 32060. - À MARET, MINISTRE DES RELATIONS EXTÉRIEURES
^ CG13 - 32230. - À FRANÇOIS II, EMPEREUR D’AUTRICHE
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Further reading
Adams, Michael (2006). Napoleon and Russia. Hambledon Continuum.
Brett-James, Antony (1967), 1812: Eyewitness accounts of Napoleon's defeat in Russia
Clausewitz, Carl von (1996). The Russian campaign of 1812. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-4128-0599-6.
Hourtoulle, F. G. (2001). Borodino, The Moscova: The Battle for the Redoubts (Hardcover ed.). Paris: Histoire & Collections. ISBN 978-2908182965.
Joes, Anthony James (1996), "Continuity and Change in Guerrilla War: The Spanish and Afghan Cases", Journal of Conflict Studies, 16 (2), archived from the original on 2013-06-20, retrieved 2008-08-03
Wordsworth (1994). The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia. Hertfordshire: Ware : Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 9781853263019. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to French invasion of Russia.
When Europe Invaded Russia: 1812 Napoleon Documentary by Jesse Alexander on YouTube
La Grande Armée de 1812, organisation à l'entrée en campagne par François Houdecek
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campaign\" redirects here. For other uses, see Russian campaign (disambiguation).\"Second Polish War\" redirects here. For the 1794 uprising, see Kościuszko Uprising.\"Patriotic War of 1812\" redirects here. For the 1812–15 conflict in North America, see War of 1812.vteFrench invasion of Russia\nGrodno\nMir\nEkau\nSaltanovka\nRiga\nOstrovno\nKobrin\n1st Vitebsk\nKlyastitsy\nInkovo\nSwolna\nGorodechno\n1st Krasnoi\nSmolensk\n1st Polotsk\nValutino\nDahlenkirchen\nShevardino\nBorodino\nMozhaysk\nZvenigorod\nMoscow\nMesoten\nUstyluh\nTarutino\n2nd Polotsk\nMaloyaroslavets\nChashniki\nVyazma\n2nd Vitebsk\nLiaskowa\nNowo Schwerschen\nSmoliani\nWolkowisk\nKaidanowo\n2nd Krasnoi\nBorisov\nLoschniza\nBerezina\nPleshchenitsyFrench invasion of Russia\n\n500km300miles\n15\n14\n13\n12\n11\n10\n9\n8\n7\n6\n5\n4\n3\n\n2\n\n1 Prussian corps Napoleon Austrian corpsThe French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign (French: Campagne de Russie) and in Russia as the Patriotic War of 1812 (Russian: Оте́чественная война́ 1812 го́да, romanized: Otéchestvennaya voyná 1812 góda), was initiated by Napoleon with the aim of compelling the Russian Empire to comply with the continental blockade of the United Kingdom. Widely studied, Napoleon's incursion into Russia stands as a focal point in military history, recognized as among the most devastating military endeavors globally.[21] In a span of fewer than six months, the campaign exacted a staggering toll, claiming the lives of nearly a million soldiers and civilians.[22][20]On 24 June 1812 and subsequent days, the initial wave of the multinational Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River, marking the entry from the Duchy of Warsaw into Russia. Employing extensive forced marches, Napoleon rapidly advanced his army of nearly half a million individuals through Western Russia, encompassing present-day Belarus, in a bid to dismantle the disparate Russian forces led by Barclay de Tolly and Pyotr Bagration totaling approximately 180,000–220,000 soldiers at that juncture.[23][24] Despite losing half of his men within six weeks due to extreme weather conditions, diseases and scarcity of provisions, Napoleon emerged victorious in the Battle of Smolensk. However, the Russian Army, now commanded by Mikhail Kutuzov, opted for a strategic retreat, employing attrition warfare against Napoleon compelling the invaders to rely on an inadequate supply system, incapable of sustaining their vast army in the field.The fierce Battle of Borodino, located 110 kilometres (70 mi) west of Moscow, concluded as a narrow victory for the French although Napoleon was not able to beat the Russian army and Kutuzov could not stop the French. At the Council at Fili Kutuzov made the critical decision not to defend the city but to orchestrate a general withdrawal, prioritizing the preservation of the Russian army.[25][a] On 14 September, Napoleon and his roughly 100,000-strong army took control of Moscow, only to discover it deserted, and set ablaze by its military governor Fyodor Rostopchin. Remaining in Moscow for five weeks, Napoleon awaited a peace proposal that never materialized.[26] Due to favorable weather conditions, Napoleon delayed his retreat and, hoping to secure supplies, began a different route westward than the one the army had devastated on the way there. However, after losing the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, he was compelled to retrace his initial path.As early November arrived, snowfall and frost complicated the retreat. Shortages of food and winter attire for the soldiers and provision for the horses, combined with guerilla warfare from Russian peasants and Cossacks, resulted in significant losses. More than half of the soldiers perished from exhaustion, typhus, and the unforgiving continental climate.During the Battle of Krasnoi, Napoleon faced a critical scarcity of cavalry and artillery due to severe snowfall and icy conditions. Employing a strategic maneuver, he deployed the Old Guard against Miloradovich, who obstructed the primary road to Krasny, effectively isolating him from the main army. Davout successfully broke through, Eugene de Beauharnais and Michel Ney were forced to take a detour.[27] Despite the consolidation of several retreating French corps with the main army, by the time they reached the Berezina, Napoleon commanded only around 49,000 troops alongside 40,000 stragglers of little military significance. On 5 December, Napoleon departed from the army at Smorgonie in a sled and returned to Paris. Within a few days, an additional 20,000 people succombed to the bitter cold and diseases carried by lice.[28] Murat and Ney assumed command, pressing forward but leaving over 20,000 men in the hospitals of Vilnius. The remnants of the principal armies, disheartened, crossed the frozen Niemen and the Bug.While exact figures remain elusive due to the absence of meticulous records,[29] estimations varied and often included exaggerated counts, overlooking auxiliary troops. Napoleon's initial force upon entering Russia exceeded 450,000 men,[30] accompanied by over 150,000 horses,[31] approximately 25,000 wagons and nearly 1,400 artillery pieces. However, the surviving count dwindled to a mere 120,000 men (excluding early deserters);[b] signifying a staggering loss of approximately 380,000 lives throughout the campaign, half of which resulted from diseases.[33][34] This catastrophic outcome shattered Napoleon's once-untarnished reputation of invincibility.[35]","title":"French invasion of Russia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Great Patriotic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)"},{"link_name":"German invasion of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArsenyevPetrushevsky1897-45"},{"link_name":"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt1935294-46"}],"text":"The French invasion is known as the Russian campaign,[c] the Second Polish War,[d][36] the Second Polish campaign,[e][37] the Patriotic War of 1812,[f] or the War of 1812.[38] It should not be confused with the Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война, Velikaya Otechestvennaya Voyna), a term for the German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The \"Patriotic War of 1812\" is also occasionally referred to as simply the \"War of 1812\", a term which should not be confused with the conflict between Great Britain and the United States, also known as the War of 1812. In Russian literature written before the Russian revolution, the war was occasionally described as \"the invasion of twelve languages\" (Russian: нашествие двенадцати языков). Napoleon termed this war the \"Second Polish War\" in an attempt to gain increased support from Polish nationalists and patriots.[39] Though the stated goal of the war was the resurrection of the Polish state on the territories of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (modern territories of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine), in fact, this issue was of no real concern to Napoleon.[40]","title":"Names"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1812_map_en.png"},{"link_name":"French Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"first French empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_empire"},{"link_name":"Napoleonic Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan200742%E2%80%9343-47"},{"link_name":"War of the Third Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"War of the Fourth Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"War of the Fifth Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Friedland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland"},{"link_name":"Alexander I of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Tilsit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit"},{"link_name":"Continental System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_System"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn199026-49"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Schönbrunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Sch%C3%B6nbrunn"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Western Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Galicia"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn199025-50"},{"link_name":"Nikolay Rumyantsev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Rumyantsev"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Anna Pavlovna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Pavlovna_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Marie Louise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Louise,_Duchess_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"alliance treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(14_March_1812)"},{"link_name":"Marshal Davout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshal_Davout"},{"link_name":"Magdeburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg"},{"link_name":"Baltic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Provinces"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn2011490%E2%80%93520-53"},{"link_name":"palace in Saint-Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Cloud"},{"link_name":"Toruń","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toru%C5%84"}],"text":"The French Empire in 1812From 1792 onwards, France found itself frequently embroiled in conflicts with major European powers, a direct aftermath of the French Revolution. Napoleon, rising to power in 1799 and assuming autocratic rule over France, orchestrated numerous military campaigns that led to the establishment of the first French empire. Starting in 1803, the Napoleonic Wars served as a testament to Napoleon's military prowess.[41] He secured victories in the War of the Third Coalition (1803–1806, leading to the dissolution of the thousand-year-old Holy Roman Empire), the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807), and the War of the Fifth Coalition (1809).In 1807, following a French triumph at Friedland Napoleon and Alexander I of Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit along the Neman River. These treaties progressively solidified Russia's alignment with France, allowing Napoleon to exert dominance over neighboring states. The accord rendered Russia an ally of France, leading to their adoption of the Continental System, a blockade aimed at the United Kingdom.[42] However, the treaty imposed significant economic strain on Russia, prompting Tsar Alexander to break away from the Continental blockade on December 31, 1810. This decision left Napoleon without his primary foreign policy tool against the United Kingdom.[43]The Treaty of Schönbrunn, concluding the 1809 conflict between Austria and France included a clause that transferred Western Galicia from Austria and annexing it to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. This move was seen unfavorably by Russia, perceiving the territory's annexation as a potential threat for a French invasion point.[44] Russia's foreign Minister Nikolay Rumyantsev advocated for a closer alliance with France in response.[45]In an attempt to secure greater cooperation from Russia, Napoleon initially pursued an alliance by proposing marriage to Anna Pavlovna, the youngest sister of Alexander. However, he ultimately married Marie Louise, the daughter of the Austrian emperor. Subsequently, France and Austria solidified their relationship by signing an alliance treaty on 14 March 1812.In March 1811, Marshal Davout received orders to clandestinely prepare for a demonstration of military strength aimed at impressing Russia. This plan involved deploying (Dutch) troops to Magdeburg and occupying the Baltic ports Stettin and Danzig.[46] During this period, Napoleon's physical and mental condition underwent changes. He experienced weight gain and increasing susceptibility to various health issues.[47] In May 1812 he left his palace in Saint-Cloud; one month later he arrived in Toruń.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Imperial Russian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Vilkaviškis Manor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilkavi%C5%A1kis_Manor"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson186014-57"}],"text":"Committed to Catherine the Great's expansion policy, Alexander I issued an ultimatum in April 1812, demanding the evacuation of French troops from Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. When Napoleon chose war over retreat, between June 8 and 20, the troops remained in constant motion, enduring arduous marches amid intense heat.[48] Napoleon's primary objective was to defeat the Imperial Russian Army and compel Czar Alexander I to rejoin to the Continental System.[49] From 21–22 June 1812, Bonaparte stayed at Vilkaviškis Manor (in Polish: Wilkowiszky). There Napoleon announced the following proclamation:[50]Soldiers, the second Polish war is begun. The first terminated at Friedland, and at Tilsit, Russia vowed an eternal alliance with France, and war with the English. She now breaks her vows and refuses to give any explanation of her strange conduct until the French eagles have repassed the Rhine, and left our allies at her mercy. Russia is hurried away by a fatality: her destinies will be fulfilled. Does she think us degenerated? Are we no more the soldiers who fought at Austerlitz? She places us between dishonour and war—our choice cannot be difficult. Let us then march forward; let us cross the Niemen and carry the war into her country. This second Polish war will be as glorious for the French arms as the first has been, but the peace we shall conclude shall carry with it its own guarantee, and will terminate the fatal influence which Russia for fifty years past has exercised in Europe.[51]","title":"Declaration of war"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French_attack_in_1812_in_Russia.jpg"},{"link_name":"logistics in military strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_logistics"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990chapter_8-58"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_(military)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271%E2%80%93272-61"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"Intendant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intendant"},{"link_name":"Quartermaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartermaster"},{"link_name":"Dumas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"arrondissements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrondissement"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"Charles XII's invasion of 1708–1709","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_invasion_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990151-62"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990139-63"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-65"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-65"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-68"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990139-63"},{"link_name":"rasputitsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasputitsa"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990169-69"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990139%E2%80%93153-71"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990151-62"}],"text":"French attack by infantryThe invasion of Russia starkly highlights the pivotal role of logistics in military strategy, particularly in situations where the available terrain cannot sustain the large number of deployed troops.[52] Napoleon meticulously prepared for supplying his army,[53] significantly surpassing the logistical efforts of previous campaigns.[54] To sustain the Grande Armée and its operations, twenty train battalions with 7,848 vehicles, were mobilized to provide a 40-day supply. Extensive magazines were strategically set up in towns and cities across Poland and East Prussia,[55] while the Vistula river valley was developed into a vital supply base in 1811–1812.[53] Intendant/Quartermaster General Dumas organized five supply lines from the Rhine to the Vistula,[54] establishing administrative headquarters in three arrondissements in French-controlled Germany and Poland.[54] This logistical preparation served as a significant trial of Napoleon's administrative and logistical acumen, with his focus in the first half of 1812 dedicated mainly to provisioning his invading army.[53]Napoleon's study of Russian geography and history, including Charles XII's invasion of 1708–1709, reinforced his understanding of the imperative to transport as many supplies as possible.[53] The French Army's prior experience operating in the sparsely populated and underdeveloped regions of Poland and East Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) also informed their approach.[53]However, nothing was to go as planned, because Napoleon had failed to take into account conditions that were totally different from what he had known so far.[56]Napoleon and the Grande Armée were accustomed to utilizing the method of living off the land, which proved successful in the densely populated and agriculturally prosperous regions of central Europe, characterized by a well-connected network of roads. Swift forced marches had disoriented the traditional Austrian and Prussian armies, relying extensively on foraging for sustenance.[57] Colonel Pion[58] documented the logistical challenges that this strategy imposed on the army:There is no fodder for the horses; as usual there is no order or administration; the Army must live by the sword, and even on Prussian territory and with their allies, the troops pillage atrociously, as if they were in an enemy’s country.[59]During the campaign, the widespread death and depletion of horses emerged as a significant issue.[60][61][59][62] Forced marches often forced troops to go without essential supplies, as supply wagons struggled to keep pace;[57] The scarcity of roads, frequently turned to mud by rainstorms (rasputitsa), further impeded horse-drawn wagons and artillery.[63][64]In thinly populated and agriculturally sparse regions, the lack of food and water led to casualties among troops and their mounts, exposing them to waterborne diseases from drinking contaminated water and consuming spoiled food and forage. While the foremost sections of the army received whatever provisions could be supplied, formations behind them suffered from starvation.[65] During the attack phase, Vilna stood as the most advanced magazine in the operational area. Beyond that point, the army had to rely solely on its own resources.[56]","title":"Logistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"Plock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plock"},{"link_name":"Wyszogród","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyszogr%C3%B3d"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"Braniewo County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braniewo_County"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"Kaunas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaunas"},{"link_name":"Vilnius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius"},{"link_name":"Minsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minsk"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"Vitebsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitebsk"},{"link_name":"Orsha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orsha"},{"link_name":"Smolensk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"oxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxen"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016272-73"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Oudinot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997569-74"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997569-74"},{"link_name":"paved road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paved_road"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016273-75"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997569-74"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990169-69"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990169-69"},{"link_name":"Jean-François Boulart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Boulart&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016273-75"},{"link_name":"Intendance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intendant"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016272-73"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeavenworth2006-76"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt1935191-77"},{"link_name":"black pudding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pudding"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt1935213-79"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeavenworth2006-76"},{"link_name":"diphtheria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphtheria"},{"link_name":"dysentery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeavenworth2006-76"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDTIC1998-81"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"sub_title":"Provisions and transportation","text":"Danzig contained enough provisions to feed 400,000 men for 50 days.[66] Breslau, Plock and Wyszogród were turned into grain depots, milling vast quantities of flour for delivery to Thorn, where 60,000 biscuits were produced every day.[66] A large bakery was established at Villenberg (Braniewo County).[54] 50,000 cattle were collected to follow the army.[54] After the invasion began, large magazines were constructed at Kovno (Kaunas), Vilna (Vilnius), and Minsk, with the Vilna base having enough rations to feed 100,000 men for 40 days.[54] It also contained 27,000 muskets, 30,000 pairs of shoes along with brandy and wine.[54] Medium-sized depots were established at Vitebsk, Orsha, and Smolensk, and several small ones throughout the Russian interior.[54] The French also captured numerous intact Russian supply dumps, which the Russians had failed to destroy or empty, and Moscow itself was filled with food.[54] Twenty train battalions provided most of the transportation, with a combined load of 8,390 tons.[66] Twelve of these battalions had a total of 3,024 heavy wagons drawn by four horses each, four had 2,424 one-horse light wagons and four had 2,400 wagons drawn by oxen.[66] Auxiliary supply convoys were formed on Napoleon's orders in early June 1812, using vehicles requisitioned in East Prussia.[67] Marshal Nicolas Oudinot's IV Corps alone took 600 carts formed into six companies.[68] The wagon trains were supposed to carry enough bread, flour and medical supplies for 300,000 men for two months.[68]The standard heavy wagons, well-suited for the dense and partially paved road networks of Germany and France, proved too cumbersome for the sparse and primitive Russian dirt tracks, further damaged by the unstable weather. Many horses also died during the march towards Vilnius through forests which lacked the necessary fodder, slowing even further the transport of supplies for Napoleon's troops.[69] The supply route from Smolensk to Moscow was therefore entirely dependent on light wagons with small loads.[68] Central to the problem were the expanding distances to supply magazines and the fact that no supply wagon could keep up with a forced marched infantry column.[63] The weather itself became an issue, where, according to historian Richard K. Riehn:The thunderstorms of the 29th [of June] turned into other downpours, turning the tracks—some diarists claim there were no roads in Lithuania—into bottomless mires. Wagons sank up to their hubs; horses dropped from exhaustion; men lost their boots. Stalled wagons became obstacles that forced men around them and stopped supply wagons and artillery columns. Then came the sun which would bake the deep ruts into canyons of concrete, where horses would break their legs and wagons their wheels.[63]Jean-François Boulart reported:Then on June 29th came a fresh and awful and extraordinary storm; such a terrible tempest had not been known in the memory of man.Thunder and lightning burst forth from every side of the horizon; soldiers were struck dead; torrents of rain flooded the bivouacs; the downpour lasted all the next day.[62]The heavy losses to disease, hunger and desertion in the early months of the campaign were in large part due to the inability to transport provisions quickly enough to the troops.[69] The Intendance administration failed to distribute with sufficient rigor the supplies that were built up or captured.[54] By that, despite all these preparations, the Grande Armée was not self-sufficient logistically and still depended on foraging to a significant extent.[67]Inadequate supplies played a key role in the losses suffered by the army as well. Davidov and other Russian campaign participants record wholesale surrenders of starving members of the Grande Armée even before the onset of the frosts.[70] Caulaincourt describes men swarming over and cutting up horses that slipped and fell, even before the horse had been killed.[71] Other accounts describe eating the flesh of horses still walking, too cold to react in pain; drinking blood and preparing black pudding was popular.[72] The French simply were unable to feed their army. Starvation led to a general loss of cohesion.[73] Constant harassment of the French Army by Cossacks added to the losses during the retreat.[70]Though starvation caused horrendous casualties in Napoleon's army, losses arose from other sources as well. The main body of Napoleon's Grande Armée diminished by a third in just the first eight weeks of the campaign, before the major battle was fought. This loss in strength was in part due to diseases such as diphtheria, dysentery and typhus and the need for garrison supply centres.[74][70][75] There are eyewitness reports of cannibalism in November 1812.[76]","title":"Logistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pontoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontoon_bridge"},{"link_name":"sapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapper"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"military hospitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_hospitals"},{"link_name":"Breslau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breslau"},{"link_name":"Elbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbing"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"Königsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997566-60"},{"link_name":"Wilna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilna"},{"link_name":"Disna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disna"},{"link_name":"Vitepsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitepsk"}],"sub_title":"Combat service and support and medicine","text":"Nine pontoon companies, three pontoon trains with 100 pontoons each, two companies of marines, nine sapper companies, six miner companies and an engineer park were deployed for the invasion force.[66] Large-scale military hospitals were created at Warsaw, Thorn, Breslau, Marienburg, Elbing and Danzig,[66] while hospitals in East Prussia (Königsberg), had beds for 28,000.[54] Also in: Wilna, Disna, and Vitepsk.","title":"Logistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zesp%C3%B3%C5%82_Zamku_Krzy%C5%BCackiego_MALBORK_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Castle Malbork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbork_Castle"},{"link_name":"arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"Magdeburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdeburg"},{"link_name":"Küstrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCstrin"},{"link_name":"Stettin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stettin"},{"link_name":"Danzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danzig"},{"link_name":"Glogau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glogau"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"paper cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_cartridge"},{"link_name":"tonnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016271-72"},{"link_name":"Modlin Fortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modlin_Fortress"},{"link_name":"Thorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toru%C5%84"},{"link_name":"Malbork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbork"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016270-59"},{"link_name":"Königsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg"},{"link_name":"Znamensk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Znamensk,_Kaliningrad_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Insterburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insterburg"},{"link_name":"Gumbinnen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumbinnen"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Suwałki Gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki_Gap"},{"link_name":"X Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Corps_(Grande_Armee)"},{"link_name":"Marijampolė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97"},{"link_name":"Neman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neman"}],"sub_title":"Ammunition","text":"Napoleon stopped at Castle Malbork, a large military warehouseA significant arsenal was established in Warsaw, forming a crucial part of the logistical infrastructure.[53] The distribution of artillery was concentrated across strategic locations at Magdeburg, Küstrin, Stettin, Danzig and Glogau.[66]Magdeburg contained a siege artillery train housing 100 heavy guns and storing 462 cannons, two million paper cartridges and 300,000 pounds/135 tonnes of gunpowder;\nDanzig had a siege train with 130 heavy guns and 300,000 pounds of gunpowder;\nStettin contained 263 guns, a million cartridges and 200,000 pounds/90 tonnes of gunpowder;\nKüstrin contained 108 guns and a million cartridges;\nGlogau contained 108 guns, a million cartridges and 100,000 pounds/45 tonnes of gunpowder.[66]Modlin Fortress near Warsaw, Thorn and Malbork (Marienburg) served as vital ammunition and supply depots.[53]Troops gathered in Thorn, Königsberg, Znamensk, Insterburg, and Gumbinnen, where Napoleon arrived on 18 June.[77] Meanwhile, Davout had ordered his I corps to pillage the town.[78] The corps coming from Warsaw used the Suwałki Gap. Several corps, except X Corps, passed Marijampolė before arriving at the river Neman. On 23 June Napoleon arrived at Naugardiškė, south of Kaunas.","title":"Logistics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of battles of the French invasion of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_French_invasion_of_Russia"}],"text":"See also: List of battles of the French invasion of Russia","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_the_border_of_Nieman_1812.PNG"},{"link_name":"Christian Wilhelm von Faber du Faur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Wilhelm_von_Faber_du_Faur"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Macdonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald"},{"link_name":"X Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Tilsit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovetsk,_Kaliningrad_Oblast"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Courland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland_Governorate"},{"link_name":"occupying Riga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Riga_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Dunaburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaburg"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Peter Wittgenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wittgenstein"},{"link_name":"Yorck von Wartenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Yorck_von_Wartenburg"},{"link_name":"Carl von Clausewitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz"},{"link_name":"neutralization of his troops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_Tauroggen"},{"link_name":"armistice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz1906230%E2%80%93252-90"},{"link_name":"Morand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Antoine_Morand"},{"link_name":"sappers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappers"},{"link_name":"Imperial Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Napoleon_I)"},{"link_name":"Napoleon's Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon%27s_Hill"},{"link_name":"Barclay de Toll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Andreas_Barclay_de_Tolly"},{"link_name":"First Army of the West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Army_order_of_battle_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Drissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drissa"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190653-91"},{"link_name":"Murat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Murat"},{"link_name":"vanguard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanguard"},{"link_name":"I Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Davout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout"},{"link_name":"Pyotr Bagration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Bagration"},{"link_name":"Mogilev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Saltanovka"},{"link_name":"II Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Oudinot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot"},{"link_name":"Viliya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neris"},{"link_name":"Peter Wittgenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Wittgenstein"},{"link_name":"Second Battle of Polotsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Polotsk"},{"link_name":"III Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/III_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Ney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Ney"},{"link_name":"Aleksotas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksotas"},{"link_name":"IV Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IV_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Beauharnais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais"},{"link_name":"Pilona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piliuona"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaume181730-93"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ClausENG48-94"},{"link_name":"VI Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VI_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"St. Cyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-96"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Battle of Ostrowno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrowno"},{"link_name":"Jérôme Bonaparte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bonaparte"},{"link_name":"Grodno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grodno"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ClausENG48-94"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mir_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Józef Poniatowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler2009776-99"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battalion"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.nl-102"},{"link_name":"IV Cavalry Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IV_Cavalry_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Latour Maubourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_de_Fay_de_La_Tour-Maubourg"},{"link_name":"V Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Polish legions, including Lithuanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_legions_(Napoleonic_period)"},{"link_name":"VIII Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIII_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Vandamme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Vandamme"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.nl-102"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Junot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Andoche_Junot"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Battle of Smolensk (1812)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1812)"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_1812-105"},{"link_name":"Battle of Valutino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Valutino"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Battle of Borodino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190665-107"},{"link_name":"Schwarzenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Philipp,_Prince_of_Schwarzenberg"},{"link_name":"Western Bug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug_(river)"},{"link_name":"Drohiczyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drohiczyn"},{"link_name":"Tormasov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Tormasov"},{"link_name":"Brest (Belarus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest_(Belarus)"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Pavel Chichagov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Chichagov"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190668,_77-109"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"VII Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VII_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Reynier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Reynier"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw"},{"link_name":"Durutte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Durutte"},{"link_name":"Loison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Henri_Loison"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-112"},{"link_name":"IX Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IX_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Victor-Perrin,_Duc_de_Belluno"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190665-107"},{"link_name":"H.W. Daendels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Willem_Daendels#General_in_Napoleon's_Grande_Arm%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"XI Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Corps_(Grande_Arm%C3%A9e)"},{"link_name":"Augerau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Augereau"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Jean-Pierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Augereau"},{"link_name":"Aleksandr Figner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Figner"},{"link_name":"Denis Davydov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Davydov"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"sub_title":"Crossing the Russian border","text":"On the border of Nieman 1812 by Christian Wilhelm von Faber du FaurAfter two days of preparation, the invasion commenced on Wednesday, 24 June [O.S. 12 June] 1812 with Napoleon's army crossing the border.[g] The army was split up into five columns:The left wing under Macdonald with the X Corps of 30,000 men (half of them Prussians) crossed the Niemen at Tilsit on the 24th.[81] He moved north in Courland but did not succeed in occupying Riga. Early August he occupied Dunaburg; early September he returned to Riga with his entire force.[82] On 18 December, a few days after the French left the Russian Empire, he drew back to Königsberg, followed by Peter Wittgenstein. On 25 December one of his generals Yorck von Wartenburg found himself isolated because the Russian army blocked the road. After five days he was urged by his officers (and in the presence of Carl von Clausewitz), at least to neutralization of his troops and an armistice. Yorck's resolution had enormous consequences.[83]\nIn the evening of June 23, Morand, accompanied by sappers, occupied the other side of the Niemen. Around noon, the next morning, Napoleon, followed by the Imperial Guard (47,000), crossed the river on one of the three pontoon bridges nearby Napoleon's Hill. Afterwards, Murat's cavalry and three corps crossed the river destined for Vilnius. Then they followed Barclay de Toll's First Army of the West to Drissa and Polotsk.[84]\nCavalry corps of Murat (32,000) advanced to Vilnius and Polotsk in the vanguard.\nI Corps of Davout (72,000), the strongest corps, left Vilnius on 1 July and occupied Minsk a week later. His goal was to cut off Pyotr Bagration from Barclay de Tolly. He already had lost a third of his men but beat Bagration at Mogilev and then went to Smolensk, where he joined the main army.\nII Corps of Oudinot (37,000) crossed the Niemen and the Viliya to combat Peter Wittgenstein, who protected the road to St Petersburg. Oudinot didn't succeed in joining up with Macdonald and joined the VIth corps. For two months these corps kept Wittgenstein at a distance until the Second Battle of Polotsk.\nIII Corps of Ney (39,000) defended downstream the 4th pontoon bridge at Aleksotas which could be used to escape; he then went to Polotsk. Second Central force crossed at Pilona 20 km upstream.\nIV Corps of Beauharnais (45,000 Italians) crossed the Niemen near Pilona.[85][86][87] Napoleon's stepson had orders to avoid Vilnius on his way to Vitebsk.\nVI Corps of St. Cyr (25,000 Bavarians) crossed at Pilona.[88] He was to throw himself between the two Russian armies and cut off all communication between them.[89] He followed the II Corps to Polotsk, forming the northern flank.[90] Both corps never saw Moscow. With French forces moving through different routes in the direction of Polotsk and Vitebsk, the first major engagement took place on 25 July at the Battle of Ostrowno.\nRight flank force under Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia (62,000). He crossed the Niemen near Grodno on 1 July,[87] and moved towards Bagration's (second western) army. It seems he was advancing slowly so the stragglers could catch up. On the order of Napoleon Davout secretly took over the command on 6 July.[91] The Battle of Mir was a tactical victory for the Russians; Jerome let Platov escape by deploying too few of Józef Poniatowski's troops.[92] Jérôme left the army after being criticised by Davout.[93] He went home at the end of July,[94] taking a small battalion of guards with him.[95]\nIV Cavalry Corps of Latour Maubourg (8,000) joined Davout.\nV Corps (36,000 (Polish) soldiers) under Poniatowski joined Davout and went to Mogilev and Smolensk. Polish legions, including Lithuanians formed the largest foreign contingent.\nVIII Corps (17,000 Westphalians) under Vandamme who was sent home in early July. Jérôme Bonaparte took over but resigned on 15 July when he found out Davout had been secretly given the command.[95][96] Early August the command was given to Junot.[97] In the Battle of Smolensk (1812) Junot was sent to bypass the left flank of the Russian army, but he got lost and was unable to carry out this operation.[98] Junot, a heavy drinker, was blamed for allowing the Russian army to retreat arriving too late at the Battle of Valutino.[99] After the Battle of Borodino he had only 2,000 men left.[100] In July 1813, Junot jumped out of a window; he died a few days later.\nThe right or southern wing under Schwarzenberg (34,000) crossed the Western Bug on a pontoon bridge at Drohiczyn on 2 July. Tormasov's third army prevented him from joining up with Davout. When Tormasov occupied Brest (Belarus) at the end of July, Schwarzenberg and Reynier were cut off from supplies.[101] On 18 September the Austrians withdrew when Pavel Chichagov arrived from the south and seized Minsk on 18 November.[102] On 14 December 1812 Schwarzenberg crossed the border.[103]\nVII Corps of Reynier (17,000 Saxons) stayed in the Grodno region and cooperated with Schwarzenberg to protect the Duchy of Warsaw against Tormasov.\nDuring the campaign reinforcements of 80,000 and the baggage trains with 30,000 men were sent on different dates. In November, the division of Durutte assisted Reynier. In December Loison was sent to help extricate the remnants of the Grand Army in its retreat.[104] Within a few days many of Loison's unexperienced soldiers died of the extreme cold.[105] Napoleon arrested him for not marching with his division to the front.\nIX Corps of Victor (33,000). The majority was sent to Smolensk in early September;[100] he took over the command from St. Cyr. At the end of October, he retreated, losing significant supplies in Vitebsk to Wittgenstein. Victor and H.W. Daendels were ordered to cover the retreat to the Berezina.\nXI Corps of Augerau was part of the reserve. It was created later in the late summer.[106] It contained an entire division of reformed deserters.[107] This corps, based in Poland did not participate in military operations in Russia until November/December. Augereau never left Berlin; his younger brother general Jean-Pierre and his troops were compelled to surrender to the partisans Aleksandr Figner and Denis Davydov on 9 November.[108]","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1812_June_27._Mykoli%C5%A1kiai._Quartier_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990159%E2%80%93162-116"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-86"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990166-118"},{"link_name":"Sudervė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suderv%C4%97"},{"link_name":"Viliya river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neris"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990179-119"},{"link_name":"Balashov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Balashov"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990180-121"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourgogne18992-122"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990168-126"},{"link_name":"guerrilla war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Davydov#Guerrilla_Warfare"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990169-69"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990169-69"}],"sub_title":"March on Vilna","text":"27 June, 1812. Quartier Général at MykoliškiaiNapoleon initially met little resistance and moved quickly into the enemy's territory in spite of the transport of more than 1,100 cannons, being opposed by the Russian armies with more than 900 cannons. But the roads in this area of Lithuania were actually small dirt tracks through areas of birched woodland and marshes. At the beginning of the war supply lines already simply could not keep up with the forced marches of the corps and rear formations always suffered the worst privations.[109]On the 25th of June Murat's reserve cavalry provided the vanguard with Napoleon, the Imperial guard and Davout's 1st Corps following behind. Napoleon spent the night and the next day in Kaunas, allowing only his guards, not even the generals to enter the city.[80] The next day he rushed towards the capital Vilna, pushing the infantry forward in columns that suffered from stifling heat, heavy rain and more heat.[110] The central group marched 110 kilometres (70 mi) in two days.[111] Ney's III Corps marched down the road to Sudervė, with Oudinot marching on the other side of the Viliya river.Since the end of April, the Russian headquarters was centred in Vilna but on June 24 couriers rushed news about the crossing of the Niemen to Barclay de Tolley. Before the night had passed, orders were sent out to Bagration and Platov, who commanded the Cossacks, to take the offensive. Alexander left Vilna on June 26 and Barclay assumed overall command.Napoleon reached Vilna on 28 June with only light skirmishing but leaving more than 5,000 dead horses in his wake. These horses were vital to bringing up further supplies to an army in desperate need; he was forced to leave up to 100 guns and up to 500 artillery wagons. Napoleon had supposed that Alexander would sue for peace at this point and was to be disappointed; it would not be his last disappointment.[112] Balashov demanded that the French returned across the Niemen before negotiations.[113] Barclay continued to retreat to Drissa, deciding that the concentration of the 1st and 2nd armies was his first priority.[114]Several days after crossing the Niemen, a number of soldiers began to develop high fevers and a red rash on their bodies. Typhus had made its appearance. On 29/30 June, a violent thunderstorm struck Lithuania during the night and continued for several hours or a day.[115][116]The results were most disastrous to the French forces. The movement of troops was impeded or absolutely checked and the vast troop and supply trains on the Vilnius-Kaunas Road became disorganized. The existing roads became little better than quagmires causing the horses to break down under the additional strain. The delay and frequent loss of these supply trains caused both troops and horses to suffer. Napoleon's forces traditionally were well supplied by his transportation corps, but they proved inadequate during the invasion.\n[117][118]The foraging in Lithuania proved hard as the land was mostly barren and forested. The supplies of forage were less than that of Poland, and two days of forced marching made a bad supply situation worse.[119] Some 50,000 stragglers and deserters became a lawless mob warring with the local peasantry in all-out guerrilla war, which further hindered supplies reaching the Grande Armée. Central to the problem were the expanding distances to supply magazines and the fact that no supply wagon could keep up with a forced marched infantry column.[63]A Lieutenant Mertens—a Württemberger serving with Ney's III Corps—reported in his diary that oppressive heat followed by cold nights and rain left them with dead horses and camping in swamp-like conditions with dysentery and fever raging through the ranks with hundreds in a field hospital that had to be set up for the purpose. He reported the times, dates and places of events, reporting new thunderstorms on 6 July and men dying of sunstroke a few days later.[63] Rapid forced marches quickly caused desertion, suicide and starvation, and exposed the troops to filthy water and disease, while the logistics trains lost horses by the thousands, further exacerbating the problems.","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Platov3.jpg"},{"link_name":"uhlans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhlans"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mir_(1812)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raevsky_saltanovka.jpg"},{"link_name":"Raevsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Raevsky"},{"link_name":"Russian Imperial Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Guard_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Saltanovka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Saltanovka"},{"link_name":"Klaipeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaipeda"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990167-127"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990182%E2%80%93184-128"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990170-129"},{"link_name":"Nemenčinė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemen%C4%8Din%C4%97"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990171-130"},{"link_name":"Molėtai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol%C4%97tai"},{"link_name":"Ashmyany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashmyany"},{"link_name":"Dmitry Dokhturov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Dokhturov"},{"link_name":"hammer and anvil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_and_anvil"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990174%E2%80%93175-131"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990174%E2%80%93175-131"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler2009780-132"},{"link_name":"Dirk van Hogendorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_van_Hogendorp_(1761%E2%80%931822)"},{"link_name":"Königsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"Joseph Barbanègre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Barban%C3%A8gre"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mogilev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mogilev"},{"link_name":"Dniepr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dniepr"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990176-135"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190683-136"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Jakob Walter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_Walter"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"Western Dvina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Dvina"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"}],"sub_title":"March on Vitebsk and Minsk","text":"Cossacks feigning retreat against Polish uhlans at the Battle of MirGeneral Raevsky leading a detachment of the Russian Imperial Guard at the Battle of SaltanovkaAlthough Barclay wanted to give battle, he assessed it as a hopeless situation and ordered Vilna's magazines burned and its bridge dismantled. Wittgenstein moved his command to Klaipeda, passing beyond Macdonald and Oudinot's operations with Wittgenstein's rear guard clashing with Oudinout's forward elements.[120] Barclay continued his retreat and, with the exception of the occasional rearguard clash, remained unhindered in his movements ever further east.[121]The operation intended to split Bagration's forces from Barclay's forces by driving to Vilna had cost the French forces 25,000 losses from all causes in a few days.[122] Strong probing operations were advanced from Vilna towards Nemenčinė,[123] Molėtai in the north and Ashmyany in the east, the location of Bagration on his way to Minsk. Bagration ordered Platov and Dokhturov to distract the enemy.Murat advanced to Nemenčinė on July 1, running into elements of Dmitry Dokhturov's III Russian Cavalry Corps. Napoleon assumed this was Bagration's 2nd Army and rushed out, before being told it was not. Napoleon then attempted to use Davout, Jerome, and Eugene out on his right in a hammer and anvil to catch Bagration and to destroy the 2nd Army in an operation before reaching Minsk. This operation had failed to produce results on his left.[124]Conflicting orders and lack of information had almost placed Bagration in a bind marching into Davout; however, Jerome could not arrive in time over the same mud tracks, supply problems, and weather, that had so badly affected the rest of the Grande Armée. Command disputes between Jerome, Vandamme and Davout would not help the situation.[124]In the first two weeks of July, the Grande Armée lost 100,000 men due to sickness and desertion.[125] On 8 July Dirk van Hogendorp was appointed as Governor of Lithuania organizing hospitals for the wounded in Vilnius and supplies for the army; Louis Henri Loison was appointed in Königsberg.[126] The main problem was forage from East Prussia. For three weeks, the Dutch soldiers had hardly seen bread and only eaten soup.[127]Davout had lost 10,000 men marching to Minsk, which he reached on the 8th and would not attack Bagration without Jerome joining him. He ordered Polish cavalry to search for the thousands of looting soldiers who stayed behind. Davout left the city after four days where a Polish governor was appointed; Joseph Barbanègre had to organize the logistics. Davout crossed the Berezina and ran into the Battle of Mogilev with Bagration; he went to Orsha, and crossed the Dniepr on his way to Smolensk. Davout thought Bagration had some 60,000 men and Bagration thought Davout had 70,000. Bagration was getting orders from both Alexander's staff and Barclay (which Barclay didn't know) and left Bagration without a clear picture of what was expected of him and the general situation. This stream of confused orders to Bagration had him upset with Barclay, which would have repercussions later.[128]After five weeks, the loss of troops from disease and desertion had reduced Napoleon's effective fighting strength to about half.[129] Ney and his corps were given ten days to recover and search for food.[130] Jakob Walter describes his foraging experience during Russia's scorched earth tactics:Finally we arrived at Polotsk, a large city on the other side of the Western Dvina River. In this region I once left the bivouac to seek provisions. There were eight of us, and we came to a very distant village. Here we searched all the houses. There were no peasants left. I later realized how heedless I had been, since each one ran into a house alone, broke open everything that was covered, and searched all the floors and still nothing was found. Finally, when we assembled and were ready to leave, I once more inspected a little hut somewhat removed from the village. Around it from top to bottom were heaped bundles of hemp and shives, which I tore down; and, as I worked my way to the ground, sacks full of flour appeared. Now I joyfully called all my comrades so that we might dispose of the booty. In the village we saw sieves; these we took to sift the flour mixed with chaff an inch long; and, after that, we refilled the sacks. ... Then the question of carrying and dividing the grain arose, but it occurred to me that I had seen a horse in one of the houses. Everyone immediately hurried to find the horse. We found two instead of one, but unfortunately they were both colts, and one could not be used at all. We took the largest, placed two sacks on it, and started out very slowly. While we were marching there, the Russians saw us from a distance with this booty; and at the same moment we saw a troop of peasants in the valley, about fifty. These ran toward us. What could we do but shoot at them?[131]","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bataille-de-smolensk.jpg"},{"link_name":"Poniatowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA._%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_1596-1602%D0%B3.%D0%B3..jpg"},{"link_name":"Smolensk Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk_Kremlin"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"carrion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrion"},{"link_name":"scorched earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorched_earth"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENafziger1984-141"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENafziger2021-142"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"battle of Vitebsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vitebsk_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Alexander of Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Alexander_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg_(1771%E2%80%931833)"},{"link_name":"Antoine-Henri Jomini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine-Henri_Jomini"},{"link_name":"Adam Zamoyski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Zamoyski"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1806%E2%80%931812)"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Bucharest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Bernadotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_XIV_John"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Örebro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_%C3%96rebro"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190659-146"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"first Battle of Krasnoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Krasnoi"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith,_Digby_George_1812-147"},{"link_name":"Battle of Smolensk (1812)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Smolensk Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk_Kremlin"},{"link_name":"Battle of Valutino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Valutino"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt193577-148"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_1812-105"},{"link_name":"Tuchkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_(1776)"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"Old Smolensk road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0"},{"link_name":"First Battle of Polotsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Polotsk"},{"link_name":"Aleksey Arakcheyev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksey_Arakcheyev"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith,_Digby_George_1812-147"},{"link_name":"State Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Tsaryovo-Zaymishche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsaryovo-Zaymishche"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze20144-150"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"attrition warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attrition_warfare"},{"link_name":"Borodino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borodino"}],"sub_title":"March on Smolensk","text":"Napoleon and Poniatowski with the burning city of SmolenskThe total length of the city wall around the Smolensk Kremlin was 6.5 kilometres, with a height of up to 19 metres and a width of up to 5.2 metres, and a total of 38 watchtowers. The Kremlin lost nine towers because of the bombardment and fire.Exactly at midnight, on July 16, Napoleon left Vilnius. On 19 July the Tsar left the army in Polotsk and headed for Moscow, taking the discredited Von Phull with him.[132][h] Barclay, the Russian commander-in-chief, refused to fight despite Bagration's urgings. Several times he attempted to establish a strong defensive position, but each time the French advance was too quick for him to finish preparations and he was forced to retreat once more. When the French Army progressed further (under conditions of extreme heat and drought, rivers and wells filled with carrion) it encountered serious problems in foraging, aggravated by the scorched earth tactics of the Russian forces.[133][134]From Smolensk to Moshaisk the war displayed its horrible work of destruction: all the roads, fields, and woods lay as though sown with people, horses, wagons, burned villages and cities; everything looked like the complete ruin of all that lived. In particular, we saw ten dead Russians to one of our men, although every day our numbers fell off considerably. In order to pass through[135]After the battle of Vitebsk Napoleon discovered that the Russians were able to slip away during the night. The city, at the intersection of important trade routes, and the palace of Alexander of Württemberg would be his base for the next two weeks. His army needed to recover and rest, but Napoleon asked himself what to do next.According to Antoine-Henri Jomini, Napoleon planned not to go further than Smolensk and make Vilnius his headquarters for the winter. However, he could not go back at the end of July. His position was unfavourable according to Adam Zamoyski. There was the heat—also at night—and the lack of supplies. He had lost a third of his army due to sickness and straggling.[136] The Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) had come to an end as Kutuzov signed the Treaty of Bucharest and the Russian general Pavel Chichagov headed north-west. His former ally Bernadotte broke off relations with France and entered into an alliance with Russia (Treaty of Örebro). Mid-July Napoleon's brother Jérome resigned and decided to go home. (For Napoleon he lost the opportunity to destroy the Russian armies separately.)On 4 August the corps of Barclay and Bagration finally succeeded to unite in Smolensk.[137][138] On 5 August they held a council of war. Under pressure, Barclay de Tolly decided to launch an offensive. (The French army arrived on Russian territory before the Partitions of Poland). A Russian force was sent west. Napoleon hoped that the Russian advance would lead to the long-desired battle and the unification of the Russian armies forced Napoleon to change his plans. On 14 August, Ney crossed the Dniepr and won the first Battle of Krasnoi. The next day Napoleon celebrated his 43rd birthday with a review of the army. In the late afternoon, Murat's cavalry and Ney's infantry closed up to the western side of Smolensk. The main body of the army did not come up until late the next day.[139]The Battle of Smolensk (1812) on August 16–18 became the first real confrontation. Napoleon surrounded the southern bank of the Dniepr, while the northern bank was guarded by Barclay's army. When Bagration moved further east, to prevent the French from crossing the river and attacking the Russians from behind, Napoleon began the attack on the Smolensk Kremlin in the evening. In the middle of the night Barclay de Tolly withdrew his troops from the burning city to avoid a big battle with no chance of victory. When the French army moved in the Russians left on the east side. Ney, Junot and Oudinot tried to halt their army. The Battle of Valutino could have been decisive but the Russians succeeded to escape via a diversion on the road to Moscow. The French discussed their options or prepare for a new attack after winter. Napoleon pressed his army on after the Russians.[140] Murat implored him to stop, but Napoleon could see nothing but Moscow.[98] After five or six days Napoleon invited the wounded Tuchkov to write the tsar his readiness for peace negotiations; then the general was sent to Paris as honorary prisoner.[141] On 24 August, the Grande Armée marched out on the Old Smolensk road, 30 feet wide; Eugene on the left, Poniatowski on the right and Murat in the centre, with the Emperor, the Guard, I Corps and III Corps in the second line. Joseph Barbanègre was appointed commander of the devastated city and had to organise new supplies.Kutuzov in commandMeanwhile, Wittgenstein was forced to retreat to the north after the First Battle of Polotsk. Bagration asked Aleksey Arakcheyev to organize the militia, as Barclay had led the French right into the capital.[139] Political pressure on Barclay to give battle and the general's continuing reluctance to do so led to his removal after the defeat. On 20 August he was replaced in his position as commander-in-chief by the popular veteran Mikhail Kutuzov. The former head of the St. Petersburg militia and a member of the State Council arrived on the 29th at Tsaryovo-Zaymishche, a border village.[142] [i] The weather was still unbearably hot and Kutuzov went on with Barclay's successful strategy, using attrition warfare instead of risking the army in an open battle. Napoleon's superiority in numbers was almost eliminated. The Russian Army fell back ever deeper into Russia's empty and forested interior as Napoleon continued to move east. Unable because of political pressure to give up Moscow without a fight, Kutuzov took up a defensive position some 120 kilometres (75 mi) before Moscow at Borodino.","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vereshchagin_Napoleon_near_Borodino.jpg"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2007217-152"},{"link_name":"Grande Armée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"Borodino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borodino_(village),_Mozhaysky_District,_Moscow_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Mozhaysk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozhaysk"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990260-153"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990253-154"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990255%E2%80%93256-155"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990260-153"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990260-153"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaythornthwaite201274-157"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860159-158"},{"link_name":"Berthier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990262-159"}],"sub_title":"The Battle of Borodino","text":"Napoleon and his staff at Borodino by Vasily VereshchaginThe Battle of Borodino, fought on 7 September 1812, was the largest battle of the French invasion of Russia, involving more than 250,000 troops and resulting in at least 70,000 casualties.[143] The Grande Armée attacked the Imperial Russian Army near the village of Borodino, west of the town of Mozhaysk, and eventually captured the main positions on the battlefield but failed to destroy the Russian army. About a third of Napoleon's soldiers were killed or wounded; Russian losses, while heavier, could be replaced due to Russia's large population, since Napoleon's campaign took place on Russian soil.The battle ended with the Russian Army, while out of position, still offering resistance.[144] The state of exhaustion of the French forces and the lack of recognition of the state of the Russian Army led Napoleon to remain on the battlefield with his army, instead of engaging in the forced pursuit that had marked other campaigns that he had conducted.[145] The entirety of the Guard was still available to Napoleon, and in refusing to use it he lost this singular chance to destroy the Russian Army.[146] Borodino was a pivotal point in the campaign, as it was the last offensive action fought by Napoleon in Russia. By withdrawing, the Russian Army preserved its combat strength, eventually allowing it to force Napoleon out of the country.Borodino was the bloodiest day of battle in the Napoleonic Wars. The Russian Army could only muster half of its strength on September 8. Kutuzov chose to act in accordance with his scorched earth tactics and retreat, leaving the road to Moscow open. Kutuzov also ordered the evacuation of the city.By this point the Russians had managed to draft large numbers of reinforcements (volunteers) into the army, bringing the Russian army to their peak strength in 1812 of 904,000, with perhaps 100,000 in the vicinity of Moscow—the remnants of Kutuzov's army from Borodino partially reinforced.Both armies began to move and rebuild. The Russian retreat was significant for two reasons: firstly, the move was to the south and not the east; secondly, the Russians immediately began operations that would continue to deplete the French forces. Platov, commanding the rear guard on September 8, offered such strong resistance that Napoleon remained on the Borodino field.[144] On the following day, Miloradovich assumed command of the rear guard, adding his forces to the formation.On 8 September the Russian army began retreating east from Borodino.[144] They camped outside Mozhaysk.[147][148] When the village of Mozhaysk was captured by the French on the 9th, the Grande Armée rested for two days to recover.[149] Napoleon asked Berthier to send reinforcements from Smolensk to Moscow and from Minsk to Smolensk. The French Army began to move out on September 10 with the still ill Napoleon not leaving until the 12th. Some 18,000 men were ordered in from Smolensk, and Marshal Victor's corps supplied another 25,000.[150]","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_(1841).jpg"},{"link_name":"fire of Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1812)"},{"link_name":"Bolshiye Vyazyomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshiye_Vyazyomy"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"Dmitry Golitsyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Golitsyn"},{"link_name":"General Field Marshal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_marshal_(Russian_Empire)"},{"link_name":"highest military rank of the Imperial Russian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranks_and_insignia_of_the_Imperial_Russian_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2010210%E2%80%93211-162"},{"link_name":"O.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates"},{"link_name":"Golitsyno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golitsyno,_Moscow_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Odintsovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odintsovo"},{"link_name":"Mortier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise"},{"link_name":"Joachim Murat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Murat"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"council at Fili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_at_Fili"},{"link_name":"Leo Tolstoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy"},{"link_name":"Fyodor Rostopchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Rostopchin"},{"link_name":"War and Peace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace"},{"link_name":"losing Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_occupation_of_Moscow"},{"link_name":"Miloradovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Andreyevich_Miloradovich"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990265-165"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2004297-166"},{"link_name":"Moscow was reduced to ashes by arson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1812)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990285-27"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990290-167"},{"link_name":"Podolsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolsk"},{"link_name":"Tarutino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarutino,_Russia"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860170-168"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860175-169"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860177-170"},{"link_name":"Obninsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obninsk"},{"link_name":"Army of the Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Danube"},{"link_name":"Tula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tula,_Russia"},{"link_name":"Briansk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briansk"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2010214-172"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2010252-173"},{"link_name":"for Napoleon's retreat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attrition_warfare_against_Napoleon"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"Bennigsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levin_August_von_Bennigsen"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860203-175"},{"link_name":"Nizhny Novgorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2010253-176"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven2010296-177"},{"link_name":"Jacques Lauriston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lauriston"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860181-178"},{"link_name":"Belliard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Daniel_Belliard"},{"link_name":"Battle of Winkovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Winkovo"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1860209-179"}],"sub_title":"Capture of Moscow","text":"Napoleon watching the fire of Moscow in September 1812On 10 September the main quarter of the Russian army was situated at Bolshiye Vyazyomy.[151] Kutuzov settled in a Vyazyomy Manor on the high road to Moscow. The owner was Dmitry Golitsyn, who entered military service again. The next day Tsar Alexander signed a document that Kutuzov was promoted General Field Marshal, the highest military rank of the Imperial Russian Army. Russian sources suggest Kutuzov wrote a number of orders and letters to Rostopchin, the Moscow military governor, about saving the city or the army.[152][153] On 12 September [O.S. 31 August] 1812, the main forces of Kutuzov departed from the village, now Golitsyno and camped near Odintsovo, 20 km to the west, followed by Mortier and Joachim Murat's vanguard.[154] Napoleon, who suffered from a cold and lost his voice, spent the night at Vyazyomy Manor (on the same sofa in the library) within 24 hours.[155] On Sunday afternoon the Russian military council at Fili discussed the risks and agreed to abandon Moscow without fighting. Leo Tolstoy wrote Fyodor Rostopchin was invited also and explained the difficult decision in quite a few remarkable chapters in his book War and Peace. This came at the price of losing Moscow, whose population was evacuated. Miloradovich would not give up his rearguard duties until September 14, allowing Moscow to be evacuated. Miloradovich finally retreated under a flag of truce.[156] Kutuzov withdrew to the southeast of Moscow.On September 14, 1812, Napoleon moved into Moscow. However, he was surprised to have received no delegation from the city.[157] Before the order was received to evacuate Moscow, the city had a population of approximately 270,000 people. 48 hours later three quarters of Moscow was reduced to ashes by arson.[26] Although Saint Petersburg was the political capital at that time, Napoleon had occupied Moscow, the spiritual capital of Russia, but Alexander I decided that there could not be peaceful coexistence with Napoleon. There would be no appeasement.[158] On 19 September Murat lost sight of Kutuzov who changed direction and turned west to Podolsk and Tarutino where he would be more protected by the surrounding hills and the Nara river.[159][160][161] On 3 October Kutuzov and his entire staff arrived at Tarutino and camped there for two weeks. He controlled the three-pronged roads from Obninsk to Kaluga and Medyn so that Napoleon could not turn south or southwest. This position not only allowed him to harass the French lines of communication but also stay in contact with the Russian forces under Tormasov and Chichagov, commander of the Army of the Danube. He was also well placed to watch over the workshops and arms factories in nearby Tula and Briansk.[162]Kutuzov's food supplies and reinforcements were mostly coming up through Kaluga from the fertile and populous southern provinces, his new deployment gave him every opportunity to feed his men and horses and rebuild their strength. He refused to attack; he was happy for Napoleon to stay in Moscow for as long as possible, avoiding complicated movements and manoeuvres.[163][164]Kutuzov avoided frontal battles involving large masses of troops in order to reinforce his army and to wait there for Napoleon's retreat.[165] This tactic was sharply criticised by Chief of Staff Bennigsen and others, but also by Tsar Alexander.[166] Barclay de Tolly interrupted his service for five months and settled in Nizhny Novgorod.[167][168] Each side avoided the other and seemed no longer to wish to get into a fight. On 5 October, on order of Napoleon, the French ambassador Jacques Lauriston left Moscow to meet Kutuzov at his headquarters. Kutuzov agreed to meet, despite the orders of the Tsar.[169] On 10 October Murat complained to Belliard about the lack of food and fodder; each day he lost 200 men captured by Russians. On 18 October, at dawn during breakfast, Murat's camp in a forest was surprised by an attack by forces led by Bennigsen, known as Battle of Winkovo. Bennigsen was supported by Kutuzov from his headquarters at distance. Bennigsen asked Kutuzov to provide troops for the pursuit. However, Kutuzov refused.[170]","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crossing_the_Berezina_River,_by_Peter_von_Hess.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kalmyks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmyks"},{"link_name":"Bashkirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkirs"},{"link_name":"Berezina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezina"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tarutino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tarutino"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990321%E2%80%93322-180"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"Medyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medyn"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990326-182"},{"link_name":"Battle of Maloyaroslavets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maloyaroslavets"},{"link_name":"partisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partisan_(military)"},{"link_name":"Matvei Platov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matvei_Platov"},{"link_name":"Vasily Orlov-Denisov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Orlov-Denisov"},{"link_name":"Denis Davydov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Davydov"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990321-183"},{"link_name":"limbers and caissons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbers_and_caissons"},{"link_name":"ravine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gully"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"Vyazma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vyazma"},{"link_name":"Polotsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Polotsk"},{"link_name":"Krasny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Krasnoi"},{"link_name":"Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"gallop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallop"},{"link_name":"Viceroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"Dombrowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Henryk_D%C4%85browski"},{"link_name":"Bobr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobr_(Berezina)"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler2009841-186"},{"link_name":"Battle of Berezina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berezina"},{"link_name":"strategic victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_victory"},{"link_name":"Pavel Chichagov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Chichagov"},{"link_name":"sled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sled"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENapoleon-18122021-187"}],"sub_title":"Retreat","text":"Kalmyks and Bashkirs attacking French troops at the BerezinaAs the Tsar remained unresponsive and Napoleon took advantage of the unusually fine and warm weather lasting into October, he lingered in Moscow beyond his welcome. After five weeks, the French Army finally left the city on 19 October, a rainy day. Despite still numbering 108,000 strong, Napoleon's forces suffered a significant blow with the near-destruction of Murat's cavalry in the Battle of Tarutino. Lacking clear direction or adequate supplies, the army began its retreat from the region, facing the prospect of even worse disasters ahead.[171] Napoleon traveled along the Old Kaluga road, heading south in search of untouched, prosperous territories.[172] His goal was to avoid the destruction caused on the previous eastward march, opting instead for alternative routes, particularly the westward path through Medyn.[173] Evading Kutuzov became Napoleon's main priority, but he encountered an obstacle in his progress.The Battle of Maloyaroslavets, a testament to Kutuzov's strategic acumen, forced the French Army to retrace its steps along the Old Smolensk road, reversing their previous eastward advance. Kutuzov's tactical brilliance extended further as he employed partisan tactics, repeatedly striking at vulnerable points to prevent any potential southern retreat. As the French retreat devolved into chaos, bands of Cossacks (under Matvei Platov, Vasily Orlov-Denisov and Denis Davydov) along with agile Russian cavalry, launched relentless assaults on isolated French units foraging for supplies.[174] Maintaining a fully supplied army became an insurmountable challenge due to the vast stretches of uninterrupted forests. The absence of grazing fields and fodder took a heavy toll on the surviving horses, resulting in the demise of nearly all of them due to either starvation or their use as sustenance by starving soldiers. Depleted of their mounts, the French cavalry faced dissolution, compelling generals and troopers alike to proceed on foot. The scarcity of horses also forced the abandonment of numerous cannons, limbers and caissons, a loss that significantly weakened Napoleon's forces in subsequent campaigns. A wagon or a piece of artillery could not be transported across even the smallest ravine without the loss of 12 to 15 horses.[175] Starvation and disease ravaged the troops, exacerbating their already dire circumstances. Defeats at Vyazma, Polotsk and Krasny further diminished the strength of the Grande Armée. In a letter to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, his father-in-law, Napoleon would later lament these setbacks:The story of the Krasnoye affair, where I was said to have retired at a gallop, is a flat fabrication. The so-called Viceroy affair is false. It's true that from November 7th to the 16th, with the thermometer falling to 18 and even 22 degrees, 30,000 of my cavalry and artillery horses died; I abandoned several thousand ambulance wagons and baggage cars for lack of horses. The roads were covered in ice. In this terrible cold storm, the bivouac became unbearable for my people; many moved away in the evening in search of houses and shelter; I had no cavalry left to protect them. The Cossacks picked up several thousand.[176]Russian forces also seized control of the French supply depots at Polotsk, Vitebsk and Minsk, dealing a severe blow to Napoleon's already faltering campaign. However, the convergence of forces led by Victor, Oudinot and Dombrowski at the Bobr bolstered the numerical strength of the Grande Armée back up to approximately 49,000 French combatants alongside some 40,000 stragglers.[177] Despite this reinforcement, as all French corps advanced towards Borisov, they encountered another critical obstacle: the strategic bridge needed to cross the Berezina River had been destroyed by the Russian army. The ensuing Battle of Berezina, marked the campaign's final significant engagement, and proved to be a disastrous culmination for the French. Compounding their plight, the onset of thaw caused the ice to melt, necessitating the construction of two bridges. From a military standpoint, the subsequent escape could be deemed a strategic victory for the French, albeit amidst substantial losses. However, it also represented a missed opportunity for the Russians, who laid blame on Pavel Chichagov for his failure to fully capitalize on the situation.On 3 December Napoleon published the 29th Bulletin in which he informed the outside world for the first time of the catastrophic state of his army. He abandoned the army on 5 December and returned home on a sled,[178] leaving the sick Murat in command. In the following weeks, the Grande Armée shrank further, and on 14 December 1812, it left Russian territory.","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg"},{"link_name":"Adolph Northen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Northen"},{"link_name":"Russian Winter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Winter"},{"link_name":"blizzard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blizzard"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt1935155-188"},{"link_name":"caulkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulkin"},{"link_name":"gangrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangrene"},{"link_name":"hypothermia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"Armand de Caulaincourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Augustin_Louis_de_Caulaincourt"},{"link_name":"bivouacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivouac_shelter"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaulaincourt1935259-190"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavydov2010-191"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"snow blindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_blindness"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-112"}],"sub_title":"Cold weather","text":"Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, painting by Adolph NorthenFollowing the campaign, a saying arose that \"General Winter\" defeated Napoleon, alluding to the Russian Winter. Minard's map shows that the opposite is true as the French losses were highest in the summer and autumn, due to inadequate preparation of logistics resulting in insufficient supplies, while many troops were also killed by disease. Thus the outcome of the campaign was decided long before the cold weather became a factor.When winter arrived on 6 November with a blizzard, the army was still equipped with summer clothing and did not have the means to protect themselves from the cold or snow.[179] It had also failed to forge caulkin shoes for the horses to enable them to traverse roads that had become iced over. The most devastating effect of the cold weather upon Napoleon's forces occurred during their retreat. Starvation and gangrene coupled with hypothermia led to the loss of tens of thousands of men. Heavy loot was thrown away; much of the artillery was left behind. The intense cold enfeebled the brain of those whose health had already suffered, especially of those who had had dysentery, but soon, while the cold increased daily, its pernicious effect was noticed in all.[180]In his memoir, Napoleon's close adviser Armand de Caulaincourt recounted scenes of massive loss, and offered a vivid description of mass death through hypothermia:The cold was so intense that bivouacking was no longer supportable. Bad luck to those who fell asleep by a campfire! Furthermore, disorganization was perceptibly gaining ground in the Guard. One constantly found men who, overcome by the cold, had been forced to drop out and had fallen to the ground, too weak or too numb to stand. Ought one to help them along—which practically meant carrying them. They begged one to let them alone. There were bivouacs all along the road—ought one to take them to a campfire? Once these poor wretches fell asleep they were dead. If they resisted the craving for sleep, another passer-by would help them along a little farther, thus prolonging their agony for a short while, but not saving them, for in this condition the drowsiness engendered by cold is irresistibly strong.[181]This befell a Grande Armée that was ill-equipped for cold weather. The French deficiencies in equipment caused by the assumption that their campaign would be concluded before the cold weather set in were a large factor in the number of casualties they suffered.[182] After a few days of thaw, the temperature dropped again 23 November.[183] From the Berezina, the retreat was nothing but utter flight. The preservation of war materiel and military positions was no longer considered. When the night-time temperature dropped to minus 35 degrees Celsius it proved catastrophic for Loison's untried soldiers. Some suffered from snow blindness. Within three days, his division of 15,000 soldiers lost 12,000 men without a battle.[105]","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990407-193"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016280-194"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2016313-195"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElting1997570-196"},{"link_name":"that dissolved into deep mires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasputitsa"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990151-62"},{"link_name":"Charles Joseph Minard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard"}],"sub_title":"Summary","text":"In Napoleon's Russian Campaign, Riehn sums up the limitations of Napoleon's logistics as follows:The military machine Napoleon the artilleryman had created was perfectly suited to fight short, violent campaigns, but whenever a long-term sustained effort was in the offing, it tended to expose feet of clay. [...] In the end, the logistics of the French military machine proved wholly inadequate. The experiences of short campaigns had left the French supply services completed unprepared for [..] Russia, and this was despite the precautions Napoleon had taken. There was no quick remedy that might have repaired these inadequacies from one campaign to the next. [...] The limitations of horse-drawn transport and the road networks to support it were simply not up to the task. Indeed, modern militaries have long been in agreement that Napoleon's military machine at its apex, and the scale on which he attempted to operate with it in 1812 and 1813, had become an anachronism that could succeed only with the use of railroads and the telegraph. And these had not yet been invented. [184]Napoleon lacked the apparatus to efficiently move so many troops across such large distances of hostile territory.[185] The French supply depots established in the Russian interior failed in their purpose as supplies could not be moved quickly enough.[186] The French train battalions did their best, but the distances, the speed required, and the poor conditions they labored under meant that the demands Napoleon placed on them were too great.[187] Napoleon's demand of a speedy advance by the Grande Armée over a network of dirt roads that dissolved into deep mires further broke down his logistical network as weakened draft animals collapsed from overwork and vehicles that could not be repaired broke down.[56] As the graph of Charles Joseph Minard, given below, shows, the Grande Armée incurred the majority of its losses during the march to Moscow during the summer and autumn.","title":"Invasion"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz190652-197"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz184347-198"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn199049%E2%80%9352-199"},{"link_name":"Georges Lefebvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELefebvre1969311%E2%80%93312-200"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkham1963190-201"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkham1963199-202"},{"link_name":"James Marshall-Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Marshall-Cornwall"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall-Cornwall1998220-203"},{"link_name":"Eugene Tarle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yevgeny_Tarle"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarle1942397-204"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn199077,_501-5"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2004536-20"},{"link_name":"Réaumur scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETufte2001-205"}],"sub_title":"Grande Armée","text":"On 24 June 1812, around 400,000–500,000 men of the Grande Armée, the largest army assembled up to that point in European history, crossed the border into Russia and headed towards Moscow.[188][189][190] Anthony Joes wrote in the Journal of Conflict Studies that figures on how many men Napoleon took into Russia and how many eventually came out vary widely. Georges Lefebvre says that Napoleon crossed the Niemen with over 600,000 soldiers, only half of whom were from France, the others being mainly Poles and Germans.[191] Felix Markham thinks that 450,000 crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812.[192] When Ney and the rearguard recrossed the Niemen on December 14, he had barely a thousand men fit for action.[193] James Marshall-Cornwall says 510,000 Imperial troops entered Russia.[194] Eugene Tarle believes that 420,000 crossed with Napoleon and 150,000 eventually followed, for a grand total of 570,000.[195] Richard K. Riehn provides the following figures: 685,000 men marched into Russia in 1812, of whom around 355,000 were French; 31,000 soldiers marched out again in some sort of military formation, with perhaps another 35,000 stragglers, for a total of fewer than 70,000 known survivors.[5] Adam Zamoyski estimated that between 550,000 and 600,000 French and allied troops (including reinforcements) operated beyond the Niemen, of which as many as 400,000 troops died but this includes deaths of prisoners during captivity.[20]Minard's famous infographic (see below) depicts the march ingeniously by showing the size of the advancing army, overlaid on a rough map, as well as the retreating soldiers together with temperatures recorded (as much as 30 below zero on the Réaumur scale (−38 °C, −36 °F)) on their return. The numbers on this chart have 422,000 crossing the Neman with Napoleon, 22,000 taking a side trip early on in the campaign, 100,000 surviving the battles en route to Moscow and returning from there; only 4,000 survive the march back, to be joined by 6,000 that survived from that initial 22,000 in the feint attack northward; in the end, only 10,000 crossed the Neman back out of the initial 422,000.[196]","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minister of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_the_Russian_Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Myrbach-Cossacks.jpg"},{"link_name":"irregular cavalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irregular_cavalry"},{"link_name":"Cossack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"Baltic German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_German"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governorate_of_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Livonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governorate_of_Livonia"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"Dominic Lieven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Lieven"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201023-206"},{"link_name":"Steinheil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Steinheil"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelmert1986-207"}],"sub_title":"Imperial Russian Army","text":"Barclay de Tolly the Minister of War and field commander of the First Western Army and General of Infantry served as the Commander in Chief of the Russian Armies. According to Tolstoy in War and Peace (Book X) he was unpopular and regarded as a foreigner by Bagration who was higher in rank but had to follow his orders. Kutuzov replaced Barclay and acted as Commander-in-chief during the retreat following the Battle of Smolensk.As irregular cavalry, the Cossack horsemen of the Russian steppes were best suited to reconnaissance, scouting and harassing the enemy's flanks and supply lines.These forces, however, could count on reinforcements from the second line, which totalled 129,000 men and 8,000 Cossacks with 434 guns and 433 rounds of ammunition.Of these, about 105,000 men were actually available for the defence against the invasion. In the third line were the 36 recruit depots and militias, which came to a total of approximately 161,000 men of various and highly disparate military values, of which about 133,000 actually took part in the defence.Thus, the grand total of all the forces was 488,000 men, of which about 428,000 gradually came into action against the Grande Armee. This bottom line, however, includes more than 80,000 Cossacks and militiamen, as well as about 20,000 men who garrisoned the fortresses in the operational area. The majority of the officer corps came from the aristocracy.[197] About 7% of the officer corps came from the Baltic German nobility from the governorates of Estonia and Livonia.[197] Because the Baltic German nobles tended to be better educated than the ethnic Russian nobility, the Baltic Germans were often favoured with positions in high command and various technical positions.[197] The Russian Empire had no universal educational system, and those who could afford it had to hire tutors or send their children to private schools.[197] The educational level of the Russian nobility and gentry varied enormously depending on the quality of the tutors and private schools, with some Russian nobles being extremely well educated while others were just barely literate. The Baltic German nobility was more inclined to invest in their children's education than the ethnic Russian nobility, which led to the government favouring them when granting officers' commissions.[197] Of the 800 doctors in the Russian Army in 1812, almost all of them were Baltic Germans.[197] The British historian Dominic Lieven noted that, at the time, the Russian elite defined Russianness in terms of loyalty to the House of Romanov rather in terms of language or culture, and as the Baltic German aristocrats were very loyal, they were considered and considered themselves to be Russian despite speaking German as their first language.[197]Sweden, Russia's only ally, did not send supporting troops, but the alliance made it possible to withdraw the 45,000-man Russian corps Steinheil from Finland and use it in the later battles (20,000 men were sent to Riga and Polotsk).[198]","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:On_the_big_road_(Vereshchagin)_-_detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"Old Guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Guard_(France)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Krasnoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Krasnoi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleon_w_smorgoniach.jpg"},{"link_name":"Smorgon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smarhon"},{"link_name":"Zygmunt Rozwadowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygmunt_Rozwadowski"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz184394-208"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiehn1990395-209"},{"link_name":"Desgenettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9-Nicolas_Dufriche_Desgenettes"},{"link_name":"Marshall Lefebvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre"},{"link_name":"Louise Fusil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Fusil"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"Ida Saint Elme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Versfelt"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_retreat_from_Moscow-16"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHay2013-213"},{"link_name":"Russian-German Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-German_Legion"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelmert1986-207"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2004536-20"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2004537-214"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBogdanovich1859492%E2%80%93503-215"},{"link_name":"Dominic Lieven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_Lieven"},{"link_name":"Alexander Chernyshyov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Chernyshyov"},{"link_name":"Karl Nesselrode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Nesselrode"},{"link_name":"light cavalry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_cavalry"},{"link_name":"musketeers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musketeers"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"}],"sub_title":"Losses","text":"Napoleon's retreat, surrounded by the Old Guards after the Battle of Krasnoi. Painting by Vasily VereshchaginPainting Napoleon in Smorgon by Zygmunt RozwadowskiNapoleon lost more than 500,000 men in Russia.[199] Out of an original force of 615,000, only 110,000 frostbitten and half-starved survivors stumbled back.[200] Desgenettes took care of wounded. Marshall Lefebvre arrived with Louise Fusil who was one of the few women who survived the retreat.[201] It is questionable if Ida Saint Elme, ‘Courtisane de la Grande Armée’, was another one.[202]It is estimated that of the 612,000 combatants who entered Russia only 112,000 returned to the frontier. Among the casualties, 100,000 are thought to have been killed in action, 200,000 to have died from other causes, 50,000 to have been left sick in hospitals, 50,000 to have deserted, and 100,000 to have been taken as prisoners of war. The French themselves lost 70,000 in action and 120,000 wounded, as against the non-French contingents' 30,000 and 60,000. Russian casualties have been estimated at 200,000 killed, 50,000 dispersed or deserting, and 150,000 wounded.[16]Recent Russian studies show that Russians captured over 110,000 prisoners during the six-month-long campaign. The harsh winter, as well as popular violence, malnutrition, sickness and hardships during transportation, meant that two-thirds of these men (and women) perished within weeks of captivity. Official reports from forty-eight Russian provinces reveal that 65,503 prisoners had died in Russia by February 1813. Other 39,645 were still held prisoner by the same date, including a group of 50 women and 7 children.[203]Hay has argued that the destruction of the Dutch contingent (15,000) of the Grande Armée was not a result of the death of most of its members. Rather, its various units disintegrated and the troops scattered. Later, some of its personnel were collected and reorganised into the new Dutch army.[204]Most of the Prussian contingent survived thanks to the Convention of Tauroggen and almost the whole Austrian contingent under Schwarzenberg withdrew successfully. The Russians formed the Russian-German Legion from other German prisoners and deserters.[198]Russian casualties in the few open battles are comparable to the French losses, but civilian losses along the devastating campaign route were much higher than the military casualties. In total, despite earlier estimates giving figures of several million dead, around one million were killed, including civilians—fairly evenly split between the French and Russians.[20] Military losses amounted to 300,000 French, about 72,000 Poles,[205] 50,000 Italians, 80,000 Germans, and 61,000 from 16 other nations. As well as the loss of human life, the French also lost some 150,000 horses and over 1,300 artillery pieces.The losses of the Russian armies are difficult to assess. The 19th-century historian Michael Bogdanovich assessed reinforcements of the Russian armies during the war using the Military Registry archives of the General Staff. According to this, the reinforcements totalled 134,000 men. The main army at the time of capture of Vilna in December had 70,000 men, whereas its number at the start of the invasion had been about 150,000. Thus, total losses would come to 210,000 men. Of these, about 40,000 returned to duty. Losses of the formations operating in secondary areas of operations as well as losses in militia units were about 40,000. Thus, he came up with the number of 210,000 men and militiamen.[206] According to Dominic Lieven Russian espionage (Alexander Chernyshyov, Karl Nesselrode) was well organized. The Russian light cavalry was superior from the start with a good supply of horses; the musketeers were not.[207]","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-96"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zachisleniy_w_kazaki_plennych_polykov_armii_Napoleona_1813.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nikolay Karazin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Karazin"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz184394-208"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2014-217"},{"link_name":"War of the Sixth Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFierroPalluel-GuillardTulard1995159%E2%80%93161-218"},{"link_name":"Elba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elba"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClausewitz1906-219"},{"link_name":"Decembrist revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decembrist_Revolt"},{"link_name":"February Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_Revolution"}],"sub_title":"Aftermath","text":"The Russian victory over the French Army in 1812 was a significant blow to Napoleon's ambitions of European dominance. This war was the reason the other coalition allies triumphed once and for all over Napoleon. His army was shattered and morale was low, both for French troops still in Russia, fighting battles just before the campaign ended, and for the troops on other fronts. Napoleon alone was able to maintain any semblance of order; with his disappearance, Murat and the other officers lost all authority.[89]\"Enlistment in the Cossacks of captured Poles of Napoleon's army, 1813\". Painting of Nikolay Karazin, 1881In January 1813 the French army gathered behind the Vistula some 23,000 strong. The Austrian and Prussian troops mustered some 35,000 men in addition.[199] The number of deserters and stragglers having left Russia alive is unknown by definition. The number of new inhabitants of Russia is unknown. The number of prisoners is estimated at around 100,000, of whom more than 50,000 died in captivity.[208]The War of the Sixth Coalition[209] started in 1813 as the Russian campaign was decisive for the Napoleonic Wars and led to Napoleon's defeat and exile on the island of Elba.[210] For Russia, the term Patriotic War (an English rendition of the Russian Отечественная война) became a symbol for a strengthened national identity that had a great effect on Russian patriotism in the 19th century. A series of revolutions followed, starting with the Decembrist revolt of 1825 and ending with the February Revolution of 1917.","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minard.png"},{"link_name":"Attrition warfare against Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attrition_warfare_against_Napoleon"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20104%E2%80%9313-220"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20104%E2%80%935-221"},{"link_name":"French historians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_historians"},{"link_name":"orientalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalism"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20105-222"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20105-222"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20105%E2%80%936-223"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20106-224"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20108-225"},{"link_name":"Decembrist uprising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decembrist_revolt"},{"link_name":"Emperor Nicholas I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20109-226"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20109-226"},{"link_name":"Alexander von Benckendorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Benckendorff"},{"link_name":"Third Section Of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Section_of_His_Imperial_Majesty%27s_Own_Chancellery"},{"link_name":"Alexander Pushkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20109-226"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20106%E2%80%937-227"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_the_hermitage.JPG"},{"link_name":"The hall of military fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Gallery_of_the_Winter_Palace"},{"link_name":"Winter Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Palace"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201010-228"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20109%E2%80%9310-229"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven20106-224"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201010-228"},{"link_name":"Baltic German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Germans"},{"link_name":"nobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_nobility"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201011-230"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201011%E2%80%9312-231"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201012-232"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201011-230"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201011-230"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201010-228"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieven201010-228"},{"link_name":"serfdom in Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolin197025-233"}],"sub_title":"Historiography","text":"Minard's Map of French casualties see also Attrition warfare against Napoleon. Compare on Minard's Map the location of Vilna.The British historian Dominic Lieven wrote that much of the historiography about the campaign for various reasons distorts the story of the Russian war against France in 1812–14.[211] The number of Western historians who are fluent in French or German vastly outnumbers those who are fluent in Russian, which has the effect that many Western historians simply ignore Russian language sources when writing about the campaign because they cannot read them.[212]According to von Lieven, memoirs written by French veterans of the campaign together with much of the work done by French historians show the influence of \"orientalism\", which depicted Russia as a strange, backward, exotic and barbaric \"Asian\" nation that was intrinsically inferior to the West, especially France.[213] The picture drawn by the French is that of a vastly superior army being defeated by geography, the climate and just plain bad fortune.[213] German-language sources are not as hostile to the Russians as French sources, but many of the Prussian officers such as Carl von Clausewitz (who did not speak Russian) who joined the Russian Army to fight against the French found service with a foreign army both frustrating and strange, and their accounts reflected these experiences.[214] Lieven compared those historians who use Clausewitz's account of his time in Russian service as their main source for the 1812 campaign to those historians who might use an account written by a Free French officer who did not speak English who served with the British Army in World War II as their main source for the British war effort in the Second World War.[215]In Russia, the official historical line until 1917 was that the peoples of the Russian Empire had rallied together in defence of the throne against a foreign invader.[216] Because many of the younger Russian officers in the 1812 campaign took part in the Decembrist uprising of 1825, their roles in history were erased at the order of Emperor Nicholas I.[217] Likewise, because many of the officers who were also veterans who stayed loyal during the Decembrist uprising went on to become ministers in the tyrannical regime of Emperor Nicholas I, they had a negative reputation among the radical intelligentsia of 19th century Russia.[217] For example, Count Alexander von Benckendorff is thought by von Lievewn to have achieved good results militarily in 1812 commanding a Cossack company, but because he later become the Chief of the Third Section Of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery as the secret police were called, was one of the closest friends of Nicholas I and is infamous for his persecution of Russia's national poet Alexander Pushkin, he is not well remembered in Russia and his role in 1812 is usually ignored.[217]Furthermore, the 19th century was a great age of nationalism and there was a tendency by historians in the Allied nations to give the lion's share of the credit for defeating France to their own respective nation with British historians claiming that it was the United Kingdom that played the most important role in defeating Napoleon; Austrian historians giving that honour to their nation; Russian historians writing that it was Russia that played the greatest role in the victory, and Prussian and later German historians writing that it was Prussia that made the difference.[218] In such a context, various historians liked to diminish the contributions of their allies. Von Lieven's account doesn't mention the influence of Polish national feeling on convictions concerning the war, which were also significant, also in the aftermath.The hall of military fame in the Winter Palace with portraits of Russian generalsLeo Tolstoy was not a historian, but his popular 1869 historical novel War and Peace, which depicted the war as a triumph of what Lieven called the \"moral strength, courage and patriotism of ordinary Russians\" with military leadership a negligible factor, has shaped the popular understanding of the war in both Russia and abroad from the 19th century onward.[219] A recurring theme of War and Peace is that certain events are just fated to happen, and there is nothing that a leader can do to challenge destiny, a view of history that dramatically discounts leadership as a factor in history. During the Soviet period, historians engaged in what Lieven called huge distortions to make history fit with Communist ideology, with Marshal Kutuzov and Prince Bagration transformed into peasant generals, Alexander I alternatively ignored or vilified, and the war becoming a massive \"People's War\" fought by the ordinary people of Russia with almost no involvement on the part of the government.[220] During the Cold War, many Western historians were inclined to see Russia as \"the enemy\", and there was a tendency to downplay and dismiss Russia's contributions to the defeat of Napoleon.[215] As such, Napoleon's claim that the Russians did not defeat him and he was just the victim of fate in 1812 was very appealing to many Western historians.[219]Russian historians tended to focus on the French invasion of Russia in 1812 and ignore the campaigns in 1813–1814 fought in Germany and France, because a campaign fought on Russian soil was regarded as more important than campaigns abroad and because in 1812 the Russians were commanded by the ethnic Russian Kutuzov while in the campaigns in 1813–1814 the senior Russian commanders were mostly ethnic Germans, being either Baltic German nobility or Germans who had entered Russian service.[221] At the time the conception held by the Russian elite was that the Russian empire was a multi-ethnic entity, in which the Baltic German aristocrats in service to the House of Romanov were considered part of that elite—an understanding of what it meant to be Russian defined in terms of dynastic loyalty rather than language, ethnicity, and culture that does not appeal to those later Russians who wanted to see the war as purely a triumph of ethnic Russians.[222]One consequence of this is that many Russian historians liked to disparage the officer corps of the Imperial Russian Army because of the high proportion of Baltic Germans serving as officers, which further reinforces the popular stereotype that the Russians won despite their officers rather than because of them.[223] Furthermore, Emperor Alexander I often gave the impression at the time that he found Russia a place that was not worthy of his ideals, and he cared more about Europe as a whole than about Russia.[221] Alexander's conception of a war to free Europe from Napoleon lacked appeal to many nationalist-minded Russian historians, who preferred to focus on a campaign in defence of the homeland rather than what Lieven called Alexander's rather \"murky\" mystical ideas about European brotherhood and security.[221] Lieven observed that for every book written in Russia on the campaigns of 1813–1814, there are a hundred books on the campaign of 1812 and that the most recent Russian grand history of the war of 1812–1814 gave 490 pages to the campaign of 1812 and 50 pages to the campaigns of 1813–1814.[219] Lieven noted that Tolstoy ended War and Peace in December 1812 and that many Russian historians have followed Tolstoy in focusing on the campaign of 1812 while ignoring the greater achievements of campaigns of 1813–1814 that ended with the Russians marching into Paris.[219]Napoleon did not touch serfdom in Russia. What the reaction of the Russian peasantry would have been if he had lived up to the traditions of the French Revolution, bringing liberty to the serfs, is an intriguing question.[224]","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Barbarossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa"},{"link_name":"David Stahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Stahel"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStahel2010448-234"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStahel2010337-235"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStahel201030-236"}],"sub_title":"German invasion","text":"Academics have drawn parallels between the French invasion of Russia and Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of 1941. David Stahel writes:[225]Historical comparisons reveal that many fundamental points that denote Hitler's failure in 1941 were actually foreshadowed in past campaigns. The most obvious example is Napoleon's ill-fated invasion of Russia in 1812. The German High Command's inability to grasp some of the essential hallmarks of this military calamity highlights another angle of their flawed conceptualization and planning in anticipation of Operation Barbarossa. Like Hitler, Napoleon was the conqueror of Europe and foresaw his war on Russia as the key to forcing England to make terms. Napoleon invaded with the intention of ending the war in a short campaign centred on a decisive battle in western Russia. As the Russians withdrew, Napoleon's supply lines grew and his strength was in decline from week to week. The poor roads and harsh environment took a deadly toll on both horses and men, while politically Russia's oppressed serfs remained, for the most part, loyal to the aristocracy. Worse still, while Napoleon defeated the Russian Army at Smolensk and Borodino, it did not produce a decisive result for the French and each time left Napoleon with the dilemma of either retreating or pushing deeper into Russia. Neither was really an acceptable option, the retreat politically and the advance militarily, but in each instance, Napoleon opted for the latter. In doing so the French emperor outdid even Hitler and successfully took the Russian capital in September 1812, but it counted for little when the Russians simply refused to acknowledge defeat and prepared to fight on through the winter. By the time Napoleon left Moscow to begin his infamous retreat, the Russian campaign was doomed.The invasion by Germany was called the Great Patriotic War by the Soviet government, to evoke comparisons with the victory by Alexander I over Napoleon's invading army.[226] In addition, the Germans, like the French, took solace from the notion they had been defeated by the Russian winter, rather than the Russians themselves or their own mistakes.[227]","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dvortsovajaplo%C5%A1t%C5%A1adDSCN0606.JPG"},{"link_name":"Palace Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_Square"},{"link_name":"Alexander Column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Column"},{"link_name":"Russian popular culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky"},{"link_name":"1812 Overture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812_Overture"},{"link_name":"German invasion during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"}],"sub_title":"Cultural impact","text":"Palace Square with Alexander ColumnAn event of epic proportions and momentous importance for European history, the French invasion of Russia has been the subject of much discussion among historians. The campaign's sustained role in Russian popular culture may be seen in Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture, and the identification of it with the German invasion during World War II, which became known as the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union.","title":"Historical assessment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-43"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-87"},{"link_name":"conscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscripts"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-86"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-140"},{"link_name":"Karl Ludwig von Phull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Phull"},{"link_name":"Drissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drissa"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-151"},{"link_name":"Madame de Stael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_de_Stael"},{"link_name":"Miloradovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Miloradovich"}],"text":"^ During this period, Moscow held considerable significance but Saint Petersburg served as a capital from 1712 to 1918.\n\n^ 50,000 were Austrians, Prussians, and other Germans, 20,000 were Poles, and just 35,000 were Frenchmen.[32]\n\n^ French: Campagne de Russie\n\n^ French: seconde guerre de la Pologne\n\n^ French: seconde [deuxième] campagne de Pologne\n\n^ Russian: Отечественная война 1812 года, romanized: Otechestvennaya voyna 1812 goda\n\n^ The \"Grande Armée\" is estimated between 450 and 600,000 soldiers, half of them foreigners. About 120,000 were young conscripts;[79] 50,000 volunteers, perhaps 3,000 women and some children. A Dutch general noted that all commanders exaggerated the number of their soldiers in order to look good.[80]\n\n^ Karl Ludwig von Phull was responsible for the initial plan for the defence of Russia - the retreat to the fortified camp at Drissa.\n\n^ On the day before he left the capital he met with Madame de Stael, one of Napoleon's main opponents. A few weeks earlier she also had visited Miloradovich and Rostopchin the governors of Kyiv and Moscow.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-4128-0599-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4128-0599-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2908182965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2908182965"},{"link_name":"\"Continuity and Change in Guerrilla War: The Spanish and Afghan Cases\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130620013243/http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/4482/5262"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/4482/5262"},{"link_name":"The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/wordsworthpocket0000unse"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781853263019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781853263019"}],"text":"Adams, Michael (2006). Napoleon and Russia. Hambledon Continuum.\nBrett-James, Antony (1967), 1812: Eyewitness accounts of Napoleon's defeat in Russia\nClausewitz, Carl von (1996). The Russian campaign of 1812. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-4128-0599-6.\nHourtoulle, F. G. (2001). Borodino, The Moscova: The Battle for the Redoubts (Hardcover ed.). Paris: Histoire & Collections. ISBN 978-2908182965.\nJoes, Anthony James (1996), \"Continuity and Change in Guerrilla War: The Spanish and Afghan Cases\", Journal of Conflict Studies, 16 (2), archived from the original on 2013-06-20, retrieved 2008-08-03\nWordsworth (1994). The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia. Hertfordshire: Ware : Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 9781853263019. Retrieved 17 April 2021.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The French Empire in 1812","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Europe_1812_map_en.png/220px-Europe_1812_map_en.png"},{"image_text":"French attack by infantry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/French_attack_in_1812_in_Russia.jpg/170px-French_attack_in_1812_in_Russia.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon stopped at Castle Malbork, a large military warehouse","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Zesp%C3%B3%C5%82_Zamku_Krzy%C5%BCackiego_MALBORK_01.jpg/220px-Zesp%C3%B3%C5%82_Zamku_Krzy%C5%BCackiego_MALBORK_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"On the border of Nieman 1812 by Christian Wilhelm von Faber du Faur","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/On_the_border_of_Nieman_1812.PNG/220px-On_the_border_of_Nieman_1812.PNG"},{"image_text":"27 June, 1812. Quartier Général at Mykoliškiai","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/1812_June_27._Mykoli%C5%A1kiai._Quartier_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral.jpg/220px-1812_June_27._Mykoli%C5%A1kiai._Quartier_G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cossacks feigning retreat against Polish uhlans at the Battle of Mir","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Platov3.jpg/220px-Platov3.jpg"},{"image_text":"General Raevsky leading a detachment of the Russian Imperial Guard at the Battle of Saltanovka","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raevsky_saltanovka.jpg/220px-Raevsky_saltanovka.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon and Poniatowski with the burning city of Smolensk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bataille-de-smolensk.jpg/220px-Bataille-de-smolensk.jpg"},{"image_text":"The total length of the city wall around the Smolensk Kremlin was 6.5 kilometres, with a height of up to 19 metres and a width of up to 5.2 metres, and a total of 38 watchtowers. The Kremlin lost nine towers because of the bombardment and fire.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA._%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_1596-1602%D0%B3.%D0%B3..jpg/220px-%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA._%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_1596-1602%D0%B3.%D0%B3..jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon and his staff at Borodino by Vasily Vereshchagin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Vereshchagin_Napoleon_near_Borodino.jpg/220px-Vereshchagin_Napoleon_near_Borodino.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon watching the fire of Moscow in September 1812","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg/220px-Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kalmyks and Bashkirs attacking French troops at the Berezina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Crossing_the_Berezina_River%2C_by_Peter_von_Hess.jpg/220px-Crossing_the_Berezina_River%2C_by_Peter_von_Hess.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, painting by Adolph Northen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/220px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg"},{"image_text":"As irregular cavalry, the Cossack horsemen of the Russian steppes were best suited to reconnaissance, scouting and harassing the enemy's flanks and supply lines.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Myrbach-Cossacks.jpg/220px-Myrbach-Cossacks.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon's retreat, surrounded by the Old Guards after the Battle of Krasnoi. Painting by Vasily Vereshchagin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/On_the_big_road_%28Vereshchagin%29_-_detail.jpg/220px-On_the_big_road_%28Vereshchagin%29_-_detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Painting Napoleon in Smorgon by Zygmunt Rozwadowski","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Napoleon_w_smorgoniach.jpg/220px-Napoleon_w_smorgoniach.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"Enlistment in the Cossacks of captured Poles of Napoleon's army, 1813\". Painting of Nikolay Karazin, 1881","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Zachisleniy_w_kazaki_plennych_polykov_armii_Napoleona_1813.jpg/220px-Zachisleniy_w_kazaki_plennych_polykov_armii_Napoleona_1813.jpg"},{"image_text":"The hall of military fame in the Winter Palace with portraits of Russian generals","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Inside_the_hermitage.JPG/300px-Inside_the_hermitage.JPG"},{"image_text":"Palace Square with Alexander Column","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Dvortsovajaplo%C5%A1t%C5%A1adDSCN0606.JPG/220px-Dvortsovajaplo%C5%A1t%C5%A1adDSCN0606.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"France portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France"},{"title":"Antony's Parthian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony%27s_Parthian_War"},{"title":"Arches of Triumph in Novocherkassk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archs_of_Triumph_(Novocherkassk)"},{"title":"General Confederation of Kingdom of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Confederation_of_Kingdom_of_Poland"},{"title":"Kutuzov (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutuzov_(film)"},{"title":"List of battles of the French invasion of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_French_invasion_of_Russia"},{"title":"List of In Our Time programmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_In_Our_Time_programmes"},{"title":"Nadezhda Durova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadezhda_Durova"},{"title":"Vasilisa Kozhina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasilisa_Kozhina"},{"title":"War and Peace (film series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace_(film_series)"},{"title":"War and Peace (opera)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace_(opera)"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The retreat from Moscow\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/event/Napoleonic-Wars/The-retreat-from-Moscow","url_text":"\"The retreat from Moscow\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220308101914/https://www.britannica.com/event/Napoleonic-Wars/The-retreat-from-Moscow","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"North, Jonathan (1990). Napoleon's Army in Russia: The Illustrated Memoirs of Albrecht Adam, 1812. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473816589. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved May 20, 2022 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ERrHDwAAQBAJ&dq=socrate+blanc+1812&pg=PP43","url_text":"Napoleon's Army in Russia: The Illustrated Memoirs of Albrecht Adam, 1812"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473816589","url_text":"9781473816589"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230115064234/https://books.google.com/books?id=ERrHDwAAQBAJ&dq=socrate+blanc+1812&pg=PP43","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Chandler, David G. (2009) [1966]. The Campaigns of Napoleon. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781439131039. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved May 20, 2022 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hNYWXeVcbkMC&q=Ney+Orsha","url_text":"The Campaigns of Napoleon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439131039","url_text":"9781439131039"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230115064234/https://books.google.com/books?id=hNYWXeVcbkMC&q=Ney+Orsha","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Insects, Disease, and Military History: Destruction of the Grand Armée\". Archived from the original on August 20, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080820045117/http://entomology.montana.edu/historybug/napoleon/typhus_russia.htm","url_text":"\"Insects, Disease, and Military History: Destruction of the Grand Armée\""},{"url":"http://entomology.montana.edu/historybug/napoleon/typhus_russia.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Brian M. 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London: Ken Trotman Ltd. p. 116. ISBN 978-0946879540.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0946879540","url_text":"978-0946879540"}]},{"reference":"Walter, Jakob (1991). The Diary of a Napoleonic Foot Soldier. New York, New York: Doubleday. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-307-81756-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-81756-3","url_text":"978-0-307-81756-3"}]},{"reference":"\"THE EFFECTS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE ON NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN by Brian M. Allen (1998)\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-30. Retrieved 2023-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA398046.pdf","url_text":"\"THE EFFECTS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE ON NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN by Brian M. 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With Napoleon in Russia: the memoirs of General de Caulaincourt (translated by Jean Hanoteau ed.). Retrieved 15 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/withnapoleoninru00caul","url_text":"With Napoleon in Russia: the memoirs of General de Caulaincourt"}]},{"reference":"Clausewitz, Carl von (1906). Der Feldzug 1812 in Russland (in German). Retrieved 21 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PzEQAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Der Feldzug 1812 in Russland"}]},{"reference":"Clausewitz, Carl von (1843). The campaign of 1812 in Russia [Der Feldzug 1812 in Russland] (PDF). Translated by Francis Egerton. London: John Murray Publishers. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_value_problem
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P-complete
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["1 Motivation","2 P-complete problems","3 Problems not known to be P-complete","4 Notes","5 References"]
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In computational complexity theory, a decision problem is P-complete (complete for the complexity class P) if it is in P and every problem in P can be reduced to it by an appropriate reduction.
The notion of P-complete decision problems is useful in the analysis of:
which problems are difficult to parallelize effectively,
which problems are difficult to solve in limited space.
specifically when stronger notions of reducibility than polytime-reducibility are considered.
The specific type of reduction used varies and may affect the exact set of problems. Generically, reductions stronger than polynomial-time reductions are used, since all languages in P (except the empty language and the language of all strings) are P-complete under polynomial-time reductions. If we use NC reductions, that is, reductions which can operate in polylogarithmic time on a parallel computer with a polynomial number of processors, then all P-complete problems lie outside NC and so cannot be effectively parallelized, under the unproven assumption that NC ≠ P. If we use the stronger log-space reduction, this remains true, but additionally we learn that all P-complete problems lie outside L under the weaker unproven assumption that L ≠ P. In this latter case the set P-complete may be smaller.
Motivation
The class P, typically taken to consist of all the "tractable" problems for a sequential computer, contains the class NC, which consists of those problems which can be efficiently solved on a parallel computer. This is because parallel computers can be simulated on a sequential machine.
It is not known whether NC = P. In other words, it is not known whether there are any tractable problems that are inherently sequential. Just as it is widely suspected that P does not equal NP, so it is widely suspected that NC does not equal P.
Similarly, the class L contains all problems that can be solved by a sequential computer in logarithmic space. Such machines run in polynomial time because they can have a polynomial number of configurations. It is suspected that L ≠ P; that is, that some problems that can be solved in polynomial time also require more than logarithmic space.
Similarly to the use of NP-complete problems to analyze the P = NP question, the P-complete problems, viewed as the "probably not parallelizable" or "probably inherently sequential" problems, serves in a similar manner to study the NC = P question. Finding an efficient way to parallelize the solution to some P-complete problem would show that NC = P. It can also be thought of as the "problems requiring superlogarithmic space"; a log-space solution to a P-complete problem (using the definition based on log-space reductions) would imply L = P.
The logic behind this is analogous to the logic that a polynomial-time solution to an NP-complete problem would prove P = NP: if we have a NC reduction from any problem in P to a problem A, and an NC solution for A, then NC = P. Similarly, if we have a log-space reduction from any problem in P to a problem A, and a log-space solution for A, then L = P.
P-complete problems
The most basic P-complete problem under logspace many-one reductions is following: given a Turing machine
M
{\displaystyle M}
, an input for that machine x, and a number T (written in unary),
⟨
M
,
x
,
T
⟩
{\displaystyle \langle M,x,T\rangle }
does that machine halt on that input within the first T steps? For any x in
L
{\displaystyle L}
in P, output the encoding of the Turing machine which accepts it in polynomial-time, the encoding of x itself, and a number of steps
T
=
p
(
|
x
|
)
{\displaystyle T=p(|x|)}
corresponding to the p which is there polynomial-time bound on the operation of the Turing Machine
M
L
{\displaystyle M_{L}}
deciding
L
{\displaystyle L}
,
⟨
M
,
x
,
p
(
|
x
|
)
⟩
{\displaystyle \langle M,x,p(|x|)\rangle }
. The machine M halts on x within
p
(
|
x
|
)
{\displaystyle p(|x|)}
steps if and only if x is in L. Clearly, if we can parallelize a general simulation of a sequential computer (ie. The Turing machine simulation of a Turing machine), then we will be able to parallelize any program that runs on that computer. If this problem is in NC, then so is every other problem in P. If the number of steps is written in binary, the problem is EXPTIME-complete.
This problem illustrates a common trick in the theory of P-completeness. We aren't really interested in whether a problem can be solved quickly on a parallel machine. We're just interested in whether a parallel machine solves it much more quickly than a sequential machine. Therefore, we have to reword the problem so that the sequential version is in P. That is why this problem required T to be written in unary. If a number T is written as a binary number (a string of n ones and zeros, where n = log T), then the obvious sequential algorithm can take time 2n. On the other hand, if T is written as a unary number (a string of n ones, where n = T), then it only takes time n. By writing T in unary rather than binary, we have reduced the obvious sequential algorithm from exponential time to linear time. That puts the sequential problem in P. Then, it will be in NC if and only if it is parallelizable.
Many other problems have been proved to be P-complete, and therefore are widely believed to be inherently sequential. These include the
following problems which are P-complete under at least logspace reductions, either as given, or in a decision-problem form:
Circuit Value Problem (CVP) – Given a circuit, the inputs to the circuit, and one gate in the circuit, calculate the output of that gate.
Restricted Case of CVP – Like CVP, except each gate has two inputs and two outputs (F and Not F), every other layer is just AND gates, the rest are OR gates (or, equivalently, all gates are NAND gates, or all gates are NOR gates), the inputs of a gate come from the immediately preceding layer
Linear programming – Maximize a linear function subject to linear inequality constraints
Lexicographically First Depth First Search Ordering – Given a graph with fixed ordered adjacency lists, and nodes u and v, is vertex u visited before vertex v in a depth-first search induced by the order of the adjacency lists?
Context Free Grammar Membership – Given a context-free grammar and a string, can that string be generated by that grammar?
Horn-satisfiability – given a set of Horn clauses, is there a variable assignment which satisfies them? This is P's version of the boolean satisfiability problem.
Game of Life – Given an initial configuration of Conway's Game of Life, a particular cell, and a time T (in unary), is that cell alive after T steps?
LZW (algorithm) (1978 paradigm) Data Compression – given strings s and t, will compressing s with an LZ78 method add t to the dictionary? (Note that for LZ77 compression such as gzip, this is much easier, as the problem reduces to "Is t in s?".)
Type inference for partial types – Given an untyped term from the lambda calculus, determine whether this term has a partial type.
Most of the languages above are P-complete under even stronger notions of reduction, such as uniform
A
C
0
{\displaystyle AC^{0}}
many-one reductions, DLOGTIME reductions, or polylogarithmic projections.
In order to prove that a given problem in P is P-complete, one typically tries to reduce a known P-complete problem to the given one.
In 1999, Jin-Yi Cai and D. Sivakumar, building on work by Ogihara, showed that if there exists a sparse language that is P-complete, then L = P.
P-complete problems may be solvable with different time complexities. For instance, the Circuit Value Problem can be solved in linear time by a topological sort. Of course, because the reductions to a P-complete problem may have different time complexities, this fact does not imply that all the problems in P can also be solved in linear time.
Problems not known to be P-complete
Some NP-problems are not known to be either NP-complete or in P. These problems (e.g. factoring, graph isomorphism, parity games) are suspected to be difficult. Similarly there are problems in P that are not known to be either P-complete or NC, but are thought to be difficult to parallelize. Examples include the decision problem forms of finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers, determining what answer the extended Euclidean algorithm would return when given two numbers, and computing the maximum weight matching of a graph with large integer weights.
Notes
^ Cai, Jin-Yi; Sivakumar, D. (1999), "Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis", Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 58 (2): 280–296, doi:10.1006/jcss.1998.1615
References
Greenlaw, Raymond, James Hoover, and Walter Ruzzo. 1995. Limits To Parallel computation; P-Completeness Theory. ISBN 0-19-508591-4. — Develops the theory, then catalogs 96 P-Complete problems.
Satoru Miyano, Shuji Shiraishi, and Takayoshi Shoudai. A List of P-Complete Problems. Kyushu University, RIFIS-TR-CS-17. December 1990.
vteComplexity classesConsidered feasible
DLOGTIME
AC0
ACC0
TC0
L
SL
RL
FL
NL
NL-complete
NC
SC
CC
P
P-complete
ZPP
RP
BPP
BQP
APX
FP
Suspected infeasible
UP
NP
NP-complete
NP-hard
co-NP
co-NP-complete
TFNP
FNP
AM
QMA
PH
⊕P
PP
#P
#P-complete
IP
PSPACE
PSPACE-complete
Considered infeasible
EXPTIME
NEXPTIME
EXPSPACE
2-EXPTIME
ELEMENTARY
PR
R
RE
ALL
Class hierarchies
Polynomial hierarchy
Exponential hierarchy
Grzegorczyk hierarchy
Arithmetical hierarchy
Boolean hierarchy
Families of classes
DTIME
NTIME
DSPACE
NSPACE
Probabilistically checkable proof
Interactive proof system
List of complexity classes
|
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If we use NC reductions, that is, reductions which can operate in polylogarithmic time on a parallel computer with a polynomial number of processors, then all P-complete problems lie outside NC and so cannot be effectively parallelized, under the unproven assumption that NC ≠ P. If we use the stronger log-space reduction, this remains true, but additionally we learn that all P-complete problems lie outside L under the weaker unproven assumption that L ≠ P. In this latter case the set P-complete may be smaller.","title":"P-complete"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"}],"text":"The class P, typically taken to consist of all the \"tractable\" problems for a sequential computer, contains the class NC, which consists of those problems which can be efficiently solved on a parallel computer. This is because parallel computers can be simulated on a sequential machine. \nIt is not known whether NC = P. In other words, it is not known whether there are any tractable problems that are inherently sequential. Just as it is widely suspected that P does not equal NP, so it is widely suspected that NC does not equal P.Similarly, the class L contains all problems that can be solved by a sequential computer in logarithmic space. Such machines run in polynomial time because they can have a polynomial number of configurations. It is suspected that L ≠ P; that is, that some problems that can be solved in polynomial time also require more than logarithmic space.Similarly to the use of NP-complete problems to analyze the P = NP question, the P-complete problems, viewed as the \"probably not parallelizable\" or \"probably inherently sequential\" problems, serves in a similar manner to study the NC = P question. Finding an efficient way to parallelize the solution to some P-complete problem would show that NC = P. It can also be thought of as the \"problems requiring superlogarithmic space\"; a log-space solution to a P-complete problem (using the definition based on log-space reductions) would imply L = P.The logic behind this is analogous to the logic that a polynomial-time solution to an NP-complete problem would prove P = NP: if we have a NC reduction from any problem in P to a problem A, and an NC solution for A, then NC = P. Similarly, if we have a log-space reduction from any problem in P to a problem A, and a log-space solution for A, then L = P.","title":"Motivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"unary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"EXPTIME-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXPTIME-complete"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"Circuit Value Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_Value_Problem"},{"link_name":"circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_circuit"},{"link_name":"Linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"context-free grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar"},{"link_name":"Horn-satisfiability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn-satisfiability"},{"link_name":"Horn clauses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_clause"},{"link_name":"boolean satisfiability problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_satisfiability_problem"},{"link_name":"Conway's Game of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conway%27s_Game_of_Life"},{"link_name":"LZW (algorithm)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZW_(algorithm)"},{"link_name":"LZ77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LZ77"},{"link_name":"gzip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gzip"},{"link_name":"Type inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_inference"},{"link_name":"untyped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory"},{"link_name":"lambda calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus"},{"link_name":"Jin-Yi Cai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin-Yi_Cai"},{"link_name":"sparse language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"time complexities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity"},{"link_name":"Circuit Value Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_Value_Problem"},{"link_name":"linear time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_time"},{"link_name":"topological sort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sort"}],"text":"The most basic P-complete problem under logspace many-one reductions is following: given a Turing machine \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n, an input for that machine x, and a number T (written in unary), \n \n \n \n ⟨\n M\n ,\n x\n ,\n T\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle M,x,T\\rangle }\n \n does that machine halt on that input within the first T steps? For any x in \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n in P, output the encoding of the Turing machine which accepts it in polynomial-time, the encoding of x itself, and a number of steps \n \n \n \n T\n =\n p\n (\n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T=p(|x|)}\n \n corresponding to the p which is there polynomial-time bound on the operation of the Turing Machine \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n L\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{L}}\n \n deciding \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n, \n \n \n \n ⟨\n M\n ,\n x\n ,\n p\n (\n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n )\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle M,x,p(|x|)\\rangle }\n \n. The machine M halts on x within \n \n \n \n p\n (\n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(|x|)}\n \n steps if and only if x is in L. Clearly, if we can parallelize a general simulation of a sequential computer (ie. The Turing machine simulation of a Turing machine), then we will be able to parallelize any program that runs on that computer. If this problem is in NC, then so is every other problem in P. If the number of steps is written in binary, the problem is EXPTIME-complete.\nThis problem illustrates a common trick in the theory of P-completeness. We aren't really interested in whether a problem can be solved quickly on a parallel machine. We're just interested in whether a parallel machine solves it much more quickly than a sequential machine. Therefore, we have to reword the problem so that the sequential version is in P. That is why this problem required T to be written in unary. If a number T is written as a binary number (a string of n ones and zeros, where n = log T), then the obvious sequential algorithm can take time 2n. On the other hand, if T is written as a unary number (a string of n ones, where n = T), then it only takes time n. By writing T in unary rather than binary, we have reduced the obvious sequential algorithm from exponential time to linear time. That puts the sequential problem in P. Then, it will be in NC if and only if it is parallelizable.Many other problems have been proved to be P-complete, and therefore are widely believed to be inherently sequential. These include the \nfollowing problems which are P-complete under at least logspace reductions, either as given, or in a decision-problem form:Circuit Value Problem (CVP) – Given a circuit, the inputs to the circuit, and one gate in the circuit, calculate the output of that gate.\nRestricted Case of CVP – Like CVP, except each gate has two inputs and two outputs (F and Not F), every other layer is just AND gates, the rest are OR gates (or, equivalently, all gates are NAND gates, or all gates are NOR gates), the inputs of a gate come from the immediately preceding layer\nLinear programming – Maximize a linear function subject to linear inequality constraints\nLexicographically First Depth First Search Ordering – Given a graph with fixed ordered adjacency lists, and nodes u and v, is vertex u visited before vertex v in a depth-first search induced by the order of the adjacency lists?\nContext Free Grammar Membership – Given a context-free grammar and a string, can that string be generated by that grammar?\nHorn-satisfiability – given a set of Horn clauses, is there a variable assignment which satisfies them? This is P's version of the boolean satisfiability problem.\nGame of Life – Given an initial configuration of Conway's Game of Life, a particular cell, and a time T (in unary), is that cell alive after T steps?\nLZW (algorithm) (1978 paradigm) Data Compression – given strings s and t, will compressing s with an LZ78 method add t to the dictionary? (Note that for LZ77 compression such as gzip, this is much easier, as the problem reduces to \"Is t in s?\".)\nType inference for partial types – Given an untyped term from the lambda calculus, determine whether this term has a partial type.Most of the languages above are P-complete under even stronger notions of reduction, such as uniform \n \n \n \n A\n \n C\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle AC^{0}}\n \n many-one reductions, DLOGTIME reductions, or polylogarithmic projections.In order to prove that a given problem in P is P-complete, one typically tries to reduce a known P-complete problem to the given one.In 1999, Jin-Yi Cai and D. Sivakumar, building on work by Ogihara, showed that if there exists a sparse language that is P-complete, then L = P.[1]P-complete problems may be solvable with different time complexities. For instance, the Circuit Value Problem can be solved in linear time by a topological sort. Of course, because the reductions to a P-complete problem may have different time complexities, this fact does not imply that all the problems in P can also be solved in linear time.","title":"P-complete problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"factoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_factorization"},{"link_name":"graph isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_isomorphism"},{"link_name":"parity games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_games"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"greatest common divisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_common_divisor"},{"link_name":"extended Euclidean algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Euclidean_algorithm"},{"link_name":"maximum weight matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_weight_matching"}],"text":"Some NP-problems are not known to be either NP-complete or in P. These problems (e.g. factoring, graph isomorphism, parity games) are suspected to be difficult[citation needed]. Similarly there are problems in P that are not known to be either P-complete or NC, but are thought to be difficult to parallelize. Examples include the decision problem forms of finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers, determining what answer the extended Euclidean algorithm would return when given two numbers, and computing the maximum weight matching of a graph with large integer weights.","title":"Problems not known to be P-complete"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//citeseer.ist.psu.edu/501645.html"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1006/jcss.1998.1615","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1006%2Fjcss.1998.1615"}],"text":"^ Cai, Jin-Yi; Sivakumar, D. (1999), \"Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis\", Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 58 (2): 280–296, doi:10.1006/jcss.1998.1615","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"reference":"Cai, Jin-Yi; Sivakumar, D. (1999), \"Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis\", Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 58 (2): 280–296, doi:10.1006/jcss.1998.1615","urls":[{"url":"http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/501645.html","url_text":"\"Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjcss.1998.1615","url_text":"10.1006/jcss.1998.1615"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/501645.html","external_links_name":"\"Sparse hard sets for P: resolution of a conjecture of Hartmanis\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjcss.1998.1615","external_links_name":"10.1006/jcss.1998.1615"},{"Link":"https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/3123/rifis-tr-17.pdf","external_links_name":"RIFIS-TR-CS-17"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_P-Code
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p-code machine
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["1 Benefits and weaknesses of implementing p-code","2 Implementations of p-code","3 UCSD p-Machine","3.1 Architecture","3.2 Environment","3.3 Calling conventions","4 Example machine","5 Microsoft P-Code","6 Other implementations","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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Programming virtual machine
In computer programming, a p-code machine (portable code machine) is a virtual machine designed to execute p-code (the assembly language or machine code of a hypothetical central processing unit (CPU)). This term is applied both generically to all such machines (such as the Java virtual machine (JVM) and MATLAB pre-compiled code), and to specific implementations, the most famous being the p-Machine of the Pascal-P system, particularly the UCSD Pascal implementation, among whose developers, the p in p-code was construed to mean pseudo more often than portable, thus pseudo-code meaning instructions for a pseudo-machine.
Although the concept was first implemented circa 1966 as O-code for the Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL) and P code for the language Euler, the term p-code first appeared in the early 1970s. Two early compilers generating p-code were the Pascal-P compiler in 1973, by Kesav V. Nori, Urs Ammann, Kathleen Jensen, Hans-Heinrich Nägeli, and Christian Jacobi, and the Pascal-S compiler in 1975, by Niklaus Wirth.
Programs that have been translated to p-code can either be interpreted by a software program that emulates the behavior of the hypothetical CPU, or translated into the machine code of the CPU on which the program is to run and then executed. If there is sufficient commercial interest, a hardware implementation of the CPU specification may be built (e.g., the Pascal MicroEngine or a version of a Java processor).
Benefits and weaknesses of implementing p-code
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Compared to direct translation into native machine code, a two-stage approach involving translation into p-code and execution by interpreting or just-in-time compilation (JIT) offers several advantages.
It is much easier to write a small p-code interpreter for a new machine than it is to modify a compiler to generate native code for the same machine.
Generating machine code is one of the more complicated parts of writing a compiler. By comparison, generating p-code is much easier because no machine-dependent behavior must be considered in generating the bytecode. This makes it useful for getting a compiler up and running quickly.
Since the p-code is based on an ideal virtual machine, a p-code program is often much smaller than the same program translated to machine code.
When the p-code is interpreted, the interpreter can apply additional run-time checks that are difficult to implement with native code.
One of the significant disadvantages of p-code is execution speed, which can sometimes be remedied via Just-in-time compilation. P-code is often also easier to reverse-engineer than native code.
Implementations of p-code
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In the early 1980s, at least two operating systems achieved machine independence through extensive use of p-code. The Business Operating System (BOS) was a cross-platform operating system designed to run p-code programs exclusively. The UCSD p-System, developed at The University of California, San Diego, was a self-compiling and self-hosting operating system based on p-code optimized for generation by the Pascal language.
In the 1990s, translation into p-code became a popular strategy for implementations of languages such as Python, Microsoft P-Code in Visual Basic, and Java bytecode in Java.
The language Go uses a generic, portable assembly as a form of p-code, implemented by Ken Thompson as an extension of the work on Plan 9 from Bell Labs. Unlike Common Language Runtime (CLR) bytecode or JVM bytecode, there is no stable specification, and the Go build tools do not emit a bytecode format to be used at a later time. The Go assembler uses the generic assembly language as an intermediate representation, and the Go executables are machine-specific statically linked binaries.
UCSD p-Machine
Architecture
Like many other p-code machines, the UCSD p-Machine is a stack machine, which means that most instructions take their operands from a stack, and place results back on the stack. Thus, the add instruction replaces the two topmost elements of the stack with their sum. A few instructions take an immediate argument. Like Pascal, the p-code is strongly typed, supporting boolean (b), character (c), integer (i), real (r), set (s), and pointer (a) data types natively.
Some simple instructions:
Insn. Stack Stack Description
before after
adi i1 i2 i1+i2 add two integers
adr r1 r2 r1+r2 add two reals
inn i1 s1 b1 set membership; b1 = whether i1 is a member of s1
ldi i1 i1 i1 load integer constant
mov a1 a2 a2 move
not b1 b1 -b1 boolean negation
Environment
Similar to a real target CPU, the p-System has only one stack shared by procedure stack frames (providing return address, etc.) and the arguments to local instructions. Three of the machine's registers point into the stack (which grows upwards):
SP points to the top of the stack (the stack pointer).
MP marks the beginning of the active stack frame (the mark pointer).
EP points to the highest stack location used in the current procedure (the extreme pointer).
Also present is a constant area, and, below that, the heap growing down towards the stack. The NP (the new pointer) register points to the top (lowest used address) of the heap. When EP gets greater than NP, the machine's memory is exhausted.
The fifth register, PC, points at the current instruction in the code area.
Calling conventions
This section is written like a manual or guide. Please help rewrite this section and remove advice or instruction. (January 2024)
Stack frames look like this:
EP ->
local stack
SP -> ...
locals
...
parameters
...
return address (previous PC)
previous EP
dynamic link (previous MP)
static link (MP of surrounding procedure)
MP -> function return value
The procedure calling sequence works as follows: The call is introduced with
mst n
where n specifies the difference in nesting levels (remember that Pascal supports nested procedures). This instruction will mark the stack, i.e. reserve the first five cells of the above stack frame, and initialise previous EP, dynamic, and static link. The caller then computes and pushes any parameters for the procedure, and then issues
cup n, p
to call a user procedure (n being the number of parameters, p the procedure's address). This will save the PC in the return address cell, and set the procedure's address as the new PC.
User procedures begin with the two instructions
ent 1, i
ent 2, j
The first sets SP to MP + i, the second sets EP to SP + j. So i essentially specifies the space reserved for locals (plus the number of parameters plus 5), and j gives the number of entries needed locally for the stack. Memory exhaustion is checked at this point.
Returning to the caller is accomplished via
retC
with C giving the return type (i, r, c, b, a as above, and p for no return value). The return value has to be stored in the appropriate cell previously. On all types except p, returning will leave this value on the stack.
Instead of calling a user procedure (cup), standard procedure q can be called with
csp q
These standard procedures are Pascal procedures like readln() (csp rln), sin() (csp sin), etc. Peculiarly eof() is a p-Code instruction instead.
Example machine
This section reads like a textbook. Please improve this article to make it neutral in tone and meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (January 2024)
Niklaus Wirth specified a simple p-code machine in the 1976 book Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. The machine had 3 registers - a program counter p, a base register b, and a top-of-stack register t. There were 8 instructions:
lit 0, a : load constant a
opr 0, a : execute operation a (13 operations: RETURN, 5 math functions, and 7 comparison functions)
lod l, a : load variable l, a
sto l, a : store variable l, a
cal l, a : call procedure a at level l
int 0, a : increment t-register by a
jmp 0, a : jump to a
jpc 0, a : jump conditional to a
This is the code for the machine, written in Pascal:
const
amax=2047; {maximum address}
levmax=3; {maximum depth of block nesting}
cxmax=200; {size of code array}
type
fct=(lit,opr,lod,sto,cal,int,jmp,jpc);
instruction=packed record
f:fct;
l:0..levmax;
a:0..amax;
end;
var
code: array of instruction;
procedure interpret;
const stacksize = 500;
var
p, b, t: integer; {program-, base-, topstack-registers}
i: instruction; {instruction register}
s: array of integer; {datastore}
function base(l: integer): integer;
var b1: integer;
begin
b1 := b; {find base l levels down}
while l > 0 do begin
b1 := s;
l := l - 1
end;
base := b1
end {base};
begin
writeln(' start pl/0');
t := 0; b := 1; p := 0;
s := 0; s := 0; s := 0;
repeat
i := code; p := p + 1;
with i do
case f of
lit: begin t := t + 1; s := a end;
opr:
case a of {operator}
0:
begin {return}
t := b - 1; p := s; b := s;
end;
1: s := -s;
2: begin t := t - 1; s := s + s end;
3: begin t := t - 1; s := s - s end;
4: begin t := t - 1; s := s * s end;
5: begin t := t - 1; s := s div s end;
6: s := ord(odd(s));
8: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s = s) end;
9: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s <> s) end;
10: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s < s) end;
11: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s >= s) end;
12: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s > s) end;
13: begin t := t - 1; s := ord(s <= s) end;
end;
lod: begin t := t + 1; s := s end;
sto: begin s := s; writeln(s); t := t - 1 end;
cal:
begin {generate new block mark}
s := base(l); s := b; s := p;
b := t + 1; p := a
end;
int: t := t + a;
jmp: p := a;
jpc: begin if s = 0 then p := a; t := t - 1 end
end {with, case}
until p = 0;
writeln(' end pl/0');
end {interpret};
This machine was used to run Wirth's PL/0, a Pascal subset compiler used to teach compiler development.
Microsoft P-Code
P-Code is a name for several of Microsoft's proprietary intermediate languages. They provided an alternate binary format to machine code. At various times, Microsoft have said p-code is an abbreviation for either packed code or pseudo code.
Microsoft p-code was used in Visual C++ and Visual Basic. Like other p-code implementations, Microsoft p-code enabled a more compact executable at the expense of slower execution.
Other implementations
For example implementations, see Bytecode § Examples.
See also
Computer programming portal
Bytecode
Intermediate representation
Joel McCormack, designer of the NCR Corporation version of the p-code machine
Runtime system
Token threading
City & Guilds Mnemonic Code
Platform-independent model – Software engineering model
References
^ Upton, Eben; Duntemann, Jeffrey; Roberts, Ralph; Mamtora, Tim; Everard, Ben (2016-09-13). Learning Computer Architecture with Raspberry Pi. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-18393-8.
^ Wirth, Niklaus; Weber, Helmut (1966). "EULER: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part II". Communications of the ACM. 9 (2). New York, USA: Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 89–99. doi:10.1145/365170.365202. S2CID 12124100.
^ Nori, Kesav V.; Ammann, Urs; Jensen, Kathleen; Nägeli, Hans-Heinrich; Jacobi, Christian (1975). The Pascal P Compiler Implementation Notes. Zürich, Switzerland: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH).
^ Pike, Robert C. (2016). "The Design of the Go Assembler". YouTube (Conference talk). Archived from the original on 2021-12-11. Retrieved 2017-08-25.
^ "Category Archives: Wirth - Euler - Designed by Niklaus Wirth and Helmut Weber". Pascal for small machines - Wirth languages, Pascal, UCSD, Turbo, Delphi, Freepascal, Oberon. 2018-08-02.
^ Alpert, Donald (September 1979). A Pascal P-Code Interpreter for the Stanford Emmy (PDF) (Report). Computer Systems Laboratory, Departments of Eleotrioal Engineering and Computer Scienoes, Stanford University. Technioal Note No. 164.
^ Padawer, Andy (April 1992). "Microsoft P-Code Technology". Microsoft Developer Network. Archived from the original on 2001-02-22.
^ "Compiling Your Project to Native Code". Visual Studio 6.0 Documentation. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-02-27.
Further reading
Pemberton, Steven; Daniels, Martin. Pascal Implementation: The P4 Compiler and Interpreter. John Wiley. ISBN 0-13-653031-1.
Pemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). "Pascal Implementation: A Book and Sources". (NB. Has Pascal sources of the P4 compiler and interpreter, usage instructions.)
Pemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). "pcode of the Pascal Compiler as compiled by itself". (NB. Has the p-code of the P4 compiler, generated by itself.)
"The Jefferson Computer Museum's page on the UCSD p-System".
"Open Source implementation"., including packaging and pre-compiled binaries; a friendly fork of the Klebsch. "Klebsch implementation".
Terry, Pat (2005). Compiling with C# and Java. Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p. 624. ISBN 0-321-26360-X.
Wirth, Niklaus (1975). Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-022418-9.
Wirth, Niklaus (1996). Compiler Construction. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-40353-6.
Liffick, Blaise W., ed. (1979). The Byte Book of Pascal. BYTE Publications. ISBN 0-07-037823-1.
Barron, David William, ed. (1981). Pascal: The Language and its Implementation. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-27835-1. (NB. Especially see the articles Pascal-P Implementation Notes and Pascal-S: A Subset and its Implementation.)
External links
VB P-code Information by Mr Silver at the Wayback Machine (archived December 22, 2015)
Authority control databases: National
United States
|
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This term is applied both generically to all such machines (such as the Java virtual machine (JVM) and MATLAB pre-compiled code), and to specific implementations, the most famous being the p-Machine of the Pascal-P system, particularly the UCSD Pascal implementation, among whose developers, the p in p-code was construed to mean pseudo more often than portable, thus pseudo-code meaning instructions for a pseudo-machine.Although the concept was first implemented circa 1966 as O-code for the Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL) and P code for the language Euler,[2] the term p-code first appeared in the early 1970s. Two early compilers generating p-code were the Pascal-P compiler in 1973, by Kesav V. Nori, Urs Ammann, Kathleen Jensen, Hans-Heinrich Nägeli, and Christian Jacobi,[3] and the Pascal-S compiler in 1975, by Niklaus Wirth.Programs that have been translated to p-code can either be interpreted by a software program that emulates the behavior of the hypothetical CPU, or translated into the machine code of the CPU on which the program is to run and then executed. If there is sufficient commercial interest, a hardware implementation of the CPU specification may be built (e.g., the Pascal MicroEngine or a version of a Java processor).","title":"p-code machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"machine code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"interpreting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)"},{"link_name":"just-in-time compilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation"},{"link_name":"bytecode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytecode"},{"link_name":"run-time checks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-time_checking"},{"link_name":"Just-in-time compilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation"},{"link_name":"reverse-engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering"}],"text":"Compared to direct translation into native machine code, a two-stage approach involving translation into p-code and execution by interpreting or just-in-time compilation (JIT) offers several advantages.It is much easier to write a small p-code interpreter for a new machine than it is to modify a compiler to generate native code for the same machine.\nGenerating machine code is one of the more complicated parts of writing a compiler. By comparison, generating p-code is much easier because no machine-dependent behavior must be considered in generating the bytecode. This makes it useful for getting a compiler up and running quickly.\nSince the p-code is based on an ideal virtual machine, a p-code program is often much smaller than the same program translated to machine code.\nWhen the p-code is interpreted, the interpreter can apply additional run-time checks that are difficult to implement with native code.One of the significant disadvantages of p-code is execution speed, which can sometimes be remedied via Just-in-time compilation. P-code is often also easier to reverse-engineer than native code.","title":"Benefits and weaknesses of implementing p-code"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"machine independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_independence"},{"link_name":"Business Operating System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Operating_System_(software)"},{"link_name":"UCSD p-System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCSD_p-System"},{"link_name":"self-hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-hosting_(compilers)"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft P-Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_P-Code"},{"link_name":"Visual Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic"},{"link_name":"Java bytecode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_bytecode"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Ken Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Plan 9 from Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Common Language Runtime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Language_Runtime"},{"link_name":"intermediate representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_representation"},{"link_name":"statically linked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statically_linked"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pike_2016-4"}],"text":"In the early 1980s, at least two operating systems achieved machine independence through extensive use of p-code. The Business Operating System (BOS) was a cross-platform operating system designed to run p-code programs exclusively. The UCSD p-System, developed at The University of California, San Diego, was a self-compiling and self-hosting [clarification needed] operating system based on p-code optimized for generation by the Pascal language.In the 1990s, translation into p-code became a popular strategy for implementations of languages such as Python, Microsoft P-Code in Visual Basic, and Java bytecode in Java.The language Go uses a generic, portable assembly as a form of p-code, implemented by Ken Thompson as an extension of the work on Plan 9 from Bell Labs. Unlike Common Language Runtime (CLR) bytecode or JVM bytecode, there is no stable specification, and the Go build tools do not emit a bytecode format to be used at a later time. The Go assembler uses the generic assembly language as an intermediate representation, and the Go executables are machine-specific statically linked binaries.[4]","title":"Implementations of p-code"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"UCSD p-Machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stack machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_machine"},{"link_name":"stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(abstract_data_type)"},{"link_name":"strongly typed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_and_weak_typing"},{"link_name":"data types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_type"}],"sub_title":"Architecture","text":"Like many other p-code machines, the UCSD p-Machine is a stack machine, which means that most instructions take their operands from a stack, and place results back on the stack. Thus, the add instruction replaces the two topmost elements of the stack with their sum. A few instructions take an immediate argument. Like Pascal, the p-code is strongly typed, supporting boolean (b), character (c), integer (i), real (r), set (s), and pointer (a) data types natively.Some simple instructions:Insn. Stack Stack Description\n before after\n \nadi i1 i2 i1+i2 add two integers\nadr r1 r2 r1+r2 add two reals\ninn i1 s1 b1 set membership; b1 = whether i1 is a member of s1\nldi i1 i1 i1 load integer constant\nmov a1 a2 a2 move\nnot b1 b1 -b1 boolean negation","title":"UCSD p-Machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"return address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_statement"},{"link_name":"registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register"},{"link_name":"stack pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_pointer"},{"link_name":"mark pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_pointer"},{"link_name":"extreme pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extreme_pointer&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"heap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_memory_allocation"},{"link_name":"new pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_pointer&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Environment","text":"Similar to a real target CPU, the p-System has only one stack shared by procedure stack frames (providing return address, etc.) and the arguments to local instructions. Three of the machine's registers point into the stack (which grows upwards):SP points to the top of the stack (the stack pointer).\nMP marks the beginning of the active stack frame (the mark pointer).\nEP points to the highest stack location used in the current procedure (the extreme pointer).Also present is a constant area, and, below that, the heap growing down towards the stack. The NP (the new pointer) register points to the top (lowest used address) of the heap. When EP gets greater than NP, the machine's memory is exhausted.The fifth register, PC, points at the current instruction in the code area.","title":"UCSD p-Machine"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Calling conventions","text":"Stack frames look like this:EP ->\n local stack\nSP -> ...\n locals\n ...\n parameters\n ...\n return address (previous PC)\n previous EP\n dynamic link (previous MP)\n static link (MP of surrounding procedure)\nMP -> function return valueThe procedure calling sequence works as follows: The call is introduced withmst nwhere n specifies the difference in nesting levels (remember that Pascal supports nested procedures). This instruction will mark the stack, i.e. reserve the first five cells of the above stack frame, and initialise previous EP, dynamic, and static link. The caller then computes and pushes any parameters for the procedure, and then issuescup n, pto call a user procedure (n being the number of parameters, p the procedure's address). This will save the PC in the return address cell, and set the procedure's address as the new PC.User procedures begin with the two instructionsent 1, i\n ent 2, jThe first sets SP to MP + i, the second sets EP to SP + j. So i essentially specifies the space reserved for locals (plus the number of parameters plus 5), and j gives the number of entries needed locally for the stack. Memory exhaustion is checked at this point.Returning to the caller is accomplished viaretCwith C giving the return type (i, r, c, b, a as above, and p for no return value). The return value has to be stored in the appropriate cell previously. On all types except p, returning will leave this value on the stack.Instead of calling a user procedure (cup), standard procedure q can be called withcsp qThese standard procedures are Pascal procedures like readln() (csp rln), sin() (csp sin), etc. Peculiarly eof() is a p-Code instruction instead.","title":"UCSD p-Machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms_%2B_Data_Structures_%3D_Programs"},{"link_name":"program counter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter"},{"link_name":"base register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_frame"},{"link_name":"top-of-stack register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_(data_structure)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansotten-5"},{"link_name":"PL/0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/0"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"text":"Niklaus Wirth specified a simple p-code machine in the 1976 book Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. The machine had 3 registers - a program counter p, a base register b, and a top-of-stack register t. There were 8 instructions:lit 0, a : load constant a\nopr 0, a : execute operation a (13 operations: RETURN, 5 math functions, and 7 comparison functions)\nlod l, a : load variable l, a\nsto l, a : store variable l, a\ncal l, a : call procedure a at level l\nint 0, a : increment t-register by a\njmp 0, a : jump to a\njpc 0, a : jump conditional to a[5]This is the code for the machine, written in Pascal:const\n\tamax=2047; {maximum address}\n\tlevmax=3; {maximum depth of block nesting}\n\tcxmax=200; {size of code array}\n\ntype \n\tfct=(lit,opr,lod,sto,cal,int,jmp,jpc);\n\tinstruction=packed record \n\t\tf:fct;\n\t\tl:0..levmax;\n\t\ta:0..amax;\n\tend;\n\nvar\n\tcode: array [0..cxmax] of instruction;\n\nprocedure interpret;\n\n const stacksize = 500;\n\n var\n p, b, t: integer; {program-, base-, topstack-registers}\n i: instruction; {instruction register}\n s: array [1..stacksize] of integer; {datastore}\n\n function base(l: integer): integer;\n var b1: integer;\n begin\n b1 := b; {find base l levels down}\n while l > 0 do begin\n b1 := s[b1];\n l := l - 1\n end;\n base := b1\n end {base};\n\nbegin\n writeln(' start pl/0');\n t := 0; b := 1; p := 0;\n s[1] := 0; s[2] := 0; s[3] := 0;\n repeat\n i := code[p]; p := p + 1;\n with i do\n case f of\n lit: begin t := t + 1; s[t] := a end;\n opr: \n case a of {operator}\n 0: \n begin {return}\n t := b - 1; p := s[t + 3]; b := s[t + 2];\n end;\n 1: s[t] := -s[t];\n 2: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := s[t] + s[t + 1] end;\n 3: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := s[t] - s[t + 1] end;\n 4: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := s[t] * s[t + 1] end;\n 5: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := s[t] div s[t + 1] end;\n 6: s[t] := ord(odd(s[t]));\n 8: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] = s[t + 1]) end;\n 9: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] <> s[t + 1]) end;\n 10: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] < s[t + 1]) end;\n 11: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] >= s[t + 1]) end;\n 12: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] > s[t + 1]) end;\n 13: begin t := t - 1; s[t] := ord(s[t] <= s[t + 1]) end;\n end;\n lod: begin t := t + 1; s[t] := s[base(l) + a] end;\n sto: begin s[base(l)+a] := s[t]; writeln(s[t]); t := t - 1 end;\n cal: \n begin {generate new block mark}\n s[t + 1] := base(l); s[t + 2] := b; s[t + 3] := p;\n b := t + 1; p := a\n end;\n int: t := t + a;\n jmp: p := a;\n jpc: begin if s[t] = 0 then p := a; t := t - 1 end\n end {with, case}\n until p = 0;\n writeln(' end pl/0');\nend {interpret};This machine was used to run Wirth's PL/0, a Pascal subset compiler used to teach compiler development.[6][failed verification]","title":"Example machine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"intermediate languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_language"},{"link_name":"machine code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Visual C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"Visual Basic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_(classic)"},{"link_name":"executable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable"}],"text":"P-Code is a name for several of Microsoft's proprietary intermediate languages. They provided an alternate binary format to machine code. At various times, Microsoft have said p-code is an abbreviation for either packed code[7] or pseudo code.[8]Microsoft p-code was used in Visual C++ and Visual Basic. Like other p-code implementations, Microsoft p-code enabled a more compact executable at the expense of slower execution.","title":"Microsoft P-Code"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bytecode § Examples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytecode#Examples"}],"text":"For example implementations, see Bytecode § Examples.","title":"Other implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pemberton, Steven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton"},{"link_name":"Pascal Implementation: The P4 Compiler and Interpreter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/book/"},{"link_name":"John Wiley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-653031-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-653031-1"},{"link_name":"Pemberton, Steven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton"},{"link_name":"\"Pascal Implementation: A Book and Sources\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homepages.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/"},{"link_name":"P4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal-P4"},{"link_name":"Pemberton, Steven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton"},{"link_name":"\"pcode of the Pascal Compiler as compiled by itself\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homepages.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/pcom-code4.txt"},{"link_name":"P4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal-P4"},{"link_name":"\"The Jefferson Computer Museum's page on the UCSD p-System\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.threedee.com/jcm/psystem/"},{"link_name":"\"Open Source implementation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ucsd-psystem-vm.sourceforge.net/"},{"link_name":"\"Klebsch implementation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.klebsch.de"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-321-26360-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-26360-X"},{"link_name":"Wirth, Niklaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth"},{"link_name":"Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms_%2B_Data_Structures_%3D_Programs"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-022418-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-022418-9"},{"link_name":"Wirth, Niklaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-40353-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-40353-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-037823-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-037823-1"},{"link_name":"Barron, David William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_William_Barron"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-27835-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-27835-1"}],"text":"Pemberton, Steven; Daniels, Martin. Pascal Implementation: The P4 Compiler and Interpreter. John Wiley. ISBN 0-13-653031-1.\nPemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). \"Pascal Implementation: A Book and Sources\". (NB. Has Pascal sources of the P4 compiler and interpreter, usage instructions.)\nPemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). \"pcode of the Pascal Compiler as compiled by itself\". (NB. Has the p-code of the P4 compiler, generated by itself.)\n\"The Jefferson Computer Museum's page on the UCSD p-System\".\n\"Open Source implementation\"., including packaging and pre-compiled binaries; a friendly fork of the Klebsch. \"Klebsch implementation\".\nTerry, Pat (2005). Compiling with C# and Java. Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p. 624. ISBN 0-321-26360-X.\nWirth, Niklaus (1975). Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-022418-9.\nWirth, Niklaus (1996). Compiler Construction. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-40353-6.\nLiffick, Blaise W., ed. (1979). The Byte Book of Pascal. BYTE Publications. ISBN 0-07-037823-1.\nBarron, David William, ed. (1981). Pascal: The Language and its Implementation. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-27835-1. (NB. Especially see the articles Pascal-P Implementation Notes and Pascal-S: A Subset and its Implementation.)","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg"},{"title":"Computer programming portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming"},{"title":"Bytecode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytecode"},{"title":"Intermediate representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_representation"},{"title":"Joel McCormack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_McCormack"},{"title":"Runtime system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runtime_system"},{"title":"Token threading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_threading"},{"title":"City & Guilds Mnemonic Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_%26_Guilds_Mnemonic_Code"},{"title":"Platform-independent model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform-independent_model"}]
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[{"reference":"Upton, Eben; Duntemann, Jeffrey; Roberts, Ralph; Mamtora, Tim; Everard, Ben (2016-09-13). Learning Computer Architecture with Raspberry Pi. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-18393-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mU5ICgAAQBAJ&q=In+computer+programming%2C+a+p-code+machine%2C+or+portable+code+machine&pg=PA187","url_text":"Learning Computer Architecture with Raspberry Pi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-18393-8","url_text":"978-1-119-18393-8"}]},{"reference":"Wirth, Niklaus; Weber, Helmut (1966). \"EULER: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part II\". Communications of the ACM. 9 (2). New York, USA: Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 89–99. doi:10.1145/365170.365202. S2CID 12124100.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth","url_text":"Wirth, Niklaus"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F365170.365202","url_text":"\"EULER: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part II\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Communications of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery","url_text":"Association for Computing Machinery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F365170.365202","url_text":"10.1145/365170.365202"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12124100","url_text":"12124100"}]},{"reference":"Nori, Kesav V.; Ammann, Urs; Jensen, Kathleen; Nägeli, Hans-Heinrich; Jacobi, Christian (1975). The Pascal P Compiler Implementation Notes. Zürich, Switzerland: Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidgen%C3%B6ssische_Technische_Hochschule","url_text":"Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule"}]},{"reference":"Pike, Robert C. (2016). \"The Design of the Go Assembler\". YouTube (Conference talk). Archived from the original on 2021-12-11. Retrieved 2017-08-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Pike","url_text":"Pike, Robert C."},{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KINIAgRpkDA","url_text":"\"The Design of the Go Assembler\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/KINIAgRpkDA","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Category Archives: Wirth - Euler - Designed by Niklaus Wirth and Helmut Weber\". Pascal for small machines - Wirth languages, Pascal, UCSD, Turbo, Delphi, Freepascal, Oberon. 2018-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://pascal.hansotten.com/category/wirth/","url_text":"\"Category Archives: Wirth - Euler - Designed by Niklaus Wirth and Helmut Weber\""}]},{"reference":"Alpert, Donald (September 1979). A Pascal P-Code Interpreter for the Stanford Emmy (PDF) (Report). Computer Systems Laboratory, Departments of Eleotrioal Engineering and Computer Scienoes, Stanford University. Technioal Note No. 164.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/stanford/sel_techReports/TN164_A_Pascal_P-Code_Interpreter_for_the_Stanford_Emmy_Sep79.pdf","url_text":"A Pascal P-Code Interpreter for the Stanford Emmy"}]},{"reference":"Padawer, Andy (April 1992). \"Microsoft P-Code Technology\". Microsoft Developer Network. Archived from the original on 2001-02-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010222035711/http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/backgrnd/html/msdn_c7pcode2.htm","url_text":"\"Microsoft P-Code Technology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Developer_Network","url_text":"Microsoft Developer Network"},{"url":"http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/backgrnd/html/msdn_c7pcode2.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Compiling Your Project to Native Code\". Visual Studio 6.0 Documentation. 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070227000246/http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/vbcon98/html/vbconcompilingyourprojecttonativecode.asp","url_text":"\"Compiling Your Project to Native Code\""},{"url":"http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/vbcon98/html/vbconcompilingyourprojecttonativecode.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pemberton, Steven; Daniels, Martin. Pascal Implementation: The P4 Compiler and Interpreter. John Wiley. ISBN 0-13-653031-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton","url_text":"Pemberton, Steven"},{"url":"http://www.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/book/","url_text":"Pascal Implementation: The P4 Compiler and Interpreter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_(publisher)","url_text":"John Wiley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-653031-1","url_text":"0-13-653031-1"}]},{"reference":"Pemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). \"Pascal Implementation: A Book and Sources\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton","url_text":"Pemberton, Steven"},{"url":"http://homepages.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/","url_text":"\"Pascal Implementation: A Book and Sources\""}]},{"reference":"Pemberton, Steven, ed. (2011-04-13). \"pcode of the Pascal Compiler as compiled by itself\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Pemberton","url_text":"Pemberton, Steven"},{"url":"http://homepages.cwi.nl/~steven/pascal/pcom-code4.txt","url_text":"\"pcode of the Pascal Compiler as compiled by itself\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Jefferson Computer Museum's page on the UCSD p-System\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.threedee.com/jcm/psystem/","url_text":"\"The Jefferson Computer Museum's page on the UCSD p-System\""}]},{"reference":"\"Open Source implementation\".","urls":[{"url":"http://ucsd-psystem-vm.sourceforge.net/","url_text":"\"Open Source implementation\""}]},{"reference":"Klebsch. \"Klebsch implementation\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.klebsch.de/","url_text":"\"Klebsch implementation\""}]},{"reference":"Terry, Pat (2005). Compiling with C# and Java. Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p. 624. ISBN 0-321-26360-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-26360-X","url_text":"0-321-26360-X"}]},{"reference":"Wirth, Niklaus (1975). Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-022418-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth","url_text":"Wirth, Niklaus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms_%2B_Data_Structures_%3D_Programs","url_text":"Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-022418-9","url_text":"0-13-022418-9"}]},{"reference":"Wirth, Niklaus (1996). Compiler Construction. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-40353-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth","url_text":"Wirth, Niklaus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-40353-6","url_text":"0-201-40353-6"}]},{"reference":"Liffick, Blaise W., ed. (1979). The Byte Book of Pascal. BYTE Publications. ISBN 0-07-037823-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-037823-1","url_text":"0-07-037823-1"}]},{"reference":"Barron, David William, ed. (1981). Pascal: The Language and its Implementation. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-27835-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_William_Barron","url_text":"Barron, David William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-27835-1","url_text":"0-471-27835-1"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_Reas
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Casey Reas
|
["1 Education and early work","2 Art career","3 Processing","4 Exhibitions","5 Public collections","6 Books","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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American artist
Casey ReasBornCasey Edwin Barker Reas1972 (age 51–52)Troy, Ohio, USAlma materUniversity of CincinnatiMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyKnown forProcessing programming languageWebsitereas.com
Casey Edwin Barker Reas (born 1972), also known as C. E. B. Reas or Casey Reas, is an American artist whose conceptual, procedural and minimal artworks explore ideas through the contemporary lens of software. Reas is perhaps best known for having created, with Ben Fry, the Processing programming language.
Education and early work
Reas was born Casey Edwin Barker Reas in 1972 in Troy, Ohio. He studied design at the University of Cincinnati and then spent the next two years developing software and electronics as an artistic exploration. While studying design in Cincinnati, Reas was a member of a band called 'nancy' with Scott Devendorf and Matt Berninger, who went on to become members of The National. Reas went on to direct four music videos for the band's 2017 album, Sleep Well Beast.
In 2001, Reas earned a Master of Science in Media Arts and Sciences as a part of the Aesthetics and Computation Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's MIT Media Lab.
Art career
After graduating, Reas began to exhibit his software and installations internationally in galleries and festivals.
Reas's software generated images derive from short software-based instructions that visual create processes. The instructions are expressed in different media including natural language, machine code, and computer simulations, resulting in both dynamic and static images. Each translation reveals a different perspective on the process and combines with the others to produce continually evolving visual traces.
In 2003, Reas moved to Los Angeles where he is currently a Professor in the Department of Design Media Arts at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Since 2012, Reas has incorporated broadcast images into his work, algorithmically distorting them to create abstractions that retain traces of their original, representational function. In 2020, Casey Reas co-founded a platform for showcasing internet art and digital art with curated exhibitions all for sale as non-fungible tokens.
Processing
In 2001, together with MIT PhD candidate Ben Fry, Reas created the Processing programming language. Processing is widely used by thousands of artists and designers worldwide, and by educators teaching the fundamentals of programing in art and design schools.
Exhibitions
He has shown his work at:
the Whitney Museum of American Art's artport,
Ars Electronica in Austria,
ZKM in Germany,
Transmediale in Berlin,
GAFFTA in San Francisco,
Uijeongbu International Digital Art Festival in Korea,
the Danish Film Institute,
bitforms gallery in New York and Seoul,
IAMAS and ICC in Japan,
the Microwave International Media Art Festival in Hong Kong, and
the Sónar Festival in Barcelona.
Public collections
Reas' work is held in the following collections:
The Victoria and Albert Museum
The Los Angeles County Museum of Art
The Carl and Marilynn Thoma Art Foundation
The Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art
The Pompidou Centre Paris
Books
Casey Reas and Benjamin Fry, Processing: A Programming Handbook for Visual Designers and Artists, MIT Press, 2007.
Casey Reas, Process compendium 2004-2010, REAS Studio, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4507-2713-6
Casey Reas, Making Pictures with Generative Adversarial Networks, Anteism Books, 2019. ISBN 978-1-926968-47-6
See also
Timeline of programming languages
Processing programming language
References
^ "Information". reas.com. Casey Reas. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
^ Campbell, Cate Scott. "PODCAST: Casey Reas And The Art Of Interactivity". Forbes.
^ David Jason Gerber; Mariana Ibanez (1 January 2015). Paradigms in Computing: Making, Machines, and Models for Design Agency in Architecture. eVolo Press. pp. 59–. ISBN 978-1-938740-11-4.
^ "Casey Reas - The European Graduate School". egs.edu.
^ a b "Casey Reas Biography" (PDF). Bitforms Gallery. Bitforms Gallery. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
^ "Digital Talent: Ben Fry and Casey Reas". 24 March 2008.
^ "casey reas : : eat : : ruther 3429". acg.media.mit.edu.
^ "Casey Reas | IMVDb". IMVDb. Retrieved 2017-11-07.
^ "The National". YouTube. Retrieved 2017-11-07.
^ "Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings". 13 October 2016.
^ "Nostalgia for the Lost Subject of Technology in the Work of Casey Reas - Los Angeles Review of Books". 29 January 2016.
^ "Did You See It? Wait, Now It's Gone: Casey Reas' Generative Art at ACADIA 2014".
^ "Casey Reas Professor". UCLA Design Media Arts. UCLA. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
^ Savage, Annaliza. "Casey Reas at Bitforms Gallery". Wired.
^ "Casey Reas". Art Review. Retrieved 2022-12-09.
^ Lubell, Sam (15 February 2016). "Why Use a Paintbrush When You Can Make Mind-Bending Art With Code?". Wired – via www.wired.com.
^ Bogost, Ian (6 March 2019). "The AI-Art Gold Rush Is Here" – via The Atlantic.
^ "Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings". www.villagevoice.com. 13 October 2016.
^ Turner, Julia (16 August 2011). "Ben Fry, Information Designer". Slate.
^ Christiane Paul (2 March 2016). A Companion to Digital Art. Wiley. pp. 590–. ISBN 978-1-118-47521-8.
^ http://artport.whitney.org/commissions/softwarestructures/ Software Structures
^ "Can you make art by algorithm?". HUNGER TV.
^ "Ars Electronica's "Digital Senses — when digital data turns into art" exhibition".
^ "Process 18 (Software 3) - Reas, Casey - V&A Search the Collections". collections.vam.ac.uk. 2010.
^ "The John Ferraro Building, Los Angeles Department of Water and Power - LACMA Collections". collections.lacma.org.
^ "Casey Reas - Carl & Marilynn Thoma Art Foundation". Carl & Marilynn Thoma Art Foundation.
^ "Collection Reflections - Our Picks". The Block Museum of Art. Northwestern University. 28 October 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
^ "Process 13 - Centre Pompidou".
Further reading
Bruce Wands, Art of the Digital Age, Thames & Hudson, 2006. ISBN 0-500-23817-0.
Mark Tribe and Reena Jana, New Media Art, Taschen, 2006. ISBN 3-8228-3041-0.
External links
Official website
List of works held by the Victoria and Albert Museum
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Korea
Netherlands
Academics
CiNii
Artists
MusicBrainz
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reas-info-1"},{"link_name":"Ben Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Fry"},{"link_name":"Processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Casey Edwin Barker Reas (born 1972), also known as C. E. B. Reas or Casey Reas,[1] is an American artist whose conceptual, procedural and minimal artworks explore ideas through the contemporary lens of software. Reas is perhaps best known for having created, with Ben Fry, the Processing programming language.[2]","title":"Casey Reas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GerberIbanez2015-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"University of Cincinnati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bitformsCV-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Scott Devendorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Devendorf"},{"link_name":"Matt Berninger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Berninger"},{"link_name":"The National","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_(band)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sleep Well Beast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_Well_Beast"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bitformsCV-5"}],"text":"Reas was born Casey Edwin Barker Reas in 1972 in Troy, Ohio.[3][4] He studied design at the University of Cincinnati[5] and then spent the next two years developing software and electronics as an artistic exploration.[6] While studying design in Cincinnati, Reas was a member of a band called 'nancy' with Scott Devendorf and Matt Berninger, who went on to become members of The National.[7] Reas went on to direct four music videos for the band's 2017 album, Sleep Well Beast.[8][9]In 2001, Reas earned a Master of Science in Media Arts and Sciences as a part of the Aesthetics and Computation Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's MIT Media Lab.[5]","title":"Education and early work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"internet art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_art"},{"link_name":"non-fungible tokens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-fungible_token"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"After graduating, Reas began to exhibit his software and installations internationally in galleries and festivals.\nReas's software generated images derive from short software-based instructions that visual create processes. The instructions are expressed in different media including natural language, machine code, and computer simulations, resulting in both dynamic and static images. Each translation reveals a different perspective on the process and combines with the others to produce continually evolving visual traces.[10][11][12]In 2003, Reas moved to Los Angeles where he is currently a Professor in the Department of Design Media Arts at the University of California, Los Angeles.[13]Since 2012, Reas has incorporated broadcast images into his work, algorithmically distorting them to create abstractions that retain traces of their original, representational function.[14] In 2020, Casey Reas co-founded a platform for showcasing internet art and digital art with curated exhibitions all for sale as non-fungible tokens.[15]","title":"Art career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ben Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Fry"},{"link_name":"Processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul2016-20"}],"text":"In 2001, together with MIT PhD candidate Ben Fry, Reas created the Processing programming language.[16][17][18] Processing is widely used by thousands of artists and designers worldwide, and by educators teaching the fundamentals of programing in art and design schools.[19][20]","title":"Processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Whitney Museum of American Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Museum_of_American_Art"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ars Electronica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Electronica"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"ZKM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZKM"},{"link_name":"Transmediale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmediale"},{"link_name":"GAFFTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GAFFTA"},{"link_name":"bitforms gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitforms_gallery"},{"link_name":"IAMAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Advanced_Media_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"ICC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTT_InterCommunication_Center"},{"link_name":"Sónar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3nar"}],"text":"He has shown his work at:the Whitney Museum of American Art's artport,[21][22]\nArs Electronica in Austria,[23]\nZKM in Germany,\nTransmediale in Berlin,\nGAFFTA in San Francisco,\nUijeongbu International Digital Art Festival in Korea,\nthe Danish Film Institute,\nbitforms gallery in New York and Seoul,\nIAMAS and ICC in Japan,\nthe Microwave International Media Art Festival in Hong Kong, and\nthe Sónar Festival in Barcelona.","title":"Exhibitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Victoria and Albert Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles County Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Carl and Marilynn Thoma Art Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_and_Marilynn_Thoma_Art_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_and_Leigh_Block_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Pompidou Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompidou_Centre"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Reas' work is held in the following collections:The Victoria and Albert Museum[24]\nThe Los Angeles County Museum of Art[25]\nThe Carl and Marilynn Thoma Art Foundation[26]\nThe Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art[27]\nThe Pompidou Centre Paris[28]","title":"Public collections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benjamin Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Fry"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4507-2713-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4507-2713-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-926968-47-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-926968-47-6"}],"text":"Casey Reas and Benjamin Fry, Processing: A Programming Handbook for Visual Designers and Artists, MIT Press, 2007.\nCasey Reas, Process compendium 2004-2010, REAS Studio, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4507-2713-6\nCasey Reas, Making Pictures with Generative Adversarial Networks, Anteism Books, 2019. ISBN 978-1-926968-47-6","title":"Books"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-500-23817-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-23817-0"},{"link_name":"Mark Tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Tribe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-8228-3041-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8228-3041-0"}],"text":"Bruce Wands, Art of the Digital Age, Thames & Hudson, 2006. ISBN 0-500-23817-0.\nMark Tribe and Reena Jana, New Media Art, Taschen, 2006. ISBN 3-8228-3041-0.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Timeline of programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages"},{"title":"Processing programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(programming_language)"}]
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Retrieved 2017-11-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/user/thenationalofficial/videos","url_text":"\"The National\""}]},{"reference":"\"Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings\". 13 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.villagevoice.com/2016/10/13/casey-reass-disconcerting-software-paintings/","url_text":"\"Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nostalgia for the Lost Subject of Technology in the Work of Casey Reas - Los Angeles Review of Books\". 29 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/nostalgia-for-the-lost-subject-of-technology-in-the-work-of-casey-reas/#!","url_text":"\"Nostalgia for the Lost Subject of Technology in the Work of Casey Reas - Los Angeles Review of Books\""}]},{"reference":"\"Did You See It? 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Wired – via www.wired.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2016/02/why-use-a-paintbrush-when-you-can-make-mind-bending-art-with-code/","url_text":"\"Why Use a Paintbrush When You Can Make Mind-Bending Art With Code?\""}]},{"reference":"Bogost, Ian (6 March 2019). \"The AI-Art Gold Rush Is Here\" – via The Atlantic.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2019/03/ai-created-art-invades-chelsea-gallery-scene/584134/","url_text":"\"The AI-Art Gold Rush Is Here\""}]},{"reference":"\"Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings\". www.villagevoice.com. 13 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.villagevoice.com/2016/10/13/casey-reass-disconcerting-software-paintings/","url_text":"\"Casey Reas's Disconcerting Software Paintings\""}]},{"reference":"Turner, Julia (16 August 2011). \"Ben Fry, Information Designer\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic
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Art
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["1 Overview","2 History","3 Forms, genres, media, and styles","3.1 Skill and craft","4 Purpose","4.1 Non-motivated functions","4.2 Motivated functions","5 Steps","5.1 Preparation","5.2 Creation","5.3 Appreciation","6 Public access","7 Controversies","8 Theory","8.1 Arrival of Modernism","8.2 New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\"","8.3 \"Linguistic turn\" and its debate","9 Classification disputes","9.1 Value judgment","10 Art and law","11 See also","12 References","12.1 Works cited","12.2 Bibliography","13 Further reading","14 External links"]
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Creative work to evoke aesthetic response
This article is about the general concept of art. For the group of creative disciplines, see The arts. For other uses, see Art (disambiguation).
Clockwise from upper left: an 1887 self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486) by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion
Art is a diverse range of human activity and its resulting product that involves creative or imaginative talent generally expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas.
There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art, and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture. Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts. Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.
The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art.
Overview
In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early prehistoric art to contemporary art; however, some theorists think that the typical concept of "artistic works" does not fit well outside modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", as associated with words such as "artisan". English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.
20th-century bottle, Twa peoples, Rwanda. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.
Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Immanuel Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, while Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.
With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.
The more recent and specific sense of the word art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or finer works of art.
Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.
Back of a Renaissance oval basin or dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.
The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as "the art world" has conferred "the status of candidate for appreciation". Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old."
Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science".
History
Main article: History of art
Löwenmensch figurine, Germany, between 35,000 and 41,000 years old. One of the oldest-known examples of an artistic representation and the oldest confirmed statue ever discovered.
A shell engraved by Homo erectus was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.
The oldest piece of art found in Europe is the Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle, dating back 51,000 years and made by Neanderthals.
Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them.
The first undisputed sculptures and similar art pieces, like the Venus of Hohle Fels, are the numerous objects found at the Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC, so being the first centre of human art.
Cave paintings, Lascaux, France, c. 17,000 BCE
Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.
In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.
Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.
The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads "Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious".
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.
In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.
Chinese painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm
The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.
The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.
Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.
In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which "that which is" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.
Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the Silk Road, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a cultural melting pot.
Forms, genres, media, and styles
Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas
Main article: The arts
The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form. Art form refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae), such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include Design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.
In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content—i.e., denotations and connotations—while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.
Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist's experience of that subject. For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as "Emperor-God beyond time and space". Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is "socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise".
Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.
Skill and craft
See also: Conceptual art and artistic skill
The Creation of Adam, detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1511)
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.
There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes.
A common view is that the epithet art, particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.
Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the painting technique of sfumato
A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.
Purpose
A Navajo rug made c. 1880
Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century
Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).
Non-motivated functions
The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.
Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle
Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein
Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.Jupiter's eagle is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant
Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova
Motivated functions
Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or used as a form of communication.
Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art. artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen
Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of motion pictures and video games.
The Avant-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avant-garde arts.By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism)
Art as a "free zone", removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction, etc.), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.
Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be used to criticize some aspect of society. Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).
Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in Darfur, murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution.
Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.
Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often used as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.
Art as a fitness indicator. It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates.
The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.
Steps
Art can be divided into any number of steps one can make an argument for. This section divides the creative process into broad three steps, but there is no consensus on an exact number.
Preparation
The Thinker in The Gates of Hell at the Musée Rodin
In the first step, the artist envisions the art in their mind. By imagining what their art would look like, the artist begins the process of bringing the art into existence. Preparation of art may involve approaching and researching the subject matter. Artistic inspiration is one of the main drivers of art, and may be considered to stem from instinct, impressions, and feelings.
Creation
The Great Wave off Kanagawa, the first in Hokusai's series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji
In the second step, the artist executes the creation of their work. The creation of a piece can be affected by factors such as the artist's mood, surroundings, and mental state. For example, The Black Paintings by Francisco de Goya, created in the elder years of his life, are thought to be so bleak because he was in isolation and because of his experience with war. He painted them directly on the walls of his apartment in Spain, and most likely never discussed them with anyone. The Beatles stated drugs such as LSD and cannabis influenced some of their greatest hits, such as Revolver. Trial and error are considered an integral part of the creation process.
Appreciation
The last step is art appreciation, which has the sub-topic of critique. In one study, over half of visual arts students agreed that reflection is an essential step of the art process. According to education journals, the reflection of art is considered an essential part of the experience. However an important aspect of art is that others may view and appreciate it as well. While many focus on whether those viewing/listening/etc. believe the art to be good/successful or not, art has profound value beyond its commercial success as a provider of information and health in society. Art enjoyment can bring about a wide spectrum of emotion due to beauty. Some art is meant to be practical, with its analysis studious, meant to stimulate discourse.
Public access
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan. Museums are important forums for the display of visual art.
Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.
Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite, though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society.
Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.
Kunstmuseum Basel, the Museum of Art in Basel, Switzerland, is the oldest public museum of art in the world.
In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland, opened the first public museum of art in the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries.
Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.
Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.
Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However, museums do not only provide availability to art, but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience, as studies found. Thus, the museum itself is not only a blunt stage for the presentation of art, but plays an active and vital role in the overall perception of art in modern society.
Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.
There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... endeavored to undermine the art object qua object."
Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors."
Controversies
Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820
Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.
The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.
The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century.
Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism
In the 20th century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.
Theory
Main article: Aesthetics
Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.
The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.
Arrival of Modernism
Composition with Red Blue and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)
The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century led to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:
Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly. After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.
Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.
Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In The Invention of Art: A Cultural History, Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art, but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming, etc.
New Criticism and the "intentional fallacy"
Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay "Literature in the Reader".
As summarized by Berys Gaut and Paisley Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."
Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."
"Linguistic turn" and its debate
The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the "innocent eye debate" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.
Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled The Innocent Eye as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is not a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt. Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.
Classification disputes
Main article: Classificatory disputes about art
The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen. Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, J. S. G. Boggs' superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art." According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood."
Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is a term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International, the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.
Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example.
Value judgment
Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human. By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of artificial intelligence, especially in regard to its uses with images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity.
Art and law
An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are strongly based on other works of art.
Intellectual property law plays a significant role in the art world. Copyright protection is granted to artists for their original works, providing them with exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and display their creations. This safeguard empowers artists to govern the usage of their work and safeguard against unauthorized copying or infringement.
The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: "Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland." In order to preserve the diversity of cultural identity, UNESCO protects the living human treasure through the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
See also
The arts portalVisual arts portal
Artist-in-residence
Artistic freedom
Cultural tourism
Craftivism
List of art media
List of art techniques
Mathematics and art
Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of art presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.
Visual impairment in art
References
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Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, 2005
Further reading
Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image. London and NY: I.B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-1441676313
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7 (this book has significant material on art and science)
Benedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 2002
Botar, Oliver A.I. Technical Detours: The Early Moholy-Nagy Reconsidered. Art Gallery of The Graduate Center, The City University of New York and The Salgo Trust for Education, 2006. ISBN 978-1599713571
Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2011). Arts: A Science Matter. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN 978-981-4324-93-9
Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 026201226X
Colvin, Sidney (1911). "Art" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 657–660.
Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols. London: Pan Books, 1978. ISBN 0330253212
E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0714832470
Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research. London: Koening Books, 2012. ISBN 978-3863351182
Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986
Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes) Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-534-64091-5 (vol 2)
Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. OCLC 1077405
Will Gompertz. What Are You Looking At?: 150 Years of Modern Art in the Blink of an Eye. New York: Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670920495
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980
External links
art at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from Wikiversity
Library resources about Art
Resources in your library
Art and Play from the Dictionary of the History of ideas
In-depth directory of art
Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries
Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) – online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities
RevolutionArt – Art magazines with worldwide exhibitions, callings and competitions
Adajian, Thomas. "The Definition of Art". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Art at Curlie
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts"},{"link_name":"Art (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"self-portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-portrait"},{"link_name":"Vincent van Gogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh"},{"link_name":"Chokwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chokwe_people"},{"link_name":"The Birth of Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus"},{"link_name":"Sandro Botticelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli"},{"link_name":"Shisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shisa"},{"link_name":"human activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior"},{"link_name":"creative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity"},{"link_name":"imaginative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination"},{"link_name":"beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty"},{"link_name":"conceptual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OD-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"visual art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_art"},{"link_name":"painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre"},{"link_name":"dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance"},{"link_name":"performing arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts"},{"link_name":"literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature"},{"link_name":"music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music"},{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film"},{"link_name":"interactive media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_media"},{"link_name":"the arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OD-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"crafts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft"},{"link_name":"sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences"},{"link_name":"fine arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_art"},{"link_name":"decorative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorative_arts"},{"link_name":"applied arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_arts"},{"link_name":"interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation"},{"link_name":"aesthetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"artworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artworks"},{"link_name":"art criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_criticism"},{"link_name":"history of art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_history"}],"text":"Creative work to evoke aesthetic responseThis article is about the general concept of art. For the group of creative disciplines, see The arts. For other uses, see Art (disambiguation).Clockwise from upper left: an 1887 self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486) by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lionArt is a diverse range of human activity and its resulting product that involves creative or imaginative talent generally expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas.[1][2][3]There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art,[4][5][6] and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture.[7] Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts.[1][8] Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.[9] The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art.","title":"Art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-britannica.com-10"},{"link_name":"prehistoric art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-historic_art"},{"link_name":"contemporary art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_art"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teke_bottle.JPG"},{"link_name":"Twa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twa"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"muses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muses"},{"link_name":"Phaedrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"epic poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry"},{"link_name":"Dithyrambic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dithyramb"},{"link_name":"mimetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesis"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oval_basin_or_dish_with_subject_from_Amadis_of_Gaul_MET_DP320592.jpg"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"commercial art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_art"},{"link_name":"applied art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_art"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"aesthetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics"},{"link_name":"emotions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"},{"link_name":"Richard Wollheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wollheim"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"formal elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalism_(art)"},{"link_name":"representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(arts)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levinson5-21"},{"link_name":"Leo Tolstoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levinson5-21"},{"link_name":"Benedetto Croce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Croce"},{"link_name":"R. G. Collingwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._G._Collingwood"},{"link_name":"idealist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Roger Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Fry"},{"link_name":"Clive Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Bell"},{"link_name":"Martin Heidegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"George Dickie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dickie_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"institutional theory of art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art"},{"link_name":"art world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_world"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Romantic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"In the perspective of the history of art,[10] artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early prehistoric art to contemporary art; however, some theorists think that the typical concept of \"artistic works\" does not fit well outside modern Western societies.[11] One early sense of the definition of art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to \"skill\" or \"craft\", as associated with words such as \"artisan\". English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.20th-century bottle, Twa peoples, Rwanda. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Immanuel Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art.[12] Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, while Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted.[13]With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[14] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[15] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[16]The more recent and specific sense of the word art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century.[17] Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or finer works of art.Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.[18]Back of a Renaissance oval basin or dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of ArtOften, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference.[19] However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as \"one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture\".[20] Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle.[21] Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another.[21] Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator.[22][23] The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation.[24] George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as \"the art world\" has conferred \"the status of candidate for appreciation\".[25] Larry Shiner has described fine art as \"not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.\"[26]Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as \"a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science\".[27]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Loewenmensch1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Löwenmensch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6wenmensch"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Homo erectus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-homoerectus-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riesenhirschknochen_der_Einhornh%C3%B6hle"},{"link_name":"cave paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_paintings"},{"link_name":"petroglyphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyphs"},{"link_name":"Upper Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Venus of Hohle Fels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_of_Hohle_Fels"},{"link_name":"Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caves_and_Ice_Age_Art_in_the_Swabian_Jura"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201712Fortenberry20171_&_2-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lascaux_painting.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cave paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_paintings"},{"link_name":"Ancient Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Inca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_civilization"},{"link_name":"Maya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization"},{"link_name":"Olmec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"link_name":"Medieval art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_art"},{"link_name":"Catholic Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Europe"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Renaissance art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_art"},{"link_name":"graphical perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_perspective"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nichols2012-40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif"},{"link_name":"Sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan"},{"link_name":"Mahmud II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_II"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Islamic calligraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg"},{"link_name":"Great Mosque of Kairouan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Islamic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"iconography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconography"},{"link_name":"geometric patterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns"},{"link_name":"calligraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"terracotta army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta_army"},{"link_name":"Emperor Qin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Qin"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Watson1995-44"},{"link_name":"Woodblock printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Age of Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"clockwork universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clockwork_universe"},{"link_name":"Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore2010-46"},{"link_name":"David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David"},{"link_name":"Romantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Goethe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe"},{"link_name":"artistic movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_movements"},{"link_name":"academic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_art"},{"link_name":"Symbolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)"},{"link_name":"impressionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism"},{"link_name":"fauvism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauvism"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Impressionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism"},{"link_name":"Expressionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionism"},{"link_name":"Fauvism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauvism"},{"link_name":"Cubism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism"},{"link_name":"Dadaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadaism"},{"link_name":"Surrealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism"},{"link_name":"global","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"},{"link_name":"African sculptures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_sculpture"},{"link_name":"Picasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picasso"},{"link_name":"Matisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matisse"},{"link_name":"Communism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"},{"link_name":"Post-Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Modernism"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"Theodor W. Adorno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Relativism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism"},{"link_name":"contemporary art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_art"},{"link_name":"postmodern criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postmodern_critics"},{"link_name":"skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sangeeta2017-51"},{"link_name":"The Origin of the Work of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Work_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Silk Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road"},{"link_name":"Greco Buddhist art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art"},{"link_name":"Trieste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"text":"Löwenmensch figurine, Germany, between 35,000 and 41,000 years old. One of the oldest-known examples of an artistic representation and the oldest confirmed statue ever discovered.[28]A shell engraved by Homo erectus was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old.[29] A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry.[30] A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave.[31] Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years.[32]The oldest piece of art found in Europe is the Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle, dating back 51,000 years and made by Neanderthals.Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found,[33] but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them.The first undisputed sculptures and similar art pieces, like the Venus of Hohle Fels, are the numerous objects found at the Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC, so being the first centre of human art.[34][35][36][37]Cave paintings, Lascaux, France, c. 17,000 BCEMany great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.[38]In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.[39]Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.[40]The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads \"Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious\".The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.[41]In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture.[42] Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin[43]), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition.[44] Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.[45]Chinese painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cmThe western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer,[46] or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.[47][48]The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.[49]Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, \"It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist.\"[50] Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.[51]In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which \"that which is\" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed.Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the Silk Road, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a cultural melting pot.[52][53][54]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ingres,_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg"},{"link_name":"Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_on_his_Imperial_Throne"},{"link_name":"Ingres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres"},{"link_name":"media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_medium"},{"link_name":"styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_style"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"elements of art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_art"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)"},{"link_name":"figurae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurae"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_theory"},{"link_name":"contour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_drawing"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art"},{"link_name":"medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_medium"},{"link_name":"melody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_space"},{"link_name":"texture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_(visual_arts)"},{"link_name":"value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightness"},{"link_name":"Design principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Design_principles&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"balance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_balance"},{"link_name":"contrast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_(vision)"},{"link_name":"emphasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emphasis_(typography)"},{"link_name":"harmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony"},{"link_name":"proportion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_proportion"},{"link_name":"proximity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_grouping"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"},{"link_name":"Formalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formalism_(art)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"denotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotation"},{"link_name":"connotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connotation"},{"link_name":"meaning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(semiotics)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"},{"link_name":"authorial intent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorial_intent"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Livingston-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_on_his_Imperial_Throne"},{"link_name":"Statue of Zeus at Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia"},{"link_name":"Napoleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon"},{"link_name":"Ingres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Auguste-Dominique_Ingres"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"},{"link_name":"post-structuralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Art criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_criticism"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belton-57"}],"text":"Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvasThe creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form.[55] Art form refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae),[56] such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include Design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.[57]In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context.[57] Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form.[58] Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content—i.e., denotations and connotations—while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.[57]Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded.[59] It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented,[60] and the content as the artist's experience of that subject.[61] For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as \"Emperor-God beyond time and space\".[57] Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is \"socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise\".[57]Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work.[62] The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.[57]","title":"Forms, genres, media, and styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conceptual art and artistic skill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_art#Conceptual_art_and_artistic_skill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo,_Creation_of_Adam_03.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Creation of Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Creation_of_Adam"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo"},{"link_name":"Sistine Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistine_Chapel"},{"link_name":"medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_medium"},{"link_name":"language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"epithet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epithet"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Rembrandt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembrandt"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NewtonNeil1966-65"},{"link_name":"John Singer Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Singer_Sargent"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RichardsGjertson2002-66"},{"link_name":"Pablo Picasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leslie2005-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DillenbergerHandley2014-68"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"Mona Lisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa"},{"link_name":"sfumato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sfumato"},{"link_name":"modern art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art"},{"link_name":"Marcel Duchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp"},{"link_name":"Fountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kleiner2009-69"},{"link_name":"Tracey Emin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey_Emin"},{"link_name":"My Bed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Bed"},{"link_name":"Damien Hirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Hirst"},{"link_name":"The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Impossibility_of_Death_in_the_Mind_of_Someone_Living"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"Skill and craft","text":"See also: Conceptual art and artistic skillThe Creation of Adam, detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1511)Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.[63]There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes.\nA common view is that the epithet art, particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill.[64] Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity.[65] At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency,[66] yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.[67][68]Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the painting technique of sfumatoA common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects (\"ready-made\") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills.[69] Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts.[70] The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art.[71]","title":"Forms, genres, media, and styles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transition_1880.jpg"},{"link_name":"Navajo rug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_rug"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B_Escorial_93v.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mozarabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozarabic_art"},{"link_name":"Beatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentary_on_the_Apocalypse"},{"link_name":"miniature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)"},{"link_name":"Lévi-Strauss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9vi-Strauss"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schiuma2011-72"}],"text":"A Navajo rug made c. 1880Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th centuryArt has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of art is \"vague\", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).[72]","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schiuma2011-72"},{"link_name":"Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_art"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"}],"sub_title":"Non-motivated functions","text":"The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.[72]Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm. Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle[73]\nExperience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein[74]\nExpression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant[75]\nRitualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova[76]","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schiuma2011-72"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephanidis2011-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Resources2014-79"},{"link_name":"Art movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_movement"},{"link_name":"Dadaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadaism"},{"link_name":"Surrealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism"},{"link_name":"Russian constructivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_constructivism"},{"link_name":"Abstract Expressionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism"},{"link_name":"avant-garde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-garde"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"contemporary art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_art"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Graffiti art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffiti_art"},{"link_name":"street art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_art"},{"link_name":"spray-painted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spray_painting"},{"link_name":"stencilled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stencil"},{"link_name":"autism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"human trafficking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_trafficking"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Darfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darfur"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Trashion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trashion"},{"link_name":"Marina DeBris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_DeBris"},{"link_name":"art therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_therapy"},{"link_name":"Diagnostic Drawing Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_therapy#The_Diagnostic_Drawing_Series_(DDS)"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hogan2001-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"evolutionary psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology"},{"link_name":"peacock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peacock"},{"link_name":"Fisherian runaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisherian_runaway"},{"link_name":"handicap principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handicap_principle"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dutton-97"}],"sub_title":"Motivated functions","text":"Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or used as a form of communication.[72][77]Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen[78]\nArt as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of motion pictures and video games.[79]\nThe Avant-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avant-garde arts.By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism)[80]\nArt as a \"free zone\", removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction, etc.), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.[81]\nArt for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be used to criticize some aspect of society. Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).\nArt for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism,[82][83][84] cancer,[85][86][87] human trafficking,[88][89] and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation,[90] human rights in Darfur,[91] murdered and missing Aboriginal women,[92] elder abuse,[93] and pollution.[94] Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution.\nArt for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.[95]\nArt for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often used as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.[96]\nArt as a fitness indicator. It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates.[97]The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-What_Are_the_Stages_of_the_Creative-98"}],"text":"Art can be divided into any number of steps one can make an argument for. This section divides the creative process into broad three steps, but there is no consensus on an exact number.[98]","title":"Steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_penseur_de_la_Porte_de_lEnfer_(mus%C3%A9e_Rodin)_(4528252054).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Gates of Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gates_of_Hell"},{"link_name":"Musée Rodin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Rodin"},{"link_name":"Artistic inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_inspiration"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-What_Are_the_Stages_of_the_Creative-98"}],"sub_title":"Preparation","text":"The Thinker in The Gates of Hell at the Musée RodinIn the first step, the artist envisions the art in their mind. By imagining what their art would look like, the artist begins the process of bringing the art into existence. Preparation of art may involve approaching and researching the subject matter. Artistic inspiration is one of the main drivers of art, and may be considered to stem from instinct, impressions, and feelings.[98]","title":"Steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Great Wave off Kanagawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa"},{"link_name":"Hokusai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokusai"},{"link_name":"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty-six_Views_of_Mount_Fuji"},{"link_name":"mood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"surroundings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surroundings"},{"link_name":"mental state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_state"},{"link_name":"The Black Paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Paintings"},{"link_name":"Francisco de Goya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_de_Goya"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"The Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"LSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSD"},{"link_name":"cannabis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis"},{"link_name":"Revolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver_(Beatles)"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Trial and error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_and_error"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-What_Are_the_Stages_of_the_Creative-98"}],"sub_title":"Creation","text":"The Great Wave off Kanagawa, the first in Hokusai's series Thirty-six Views of Mount FujiIn the second step, the artist executes the creation of their work. The creation of a piece can be affected by factors such as the artist's mood, surroundings, and mental state. For example, The Black Paintings by Francisco de Goya, created in the elder years of his life, are thought to be so bleak because he was in isolation and because of his experience with war. He painted them directly on the walls of his apartment in Spain, and most likely never discussed them with anyone.[99] The Beatles stated drugs such as LSD and cannabis influenced some of their greatest hits, such as Revolver.[100][101] Trial and error are considered an integral part of the creation process.[98]","title":"Steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"art appreciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_appreciation"},{"link_name":"reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_practice"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-What_Are_the_Stages_of_the_Creative-98"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loughran-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"}],"sub_title":"Appreciation","text":"The last step is art appreciation, which has the sub-topic of critique. In one study, over half of visual arts students agreed that reflection is an essential step of the art process.[98] According to education journals, the reflection of art is considered an essential part of the experience.[102][103] However an important aspect of art is that others may view and appreciate it as well. While many focus on whether those viewing/listening/etc. believe the art to be good/successful or not, art has profound value beyond its commercial success as a provider of information and health in society.[104] Art enjoyment can bring about a wide spectrum of emotion due to beauty. Some art is meant to be practical, with its analysis studious, meant to stimulate discourse.[105]","title":"Steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Museum_1_(4675714481).jpg"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"visual art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_art"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramics_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"social elite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_elite"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"moulds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molding_(process)"},{"link_name":"Ancient Roman pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_pottery"},{"link_name":"Tanagra figurines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanagra_figurine"},{"link_name":"Cylinder seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_seal"},{"link_name":"Ancient Near East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_East"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kipfer2000-108"},{"link_name":"coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"printmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printmaking"},{"link_name":"woodcuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcut"},{"link_name":"peasants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tucker2000-110"},{"link_name":"Popular prints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_prints"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths1996-111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Basel_-_2017_-_Kunstmuseum_Basel_-_Altbau.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kunstmuseum Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel"},{"link_name":"Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel"},{"link_name":"Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Kunstmuseum Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Public buildings and monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_art"},{"link_name":"Egyptian temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_temple"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-V%C3%B6r%C3%B6s2007-113"},{"link_name":"Palace of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waldie1839-114"},{"link_name":"Orleans Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orleans_Collection#Collection_in_Paris"},{"link_name":"Palais Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_Royal"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MeyerSavoy2014-115"},{"link_name":"Grand Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Tour"},{"link_name":"Royal Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Collection"},{"link_name":"Old Royal Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Royal_Library"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"Uffizi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uffizi"},{"link_name":"Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fossi1999-116"},{"link_name":"Prado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prado"},{"link_name":"French Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Musée du Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"The Metropolitan Museum of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art"},{"link_name":"John Taylor Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Taylor_Johnston"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Findlay2012-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Joseph Beuys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuys"},{"link_name":"video art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_art"},{"link_name":"conceptual art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_art"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5,_2011.jpg"},{"link_name":"Louis Le Vau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Le_Vau"},{"link_name":"cour d'honneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_honor_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"}],"text":"The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan. Museums are important forums for the display of visual art.Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society.[106]Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite,[107] though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East.[108] Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society.[109]Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations.[110] Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.[111]Kunstmuseum Basel, the Museum of Art in Basel, Switzerland, is the oldest public museum of art in the world.In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland, opened the first public museum of art in the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries.[112]Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests.[113] Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.[114]Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century.[115] In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before.[116] The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.[117]Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However, museums do not only provide availability to art, but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience, as studies found.[118] Thus, the museum itself is not only a blunt stage for the presentation of art, but plays an active and vital role in the overall perception of art in modern society.Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.[119]There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is \"necessary to present something more than mere objects\"[120] said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was an idea, it could not be bought and sold. \"Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object.\"[121]Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works,[122] invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. \"With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.\"[123]","title":"Public access"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_(Museo_del_Louvre,_1818-19).jpg"},{"link_name":"Théodore Géricault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault"},{"link_name":"Raft of the Medusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa"},{"link_name":"Iconoclasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm"},{"link_name":"Aniconism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism"},{"link_name":"Islamic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art"},{"link_name":"depictions of Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depictions_of_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"art critics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_critic"},{"link_name":"iconographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconography"},{"link_name":"Swoon of the Virgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swoon_of_the_Virgin"},{"link_name":"Crucifixion of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"The Last Judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Judgment_(Michelangelo)"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo"},{"link_name":"decorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorum"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCue2016-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nickerson2010-125"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Théodore Géricault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault"},{"link_name":"Raft of the Medusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa"},{"link_name":"Édouard Manet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet"},{"link_name":"Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_D%C3%A9jeuner_sur_l%27Herbe"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RuprechtTaiana1995-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stout2018-127"},{"link_name":"John Singer Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Singer_Sargent"},{"link_name":"Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_of_Madame_X"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Summers2004-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bender2014-129"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BeuysAchberg78.jpg"},{"link_name":"Joseph Beuys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Beuys"},{"link_name":"Pablo Picasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo_Picasso"},{"link_name":"Guernica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernica_(painting)"},{"link_name":"cubist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubism"},{"link_name":"monochromatic oils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochrome_painting"},{"link_name":"Leon Golub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Golub"},{"link_name":"Andres Serrano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andres_Serrano"},{"link_name":"Piss Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piss_Christ"},{"link_name":"Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChapmanCiment2015-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown2008-131"}],"text":"Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.[124][125]The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet's Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world.[126][127] John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.[128][129]\nThe gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century.Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organismIn the 20th century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.[130][131]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)"},{"link_name":"ideal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism"},{"link_name":"John Ruskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ruskin"},{"link_name":"J. M. W. Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Richard Wollheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wollheim"},{"link_name":"Realist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_realism"},{"link_name":"Objectivist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"Relativist position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_relativism"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"}],"text":"Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.[132]The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.[133]","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piet_Mondriaan,_1930_-_Mondrian_Composition_II_in_Red,_Blue,_and_Yellow.jpg"},{"link_name":"Composition with Red Blue and Yellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition_with_Red_Blue_and_Yellow"},{"link_name":"Piet Mondrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet_Mondrian"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"postmodernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_art"},{"link_name":"Clement Greenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Greenberg"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frascina-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frascina-135"},{"link_name":"Michael Fried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Fried"},{"link_name":"T. J. Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._J._Clark_(historian)"},{"link_name":"Rosalind Krauss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Krauss"},{"link_name":"Linda Nochlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Nochlin"},{"link_name":"Griselda Pollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griselda_Pollock"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris2005-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holt2001-137"},{"link_name":"Pop artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_art"},{"link_name":"Andy Warhol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol"},{"link_name":"critiquing popular culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_critic"},{"link_name":"art world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_world"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gem%C3%BCnden1998-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duchamp_Interview_Clip-140"},{"link_name":"The Invention of Art: A Cultural History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invention_of_Art:_A_Cultural_History"},{"link_name":"techne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techne"},{"link_name":"craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craft"},{"link_name":"horsemanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsemanship"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"prophecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophecy"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BurgueteLam2011-141"}],"sub_title":"Arrival of Modernism","text":"Composition with Red Blue and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century led to a radical break in the conception of the function of art,[134] and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article \"Modernist Painting\" defines modern art as \"the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself\".[135] Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[135]After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.[136][137]Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.[138][139]Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction.[140] There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In The Invention of Art: A Cultural History, Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art, but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming, etc.[141]","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Criticism"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waugh2006-142"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colebrook1997-143"},{"link_name":"William K. Wimsatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_K._Wimsatt"},{"link_name":"Monroe Beardsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Beardsley"},{"link_name":"The Intentional Fallacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentional_Fallacy"},{"link_name":"author's intention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorial_intentionality"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roholt2013-144"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hick2017-145"},{"link_name":"The Affective Fallacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_fallacy"},{"link_name":"reader-response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reader-response"},{"link_name":"Stanley Fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Fish"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"Berys Gaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berys_Gaut"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gaut_and_Livingston,_p.6-149"},{"link_name":"Richard Wollheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wollheim"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gaut_and_Livingston,_p.6-149"}],"sub_title":"New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\"","text":"Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.[142][143]In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled \"The Intentional Fallacy\", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or \"intended meaning\" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.[144][145]In another essay, \"The Affective Fallacy\", which served as a kind of sister essay to \"The Intentional Fallacy\" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay \"Literature in the Reader\".[146][147]As summarized by Berys Gaut and Paisley Livingston in their essay \"The Creation of Art\": \"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.\"[148] These authors contend that: \"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.\"[149]Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: \"Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.\" They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, \"The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.\"[149]","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linguistic turn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_turn"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"structuralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand de Saussure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure"},{"link_name":"poststructuralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poststructuralism"},{"link_name":"Mark Tansey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Tansey"},{"link_name":"Judith Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Butler"},{"link_name":"Luce Irigaray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luce_Irigaray"},{"link_name":"Julia Kristeva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Kristeva"},{"link_name":"Michel Foucault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"},{"link_name":"Jacques Derrida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida"},{"link_name":"Hayden White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_White"},{"link_name":"philosophy of language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language"},{"link_name":"Johann Georg Hamann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm von Humboldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"Ernst Gombrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich"},{"link_name":"Nelson Goodman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Goodman"},{"link_name":"Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Roger Sperry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Sperry"},{"link_name":"Nick Zangwill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Zangwill"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"}],"sub_title":"\"Linguistic turn\" and its debate","text":"The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the \"innocent eye debate\" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art.[150]Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled The Innocent Eye as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is not a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt.[151] Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s.[152] He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.[153]","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marcel_Duchamp,_1917,_Fountain,_photograph_by_Alfred_Stieglitz.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)"},{"link_name":"Marcel Duchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp"},{"link_name":"Alfred Stieglitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Stieglitz"},{"link_name":"291","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/291_(art_gallery)"},{"link_name":"Society of Independent Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Independent_Artists"},{"link_name":"Marsden Hartley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsden_Hartley"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tomkins,_p._186-154"},{"link_name":"cubist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubist"},{"link_name":"impressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionist"},{"link_name":"Duchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchamp"},{"link_name":"Fountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)"},{"link_name":"J. S. G. Boggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._S._G._Boggs"},{"link_name":"conceptual art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_art"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_games"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"Daily Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mail"},{"link_name":"Hirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damien_Hirst"},{"link_name":"Emin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey_Emin"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"Arthur Danto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Danto"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"Anti-art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-art"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"Dadaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dada"},{"link_name":"Marcel Duchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"found objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Found_object"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"Fountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"Situationist International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situationist_International"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Mail art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_art"},{"link_name":"Young British Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_British_Artists"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"Stuckists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuckism"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tate-160"},{"link_name":"anti-anti-art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-anti-art"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"decorative arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorative_arts"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"}],"text":"The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.[154]Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, J. S. G. Boggs' superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games.[155] Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, \"the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life\" are \"so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art.\"[156] According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing \"For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all\" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work.[157] In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that \"the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood.\"[158][159]Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art;[160] it is a term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I,[160] when he was making art from found objects.[160] One of these, Fountain (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art.[160] Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International,[161] the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists,[160] though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists,[160] who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.[162][163]Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example.[164]","title":"Classification disputes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aboriginal_hollow_log_tomb.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canberra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra"},{"link_name":"Francisco Goya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Goya"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AddisonBurgess2012-165"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FergusonMansbach2008-166"},{"link_name":"zeitgeist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitgeist"},{"link_name":"aesthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic"},{"link_name":"moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality"},{"link_name":"human condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_condition"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"development of artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"}],"sub_title":"Value judgment","text":"Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as \"that meal was a work of art\" (the cook is an artist), or \"the art of deception\" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, \"good\" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.[165][166]The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.[167] By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of artificial intelligence, especially in regard to its uses with images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity.[168][169]","title":"Classification disputes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"forgeries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgeries"},{"link_name":"plagiarism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarism"},{"link_name":"replicas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replica"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"UN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"Blue Shield International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Shield_International"},{"link_name":"Karl von Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unifil.unmissions.org-173"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_diversity"},{"link_name":"cultural identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"living human treasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_Human_Treasure"},{"link_name":"Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_for_the_Safeguarding_of_the_Intangible_Cultural_Heritage"}],"text":"An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are strongly based on other works of art.Intellectual property law plays a significant role in the art world. Copyright protection is granted to artists for their original works, providing them with exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and display their creations. This safeguard empowers artists to govern the usage of their work and safeguard against unauthorized copying or infringement.[170]The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: \"Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland.\"[171][172][173][174][175][176] In order to preserve the diversity of cultural identity, UNESCO protects the living human treasure through the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.","title":"Art and law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Griselda Pollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griselda_Pollock"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1441676313","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1441676313"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89526-833-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-833-7"},{"link_name":"Benedetto Croce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedetto_Croce"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1599713571","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1599713571"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-4324-93-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4324-93-9"},{"link_name":"Carol Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"Catherine de Zegher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de_Zegher"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"026201226X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/026201226X"},{"link_name":"Colvin, Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Colvin"},{"link_name":"\"Art\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Art"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"Carl Jung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0330253212","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0330253212"},{"link_name":"E.H. Gombrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.H._Gombrich"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0714832470","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0714832470"},{"link_name":"Ute Meta Bauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ute_Meta_Bauer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3863351182","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3863351182"},{"link_name":"Kristine Stiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristine_Stiles"},{"link_name":"Peter Selz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Selz"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-534-64095-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-64095-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-534-64091-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-64091-5"},{"link_name":"Richard Wollheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wollheim"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1077405","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1077405"},{"link_name":"Will Gompertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Gompertz"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0670920495","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0670920495"},{"link_name":"Władysław Tatarkiewicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Tatarkiewicz"},{"link_name":"Christopher Kasparek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Kasparek"}],"text":"Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image. London and NY: I.B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 978-1441676313\nAugros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7 (this book has significant material on art and science)\nBenedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 2002\nBotar, Oliver A.I. Technical Detours: The Early Moholy-Nagy Reconsidered. Art Gallery of The Graduate Center, The City University of New York and The Salgo Trust for Education, 2006. ISBN 978-1599713571\nBurguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2011). Arts: A Science Matter. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN 978-981-4324-93-9\nCarol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 026201226X\nColvin, Sidney (1911). \"Art\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 657–660.\nCarl Jung, Man and His Symbols. London: Pan Books, 1978. ISBN 0330253212\nE.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0714832470\nFlorian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research. London: Koening Books, 2012. ISBN 978-3863351182\nKristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986\nKleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes) Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-64095-8 (vol 1) and ISBN 0-534-64091-5 (vol 2)\nRichard Wollheim, Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. OCLC 1077405\nWill Gompertz. What Are You Looking At?: 150 Years of Modern Art in the Blink of an Eye. New York: Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670920495\nWładysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Clockwise from upper left: an 1887 self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486) by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg/330px-Art-portrait-collage_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"20th-century bottle, Twa peoples, Rwanda. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Teke_bottle.JPG/170px-Teke_bottle.JPG"},{"image_text":"Back of a Renaissance oval basin or dish, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Oval_basin_or_dish_with_subject_from_Amadis_of_Gaul_MET_DP320592.jpg/220px-Oval_basin_or_dish_with_subject_from_Amadis_of_Gaul_MET_DP320592.jpg"},{"image_text":"Löwenmensch figurine, Germany, between 35,000 and 41,000 years old. One of the oldest-known examples of an artistic representation and the oldest confirmed statue ever discovered.[28]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Loewenmensch1.jpg/180px-Loewenmensch1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cave paintings, Lascaux, France, c. 17,000 BCE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Lascaux_painting.jpg/220px-Lascaux_painting.jpg"},{"image_text":"The stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads \"Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif/220px-Tugra_Mahmuds_II.gif"},{"image_text":"The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.[41]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chinese painting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg/220px-Ma_Lin_Guests.jpg"},{"image_text":"Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ingres%2C_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg/220px-Ingres%2C_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Creation of Adam, detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1511)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Michelangelo%2C_Creation_of_Adam_03.jpg/220px-Michelangelo%2C_Creation_of_Adam_03.jpg"},{"image_text":"Detail of Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, c. 1503–1506, showing the painting technique of sfumato","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg/220px-MonaLisa_sfumato.jpeg"},{"image_text":"A Navajo rug made c. 1880","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Transition_1880.jpg/220px-Transition_1880.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/B_Escorial_93v.jpg/220px-B_Escorial_93v.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Thinker in The Gates of Hell at the Musée Rodin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Le_penseur_de_la_Porte_de_lEnfer_%28mus%C3%A9e_Rodin%29_%284528252054%29.jpg/220px-Le_penseur_de_la_Porte_de_lEnfer_%28mus%C3%A9e_Rodin%29_%284528252054%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Great Wave off Kanagawa, the first in Hokusai's series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/220px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan. Museums are important forums for the display of visual art.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg/220px-Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kunstmuseum Basel, the Museum of Art in Basel, Switzerland, is the oldest public museum of art in the world.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Basel_-_2017_-_Kunstmuseum_Basel_-_Altbau.jpg/220px-Basel_-_2017_-_Kunstmuseum_Basel_-_Altbau.jpg"},{"image_text":"Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg/250px-Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg"},{"image_text":"Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa, c. 1820","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/220px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Performance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/BeuysAchberg78.jpg/220px-BeuysAchberg78.jpg"},{"image_text":"Composition with Red Blue and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Piet_Mondriaan%2C_1930_-_Mondrian_Composition_II_in_Red%2C_Blue%2C_and_Yellow.jpg/220px-Piet_Mondriaan%2C_1930_-_Mondrian_Composition_II_in_Red%2C_Blue%2C_and_Yellow.jpg"},{"image_text":"The original Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.[154]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Marcel_Duchamp%2C_1917%2C_Fountain%2C_photograph_by_Alfred_Stieglitz.jpg/220px-Marcel_Duchamp%2C_1917%2C_Fountain%2C_photograph_by_Alfred_Stieglitz.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Aboriginal_hollow_log_tomb.jpg/170px-Aboriginal_hollow_log_tomb.jpg"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png"},{"title":"The arts portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:The_arts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WPVA-khamsa.svg"},{"title":"Visual arts portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Visual_arts"},{"title":"Artist-in-residence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist-in-residence"},{"title":"Artistic freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_freedom"},{"title":"Cultural tourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_tourism"},{"title":"Craftivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craftivism"},{"title":"List of art media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_art_media"},{"title":"List of art techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_art_techniques"},{"title":"Mathematics and art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_and_art"},{"title":"Outline of the visual arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_the_visual_arts"},{"title":"Visual impairment in art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_impairment_in_art"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Art: definition\". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 1 September 2016. Retrieved 25 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160901233826/https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/art","url_text":"\"Art: definition\""},{"url":"https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/art","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"art\". Merriam-Websters Dictionary. Archived from the original on 30 August 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/art","url_text":"\"art\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190830205257/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/art","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Conceptual Art | Definition of Conceptual Art by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Conceptual Art\". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210414033831/https://www.lexico.com/definition/conceptual_art","url_text":"\"Conceptual Art | Definition of Conceptual Art by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Conceptual Art\""},{"url":"https://www.lexico.com/definition/conceptual_art","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Stephen Davies (1991). Definitions of Art. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9794-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6peJnXr4L5gC","url_text":"Definitions of Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9794-0","url_text":"978-0-8014-9794-0"}]},{"reference":"Robert Stecker (1997). Artworks: Definition, Meaning, Value. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01596-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01596-5","url_text":"978-0-271-01596-5"}]},{"reference":"Noël Carroll, ed. (2000). Theories of Art Today. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-16354-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/theoriesofarttod0000unse","url_text":"Theories of Art Today"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-16354-9","url_text":"978-0-299-16354-9"}]},{"reference":"Vasari, Giorgio (18 December 2007). The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0307432391. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. 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The Socio-Epistemic Value of Art\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2017.00411","url_text":"10.3389/fnhum.2017.00411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5581397","url_text":"5581397"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28894418","url_text":"28894418"}]},{"reference":"\"The Importance of Art Appreciation\". Educationworld.in. 29 May 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.educationworld.in/the-importance-of-art-appreciation/#:~:text=Art%20appreciation%2C%20however%2C%20refers%20to,mastery%20displayed%20in%20the%20piece.","url_text":"\"The Importance of Art Appreciation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ceramics of the Indigenous Peoples of South America: Studies of Production and Exchange using INAA\". core.tdar.org. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_figure
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Shape
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["1 Classification of simple shapes","2 In geometry","2.1 Properties","3 Equivalence of shapes","3.1 Congruence and similarity","3.2 Homeomorphism","3.3 Shape analysis","3.4 Similarity classes","4 Human perception of shapes","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Form of an object or its external boundary
For other uses, see Shape (disambiguation).
"Geometric shape" redirects here. For the Unicode symbols, see Geometric Shapes.
A children's toy called Shape-O made by Tupperware used for learning various shapes.
A shape is a graphical representation of an object's form or its external boundary, outline, or external surface. It is distinct from other object properties, such as color, texture, or material type.
In geometry, shape excludes information about the object's location, scale, orientation and reflection.
A figure is a representation including both shape and size (as in, e.g., figure of the Earth).
A plane shape or plane figure is constrained to lie on a plane, in contrast to solid 3D shapes.
A two-dimensional shape or two-dimensional figure (also: 2D shape or 2D figure) may lie on a more general curved surface (a non-Euclidean two-dimensional space).
Classification of simple shapes
Main article: Lists of shapes
A variety of polygonal shapes.
Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc.
Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, and parabolas.
Among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and cones.
If an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, we can use it to describe the shape of the object. Thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk.
In geometry
A set of geometric shapes in 2 dimensions: parallelogram, triangle & circle
A set of geometric shapes in 3 dimensions: pyramid, sphere & cube
A geometric shape consists of the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object. That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same shape as the original, and not a distinct shape.
Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polygons and include triangles, squares, and pentagons. Other shapes may be bounded by curves such as the circle or the ellipse. Many three-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of vertices, lines connecting the vertices, and two-dimensional faces enclosed by those lines, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polyhedrons
and include cubes as well as pyramids such as tetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid and the sphere.
A shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment between any two of its points are also part of the shape.
Properties
There are several ways to compare the shapes of two objects:
Congruence: Two objects are congruent if one can be transformed into the other by a sequence of rotations, translations, and/or reflections.
Similarity: Two objects are similar if one can be transformed into the other by a uniform scaling, together with a sequence of rotations, translations, and/or reflections.
Isotopy: Two objects are isotopic if one can be transformed into the other by a sequence of deformations that do not tear the object or put holes in it.
Figures shown in the same color have the same shape as each other and are said to be similar.
Sometimes, two similar or congruent objects may be regarded as having a different shape if a reflection is required to transform one into the other. For instance, the letters "b" and "d" are a reflection of each other, and hence they are congruent and similar, but in some contexts they are not regarded as having the same shape. Sometimes, only the outline or external boundary of the object is considered to determine its shape. For instance, a hollow sphere may be considered to have the same shape as a solid sphere. Procrustes analysis is used in many sciences to determine whether or not two objects have the same shape, or to measure the difference between two shapes. In advanced mathematics, quasi-isometry can be used as a criterion to state that two shapes are approximately the same.
Simple shapes can often be classified into basic geometric objects such as a point, a line, a curve, a plane, a plane figure (e.g. square or circle), or a solid figure (e.g. cube or sphere). However, most shapes occurring in the physical world are complex. Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so complicated as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals.
Some common shapes include: Circle, Square, Triangle, Rectangle, Oval, Star (polygon), Rhombus, Semicircle.
Regular polygons starting at pentagon follow the naming convention of the Greek derived prefix with '-gon' suffix: Pentagon, Hexagon, Heptagon, Octagon, Nonagon, Decagon... See polygon
Equivalence of shapes
In geometry, two subsets of a Euclidean space have the same shape if one can be transformed to the other by a combination of translations, rotations (together also called rigid transformations), and uniform scalings. In other words, the shape of a set of points is all the geometrical information that is invariant to translations, rotations, and size changes. Having the same shape is an equivalence relation, and accordingly a precise mathematical definition of the notion of shape can be given as being an equivalence class of subsets of a Euclidean space having the same shape.
Mathematician and statistician David George Kendall writes:
In this paper ‘shape’ is used in the vulgar sense, and means what one would normally expect it to mean. We here define ‘shape’ informally as ‘all the geometrical information that remains when location, scale and rotational effects are filtered out from an object.’
Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object. For instance, a "d" and a "p" have the same shape, as they can be perfectly superimposed if the "d" is translated to the right by a given distance, rotated upside down and magnified by a given factor (see Procrustes superimposition for details). However, a mirror image could be called a different shape. For instance, a "b" and a "p" have a different shape, at least when they are constrained to move within a two-dimensional space like the page on which they are written. Even though they have the same size, there's no way to perfectly superimpose them by translating and rotating them along the page. Similarly, within a three-dimensional space, a right hand and a left hand have a different shape, even if they are the mirror images of each other. Shapes may change if the object is scaled non-uniformly. For example, a sphere becomes an ellipsoid when scaled differently in the vertical and horizontal directions. In other words, preserving axes of symmetry (if they exist) is important for preserving shapes. Also, shape is determined by only the outer boundary of an object.
Congruence and similarity
Main articles: Congruence (geometry) and Similarity (geometry)
Objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations and mirroring (but not scaling) are congruent. An object is therefore congruent to its mirror image (even if it is not symmetric), but not to a scaled version. Two congruent objects always have either the same shape or mirror image shapes, and have the same size.
Objects that have the same shape or mirror image shapes are called geometrically similar, whether or not they have the same size. Thus, objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations, mirroring, and uniform scaling are similar. Similarity is preserved when one of the objects is uniformly scaled, while congruence is not. Thus, congruent objects are always geometrically similar, but similar objects may not be congruent, as they may have different size.
Homeomorphism
Main article: Homeomorphism
A more flexible definition of shape takes into consideration the fact that realistic shapes are often deformable, e.g. a person in different postures, a tree bending in the wind or a hand with different finger positions.
One way of modeling non-rigid movements is by homeomorphisms. Roughly speaking, a homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of an object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a circle are homeomorphic to each other, but a sphere and a donut are not. An often-repeated mathematical joke is that topologists cannot tell their coffee cup from their donut, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while preserving the donut hole in a cup's handle.
A described shape has external lines that you can see and make up the shape. If you were putting you coordinates on and coordinate graph you could draw lines to show where you can see a shape, however not every time you put coordinates in a graph as such you can make a shape. This shape has a outline and boundary so you can see it and is not just regular dots on a regular paper.
Shape analysis
Main article: Statistical shape analysis
The above-mentioned mathematical definitions of rigid and non-rigid shape have arisen in the field of statistical shape analysis. In particular, Procrustes analysis is a technique used for comparing shapes of similar objects (e.g. bones of different animals), or measuring the deformation of a deformable object. Other methods are designed to work with non-rigid (bendable) objects, e.g. for posture independent shape retrieval (see for example Spectral shape analysis).
Similarity classes
All similar triangles have the same shape. These shapes can be classified using complex numbers u, v, w for the vertices, in a method advanced by J.A. Lester and Rafael Artzy. For example, an equilateral triangle can be expressed by the complex numbers 0, 1, (1 + i√3)/2 representing its vertices. Lester and Artzy call the ratio
S
(
u
,
v
,
w
)
=
u
−
w
u
−
v
{\displaystyle S(u,v,w)={\frac {u-w}{u-v}}}
the shape of triangle (u, v, w). Then the shape of the equilateral triangle is
0
−
1
+
i
3
2
0
−
1
=
1
+
i
3
2
=
cos
(
60
∘
)
+
i
sin
(
60
∘
)
=
e
i
π
/
3
.
{\displaystyle {\frac {0-{\frac {1+i{\sqrt {3}}}{2}}}{0-1}}={\frac {1+i{\sqrt {3}}}{2}}=\cos(60^{\circ })+i\sin(60^{\circ })=e^{i\pi /3}.}
For any affine transformation of the complex plane,
z
↦
a
z
+
b
,
a
≠
0
,
{\displaystyle z\mapsto az+b,\quad a\neq 0,}
a triangle is transformed but does not change its shape. Hence shape is an invariant of affine geometry.
The shape p = S(u,v,w) depends on the order of the arguments of function S, but permutations lead to related values. For instance,
1
−
p
=
1
−
u
−
w
u
−
v
=
w
−
v
u
−
v
=
v
−
w
v
−
u
=
S
(
v
,
u
,
w
)
.
{\displaystyle 1-p=1-{\frac {u-w}{u-v}}={\frac {w-v}{u-v}}={\frac {v-w}{v-u}}=S(v,u,w).}
Also
p
−
1
=
S
(
u
,
w
,
v
)
.
{\displaystyle p^{-1}=S(u,w,v).}
Combining these permutations gives
S
(
v
,
w
,
u
)
=
(
1
−
p
)
−
1
.
{\displaystyle S(v,w,u)=(1-p)^{-1}.}
Furthermore,
p
(
1
−
p
)
−
1
=
S
(
u
,
v
,
w
)
S
(
v
,
w
,
u
)
=
u
−
w
v
−
w
=
S
(
w
,
v
,
u
)
.
{\displaystyle p(1-p)^{-1}=S(u,v,w)S(v,w,u)={\frac {u-w}{v-w}}=S(w,v,u).}
These relations are "conversion rules" for shape of a triangle.
The shape of a quadrilateral is associated with two complex numbers p, q. If the quadrilateral has vertices u, v, w, x, then p = S(u,v,w) and q = S(v,w,x). Artzy proves these propositions about quadrilateral shapes:
If
p
=
(
1
−
q
)
−
1
,
{\displaystyle p=(1-q)^{-1},}
then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
If a parallelogram has | arg p | = | arg q |, then it is a rhombus.
When p = 1 + i and q = (1 + i)/2, then the quadrilateral is square.
If
p
=
r
(
1
−
q
−
1
)
{\displaystyle p=r(1-q^{-1})}
and sgn r = sgn(Im p), then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid.
A polygon
(
z
1
,
z
2
,
.
.
.
z
n
)
{\displaystyle (z_{1},z_{2},...z_{n})}
has a shape defined by n − 2 complex numbers
S
(
z
j
,
z
j
+
1
,
z
j
+
2
)
,
j
=
1
,
.
.
.
,
n
−
2.
{\displaystyle S(z_{j},z_{j+1},z_{j+2}),\ j=1,...,n-2.}
The polygon bounds a convex set when all these shape components have imaginary components of the same sign.
Human perception of shapes
Human vision relies on a wide range of shape representations. Some psychologists have theorized that humans mentally break down images into simple geometric shapes (e.g., cones and spheres) called geons. Others have suggested shapes are decomposed into features or dimensions that describe the way shapes tend to vary, like their segmentability, compactness and spikiness. When comparing shape similarity, however, at least 22 independent dimensions are needed to account for the way natural shapes vary.
There is also clear evidence that shapes guide human attention.
See also
Area
Glossary of shapes with metaphorical names
Lists of shapes
Shape factor
Size
Solid geometry
Region (mathematics)
References
^ a b Kendall, D.G. (1984). "Shape Manifolds, Procrustean Metrics, and Complex Projective Spaces". Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society. 16 (2): 81–121. doi:10.1112/blms/16.2.81.
^ Kendall, D.G. (1984). "Shape Manifolds, Procrustean Metrics, and Complex Projective Spaces" (PDF). Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society. 16 (2): 81–121. doi:10.1112/blms/16.2.81.
^ Here, scale means only uniform scaling, as non-uniform scaling would change the shape of the object (e.g., it would turn a square into a rectangle).
^ Hubbard, John H.; West, Beverly H. (1995). Differential Equations: A Dynamical Systems Approach. Part II: Higher-Dimensional Systems. Texts in Applied Mathematics. Vol. 18. Springer. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-387-94377-0.
^ J.A. Lester (1996) "Triangles I: Shapes", Aequationes Mathematicae 52:30–54
^ Rafael Artzy (1994) "Shapes of Polygons", Journal of Geometry 50(1–2):11–15
^ a b Morgenstern, Yaniv; Hartmann, Frieder; Schmidt, Filipp; Tiedemann, Henning; Prokott, Eugen; Maiello, Guido; Fleming, Roland (2021). "An image-computable model of visual shape similarity". PLOS Computational Biology. 17 (6): 34. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008981. PMC 8195351. PMID 34061825.
^ Andreopoulos, Alexander; Tsotsos, John K. (2013). "50 Years of object recognition: Directions forward". Computer Vision and Image Understanding. 117 (8): 827–891. doi:10.1016/j.cviu.2013.04.005.
^ Marr, D., & Nishihara, H. (1978). Representation and recognition of the spatial organization of three-dimensional shapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 200, 269–294.
^ Huang, Liqiang (2020). "Space of preattentive shape features". Journal of Vision. 20 (4): 10. doi:10.1167/jov.20.4.10. PMC 7405702. PMID 32315405.
^ Alexander, R. G.; Schmidt, J.; Zelinsky, G.Z. (2014). "Are summary statistics enough? Evidence for the importance of shape in guiding visual search". Visual Cognition. 22 (3–4): 595–609. doi:10.1080/13506285.2014.890989. PMC 4500174. PMID 26180505.
External links
The dictionary definition of shape at Wiktionary
|
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For the Unicode symbols, see Geometric Shapes.A children's toy called Shape-O made by Tupperware used for learning various shapes.A shape is a graphical representation of an object's form or its external boundary, outline, or external surface. It is distinct from other object properties, such as color, texture, or material type.\nIn geometry, shape excludes information about the object's location, scale, orientation and reflection.[1]\nA figure is a representation including both shape and size (as in, e.g., figure of the Earth).A plane shape or plane figure is constrained to lie on a plane, in contrast to solid 3D shapes.\nA two-dimensional shape or two-dimensional figure (also: 2D shape or 2D figure) may lie on a more general curved surface (a non-Euclidean two-dimensional space).","title":"Shape"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polygon_types.svg"},{"link_name":"polygonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"triangles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"quadrilaterals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrilateral"},{"link_name":"pentagons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon"},{"link_name":"equilateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilateral"},{"link_name":"isosceles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isosceles"},{"link_name":"obtuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obtuse_triangle"},{"link_name":"acute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle#By_internal_angles"},{"link_name":"scalene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"rectangles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangle"},{"link_name":"rhombi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhombi"},{"link_name":"trapezoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoids"},{"link_name":"squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squares"},{"link_name":"points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"planes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"conic sections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conic_sections"},{"link_name":"ellipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"parabolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola"},{"link_name":"polyhedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedra"},{"link_name":"ellipsoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"cylinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"cones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone"},{"link_name":"manhole cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhole_cover"},{"link_name":"disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_(mathematics)"}],"text":"A variety of polygonal shapes.Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc.Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, and parabolas.Among the most common 3-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and cones.If an object falls into one of these categories exactly or even approximately, we can use it to describe the shape of the object. Thus, we say that the shape of a manhole cover is a disk, because it is approximately the same geometric object as an actual geometric disk.","title":"Classification of simple shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Area.svg"},{"link_name":"parallelogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelogram"},{"link_name":"triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Basic_shapes.svg"},{"link_name":"pyramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube"},{"link_name":"geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"geometric object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_object"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kendall-1"},{"link_name":"points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"triangles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square"},{"link_name":"pentagons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagon"},{"link_name":"curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"},{"link_name":"circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"ellipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"faces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"polyhedrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron"},{"link_name":"cubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube"},{"link_name":"pyramids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"tetrahedrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedron"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"convex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_polytope"}],"text":"A set of geometric shapes in 2 dimensions: parallelogram, triangle & circleA set of geometric shapes in 3 dimensions: pyramid, sphere & cubeA geometric shape consists of the geometric information which remains when location, scale, orientation and reflection are removed from the description of a geometric object.[1] That is, the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it, rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same shape as the original, and not a distinct shape.Many two-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of points or vertices and lines connecting the points in a closed chain, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polygons and include triangles, squares, and pentagons. Other shapes may be bounded by curves such as the circle or the ellipse. Many three-dimensional geometric shapes can be defined by a set of vertices, lines connecting the vertices, and two-dimensional faces enclosed by those lines, as well as the resulting interior points. Such shapes are called polyhedrons \nand include cubes as well as pyramids such as tetrahedrons. Other three-dimensional shapes may be bounded by curved surfaces, such as the ellipsoid and the sphere.A shape is said to be convex if all of the points on a line segment between any two of its points are also part of the shape.","title":"In geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Congruence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Similarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Isotopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy#Isotopy"},{"link_name":"deformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(mechanics)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Similar-geometric-shapes.svg"},{"link_name":"Procrustes analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrustes_analysis"},{"link_name":"quasi-isometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-isometry"},{"link_name":"geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"},{"link_name":"plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"plane figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_figure"},{"link_name":"square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"differential geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"fractals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal"},{"link_name":"Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square"},{"link_name":"Triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"Rectangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangle"},{"link_name":"Oval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oval"},{"link_name":"Star (polygon)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_(polygon)"},{"link_name":"Rhombus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhombus"},{"link_name":"Semicircle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicircle"},{"link_name":"polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"}],"sub_title":"Properties","text":"There are several ways to compare the shapes of two objects:Congruence: Two objects are congruent if one can be transformed into the other by a sequence of rotations, translations, and/or reflections.\nSimilarity: Two objects are similar if one can be transformed into the other by a uniform scaling, together with a sequence of rotations, translations, and/or reflections.\nIsotopy: Two objects are isotopic if one can be transformed into the other by a sequence of deformations that do not tear the object or put holes in it.Figures shown in the same color have the same shape as each other and are said to be similar.Sometimes, two similar or congruent objects may be regarded as having a different shape if a reflection is required to transform one into the other. For instance, the letters \"b\" and \"d\" are a reflection of each other, and hence they are congruent and similar, but in some contexts they are not regarded as having the same shape. Sometimes, only the outline or external boundary of the object is considered to determine its shape. For instance, a hollow sphere may be considered to have the same shape as a solid sphere. Procrustes analysis is used in many sciences to determine whether or not two objects have the same shape, or to measure the difference between two shapes. In advanced mathematics, quasi-isometry can be used as a criterion to state that two shapes are approximately the same.Simple shapes can often be classified into basic geometric objects such as a point, a line, a curve, a plane, a plane figure (e.g. square or circle), or a solid figure (e.g. cube or sphere). However, most shapes occurring in the physical world are complex. Some, such as plant structures and coastlines, may be so complicated as to defy traditional mathematical description – in which case they may be analyzed by differential geometry, or as fractals.Some common shapes include: Circle, Square, Triangle, Rectangle, Oval, Star (polygon), Rhombus, Semicircle.\nRegular polygons starting at pentagon follow the naming convention of the Greek derived prefix with '-gon' suffix: Pentagon, Hexagon, Heptagon, Octagon, Nonagon, Decagon... See polygon","title":"In geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"translations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"rotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation"},{"link_name":"rigid transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_transformation"},{"link_name":"uniform scalings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"equivalence relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_relation"},{"link_name":"equivalence class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class"},{"link_name":"David George Kendall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_George_Kendall"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Procrustes superimposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrustes_superimposition"},{"link_name":"mirror image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_image"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry"}],"text":"In geometry, two subsets of a Euclidean space have the same shape if one can be transformed to the other by a combination of translations, rotations (together also called rigid transformations), and uniform scalings. In other words, the shape of a set of points is all the geometrical information that is invariant to translations, rotations, and size changes. Having the same shape is an equivalence relation, and accordingly a precise mathematical definition of the notion of shape can be given as being an equivalence class of subsets of a Euclidean space having the same shape.Mathematician and statistician David George Kendall writes:[2]In this paper ‘shape’ is used in the vulgar sense, and means what one would normally expect it to mean. [...] We here define ‘shape’ informally as ‘all the geometrical information that remains when location, scale[3] and rotational effects are filtered out from an object.’Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object. For instance, a \"d\" and a \"p\" have the same shape, as they can be perfectly superimposed if the \"d\" is translated to the right by a given distance, rotated upside down and magnified by a given factor (see Procrustes superimposition for details). However, a mirror image could be called a different shape. For instance, a \"b\" and a \"p\" have a different shape, at least when they are constrained to move within a two-dimensional space like the page on which they are written. Even though they have the same size, there's no way to perfectly superimpose them by translating and rotating them along the page. Similarly, within a three-dimensional space, a right hand and a left hand have a different shape, even if they are the mirror images of each other. Shapes may change if the object is scaled non-uniformly. For example, a sphere becomes an ellipsoid when scaled differently in the vertical and horizontal directions. In other words, preserving axes of symmetry (if they exist) is important for preserving shapes. Also, shape is determined by only the outer boundary of an object.","title":"Equivalence of shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"congruent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congruence_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"mirror image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_image"},{"link_name":"geometrically similar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrically_similar"}],"sub_title":"Congruence and similarity","text":"Objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations and mirroring (but not scaling) are congruent. An object is therefore congruent to its mirror image (even if it is not symmetric), but not to a scaled version. Two congruent objects always have either the same shape or mirror image shapes, and have the same size.Objects that have the same shape or mirror image shapes are called geometrically similar, whether or not they have the same size. Thus, objects that can be transformed into each other by rigid transformations, mirroring, and uniform scaling are similar. Similarity is preserved when one of the objects is uniformly scaled, while congruence is not. Thus, congruent objects are always geometrically similar, but similar objects may not be congruent, as they may have different size.","title":"Equivalence of shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"homeomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism"},{"link_name":"square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"donut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"mathematical joke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_joke"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Homeomorphism","text":"A more flexible definition of shape takes into consideration the fact that realistic shapes are often deformable, e.g. a person in different postures, a tree bending in the wind or a hand with different finger positions.One way of modeling non-rigid movements is by homeomorphisms. Roughly speaking, a homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of an object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a circle are homeomorphic to each other, but a sphere and a donut are not. An often-repeated mathematical joke is that topologists cannot tell their coffee cup from their donut,[4] since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while preserving the donut hole in a cup's handle.A described shape has external lines that you can see and make up the shape. If you were putting you coordinates on and coordinate graph you could draw lines to show where you can see a shape, however not every time you put coordinates in a graph as such you can make a shape. This shape has a outline and boundary so you can see it and is not just regular dots on a regular paper.","title":"Equivalence of shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"statistical shape analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_shape_analysis"},{"link_name":"Procrustes analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procrustes_analysis"},{"link_name":"Spectral shape analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_shape_analysis"}],"sub_title":"Shape analysis","text":"The above-mentioned mathematical definitions of rigid and non-rigid shape have arisen in the field of statistical shape analysis. In particular, Procrustes analysis is a technique used for comparing shapes of similar objects (e.g. bones of different animals), or measuring the deformation of a deformable object. Other methods are designed to work with non-rigid (bendable) objects, e.g. for posture independent shape retrieval (see for example Spectral shape analysis).","title":"Equivalence of shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"similar triangles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similar_triangles"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Rafael Artzy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Artzy"},{"link_name":"equilateral triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilateral_triangle"},{"link_name":"quadrilateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrilateral"},{"link_name":"parallelogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelogram"},{"link_name":"rhombus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhombus"},{"link_name":"square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square"},{"link_name":"trapezoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoid"},{"link_name":"polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"convex set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_set"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Similarity classes","text":"All similar triangles have the same shape. These shapes can be classified using complex numbers u, v, w for the vertices, in a method advanced by J.A. Lester[5] and Rafael Artzy. For example, an equilateral triangle can be expressed by the complex numbers 0, 1, (1 + i√3)/2 representing its vertices. Lester and Artzy call the ratioS\n (\n u\n ,\n v\n ,\n w\n )\n =\n \n \n \n u\n −\n w\n \n \n u\n −\n v\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(u,v,w)={\\frac {u-w}{u-v}}}shape(u, v, w)0\n −\n \n \n \n 1\n +\n i\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n 0\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n +\n i\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n cos\n \n (\n \n 60\n \n ∘\n \n \n )\n +\n i\n sin\n \n (\n \n 60\n \n ∘\n \n \n )\n =\n \n e\n \n i\n π\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {0-{\\frac {1+i{\\sqrt {3}}}{2}}}{0-1}}={\\frac {1+i{\\sqrt {3}}}{2}}=\\cos(60^{\\circ })+i\\sin(60^{\\circ })=e^{i\\pi /3}.}affine transformationcomplex planez\n ↦\n a\n z\n +\n b\n ,\n \n a\n ≠\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z\\mapsto az+b,\\quad a\\neq 0,}invariantaffine geometryp = S(u,v,w)permutations1\n −\n p\n =\n 1\n −\n \n \n \n u\n −\n w\n \n \n u\n −\n v\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n w\n −\n v\n \n \n u\n −\n v\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n v\n −\n w\n \n \n v\n −\n u\n \n \n \n =\n S\n (\n v\n ,\n u\n ,\n w\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-p=1-{\\frac {u-w}{u-v}}={\\frac {w-v}{u-v}}={\\frac {v-w}{v-u}}=S(v,u,w).}p\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n S\n (\n u\n ,\n w\n ,\n v\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p^{-1}=S(u,w,v).}S\n (\n v\n ,\n w\n ,\n u\n )\n =\n (\n 1\n −\n p\n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(v,w,u)=(1-p)^{-1}.}p\n (\n 1\n −\n p\n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n S\n (\n u\n ,\n v\n ,\n w\n )\n S\n (\n v\n ,\n w\n ,\n u\n )\n =\n \n \n \n u\n −\n w\n \n \n v\n −\n w\n \n \n \n =\n S\n (\n w\n ,\n v\n ,\n u\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(1-p)^{-1}=S(u,v,w)S(v,w,u)={\\frac {u-w}{v-w}}=S(w,v,u).}The shape of a quadrilateral is associated with two complex numbers p, q. If the quadrilateral has vertices u, v, w, x, then p = S(u,v,w) and q = S(v,w,x). Artzy proves these propositions about quadrilateral shapes:If \n \n \n \n p\n =\n (\n 1\n −\n q\n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p=(1-q)^{-1},}\n \n then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.\nIf a parallelogram has | arg p | = | arg q |, then it is a rhombus.\nWhen p = 1 + i and q = (1 + i)/2, then the quadrilateral is square.\nIf \n \n \n \n p\n =\n r\n (\n 1\n −\n \n q\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p=r(1-q^{-1})}\n \n and sgn r = sgn(Im p), then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid.A polygon \n \n \n \n (\n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n \n z\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (z_{1},z_{2},...z_{n})}\n \n has a shape defined by n − 2 complex numbers \n \n \n \n S\n (\n \n z\n \n j\n \n \n ,\n \n z\n \n j\n +\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n z\n \n j\n +\n 2\n \n \n )\n ,\n \n j\n =\n 1\n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n n\n −\n 2.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(z_{j},z_{j+1},z_{j+2}),\\ j=1,...,n-2.}\n \n The polygon bounds a convex set when all these shape components have imaginary components of the same sign.[6]","title":"Equivalence of shapes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShapeComp-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"geons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShapeComp-7"},{"link_name":"attention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_spatial_attention"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Human vision relies on a wide range of shape representations.[7][8] Some psychologists have theorized that humans mentally break down images into simple geometric shapes (e.g., cones and spheres) called geons.[9] Others have suggested shapes are decomposed into features or dimensions that describe the way shapes tend to vary, like their segmentability, compactness and spikiness.[10] When comparing shape similarity, however, at least 22 independent dimensions are needed to account for the way natural shapes vary. [7]There is also clear evidence that shapes guide human attention.[11]","title":"Human perception of shapes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A children's toy called Shape-O made by Tupperware used for learning various shapes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Plastic_vormenstoof_of_puzzelbal_van_%E2%80%9CTupperware_Toy%E2%80%9D%2C_objectnr_83212.JPG/220px-Plastic_vormenstoof_of_puzzelbal_van_%E2%80%9CTupperware_Toy%E2%80%9D%2C_objectnr_83212.JPG"},{"image_text":"A variety of polygonal shapes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Polygon_types.svg/300px-Polygon_types.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A set of geometric shapes in 2 dimensions: parallelogram, triangle & circle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Area.svg/250px-Area.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A set of geometric shapes in 3 dimensions: pyramid, sphere & cube","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Basic_shapes.svg/250px-Basic_shapes.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Figures shown in the same color have the same shape as each other and are said to be similar.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Similar-geometric-shapes.svg/300px-Similar-geometric-shapes.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area"},{"title":"Glossary of shapes with metaphorical names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_shapes_with_metaphorical_names"},{"title":"Lists of shapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_shapes"},{"title":"Shape factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_factor_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"Size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Size"},{"title":"Solid geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_geometry"},{"title":"Region (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region_(mathematics)"}]
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[{"reference":"Kendall, D.G. (1984). \"Shape Manifolds, Procrustean Metrics, and Complex Projective Spaces\". Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society. 16 (2): 81–121. doi:10.1112/blms/16.2.81.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fblms%2F16.2.81","url_text":"10.1112/blms/16.2.81"}]},{"reference":"Kendall, D.G. (1984). \"Shape Manifolds, Procrustean Metrics, and Complex Projective Spaces\" (PDF). Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society. 16 (2): 81–121. doi:10.1112/blms/16.2.81.","urls":[{"url":"http://image.diku.dk/imagecanon/material/kendall-shapes.pdf","url_text":"\"Shape Manifolds, Procrustean Metrics, and Complex Projective Spaces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1112%2Fblms%2F16.2.81","url_text":"10.1112/blms/16.2.81"}]},{"reference":"Hubbard, John H.; West, Beverly H. (1995). Differential Equations: A Dynamical Systems Approach. Part II: Higher-Dimensional Systems. Texts in Applied Mathematics. Vol. 18. Springer. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-387-94377-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SHBj2oaSALoC&q=%22coffee+cup%22+topologist+joke&pg=PA204","url_text":"Differential Equations: A Dynamical Systems Approach. Part II: Higher-Dimensional Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-94377-0","url_text":"978-0-387-94377-0"}]},{"reference":"Morgenstern, Yaniv; Hartmann, Frieder; Schmidt, Filipp; Tiedemann, Henning; Prokott, Eugen; Maiello, Guido; Fleming, Roland (2021). \"An image-computable model of visual shape similarity\". PLOS Computational Biology. 17 (6): 34. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008981. PMC 8195351. PMID 34061825.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8195351","url_text":"\"An image-computable model of visual shape similarity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1008981","url_text":"10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008981"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8195351","url_text":"8195351"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34061825","url_text":"34061825"}]},{"reference":"Andreopoulos, Alexander; Tsotsos, John K. (2013). \"50 Years of object recognition: Directions forward\". Computer Vision and Image Understanding. 117 (8): 827–891. doi:10.1016/j.cviu.2013.04.005.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cviu.2013.04.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.cviu.2013.04.005"}]},{"reference":"Huang, Liqiang (2020). \"Space of preattentive shape features\". Journal of Vision. 20 (4): 10. doi:10.1167/jov.20.4.10. PMC 7405702. PMID 32315405.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405702","url_text":"\"Space of preattentive shape features\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1167%2Fjov.20.4.10","url_text":"10.1167/jov.20.4.10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7405702","url_text":"7405702"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32315405","url_text":"32315405"}]},{"reference":"Alexander, R. G.; Schmidt, J.; Zelinsky, G.Z. (2014). \"Are summary statistics enough? Evidence for the importance of shape in guiding visual search\". Visual Cognition. 22 (3–4): 595–609. doi:10.1080/13506285.2014.890989. PMC 4500174. PMID 26180505.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500174","url_text":"\"Are summary statistics enough? Evidence for the importance of shape in guiding visual search\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13506285.2014.890989","url_text":"10.1080/13506285.2014.890989"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500174","url_text":"4500174"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26180505","url_text":"26180505"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walap
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Walap
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["1 External links","2 References"]
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Type of canoeThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Walap" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Walap is a traditional ocean-going sailing outrigger canoe from the Marshall Islands.
Walap from Jaluit Atoll, 1880
A tipnol from Rongerik Atoll (1947)
It belongs to the Micronesian proa type whose main characteristics are: single main hull, outrigger-mounted float/ballast, and asymmetric hull profile. Walaps have a lee platform.
Like all pacific proas, they are always sailed with the outrigger to windward; they do not tack but "shunt" (reverse direction), so both ends of the boat are identical. The distinction between bow and stern depends only on the heading of the boat.
Walaps are not dugouts; only the keel is made of a single bread-fruit log when possible, and the rest are planks sewn together with coconut-fiber lashings, sealed with tree sap.
There are three main types of marshallese sailing canoes:
Korkor: a small rowing/sailing canoe used for fishing and transportation in the atoll lagoons. It has a crew of one or two. Used nowadays in very popular regattas.
Tipnol: a medium-sized sailing canoe. Used for travel and fishing in the lagoons and short distance voyaging over open water. Minimum crew is two, may transport up to ten passengers.
Walap: a large, blue-water sailing canoe, reaching up to 30 m in length and able to carry up to 50 people and food supplies for up to seven months. Used mainly for inter-atoll voyaging.
These types can vary in design, mainly slenderness of the hull, draft deep and hull-profile asymmetry.
Five recognized styles exist: taburbur, malmel, mwijwitok, tojeik and jekad.
Walaps may well represent the most advanced sailing technology of all stone-age cultures, only equaled by Fiji's drua.
External links
program to revive traditional sailing in the Marshall Islands
photos
walap models
anaglyphs and stereo-pairs of a walap
tipnols
References
^ Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (1998). "Essays on the Marshallese Past: Marshallese Canoes". marshall.csu.edu.au. Archived from the original on 2021-12-28.
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Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"outrigger canoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrigger_canoe"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Walap_from_Jaluit_Atoll,_1880.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Natives_and_members_of_resurvey_party_in_a_canoe,_Rongerik_Island,_summer_1947_(DONALDSON_142).jpeg"},{"link_name":"Rongerik Atoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll"},{"link_name":"proa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proa"},{"link_name":"outrigger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrigger"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"drua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drua"}],"text":"The Walap is a traditional ocean-going sailing outrigger canoe from the Marshall Islands.Walap from Jaluit Atoll, 1880A tipnol from Rongerik Atoll (1947)It belongs to the Micronesian proa type whose main characteristics are: single main hull, outrigger-mounted float/ballast, and asymmetric hull profile. Walaps have a lee platform.Like all pacific proas, they are always sailed with the outrigger to windward; they do not tack but \"shunt\" (reverse direction), so both ends of the boat are identical. The distinction between bow and stern depends only on the heading of the boat.Walaps are not dugouts; only the keel is made of a single bread-fruit log when possible, and the rest are planks sewn together with coconut-fiber lashings, sealed with tree sap.There are three main types of marshallese sailing canoes:Korkor: a small rowing/sailing canoe used for fishing and transportation in the atoll lagoons. It has a crew of one or two. Used nowadays in very popular regattas.\nTipnol: a medium-sized sailing canoe. Used for travel and fishing in the lagoons and short distance voyaging over open water. Minimum crew is two, may transport up to ten passengers.\nWalap: a large, blue-water sailing canoe, reaching up to 30 m in length and able to carry up to 50 people and food supplies for up to seven months. Used mainly for inter-atoll voyaging.These types can vary in design, mainly slenderness of the hull, draft deep and hull-profile asymmetry.Five recognized styles exist: taburbur, malmel, mwijwitok, tojeik and jekad.[1]Walaps may well represent the most advanced sailing technology of all stone-age cultures, only equaled by Fiji's drua.","title":"Walap"}]
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[{"image_text":"Walap from Jaluit Atoll, 1880","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Walap_from_Jaluit_Atoll%2C_1880.jpg/220px-Walap_from_Jaluit_Atoll%2C_1880.jpg"},{"image_text":"A tipnol from Rongerik Atoll (1947)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Natives_and_members_of_resurvey_party_in_a_canoe%2C_Rongerik_Island%2C_summer_1947_%28DONALDSON_142%29.jpeg/220px-Natives_and_members_of_resurvey_party_in_a_canoe%2C_Rongerik_Island%2C_summer_1947_%28DONALDSON_142%29.jpeg"}]
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[{"reference":"Spennemann, Dirk H.R. (1998). \"Essays on the Marshallese Past: Marshallese Canoes\". marshall.csu.edu.au. Archived from the original on 2021-12-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211228053911/http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/essays/es-tmc-1.html","url_text":"\"Essays on the Marshallese Past: Marshallese Canoes\""},{"url":"http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/essays/es-tmc-1.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Walap%22","external_links_name":"\"Walap\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Walap%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Walap%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Walap%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Walap%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Walap%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.canoesmarshallislands.com/","external_links_name":"program to revive traditional sailing in the Marshall Islands"},{"Link":"http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/culture/Enewetak_Walap.html","external_links_name":"photos"},{"Link":"http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/Handicraft/Canoe.html","external_links_name":"walap models"},{"Link":"http://wikiproa.pbwiki.com/aqlunafoo/","external_links_name":"anaglyphs and stereo-pairs of a walap"},{"Link":"http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/culture/canoepix.html","external_links_name":"tipnols"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211228053911/http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/essays/es-tmc-1.html","external_links_name":"\"Essays on the Marshallese Past: Marshallese Canoes\""},{"Link":"http://marshall.csu.edu.au/Marshalls/html/essays/es-tmc-1.html","external_links_name":"the original"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicardipine
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Nicardipine
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["1 See also","2 References"]
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Antihypertensive drug of the calcium channel blocker class
NicardipineClinical dataTrade namesCardeneAHFS/Drugs.comMonographMedlinePlusa695032Routes ofadministrationOral, intravenousATC codeC08CA04 (WHO) Legal statusLegal status
In general: ℞ (Prescription only)
Pharmacokinetic dataProtein binding>95%Elimination half-life8.6 hoursIdentifiers
IUPAC name
2-ethylmethyl-2,6-dimethyl-4-(3-nitrophenyl)-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylate
CAS Number55985-32-5 YPubChem CID4474IUPHAR/BPS2559DrugBankDB00622 YChemSpider4319 YUNIICZ5312222SKEGGD08270 YChEBICHEBI:7550ChEMBLChEMBL1484 YCompTox Dashboard (EPA)DTXSID6023363 ECHA InfoCard100.054.466 Chemical and physical dataFormulaC26H29N3O6Molar mass479.533 g·mol−13D model (JSmol)Interactive imageMelting point136–138 °C (277–280 °F)
SMILES
O=C(OCCN(Cc1ccccc1)C)\C2=C(\N/C(=C(/C(=O)OC)C2c3cccc(()=O)c3)C)C
InChI
InChI=1S/C26H29N3O6/c1-17-22(25(30)34-4)24(20-11-8-12-21(15-20)29(32)33)23(18(2)27-17)26(31)35-14-13-28(3)16-19-9-6-5-7-10-19/h5-12,15,24,27H,13-14,16H2,1-4H3 YKey:ZBBHBTPTTSWHBA-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y
(verify)
Nicardipine (Cardene) is a medication used to treat high blood pressure and angina. It belongs to the dihydropyridine class of calcium channel blockers (CCBs). It is also used for Raynaud's phenomenon. It is available in by mouth and intravenous formulations. It has been used in percutaneous coronary intervention.
Its mechanism of action and clinical effects closely resemble those of nifedipine and the other dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (amlodipine, felodipine), except that nicardipine is more selective for cerebral and coronary blood vessels. It is primarily a peripheral arterial vasodilator, thus unlike the nitrovasodilators (nitroglycerin and nitroprusside), cardiac preload is minimally affected. It has the longest duration among parenteral CCBs. As its use may lead to reflex tachycardia, it is advisable to use it in conjunction with a beta-blocker.
It was patented in 1973 and approved for medical use in 1981.
Nicardipine was approved by the FDA in December 1988. The patent for both Cardene and Cardene SR expired in October 1995.
See also
Calcium channel blocker toxicity
References
^ Huang RI, Patel P, Walinsky P, Fischman DL, Ogilby JD, Awar M, et al. (November 2006). "Efficacy of intracoronary nicardipine in the treatment of no-reflow during percutaneous coronary intervention". Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 68 (5): 671–676. doi:10.1002/ccd.20885. PMID 17034064. S2CID 37071966.
^ a b Freeman BS (2014). "Vasodilators". In Freeman BS, Berger JS (eds.). Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-182137-7.
^ a b Sutters M (2022). "Hypertensive urgencies & emergencies.". In Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ, Rabow MW, McQuaid KR (eds.). Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-1-2642-6938-9.
^ Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 464. ISBN 978-3-527-60749-5.
^ "Nicardipine". Medline Plus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Pharmacodynamics
vteIon channel modulatorsCalciumVDCCsTooltip Voltage-dependent calcium channelsBlockers
L-type-selective: Dihydropyridines: Amlodipine
Aranidipine
Azelnidipine
Barnidipine
Clevidipine
Cronidipine
Darodipine
Dexniguldipine
Elgodipine
Elnadipine
Felodipine
Flordipine
Furnidipine
Iganidipine
Isradipine
Lacidipine
Lemildipine
Lercanidipine
Levamlodipine
Levniguldipine
Manidipine
Mepirodipine
Mesudipine
Nicardipine
Nifedipine
Niguldipine
Niludipine
Nilvadipine
Nimodipine
Nisoldipine
Nitrendipine
Olradipine
Oxodipine
Palonidipine
Pranidipine
Ryodipine (riodipine)
Sagandipine
Sornidipine
Teludipine
Tiamdipine
Trombodipine
Vatanidipine; Diltiazem derivatives: Clentiazem
Diltiazem
Iprotiazem
Nictiazem
Siratiazem; Phenylalkylamines: Anipamil
Dagapamil
Devapamil
Dexverapamil
Emopamil
Etripamil
Falipamil
Gallopamil
Levemopamil
Nexopamil
Norverapamil
Ronipamil
Tiapamil
Verapamil; Others: AH-1058
Brinazarone
Budiodarone
Celivarone
Cyproheptadine
Dronedarone
Fantofarone
SR-33805
Tetrahydropalmatine
N-type-selective: ω-Conotoxins
ω-Conotoxin GVIA
Caroverine
Huwentoxin XVI
Leconotide (ω-conotoxin CVID)
PD-173212
Ralfinamide
Safinamide
Z160
Ziconotide (ω-conotoxin MVIIA)
P-type-selective: ω-Agatoxin IVA
ω-Agatoxin IVB
R-type-selective: SNX-482
T-type-selective: ABT-639
ML-218
Niflumic acid
NNC 55-0396
ProTx I
Z944
Zonisamide
Non-selective: ω-Agatoxin TK
ω-Conotoxin MVIIC
Benidipine
Bepridil
Cilnidipine
Cinnarizine
Dotarizine
Efonidipine
Flunarizine
Lamotrigine
Levetiracetam
Lomerizine
Loperamide
Mibefradil
NP078585
Ruthenium red
TROX-1
α2δ subunit-selective (gabapentinoids): 4-Methylpregabalin
Arbaclofen
Arbaclofen placarbil
Atagabalin
Baclofen
Gabapentin
Gabapentin enacarbil
Imagabalin
Mirogabalin
PD-200,347
PD-217,014
PD-299,685
Phenibut
Pregabalin
Others/unsorted: Bencyclane
Berbamine
Bevantolol
Canadine
Carboxyamidotriazole
Cycleanine
Dauricine
Dimeditiapramine
Diproteverine
Enpiperate
Eperisone
Elpetrigine
Ethadione
Ethanol (alcohol)
Ethosuximide
Fasudil
Fendiline
Fostedil
Imepitoin
JTV-519
Lidoflazine
Magnesium
Manoalide
Mesuximide
Monatepil
Naftopidil
Ochratoxin A
Osthol
Otilonium bromide
Paramethadione
Phensuximide
Pinaverium bromide
Prenylamine
Rhynchophylline
Sesamodil
Silperisone
Sipatrigine
Terodiline
Tetrandrine
Tolperisone
Trimethadione
Valperinol
Activators
L-type-selective: Bay K8644
PotassiumVGKCsTooltip Voltage-gated potassium channelsBlockers
3,4-Diaminopyridine (amifampridine)
4-Aminopyridine (fampridine/dalfampridine)
Adekalant
Almokalant
Amiodarone
Azimilide
Bretylium
Bunaftine
Charybdotoxin
Clamikalant
Conotoxins
Dalazatide
Dendrotoxin
Dofetilide
Dronedarone
E-4031
Hanatoxin
HgeTx1
HsTx1
Ibutilide
Inakalant
Kaliotoxin
Linopirdine
Lolitrem B
Maurotoxin
Nifekalant
Notoxin
Paxilline
Pinokalant
Quinidine
ShK-186
Sotalol
Tedisamil
Terikalant
Tetraethylammonium
Vernakalant
hERG (KCNH2, Kv11.1)-specific: Ajmaline
Amiodarone
AmmTX3
Astemizole
Azaspiracid
AZD1305
Azimilide
Bedaquiline
BeKm-1
BmTx3
BRL-32872
Chlorpromazine
Cisapride
Clarithromycin
Darifenacin
Dextropropoxyphene
Diallyl trisulfide
Domperidone
E-4031
Ergtoxins
Erythromycin
Gigactonine
Haloperidol
Ketoconazole
Norpropoxyphene
Orphenadrine
Pimozide
PNU-282,987
Promethazine
Quinidine
Ranolazine
Roxithromycin
Sertindole
Solifenacin
Tamulotoxin
Terodiline
Terfenadine
Thioridazine
Tolterodine
Vanoxerine
Vernakalant
KCNQ (Kv7)-specific: Linopirdine
XE-991
Spooky toxin (SsTx)
Activators
KCNQ (Kv7)-specific: Flupirtine
Retigabine
IRKsTooltip Inwardly rectifying potassium channelBlockers
KATPTooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel-specific: Acetohexamide
Carbutamide
Chlorpropamide
Glibenclamide (glyburide)
Glibornuride
Glicaramide
Gliclazide
Glimepiride
Glipizide
Gliquidone
Glisoxepide
Glyclopyramide
Glycyclamide
Metahexamide
Mitiglinide
Nateglinide
Repaglinide
Tolazamide
Tolbutamide
GIRKTooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel-specific: Barium
Caramiphen
Cloperastine
Clozapine
Dextromethorphan
Ethosuximide
Ifenprodil
Tertiapin
Tipepidine
Activators
KATPTooltip ATP-sensitive potassium channel-specific: Aprikalim
Bimakalim
Cromakalim
Diazoxide
Emakalim
Levcromakalim
Mazokalim
Minoxidil
Minoxidil sulfate
Naminidil
Nicorandil
Pinacidil
Rilmakalim
Sarakalim
GIRKTooltip G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channel-specific: ML-297 (VU0456810)
KCaTooltip Calcium-activated potassium channelBlockers
BKCa-specific: Ethanol (alcohol)
GAL-021
Activators
BKCa-specific: Flufenamic acid
Meclofenamic acid
Niflumic acid
Nimesulide
Rottlerin (mallotoxin)
Tolfenamic acid
K2PsTooltip Tandem pore domain potassium channelBlockers
12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
Arachidonic acid
Fluoxetine
Norfluoxetine
Activators
Riluzole
SodiumVGSCsTooltip Voltage-gated sodium channelsBlockers
Antianginals: Ranolazine
Antiarrhythmics (class I): Ajmaline
Aprindine
Disopyramide
Dronedarone
Encainide
Flecainide
Lidocaine
Lorajmine
Lorcainide
Mexiletine
Moricizine
Pilsicainide
Prajmaline
Procainamide
Propafenone
Quinidine
Sparteine
Tocainide
Anticonvulsants: Acetylpheneturide
Carbamazepine
Cenobamate
Chlorphenacemide
Elpetrigine
Eslicarbazepine acetate
Ethotoin
Fosphenytoin
Lamotrigine
Lacosamide
Licarbazepine
Mephenytoin
Oxcarbazepine
Oxitriptyline
Phenacemide
Pheneturide
Phenytoin
Rufinamide
Sipatrigine
Topiramate
Sodium valproate
Valnoctamide
Valproate pivoxil
Valproate semisodium
Valproic acid
Valpromide
Zonisamide
Local anesthetics: pFBT
Amylocaine
Articaine
Benzocaine
Bupivacaine (Levobupivacaine, Ropivacaine)
Butacaine
Butamben
Chloroprocaine
Cinchocaine
Cocaine
Cyclomethycaine
Dimethocaine
Diphenhydramine
Etidocaine
Hexylcaine
Iontocaine
Lidocaine
Mepivacaine
Meprylcaine
Metabutoxycaine
Orthocaine
Piperocaine
Prilocaine
Procaine
Propoxycaine
Proxymetacaine
Risocaine
Tetracaine
Trimecaine
Analgesics: AZD-3161
DSP-2230
Funapide
GDC-0276
NKTR-171
PF-04531083
PF-05089771
Ralfinamide
Raxatrigine
RG7893 (GDC-0287)
Toxins: Conotoxins
Neosaxitoxin
Saxitoxin
Tetrodotoxin
Zetekitoxin AB
Others: Buprenorphine
Evenamide
Menthol (mint)
Safinamide
Tricyclic antidepressants
Activators
Aconitine
Atracotoxins (ω-Atracotoxin, Robustoxin, Versutoxin)
Batrachotoxin
Ciguatoxins
Grayanotoxins
Poneratoxin
ENaCTooltip Epithelial sodium channelBlockers
Amiloride
Benzamil
Triamterene
Activators
Solnatide
ASICsTooltip Acid-sensing ion channelBlockers
A-317567
Amiloride
Aspirin
Ibuprofen
PcTX1
ChlorideCaCCsTooltip Calcium-activated chloride channelBlockers
Crofelemer
DIDS
Ethacrynic acid
Flufenamic acid
Fluoxetine
Furosemide
Glibenclamide
Mefloquine
Mibefradil
Niflumic acid
Activators
Carbachol
CFTRTooltip Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulatorBlockers
Glibenclamide
Lonidamine
Piretanide
Activators
1,7-Phenanthroline
1,10-Phenanthroline
4,7-Phenanthroline
7,8-Benzoquinoline
Ivacaftor
Phenanthridine
UnsortedBlockers
Bumetanide
Flufenamic acid
Meclofenamic acid
Mefenamic acid
Mepacrine
Niflumic acid
Talniflumate
Tolfenamic acid
Trifluoperazine
OthersTRPsTooltip Transient receptor potential channels
See here instead.
LGICsTooltip Ligand gated ion channels
See here instead.
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Transient receptor potential channel modulators
vteGABA receptor modulatorsIonotropicGABAATooltip γ-Aminobutyric acid A receptor
Agonists: (+)-Catechin
Bamaluzole
Barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital)
Beta-Alanine
BL-1020
DAVA
Dihydromuscimol
GABA
Gabamide
GABOB
Gaboxadol (THIP)
Homotaurine (tramiprosate, 3-APS)
Ibotenic acid
iso-THAZ
iso-THIP
Isoguvacine
Isomuscimol
Isonipecotic acid
Kojic amine
L-838,417
Lignans (e.g., honokiol)
Methylglyoxal
Monastrol
Muscimol
Nefiracetam
Neuroactive steroids (e.g., allopregnanolone)
Org 20599
PF-6372865
Phenibut
Picamilon
P4S
Progabide
Propofol
Quisqualamine
SL-75102
Taurine
TACA
TAMP
Terpenoids (e.g., borneol)
Thiomuscimol
Tolgabide
ZAPA
Positive modulators (abridged; see here for a full list): α-EMTBL
Alcohols (e.g., drinking alcohol, 2M2B)
Anabolic steroids
Avermectins (e.g., ivermectin)
Barbiturates (e.g., phenobarbital)
Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam)
Bromide compounds (e.g., potassium bromide)
Carbamates (e.g., meprobamate)
Carbamazepine
Chloralose
Chlormezanone
Clomethiazole
Dihydroergolines (e.g., ergoloid (dihydroergotoxine))
Etazepine
Etifoxine
Fenamates (e.g., mefenamic acid)
Flavonoids (e.g., apigenin, hispidulin)
Fluoxetine
Flupirtine
Imidazoles (e.g., etomidate)
Kava constituents (e.g., kavain)
Lanthanum
Loreclezole
Monastrol
Neuroactive steroids (e.g., allopregnanolone, cholesterol, THDOC)
Niacin
Niacinamide
Nonbenzodiazepines (e.g., β-carbolines (e.g., abecarnil), cyclopyrrolones (e.g., zopiclone), imidazopyridines (e.g., zolpidem), pyrazolopyrimidines (e.g., zaleplon))
Norfluoxetine
Petrichloral
Phenols (e.g., propofol)
Phenytoin
Piperidinediones (e.g., glutethimide)
Propanidid
Pyrazolopyridines (e.g., etazolate)
Quinazolinones (e.g., methaqualone)
Retigabine (ezogabine)
ROD-188
Skullcap constituents (e.g., baicalin)
Stiripentol
Sulfonylalkanes (e.g., sulfonmethane (sulfonal))
Topiramate
Valerian constituents (e.g., valerenic acid)
Volatiles/gases (e.g., chloral hydrate, chloroform, diethyl ether, paraldehyde, sevoflurane)
Antagonists: Bicuculline
Coriamyrtin
Dihydrosecurinine
Gabazine (SR-95531)
Hydrastine
Hyenachin (mellitoxin)
PHP-501
Pitrazepin
Securinine
Sinomenine
SR-42641
SR-95103
Thiocolchicoside
Tutin
Negative modulators: 1,3M1B
3M2B
11-Ketoprogesterone
17-Phenylandrostenol
α3IA
α5IA (LS-193,268)
β-CCB
β-CCE
β-CCM
β-CCP
β-EMGBL
Anabolic steroids
Amiloride
Anisatin
β-Lactams (e.g., penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems)
Basmisanil
Bemegride
Bicyclic phosphates (TBPS, TBPO, IPTBO)
BIDN
Bilobalide
Bupropion
CHEB
Chlorophenylsilatrane
Cicutoxin
Cloflubicyne
Cyclothiazide
DHEA
DHEA-S
Dieldrin
(+)-DMBB
DMCM
DMPC
EBOB
Etbicyphat
FG-7142 (ZK-31906)
Fiproles (e.g., fipronil)
Flavonoids (e.g., amentoflavone, oroxylin A)
Flumazenil
Fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin)
Flurothyl
Furosemide
Golexanolone
Iomazenil (123I)
IPTBO
Isopregnanolone (sepranolone)
L-655,708
Laudanosine
Lindane
MaxiPost
Morphine
Morphine-3-glucuronide
MRK-016
Naloxone
Naltrexone
Nicardipine
Nonsteroidal antiandrogens (e.g., apalutamide, bicalutamide, enzalutamide, flutamide, nilutamide)
Oenanthotoxin
Pentylenetetrazol (pentetrazol)
Phenylsilatrane
Picrotoxin (i.e., picrotin, picrotoxinin and dihydropicrotoxinin)
Pregnenolone sulfate
Propybicyphat
PWZ-029
Radequinil
Ro 15-4513
Ro 19-4603
RO4882224
RO4938581
Sarmazenil
SCS
Suritozole
TB-21007
TBOB
TBPS
TCS-1105
Terbequinil
TETS
Thujone
U-93631
Zinc
ZK-93426
GABAA-ρTooltip γ-Aminobutyric acid A-rho receptor
Agonists: BL-1020
CACA
CAMP
Homohypotaurine
GABA
GABOB
Ibotenic acid
Isoguvacine
Muscimol
N4-Chloroacetylcytosine arabinoside
Picamilon
Progabide
TACA
TAMP
Thiomuscimol
Tolgabide
Positive modulators: Allopregnanolone
Alphaxolone
ATHDOC
Lanthanides
Antagonists: (S)-2-MeGABA
(S)-4-ACPBPA
(S)-4-ACPCA
2-MeTACA
3-APMPA
4-ACPAM
4-GBA
cis-3-ACPBPA
CGP-36742 (SGS-742)
DAVA
Gabazine (SR-95531)
Gaboxadol (THIP)
I4AA
Isonipecotic acid
Loreclezole
P4MPA
P4S
SKF-97541
SR-95318
SR-95813
TPMPA
trans-3-ACPBPA
ZAPA
Negative modulators: 5α-Dihydroprogesterone
Bilobalide
Loreclezole
Picrotoxin (picrotin, picrotoxinin)
Pregnanolone
ROD-188
THDOC
Zinc
MetabotropicGABABTooltip γ-Aminobutyric acid B receptor
Agonists: 1,4-Butanediol
3-APPA
4-Fluorophenibut
Aceburic acid
Arbaclofen
Arbaclofen placarbil
Baclofen
BL-1020
GABA
Gabamide
GABOB
GBL
GHB
GHBAL
GHV
GVL
Isovaline
Lesogaberan
Phenibut
Picamilon
Progabide
Sodium oxybate
SKF-97,541
SL 75102
Tolgabide
Tolibut
Positive modulators: ADX-71441
BHF-177
BHFF
BSPP
CGP-7930
CGP-13501
GS-39783
rac-BHFF
KK-92A
Antagonists: 2-Hydroxysaclofen
CGP-35348
CGP-46381
CGP-52432
CGP-54626
CGP-55845
CGP-64213
DAVA
Homotaurine (tramiprosate, 3-APS)
Phaclofen
Saclofen
SCH-50911
SKF-97541
Negative modulators: Compound 14
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
GABAA receptor positive modulators
GABA metabolism/transport modulators
vteGlycine receptor modulatorsReceptor(ligands)GlyRTooltip Glycine receptor
Agonists: β-Alanine
β-ABA (BABA)
β-AIBA
Caesium
D-Alanine
D-Serine
GABA
Glycine
Hypotaurine
Ivermectin
L-Alanine
L-Proline
L-Serine
L-Threonine
MDL-27531
Milacemide
Picolinic acid
Propofol
Quisqualamine
Sarcosine
Taurine
Positive modulators: Alcohols (e.g., brometone, chlorobutanol (chloretone), ethanol (alcohol), tert-butanol (2M2P), tribromoethanol, trichloroethanol, trifluoroethanol)
Alkylbenzene sulfonate
Anandamide
Barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital, sodium thiopental)
Chlormethiazole
D12-116
Dihydropyridines (e.g., nicardipine)
Etomidate
Ginseng constituents (e.g., ginsenosides (e.g., ginsenoside-Rf))
Glutamic acid (glutamate)
Ivermectin
Ketamine
Neuroactive steroids (e.g., alfaxolone, pregnenolone (eltanolone), pregnenolone acetate, minaxolone, ORG-20599)
Nitrous oxide
Penicillin G
Propofol
Tamoxifen
Tetrahydrocannabinol
Triclofos
Tropeines (e.g., atropine, bemesetron, cocaine, LY-278584, tropisetron, zatosetron)
Volatiles/gases (e.g., chloral hydrate, chloroform, desflurane, diethyl ether (ether), enflurane, halothane, isoflurane, methoxyflurane, sevoflurane, toluene, trichloroethane (methyl chloroform), trichloroethylene)
Xenon
Zinc
Antagonists: 2-Aminostrychnine
2-Nitrostrychnine
4-Phenyl-4-formyl-N-methylpiperidine
αEMBTL
Bicuculline
Brucine
Cacotheline
Caffeine
Colchicine
Colubrine
Cyanotriphenylborate
Dendrobine
Diaboline
Endocannabinoids (e.g., 2-AG, anandamide (AEA))
Gaboxadol (THIP)
Gelsemine
iso-THAZ
Isobutyric acid
Isonipecotic acid
Isostrychnine
Laudanosine
N-Methylbicuculline
N-Methylstrychnine
N,N-Dimethylmuscimol
Nipecotic acid
Pitrazepin
Pseudostrychnine
Quinolines (e.g., 4-hydroxyquinoline, 4-hydroxyquinoline-3-carboxylic acid, 5,7-CIQA, 7-CIQ, 7-TFQ, 7-TFQA)
RU-5135
Sinomenine
Strychnine
Thiocolchicoside
Tutin
Negative modulators: Amiloride
Benzodiazepines (e.g., bromazepam, clonazepam, diazepam, flunitrazepam, flurazepam)
Corymine
Cyanotriphenylborate
Daidzein
Dihydropyridines (e.g., nicardipine, nifedipine, nitrendipine)
Furosemide
Genistein
Ginkgo constituents (e.g., bilobalide, ginkgolides (e.g., ginkgolide A, ginkgolide B, ginkgolide C, ginkgolide J, ginkgolide M))
Imipramine
NBQX
Neuroactive steroids (e.g., 3α-androsterone sulfate, 3β-androsterone sulfate, deoxycorticosterone, DHEA sulfate, pregnenolone sulfate, progesterone)
Opioids (e.g., codeine, dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, levomethadone, levorphanol, morphine, oripavine, pethidine, thebaine)
Picrotoxin (i.e., picrotin and picrotoxinin)
PMBA
Riluzole
Tropeines (e.g., bemesetron, LY-278584, tropisetron, zatosetron)
Verapamil
Zinc
NMDARTooltip N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor
See here instead.
Transporter(blockers)GlyT1Tooltip Glycine transporter 1
ACPPB
ALX-5407 (NFPS)
AMG-747
ASP2535
Bitopertin (RG1678/RO4917838)
CP-802079
Ethanol (alcohol)
Glycyldodecylamide
GSK1018921
LY-2365109
ORG-24598
ORG-25935 (SCH-900435)
Pesampator (BIIB-104, PF-04958242)
PF-02545920 (Mardepodect)
PF-03463275
Sarcosine
SSR-103,800
SSR-504,734
GlyT2Tooltip Glycine transporter 2
ALX-1393
Amoxapine
Ethanol (alcohol)
NAGly
Opiranserin (VVZ-149)
ORG-25543
VVZ-368
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
GABA receptor modulators
GABAA receptor positive modulators
Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators
vteXenobiotic-sensing receptor modulatorsCARTooltip Constitutive androstane receptor
Agonists: 6,7-Dimethylesculetin
Amiodarone
Artemisinin
Benfuracarb
Carbamazepine
Carvedilol
Chlorpromazine
Chrysin
CITCO
Clotrimazole
Cyclophosphamide
Cypermethrin
DHEA (prasterone)
Efavirenz
Ellagic acid
Griseofulvin
Methoxychlor
Mifepristone
Nefazodone
Nevirapine
Nicardipine
Octicizer
Permethrin
Phenobarbital
Phenytoin
Pregnanedione (5β-dihydroprogesterone)
Reserpine
TCPOBOP
Telmisartan
Tolnaftate
Troglitazone
Valproic acid
Antagonists: 3,17β-Estradiol
3α-Androstanol
3α-Androstenol
3β-Androstanol
17-Androstanol
AITC
Ethinylestradiol
Meclizine
Nigramide J
Okadaic acid
PK-11195
S-07662
T-0901317
PXRTooltip Pregnane X receptor
Agonists: 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Δ4-Androstenedione
Δ5-Androstenediol
Δ5-Androstenedione
AA-861
Allopregnanediol
Allopregnanedione (5α-dihydroprogesterone)
Allopregnanolone (brexanolone)
Alpha-Lipoic acid
Ambrisentan
AMI-193
Amlodipine besylate
Antimycotics
Artemisinin
Aurothioglucose
Bile acids
Bithionol
Bosentan
Bumecaine
Cafestol
Cephaloridine
Cephradine
Chlorpromazine
Ciglitazone
Clindamycin
Clofenvinfos
Chloroxine
Clotrimazole
Colforsin
Corticosterone
Cyclophosphamide
Cyproterone acetate
Demecolcine
Dexamethasone
DHEA (prasterone)
DHEA-S (prasterone sulfate)
Dibunate sodium
Diclazuril
Dicloxacillin
Dimercaprol
Dinaline
Docetaxel
Docusate calcium
Dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid
Dronabinol
Droxidopa
Eburnamonine
Ecopipam
Enzacamene
Epothilone B
Erythromycin
Famprofazone
Febantel
Felodipine
Fenbendazole
Fentanyl
Flucloxacillin
Fluorometholone
Griseofulvin
Guggulsterone
Haloprogin
Hetacillin potassium
Hyperforin
Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort)
Indinavir sulfate
Lasalocid sodium
Levothyroxine
Linolenic acid: α-Linolenic acid and γ-linolenic acid
LOE-908
Loratadine
Lovastatin
Meclizine
Metacycline
Methylprednisolone
Metyrapone
Mevastatin
Mifepristone
Nafcillin
Nicardipine
Nicotine
Nifedipine
Nilvadipine
Nisoldipine
Norelgestromin
Omeprazole
Orlistat
Oxatomide
Paclitaxel
Phenobarbital
Piperine
Plicamycin
Prednisolone
Pregnanediol
Pregnanedione (5β-dihydroprogesterone)
Pregnanolone
Pregnenolone
Pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile
Proadifen
Progesterone
Quingestrone
Reserpine
Reverse triiodothyronine
Rifampicin
Rifaximin
Rimexolone
Riodipine
Ritonavir
Simvastatin
Sirolimus
Spironolactone
Spiroxatrine
SR-12813
Suberoylanilide
Sulfisoxazole
Suramin
Tacrolimus
Tenylidone
Terconazole
Testosterone isocaproate
Tetracycline
Thiamylal sodium
Thiothixene
Thonzonium bromide
Tianeptine
Troglitazone
Troleandomycin
Tropanyl 3,5-dimethulbenzoate
Zafirlukast
Zeranol
Antagonists: Ketoconazole
Sesamin
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
|
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|
[]
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[{"title":"Calcium channel blocker toxicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_channel_blocker_toxicity"}]
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[{"reference":"Huang RI, Patel P, Walinsky P, Fischman DL, Ogilby JD, Awar M, et al. (November 2006). \"Efficacy of intracoronary nicardipine in the treatment of no-reflow during percutaneous coronary intervention\". Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions. 68 (5): 671–676. doi:10.1002/ccd.20885. PMID 17034064. S2CID 37071966.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fccd.20885","url_text":"10.1002/ccd.20885"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17034064","url_text":"17034064"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37071966","url_text":"37071966"}]},{"reference":"Freeman BS (2014). \"Vasodilators\". In Freeman BS, Berger JS (eds.). Anesthesiology Core Review: Part One Basic Exam. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-182137-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=974§ionid=61590560","url_text":"\"Vasodilators\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-182137-7","url_text":"978-0-07-182137-7"}]},{"reference":"Sutters M (2022). \"Hypertensive urgencies & emergencies.\". In Papadakis MA, McPhee SJ, Rabow MW, McQuaid KR (eds.). Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-1-2642-6938-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=3081§ionid=258962164","url_text":"\"Hypertensive urgencies & emergencies.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-2642-6938-9","url_text":"978-1-2642-6938-9"}]},{"reference":"Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 464. ISBN 978-3-527-60749-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA464","url_text":"Analogue-based Drug Discovery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-60749-5","url_text":"978-3-527-60749-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Nicardipine\". Medline Plus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a695032.html","url_text":"\"Nicardipine\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratification
|
Gratification
|
["1 Causes","2 Immediate and delayed gratification","2.1 Criticism","3 Emotional gratification","4 Bipolar disorder","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading"]
|
Pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal
American basketball player Kevin Durant, after receiving the gold medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship
Part of a series onEmotions
Affect
Classification
In animals
Emotional intelligence
Mood
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Interpersonal
Dysregulation
Valence
Emotions
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Admiration
Affection
Amusement
Anger
Angst
Anguish
Annoyance
Anticipation
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Apathy
Arousal
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Confidence
Confusion
Contempt
Contentment
Courage
Curiosity
Depression
Desire
Determination
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Disgust
Distrust
Doubt
Ecstasy
Elevation
Embarrassment
Emotional Detachment
Empathy
Enthusiasm
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Euphoria
Faith
Fear
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Gratification
Gratitude
Greed
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Hatred
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Suspicion
Trust
Wonder
Worry
vte
Gratification is the pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. It is also identified as a response stemming from the fulfillment of social needs such as affiliation, socializing, social approval, and mutual recognition.
Gratification, like all emotions, is a motivator of behavior and plays a role in the entire range of human social systems.
Causes
The emotion of gratification is the result of accomplishing a certain goal or achieving a reward. Gratification is an outcome of specific situations and is induced through the completion of and as a consequence of these situations. Specifically, gratification may be experienced after achieving a long-term goal, such as graduating from college, buying one's first house, or getting one's dream job.
Immediate and delayed gratification
Main article: Delayed gratification
The term immediate gratification is often used to label the satisfactions gained by more impulsive behaviors: choosing now over tomorrow. The skill of giving preference to long-term goals over more immediate ones is known as deferred gratification or patience, and it is usually considered a virtue, producing rewards in the long term. There are sources who claim that the prefrontal cortex plays a part in the incidence of these two types of gratification, particularly in the case of delayed gratification since one of its functions involve predicting future events.
Walter Mischel developed the well-known marshmallow experiment to test gratification patterns in four-year-olds, offering one marshmallow now or two after a delay. He discovered in long-term follow-up that the ability to resist eating the marshmallow immediately was a good predictor of success in later life. However, Tyler W. Watts, Greg J. Duncan, and Haonan Quan, published Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes debunking the original marshmallow experiment. Concluding that "This bivariate correlation was only half the size of those reported in the original studies and was reduced by two thirds in the presence of controls for family background, early cognitive ability, and the home environment. Most of the variation in adolescent achievement came from being able to wait at least 20 s. Associations between delay time and measures of behavioral outcomes at age 15 were much smaller and rarely statistically significant."
Criticism
While one might say that those who lack the skill to delay are immature, an excess of this skill can create problems as well; i.e. an individual becomes inflexible, or unable to take pleasure in life (anhedonia) and seize opportunities for fear of adverse consequences.
There are also circumstances, in an uncertain/negative environment, when seizing gratification is the rational approach, as in wartime.
Emotional gratification
Emotional gratification is a motivating force that results from the gratifying effects of emotions. The emotional reaction of emotional gratification is itself caused by emotions, resulting in a circular model of this complex interaction. Emotions themselves can instigate different varieties of gratification, ranging from hedonic outcomes to more psychologically beneficial outcomes.
Bipolar disorder
Gratification is a major issue in bipolar disorder. One sign of the onset of depression is a spreading loss of the sense of gratification in such immediate things as friendship, jokes, conversation, food and sex. Long-term gratification seems even more meaningless.
By contrast, the manic can find gratification in almost anything, even a leaf falling, or seeing their crush for example. There is also the case of the so-called manic illusion of gratification, which is analogous to an infant's illusion of obtaining food. Here, if the food is not given right away, he fantasizes about it and this eventually give way to stronger emotions such as anger and depression.
See also
Contentment
Cost-benefit analysis
Pleasure
Social sciences
Uses and gratifications theory
Utilitarianism
References
^ van Eimeren, W.; Engelbrecht, R.; Flagle, Ch.D. (2012). Third International Conference on System Science in Health Care: Troisième Conférence Internationale sur la Science des Systèmes dans le Domaine de la Santé. Berlin: Springer Verlag. p. 888. ISBN 9783642699412.
^ R. F. Baumeister/B. J. Bushman, Social Psychology and Human Nature (2010) p. 49
^ Baumeister, p. 120
^ Fuster, Joaquin (2008). The Prefrontal Cortex. London: Academic Press. pp. 263. ISBN 9780123736444.
^ Maciocia, Giovanni (2009). The Psyche in Chinese Medicine: Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs. Edinburgh: Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 303. ISBN 9780702029882.
^ Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (1996) p. 79-80
^ Watts, Tyler W.; Duncan, Greg J.; Quan, Haonan (2018). "Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes". Psychological Science. 29 (7): 1159–1177. doi:10.1177/0956797618761661. PMC 6050075. PMID 29799765.
^ Eric Berne, Sex in Human Loving (1970) p. 151
^ Frank Munger, Labouring Below the Line (2007) p. 274
^ James Holland, The Battle of Britain (2010) p. 735-9
^ Bartsch, Anne; Viehoff, Reinhold (2010-01-01). "The Use of Media Entertainment and Emotional Gratification". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. WCPCG 2010. 5: 2247–2255. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.444. ISSN 1877-0428.
^ Aaron T. Beck/Brad A. Alford, Depression (2009) p. 19
^ Beck, p. 28
^ Beck, p. 96
^ Welton, Welton; David, Koenig; Harold (2014). The Treatment of Bipolar Disorder in Pastoral Counseling: Community and Silence. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780789030429.
Further reading
Look up gratification in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Gratification.
O'Donoghue, Ted; Rabin, Matthew (2000). "The economics of immediate gratification" (PDF). Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 13 (2): 233–250. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<233::AID-BDM325>3.0.CO;2-U. - An academic paper treating gratification and self-control problems
vteEmotions (list)Emotions
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Annoyance
Anticipation
Anxiety
Apathy
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Emotion work
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Enthrallment
Enthusiasm
Envy
Euphoria
Excitement
Faith
Fear
Flow
Frustration
Gratification
Gratitude
Greed
Grief
Guilt
Happiness
Joie de vivre
Hatred
Hiraeth
Homesickness
Hope
Horror
Hostility
Humiliation
Hygge
Hysteria
Ikigai (sense of purpose)
Indulgence
Infatuation
Insecurity
Inspiration
Interest
Irritation
Isolation
Jealousy
Joy
Kindness
Loneliness
Love
limerence
at first sight
Lust
Mono no aware
Neglect
Nostalgia
Outrage
Panic
Passion
Pity
self-pity
Pleasure
Pride
grandiosity
hubris
insult
vanity
Rage
Regret
Rejection
Relief
Remorse
Resentment
Revenge
Sadness
melancholy
Saudade
Schadenfreude
Sehnsucht
Sentimentality
Shame
Shock
Shyness
Social connection
Sorrow
Spite
Stress
chronic
Suffering
Surprise
Sympathy
Trust
Wonder
sense of wonder
Worry
Worldviews
Cynicism
Defeatism
Nihilism
Optimism
Pessimism
Reclusion
Weltschmerz
Related
Affect
consciousness
in education
measures
in psychology
Affective
computing
forecasting
neuroscience
science
spectrum
Affectivity
positive
negative
Appeal to emotion
Amygdala hijack
Emotion
and art
and memory
and music
and sex
and sleep
classification
evolution
expressed
functional accounts
group
homeostatic
in animals
perception
recognition
in conversation
regulation
interpersonal
work
Emotional
aperture
bias
blackmail
competence
conflict
contagion
detachment
dysregulation
eating
exhaustion
expression
and gender
intelligence
and bullying
Empathy quotient
intimacy
isolation
lability
labor
lateralization
literacy
prosody
reasoning
responsivity
security
symbiosis
thought method
well-being
Emotionality
bounded
Emotions
and culture
history
in decision-making
in the workplace
in virtual communication
moral
self-conscious
social
social sharing
sociology
Feeling
Group affective tone
Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems
Jealousy in art
Meta-emotion
Pathognomy
Pathos
Social emotional development
Stoic passions
Theory
affect
appraisal
constructed emotion
discrete emotion
somatic marker
Italics indicate emotion names in foreign languages
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kevin_Durant_gold_medal_2010.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kevin Durant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Durant"},{"link_name":"FIBA World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIBA_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"emotional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"},{"link_name":"happiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness"},{"link_name":"desire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"human social systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"}],"text":"American basketball player Kevin Durant, after receiving the gold medal at the 2010 FIBA World ChampionshipGratification is the pleasurable emotional reaction of happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. It is also identified as a response stemming from the fulfillment of social needs such as affiliation, socializing, social approval, and mutual recognition.[1]Gratification, like all emotions, is a motivator of behavior and plays a role in the entire range of human social systems.","title":"Gratification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The emotion of gratification is the result of accomplishing a certain goal or achieving a reward. Gratification is an outcome of specific situations and is induced through the completion of and as a consequence of these situations. Specifically, gratification may be experienced after achieving a long-term goal, such as graduating from college, buying one's first house, or getting one's dream job.[citation needed]","title":"Causes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"deferred gratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferred_gratification"},{"link_name":"patience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patience"},{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"prefrontal cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Walter Mischel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Mischel"},{"link_name":"marshmallow experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshmallow_experiment"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Tyler W. Watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyler_W._Watts&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Greg J. Duncan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_J._Duncan"},{"link_name":"Haonan Quan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haonan_Quan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"marshmallow experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshmallow_experiment"}],"text":"The term immediate gratification is often used to label the satisfactions gained by more impulsive behaviors: choosing now over tomorrow.[2] The skill of giving preference to long-term goals over more immediate ones is known as deferred gratification or patience, and it is usually considered a virtue, producing rewards in the long term.[3] There are sources who claim that the prefrontal cortex plays a part in the incidence of these two types of gratification, particularly in the case of delayed gratification since one of its functions involve predicting future events.[4][5]Walter Mischel developed the well-known marshmallow experiment to test gratification patterns in four-year-olds, offering one marshmallow now or two after a delay.[6] He discovered in long-term follow-up that the ability to resist eating the marshmallow immediately was a good predictor of success in later life. However, Tyler W. Watts, Greg J. Duncan, and Haonan Quan, published Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes[7] debunking the original marshmallow experiment. Concluding that \"This bivariate correlation was only half the size of those reported in the original studies and was reduced by two thirds in the presence of controls for family background, early cognitive ability, and the home environment. Most of the variation in adolescent achievement came from being able to wait at least 20 s. Associations between delay time and measures of behavioral outcomes at age 15 were much smaller and rarely statistically significant.\"","title":"Immediate and delayed gratification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"immature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maturity_(psychological)"},{"link_name":"anhedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhedonia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Criticism","text":"While one might say that those who lack the skill to delay are immature, an excess of this skill can create problems as well; i.e. an individual becomes inflexible, or unable to take pleasure in life (anhedonia) and seize opportunities for fear of adverse consequences.[8]There are also circumstances, in an uncertain/negative environment, when seizing gratification is the rational approach,[9] as in wartime.[10]","title":"Immediate and delayed gratification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Emotional gratification is a motivating force that results from the gratifying effects of emotions. The emotional reaction of emotional gratification is itself caused by emotions, resulting in a circular model of this complex interaction. Emotions themselves can instigate different varieties of gratification, ranging from hedonic outcomes to more psychologically beneficial outcomes.[11]","title":"Emotional gratification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bipolar disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"food and sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_sexuality"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"manic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Gratification is a major issue in bipolar disorder. One sign of the onset of depression is a spreading loss of the sense of gratification in such immediate things as friendship, jokes, conversation, food and sex.[12] Long-term gratification seems even more meaningless.[13]By contrast, the manic can find gratification in almost anything, even a leaf falling, or seeing their crush for example.[14] There is also the case of the so-called manic illusion of gratification, which is analogous to an infant's illusion of obtaining food. Here, if the food is not given right away, he fantasizes about it and this eventually give way to stronger emotions such as anger and depression.[15]","title":"Bipolar disorder"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/gratification"},{"link_name":"Gratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Gratification"},{"link_name":"\"The economics of immediate gratification\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eva.fcs.edu.uy/pluginfile.php/120434/mod_resource/content/1/3_5.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<233::AID-BDM325>3.0.CO;2-U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-0771%28200004%2F06%2913%3A2%3C233%3A%3AAID-BDM325%3E3.0.CO%3B2-U"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Emotion_navbox"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Emotion_navbox"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emotion_navbox"},{"link_name":"Emotions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification"},{"link_name":"Emotions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion"},{"link_name":"Acceptance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance"},{"link_name":"Admiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration"},{"link_name":"Adoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration"},{"link_name":"Aesthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions"},{"link_name":"Affection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affection"},{"link_name":"Agitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation"},{"link_name":"Agony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain"},{"link_name":"Amusement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement"},{"link_name":"Anger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anger"},{"link_name":"Angst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst"},{"link_name":"Anguish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguish"},{"link_name":"Annoyance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annoyance"},{"link_name":"Anticipation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipation"},{"link_name":"Anxiety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety"},{"link_name":"Apathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apathy"},{"link_name":"Arousal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal"},{"link_name":"Attraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_attraction"},{"link_name":"Awe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awe"},{"link_name":"Belongingness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belongingness"},{"link_name":"Boredom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boredom"},{"link_name":"Calmness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calmness"},{"link_name":"Compassion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion"},{"link_name":"Confidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence"},{"link_name":"Confusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion"},{"link_name":"Contempt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contempt"},{"link_name":"Contentment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contentment"},{"link_name":"Courage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courage"},{"link_name":"Cruelty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty"},{"link_name":"Curiosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity"},{"link_name":"Defeat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeatism"},{"link_name":"Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"Desire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire"},{"link_name":"Disappointment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappointment"},{"link_name":"Disgust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust"},{"link_name":"Distrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distrust"},{"link_name":"Doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt"},{"link_name":"Ecstasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Embarrassment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassment"},{"link_name":"vicarious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarious_embarrassment"},{"link_name":"Emotion work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_work"},{"link_name":"Empathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy"},{"link_name":"Emptiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emptiness"},{"link_name":"Enthrallment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention"},{"link_name":"Enthusiasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthusiasm"},{"link_name":"Envy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envy"},{"link_name":"Euphoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphoria"},{"link_name":"Excitement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulation"},{"link_name":"Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith"},{"link_name":"Fear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear"},{"link_name":"Flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"Frustration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustration"},{"link_name":"Gratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Gratitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude"},{"link_name":"Greed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greed"},{"link_name":"Grief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief"},{"link_name":"Guilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Happiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness"},{"link_name":"Joie de vivre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joie_de_vivre"},{"link_name":"Hatred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatred"},{"link_name":"Hiraeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraeth"},{"link_name":"Homesickness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesickness"},{"link_name":"Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope"},{"link_name":"Horror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_and_terror"},{"link_name":"Hostility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostility"},{"link_name":"Humiliation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humiliation"},{"link_name":"Hygge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge"},{"link_name":"Hysteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteria"},{"link_name":"Ikigai (sense of purpose)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikigai"},{"link_name":"Indulgence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism"},{"link_name":"Infatuation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infatuation"},{"link_name":"Insecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_security"},{"link_name":"Inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_inspiration"},{"link_name":"Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Irritation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irritability"},{"link_name":"Isolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"Jealousy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy"},{"link_name":"Joy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy"},{"link_name":"Kindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindness"},{"link_name":"Loneliness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loneliness"},{"link_name":"Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love"},{"link_name":"limerence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerence"},{"link_name":"at first sight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_at_first_sight"},{"link_name":"Lust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lust"},{"link_name":"Mono no aware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_no_aware"},{"link_name":"Neglect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neglect"},{"link_name":"Nostalgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostalgia"},{"link_name":"Outrage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrage_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Panic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic"},{"link_name":"Passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Pity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pity"},{"link_name":"self-pity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pity"},{"link_name":"Pleasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure"},{"link_name":"Pride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride"},{"link_name":"grandiosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandiosity"},{"link_name":"hubris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubris"},{"link_name":"insult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult"},{"link_name":"vanity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity"},{"link_name":"Rage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Regret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regret"},{"link_name":"Rejection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection"},{"link_name":"Relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Remorse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remorse"},{"link_name":"Resentment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resentment"},{"link_name":"Revenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenge"},{"link_name":"Sadness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadness"},{"link_name":"melancholy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia"},{"link_name":"Saudade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudade"},{"link_name":"Schadenfreude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude"},{"link_name":"Sehnsucht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sehnsucht"},{"link_name":"Sentimentality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimentality"},{"link_name":"Shame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shame"},{"link_name":"Shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction"},{"link_name":"Shyness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyness"},{"link_name":"Social connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_connection"},{"link_name":"Sorrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorrow_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Spite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spite_(sentiment)"},{"link_name":"Stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress"},{"link_name":"chronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_stress"},{"link_name":"Suffering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering"},{"link_name":"Surprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surprise_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"Sympathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy"},{"link_name":"Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_(social_science)"},{"link_name":"Wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"sense of wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_wonder"},{"link_name":"Worry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik-wheel.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plutchik_Dyads.svg"},{"link_name":"Worldviews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview"},{"link_name":"Cynicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism_(contemporary)"},{"link_name":"Defeatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defeatism"},{"link_name":"Nihilism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism"},{"link_name":"Optimism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism"},{"link_name":"Pessimism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessimism"},{"link_name":"Reclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recluse"},{"link_name":"Weltschmerz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltschmerz"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_consciousness"},{"link_name":"in education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(education)"},{"link_name":"measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_measures"},{"link_name":"in psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_(psychology)"},{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_computing"},{"link_name":"forecasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_forecasting"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neuroscience"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_science"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_spectrum"},{"link_name":"positive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_affectivity"},{"link_name":"negative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_affectivity"},{"link_name":"Appeal to emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion"},{"link_name":"Amygdala hijack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala_hijack"},{"link_name":"and art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_emotion"},{"link_name":"and memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory"},{"link_name":"and music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_emotion"},{"link_name":"and sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology"},{"link_name":"and sleep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_emotions"},{"link_name":"classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification"},{"link_name":"evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion"},{"link_name":"expressed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressed_emotion"},{"link_name":"functional accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_accounts_of_emotion"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_emotion"},{"link_name":"homeostatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostatic_emotion"},{"link_name":"in animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_in_animals"},{"link_name":"perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception"},{"link_name":"recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_recognition"},{"link_name":"in conversation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation"},{"link_name":"regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_self-regulation"},{"link_name":"interpersonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_emotion_regulation"},{"link_name":"work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_work"},{"link_name":"aperture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_aperture"},{"link_name":"bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_bias"},{"link_name":"blackmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_blackmail"},{"link_name":"competence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_competence"},{"link_name":"conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_conflict"},{"link_name":"contagion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_contagion"},{"link_name":"detachment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_detachment"},{"link_name":"dysregulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation"},{"link_name":"eating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_eating"},{"link_name":"exhaustion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_exhaustion"},{"link_name":"expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_expression"},{"link_name":"and gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_and_emotional_expression"},{"link_name":"intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence"},{"link_name":"and bullying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullying_and_emotional_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Empathy 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method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_thought_method"},{"link_name":"well-being","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_well-being"},{"link_name":"Emotionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionality"},{"link_name":"bounded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_emotionality"},{"link_name":"and culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_and_culture"},{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"in decision-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_decision-making"},{"link_name":"in the workplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"in virtual communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_virtual_communication"},{"link_name":"moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_emotions"},{"link_name":"self-conscious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions"},{"link_name":"social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotions"},{"link_name":"social sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sharing_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"Feeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling"},{"link_name":"Group affective tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_affective_tone"},{"link_name":"Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactions_between_the_emotional_and_executive_brain_systems"},{"link_name":"Jealousy in art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy_in_art"},{"link_name":"Meta-emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-emotion"},{"link_name":"Pathognomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomy"},{"link_name":"Pathos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathos"},{"link_name":"Social emotional development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotional_development"},{"link_name":"Stoic passions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoic_passions"},{"link_name":"affect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_theory"},{"link_name":"appraisal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory"},{"link_name":"constructed emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_constructed_emotion"},{"link_name":"discrete emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_emotion_theory"},{"link_name":"somatic marker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis"}],"text":"Look up gratification in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikiquote has quotations related to Gratification.O'Donoghue, Ted; Rabin, Matthew (2000). \"The economics of immediate gratification\" (PDF). Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 13 (2): 233–250. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<233::AID-BDM325>3.0.CO;2-U. - An academic paper treating gratification and self-control problemsvteEmotions (list)Emotions\nAcceptance\nAdmiration\nAdoration\nAesthetic\nAffection\nAgitation\nAgony\nAmusement\nAnger\nAngst\nAnguish\nAnnoyance\nAnticipation\nAnxiety\nApathy\nArousal\nAttraction\nAwe\nBelongingness\nBoredom\nCalmness\nCompassion\nConfidence\nConfusion\nContempt\nContentment\nCourage\nCruelty\nCuriosity\nDefeat\nDepression\nDesire\nDisappointment\nDisgust\nDistrust\nDoubt\nEcstasy\nEmbarrassment\nvicarious\nEmotion work\nEmpathy\nEmptiness\nEnthrallment\nEnthusiasm\nEnvy\nEuphoria\nExcitement\nFaith\nFear\nFlow\nFrustration\nGratification\nGratitude\nGreed\nGrief\nGuilt\nHappiness\nJoie de vivre\nHatred\nHiraeth\nHomesickness\nHope\nHorror\nHostility\nHumiliation\nHygge\nHysteria\nIkigai (sense of purpose)\nIndulgence\nInfatuation\nInsecurity\nInspiration\nInterest\nIrritation\nIsolation\nJealousy\nJoy\nKindness\nLoneliness\nLove\nlimerence\nat first sight\nLust\nMono no aware\nNeglect\nNostalgia\nOutrage\nPanic\nPassion\nPity\nself-pity\nPleasure\nPride\ngrandiosity\nhubris\ninsult\nvanity\nRage\nRegret\nRejection\nRelief\nRemorse\nResentment\nRevenge\nSadness\nmelancholy\nSaudade\nSchadenfreude\nSehnsucht\nSentimentality\nShame\nShock\nShyness\nSocial connection\nSorrow\nSpite\nStress\nchronic\nSuffering\nSurprise\nSympathy\nTrust\nWonder\nsense of wonder\nWorry\nWorldviews\nCynicism\nDefeatism\nNihilism\nOptimism\nPessimism\nReclusion\nWeltschmerz\nRelated\nAffect\nconsciousness\nin education\nmeasures\nin psychology\nAffective\ncomputing\nforecasting\nneuroscience\nscience\nspectrum\nAffectivity\npositive\nnegative\nAppeal to emotion\nAmygdala hijack\nEmotion\nand art\nand memory\nand music\nand sex\nand sleep\nclassification\nevolution\nexpressed\nfunctional accounts\ngroup\nhomeostatic\nin animals\nperception\nrecognition\nin conversation\nregulation\ninterpersonal\nwork\nEmotional\naperture\nbias\nblackmail\ncompetence\nconflict\ncontagion\ndetachment\ndysregulation\neating\nexhaustion\nexpression\nand gender\nintelligence\nand bullying\nEmpathy quotient\nintimacy\nisolation\nlability\nlabor\nlateralization\nliteracy\nprosody\nreasoning\nresponsivity\nsecurity\nsymbiosis\nthought method\nwell-being\nEmotionality\nbounded\nEmotions\nand culture\nhistory\nin decision-making\nin the workplace\nin virtual communication\nmoral\nself-conscious\nsocial\nsocial sharing\nsociology\nFeeling\nGroup affective tone\nInteractions between the emotional and executive brain systems\nJealousy in art\nMeta-emotion\nPathognomy\nPathos\nSocial emotional development\nStoic passions\nTheory\naffect\nappraisal\nconstructed emotion\ndiscrete emotion\nsomatic marker\nItalics indicate emotion names in foreign languages","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"American basketball player Kevin Durant, after receiving the gold medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Kevin_Durant_gold_medal_2010.jpg/220px-Kevin_Durant_gold_medal_2010.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Contentment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contentment"},{"title":"Cost-benefit analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-benefit_analysis"},{"title":"Pleasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure"},{"title":"Social sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences"},{"title":"Uses and gratifications theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_and_gratifications_theory"},{"title":"Utilitarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism"}]
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[{"reference":"van Eimeren, W.; Engelbrecht, R.; Flagle, Ch.D. (2012). Third International Conference on System Science in Health Care: Troisième Conférence Internationale sur la Science des Systèmes dans le Domaine de la Santé. Berlin: Springer Verlag. p. 888. ISBN 9783642699412.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642699412","url_text":"9783642699412"}]},{"reference":"Fuster, Joaquin (2008). The Prefrontal Cortex. London: Academic Press. pp. 263. ISBN 9780123736444.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/prefrontalcortex00fust_846","url_text":"The Prefrontal Cortex"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/prefrontalcortex00fust_846/page/n277","url_text":"263"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123736444","url_text":"9780123736444"}]},{"reference":"Maciocia, Giovanni (2009). The Psyche in Chinese Medicine: Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs. Edinburgh: Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 303. ISBN 9780702029882.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780702029882","url_text":"9780702029882"}]},{"reference":"Watts, Tyler W.; Duncan, Greg J.; Quan, Haonan (2018). \"Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes\". Psychological Science. 29 (7): 1159–1177. doi:10.1177/0956797618761661. PMC 6050075. PMID 29799765.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6050075","url_text":"\"Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797618761661","url_text":"10.1177/0956797618761661"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6050075","url_text":"6050075"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29799765","url_text":"29799765"}]},{"reference":"Bartsch, Anne; Viehoff, Reinhold (2010-01-01). \"The Use of Media Entertainment and Emotional Gratification\". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. WCPCG 2010. 5: 2247–2255. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.444. ISSN 1877-0428.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2010.07.444","url_text":"\"The Use of Media Entertainment and Emotional Gratification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2010.07.444","url_text":"10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.444"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1877-0428","url_text":"1877-0428"}]},{"reference":"Welton, Welton; David, Koenig; Harold (2014). The Treatment of Bipolar Disorder in Pastoral Counseling: Community and Silence. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780789030429.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780789030429","url_text":"9780789030429"}]},{"reference":"O'Donoghue, Ted; Rabin, Matthew (2000). \"The economics of immediate gratification\" (PDF). Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 13 (2): 233–250. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<233::AID-BDM325>3.0.CO;2-U.","urls":[{"url":"https://eva.fcs.edu.uy/pluginfile.php/120434/mod_resource/content/1/3_5.pdf","url_text":"\"The economics of immediate gratification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291099-0771%28200004%2F06%2913%3A2%3C233%3A%3AAID-BDM325%3E3.0.CO%3B2-U","url_text":"10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<233::AID-BDM325>3.0.CO;2-U"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_wing
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Monoplane
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["1 Characteristics","1.1 Support and weight","2 Wing position","2.1 Low","2.2 Mid","2.3 Shoulder","2.4 High","2.5 Parasol","3 History","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Citations","5.2 Bibliography"]
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Fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane
Low wing on a Supermarine SpitfireMid wing on a de Havilland Vampire T11High wing on a de Havilland Canada Dash 8Parasol wing on R.J. Mitchell's 1930 Supermarine Air Yacht
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft configuration with a single mainplane, in contrast to a biplane or other types of multiplanes, which have multiple planes.
A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build. However, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft.
Characteristics
Support and weight
The inherent efficiency of the monoplane is best achieved in the cantilever wing, which carries all structural forces internally. However, to fly at practical speeds the wing must be made thin, which requires a heavy structure to make it strong and stiff enough.
External bracing can be used to improve structural efficiency, reducing weight and cost. For a wing of a given size, the weight reduction allows it to fly slower and with a lower-powered and more economical engine. For this reason, all monoplane wings in the pioneer era were braced and most were up until the early 1930s. However, the exposed struts or wires create additional drag, lowering aerodynamic efficiency and reducing the maximum speed.
High-speed and long-range designs tend to be pure cantilevers, while low-speed short-range types are often given bracing.
Wing position
Besides the general variations in wing configuration such as tail position and use of bracing, the main distinction between types of monoplane is where the wing is mounted vertically on the fuselage.
Low
Low wing on a Curtiss P-40
A low wing is one which is located on or near the bottom of the fuselage.
Placing the wing low allows good visibility upwards and frees the central fuselage from the wing spar carry-through. By reducing pendulum stability, it makes the aircraft more manoeuvrable, as on the Spitfire; but aircraft that value stability over manoeuvrability may then need some dihedral.
A feature of the low-wing position is its significant ground effect, giving the plane a tendency to float farther before landing. Conversely, this ground effect permits shorter takeoffs.
Mid
A mid wing is mounted midway up the fuselage. The carry-through spar structure can reduce the useful fuselage volume near its centre of gravity, where space is often in most demand.
Shoulder
Shoulder wing on an ARV Super2, showing good pilot visibility
A shoulder wing (a category between high-wing and mid-wing) is a configuration whereby the wing is mounted near the top of the fuselage but not on the very top. It is so called because it sits on the "shoulder" of the fuselage, rather than on the pilot's shoulder. Shoulder-wings and high-wings share some characteristics, namely: they support a pendulous fuselage which requires no wing dihedral for stability; and, by comparison with a low-wing, a shoulder-wing's limited ground effect reduces float on landing. Compared to a low-wing, shoulder-wing and high-wing configurations give increased propeller clearance on multi-engined aircraft.
On a large aircraft, there is little practical difference between a shoulder wing and a high wing; but on a light aircraft, the configuration is significant because it offers superior visibility to the pilot. On light aircraft, shoulder-wings tend to be mounted further aft than a high wing, and so may need to be swept forward to maintain correct center of gravity. Examples of light aircraft with shoulder wings include the ARV Super2, the Bölkow Junior, Saab Safari and the Barber Snark.
High
A high wing has its upper surface on or above the top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152, the wing is usually located above the cabin, so that the wing spar passes over the occupants' heads, leaving the wing in the ideal fore-aft position.
An advantage of the high-wing configuration is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fuselage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominantly high-wing designs with a rear cargo door.
Parasol
Parasol wing on a Pietenpol Air Camper
A parasol wing is not directly attached to the fuselage but held above it, supported by either cabane struts or a pylon. Additional bracing may be provided by struts or wires extending from the fuselage sides.
The first parasol monoplanes were adaptations of shoulder wing monoplanes, since raising a shoulder mounted wing above the fuselage greatly improved visibility downwards, which was useful for reconnaissance roles, as with the widely used Morane-Saulnier L.
The parasol wing allows for an efficient design with good pilot visibility, and was adopted for some fighters such as the Fokker D.VIII and Morane-Saulnier AI in the later part of the First World War.
A parasol wing also provides a high mounting point for engines and during the interwar period was popular on flying boats, which need to lift the propellers clear of spray. Examples include the Martin M-130, Dornier Do 18 and the Consolidated PBY Catalina.
Compared to a biplane, a parasol wing has less bracing and lower drag. It remains a popular configuration for amphibians and small homebuilt and ultralight aircraft.
History
The Santos-Dumont Demoiselle was the first production monoplane (replica shown).
Although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909. Throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m (4,541 ft).
The Junkers J 1 monoplane pioneered all-metal construction in 1915.
The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what became known as the "Fokker scourge". The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, until the approval of the Fokker D.VIII fighter from its former "E.V" designation. However, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular and successful designs were produced into the 1920s.
Nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical. With the low engine powers and airspeeds available, the wings of a monoplane needed to be large in order to create enough lift while a biplane could have two smaller wings and so be made smaller and lighter.
Towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet powerful enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable, and the braced parasol wing became popular on fighter aircraft, although few arrived in time to see combat. It remained popular throughout the 1920s.
On flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. This arrangement was popular on flying boats during the 1930s; a late example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, allowing a high wing to be attached directly to the hull.
As ever-increasing engine powers made the weight of all-metal construction and the cantilever wing more practical — first pioneered together by the revolutionary German Junkers J 1 factory demonstrator in 1915–16 — they became common during the post–World War I period, the day of the braced wing passed, and by the 1930s, the cantilever monoplane was fast becoming the standard configuration for a fixed-wing aircraft. Advanced monoplane fighter-aircraft designs were mass-produced for military services around the world in both the Soviet Union and the United States in the early–mid 1930s, with the Polikarpov I-16 and the Boeing P-26 Peashooter respectively.
Most military aircraft of WWII were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since, except for a few specialist types.
Jet and rocket engines have even more power and all modern high-speed aircraft, especially supersonic types, have been monoplanes.
See also
Aspect ratio (aeronautics)
References
Citations
^ Loftin, Lawrence K. (January 1985). "ch4-3". nasa.gov. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
^ "Ground Effect in Aircraft". Aviation-history.com. 2009-11-30. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
^ "Ground Effect". Avweb.com. 2003-10-22. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
^ a b Ajoy Kumar Kundu (12 April 2010). Aircraft Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-139-48745-0.
^ Pilot magazine February 1986 page 32
^ Trevor Thom – The Aeroplane (Technical) – 1997 page 65
^ Crane, Dale: Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition, page 379. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. ISBN 1-56027-287-2
^ Davilla, 1997, pp.60 & 315
^ Angelucci and Matricardi, pp. 151, 290-1.
^ Wragg, David; Historical Dictionary of Aviation, History Press, 2008, pp.214-5.
^ King, Windkiller, p. 227.
^ Angelucci and Matricardi, pp. 109-129.
Bibliography
Angelucci, A.; and Matricardi, P.; World Aircraft: Origins–World War I, Sampson Low, 1977.
Davilla, James J.; Soltan, Arthur (1997). French Aircraft of the First World War. Mountain View, CA: Flying Machines Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-1891268090.
"High wing, low wing", Flight 20 March 1975, Pages 453 (archive)–454 (archive)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ray_Flying_Legends_2005-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Supermarine Spitfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vampire_-_RIAT_2008_(2787048941).jpg"},{"link_name":"de Havilland Vampire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Vampire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dehav.dash8.750pix.jpg"},{"link_name":"de Havilland Canada Dash 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supermarine_Air-Yacht.jpg"},{"link_name":"R.J. Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.J._Mitchell"},{"link_name":"Supermarine Air Yacht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Air_Yacht"},{"link_name":"fixed-wing aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft"},{"link_name":"biplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplane"},{"link_name":"multiplanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"wing configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration"}],"text":"Low wing on a Supermarine SpitfireMid wing on a de Havilland Vampire T11High wing on a de Havilland Canada Dash 8Parasol wing on R.J. Mitchell's 1930 Supermarine Air YachtA monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft configuration with a single mainplane, in contrast to a biplane or other types of multiplanes, which have multiple planes.A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build. However, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft.","title":"Monoplane"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cantilever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantilever"},{"link_name":"bracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracing_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA_history-1"}],"sub_title":"Support and weight","text":"The inherent efficiency of the monoplane is best achieved in the cantilever wing, which carries all structural forces internally. However, to fly at practical speeds the wing must be made thin, which requires a heavy structure to make it strong and stiff enough.External bracing can be used to improve structural efficiency, reducing weight and cost. For a wing of a given size, the weight reduction allows it to fly slower and with a lower-powered and more economical engine. For this reason, all monoplane wings in the pioneer era were braced and most were up until the early 1930s. However, the exposed struts or wires create additional drag, lowering aerodynamic efficiency and reducing the maximum speed.[1]High-speed and long-range designs tend to be pure cantilevers, while low-speed short-range types are often given bracing.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wing configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration"},{"link_name":"fuselage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselage"}],"text":"Besides the general variations in wing configuration such as tail position and use of bracing, the main distinction between types of monoplane is where the wing is mounted vertically on the fuselage.","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curtiss_P-40E_Warhawk_2_USAF.jpg"},{"link_name":"Curtiss P-40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk"},{"link_name":"Spitfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire"},{"link_name":"dihedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"ground effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_effect_(aerodynamics)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Low","text":"Low wing on a Curtiss P-40A low wing is one which is located on or near the bottom of the fuselage.Placing the wing low allows good visibility upwards and frees the central fuselage from the wing spar carry-through. By reducing pendulum stability, it makes the aircraft more manoeuvrable, as on the Spitfire; but aircraft that value stability over manoeuvrability may then need some dihedral.A feature of the low-wing position is its significant ground effect, giving the plane a tendency to float farther before landing.[2][3] Conversely, this ground effect permits shorter takeoffs.","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Mid","text":"A mid wing is mounted midway up the fuselage. The carry-through spar structure can reduce the useful fuselage volume near its centre of gravity, where space is often in most demand.","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ARV_Midwest.pdf"},{"link_name":"ARV Super2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARV_Super2"},{"link_name":"ground effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_effect_(aerodynamics)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kundu2010-4"},{"link_name":"swept forward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward-swept_wing"},{"link_name":"center of gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_gravity"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"ARV Super2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARV_Super2"},{"link_name":"Bölkow Junior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6_MFI-9"},{"link_name":"Saab Safari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_Safari"},{"link_name":"Barber Snark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barber_Snark"}],"sub_title":"Shoulder","text":"Shoulder wing on an ARV Super2, showing good pilot visibilityA shoulder wing (a category between high-wing and mid-wing) is a configuration whereby the wing is mounted near the top of the fuselage but not on the very top. It is so called because it sits on the \"shoulder\" of the fuselage, rather than on the pilot's shoulder. Shoulder-wings and high-wings share some characteristics, namely: they support a pendulous fuselage which requires no wing dihedral for stability; and, by comparison with a low-wing, a shoulder-wing's limited ground effect reduces float on landing. Compared to a low-wing, shoulder-wing and high-wing configurations give increased propeller clearance on multi-engined aircraft.[4]\nOn a large aircraft, there is little practical difference between a shoulder wing and a high wing; but on a light aircraft, the configuration is significant because it offers superior visibility to the pilot. On light aircraft, shoulder-wings tend to be mounted further aft than a high wing, and so may need to be swept forward to maintain correct center of gravity.[5] Examples of light aircraft with shoulder wings include the ARV Super2, the Bölkow Junior, Saab Safari and the Barber Snark.","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cessna 152","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna_152"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kundu2010-4"}],"sub_title":"High","text":"A high wing has its upper surface on or above the top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152, the wing is usually located above the cabin, so that the wing spar passes over the occupants' heads, leaving the wing in the ideal fore-aft position.[6]\nAn advantage of the high-wing configuration is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fuselage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominantly high-wing designs with a rear cargo door.[4]","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PietenpolAirCamperGN1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Pietenpol Air Camper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietenpol_Air_Camper"},{"link_name":"cabane struts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracing_(aeronautics)#Cabane_struts"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crane-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Morane-Saulnier L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morane-Saulnier_L"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davilla315-8"},{"link_name":"fighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft"},{"link_name":"Fokker D.VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_D.VIII"},{"link_name":"Morane-Saulnier AI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morane-Saulnier_AI"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Martin M-130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_M-130"},{"link_name":"Dornier Do 18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dornier_Do_18"},{"link_name":"Consolidated PBY Catalina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_PBY_Catalina"},{"link_name":"biplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplane"},{"link_name":"amphibians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian_aircraft"},{"link_name":"homebuilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircraft"},{"link_name":"ultralight aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight_aircraft"}],"sub_title":"Parasol","text":"Parasol wing on a Pietenpol Air CamperA parasol wing is not directly attached to the fuselage but held above it, supported by either cabane struts or a pylon.[7] Additional bracing may be provided by struts or wires extending from the fuselage sides.[citation needed]The first parasol monoplanes were adaptations of shoulder wing monoplanes, since raising a shoulder mounted wing above the fuselage greatly improved visibility downwards, which was useful for reconnaissance roles, as with the widely used Morane-Saulnier L.[8]\nThe parasol wing allows for an efficient design with good pilot visibility, and was adopted for some fighters such as the Fokker D.VIII and Morane-Saulnier AI in the later part of the First World War.[9]A parasol wing also provides a high mounting point for engines and during the interwar period was popular on flying boats, which need to lift the propellers clear of spray. Examples include the Martin M-130, Dornier Do 18 and the Consolidated PBY Catalina.Compared to a biplane, a parasol wing has less bracing and lower drag. It remains a popular configuration for amphibians and small homebuilt and ultralight aircraft.","title":"Wing position"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Demoiselle_replica.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santos-Dumont Demoiselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos-Dumont_Demoiselle"},{"link_name":"first attempts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_flying_machines"},{"link_name":"Santos-Dumont Demoiselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos-Dumont_Demoiselle"},{"link_name":"Blériot XI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot_XI"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Hubert Latham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Latham"},{"link_name":"Antoinette IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoinette_IV"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-King2004-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Junkers_J_1_at_D%C3%B6beritz_1915.jpg"},{"link_name":"Junkers J 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers_J_1"},{"link_name":"German language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Fokker Eindecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Eindecker_fighters"},{"link_name":"Fokker scourge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_scourge"},{"link_name":"Idflieg aircraft designation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idflieg_aircraft_designation_system"},{"link_name":"Fokker D.VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_D.VIII"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"braced parasol wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Parasol_wing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"flying boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_boat"},{"link_name":"Consolidated PBY Catalina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_PBY_Catalina"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cantilever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantilever"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Junkers J 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers_J_1"},{"link_name":"factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers"},{"link_name":"Polikarpov I-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-16"},{"link_name":"Boeing P-26 Peashooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_P-26_Peashooter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"military aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_aircraft"},{"link_name":"WWII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"The Santos-Dumont Demoiselle was the first production monoplane (replica shown).Although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909.[10] Throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m (4,541 ft).[11]The Junkers J 1 monoplane pioneered all-metal construction in 1915.The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what became known as the \"Fokker scourge\". The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, until the approval of the Fokker D.VIII fighter from its former \"E.V\" designation. However, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular and successful designs were produced into the 1920s.[12]Nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical. With the low engine powers and airspeeds available, the wings of a monoplane needed to be large in order to create enough lift while a biplane could have two smaller wings and so be made smaller and lighter.[citation needed]Towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet powerful enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable, and the braced parasol wing became popular on fighter aircraft, although few arrived in time to see combat. It remained popular throughout the 1920s.[citation needed]On flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. This arrangement was popular on flying boats during the 1930s; a late example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, allowing a high wing to be attached directly to the hull.[citation needed]As ever-increasing engine powers made the weight of all-metal construction and the cantilever wing more practical — first pioneered together by the revolutionary German Junkers J 1 factory demonstrator in 1915–16 — they became common during the post–World War I period, the day of the braced wing passed, and by the 1930s, the cantilever monoplane was fast becoming the standard configuration for a fixed-wing aircraft. Advanced monoplane fighter-aircraft designs were mass-produced for military services around the world in both the Soviet Union and the United States in the early–mid 1930s, with the Polikarpov I-16 and the Boeing P-26 Peashooter respectively.[citation needed]Most military aircraft of WWII were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since, except for a few specialist types.Jet and rocket engines have even more power and all modern high-speed aircraft, especially supersonic types, have been monoplanes.","title":"History"}]
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[{"image_text":"Low wing on a Curtiss P-40","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Curtiss_P-40E_Warhawk_2_USAF.jpg/220px-Curtiss_P-40E_Warhawk_2_USAF.jpg"},{"image_text":"Shoulder wing on an ARV Super2, showing good pilot visibility","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/ARV_Midwest.pdf/page1-220px-ARV_Midwest.pdf.jpg"},{"image_text":"Parasol wing on a Pietenpol Air Camper","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/PietenpolAirCamperGN1.JPG/220px-PietenpolAirCamperGN1.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Santos-Dumont Demoiselle was the first production monoplane (replica shown).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Demoiselle_replica.jpg/220px-Demoiselle_replica.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Junkers J 1 monoplane pioneered all-metal construction in 1915.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Junkers_J_1_at_D%C3%B6beritz_1915.jpg/220px-Junkers_J_1_at_D%C3%B6beritz_1915.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Aspect ratio (aeronautics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(aeronautics)"}]
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[{"reference":"Loftin, Lawrence K. (January 1985). \"ch4-3\". nasa.gov. Retrieved 16 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch4-3.htm","url_text":"\"ch4-3\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ground Effect in Aircraft\". Aviation-history.com. 2009-11-30. Retrieved 2012-07-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aviation-history.com/theory/ground_effect.htm","url_text":"\"Ground Effect in Aircraft\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ground Effect\". Avweb.com. 2003-10-22. Retrieved 2012-07-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.avweb.com/news/airman/185905-1.html","url_text":"\"Ground Effect\""}]},{"reference":"Ajoy Kumar Kundu (12 April 2010). Aircraft Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-139-48745-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/aircraftdesignca00kund","url_text":"Aircraft Design"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/aircraftdesignca00kund/page/n121","url_text":"78"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-48745-0","url_text":"978-1-139-48745-0"}]},{"reference":"Davilla, James J.; Soltan, Arthur (1997). French Aircraft of the First World War. Mountain View, CA: Flying Machines Press. p. 315. ISBN 978-1891268090.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1891268090","url_text":"978-1891268090"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2600_hertz
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2600 hertz
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["1 See also","2 References"]
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Audible telecommunication signal for control of telephone networks
2600 hertz (2600 Hz) is a frequency in hertz (cycles per second) that was used in telecommunication signaling in mid-20th century long-distance telephone networks using carrier systems.
2600 Hz
A 2600 Hz tone
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Tone signaling carrier systems operated in the standard telephony voice frequency range (300Hz to 3500Hz). They replaced direct current (D.C.) signaling on toll trunk lines because they could be used with any type of toll facility over any length of transmission line that was suitable for voice transmissions. This included transmission through line repeaters and other facilities that would distort, block, or otherwise prohibit D.C. loop-disconnect signaling, such as rotary dial pulses, and on-hook/off-hook signaling. Common frequencies for this purpose were 1600Hz, 2000Hz, 2400Hz, 2600Hz, and 3700Hz, the latter being just outside the voice range. These signaling systems were continuous tone methods, so that the idle condition of a trunk line could easily be detected by the presence of the appropriate signaling frequency, in contrast to conditions of a quiet line which could be due to pauses in speech, or arise from line faults. The tones were typically transmitted in the same physical and logical channel, which characterizes these systems as in-band signaling methods, which do not require additional bandwidth for control of the network and benefit from a single amplification facility for speech and signaling.
The most common single-frequency signaling (SF) system in use in the United States from the 1950s to the 1970s used the frequency pairing of 2600 with 2400 hertz, while in other countries, some systems combined 2600Hz with a variety of lower frequencies in a compelled mode. Lower frequencies, such as 1600Hz, were used by the 1940s in composite signaling systems, however, the higher signal energy in speech at 1600Hz presented technical problems in protection against false operation. The in-band signaling method was vulnerable to talk-off conditions when the voice of a telephone user accidentally or intentionally generates the same tone or sufficiently strong spectral content at the frequency of the signaling system, a condition also known as falsing. In this instant, the call would be disconnected prematurely, and the trunk placed in idle condition. The Bell System in the United States used special signal-to-guard arrangements in the signaling receiver to detect this condition by comparison with the energy in the frequency spectrum outside the signaling tone. The condition was also often mitigated by narrow-band notch filters during the seized line state.
The discovery of this phenomenon by technology-curious individuals in the 1960s, led to the abuse by phreaking, a subculture that exploited the technology to explore national and international telephone networks and place cost-free long-distance telephone calls.
Combating abuse, and improving communications, the telephone industry transitioned to out-of-band signaling systems, such as Signalling System 7 (SS7), by the 1980s. This separated the voice and signaling channels, making it impossible to generate control signals in the voice bearer channel. The development of the T-carrier system in the 1960s helped obsoleting single-frequency (SF) signaling. SF signaling was replaced by advanced methods of common channel signaling, a technology in development since the 1920s.
In the 1970s, multi-frequency signaling systems came into use for international direct distance dialing (IDDD) which used the frequency of 2600Hz in line signaling in two-frequency mode with 2400Hz, for line seizure during call setup, and for tear-down.
2600Hz signaling was a standard for many international signaling systems, such as the Regional System R1.
The prominent application of the 2600Hz frequency in telecommunications world-wide inspired the name of many hacker communities and publications, such as 2600: The Hacker Quarterly, and the late 20th-century counterculture 2600.
See also
Blue box
Signaling System No. 5
References
^ a b Weaver, A.; Newell, N.A. (1954-06-07). "In-Band Single-Frequency Signaling". Bell System Technical Journal. 33 (6): 1309–1330.
^ a b Breen, C.; Dahlbom, C.A. (1960-05-17). "Signaling Systems for Control of Telephone Switching". Bell System Technical Journal. 39 (6): 1381–1444., p.1400
^ Shipley, F.F. (1952-05-12). "Automatic Toll Switching Systems". The Bell System Technical Journal. 31 (5): 860–882., p.869
^ Fluhr, Z.C.; Porter, P.T. (1978-02-15). "Control Architecture". The Bell System Technical Journal. 56 (1): 43–69., p.56
^ Zucker, H. (1973-07-25). "Time Domain Analysis and Synthesis of Notch Filters". Bell System Technical Journal. 53 (2): 283.
^ Lapsley, Phil (2013-11-02). Exploding the Phone: The Untold Story of the Teenagers and Outlaws who Hacked Ma Bell. Grove Atlantic. ISBN 9780802120618.
^ Dahlbom, C.A.; Ryan, J.S. (1977-05-07). "History and Description of a New Signaling System". The Bell System Technical Journal. 57 (2): 225.
^ "Specifications of Signalling System R1 Line Signalling", ITU-T Recommendation Q.313, International Telecommunication Union, 1983
^ Pearce, J. Gordon (2013). Telecommunications Switching. Springer. p. 243.
^ Goldstein, Emmanuel (2008-07-28). The Best of 2600: A Hacker Odyssey. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470294192.
vteSignaling (telecommunications)
Dial tone
Ringtone
Ringing tone
Busy signal
Reorder tone
Disconnect tone
Special information tone
Off-hook tone
Zip tone
2600 Hz
Dual-tone multi-frequency
Multi-frequency signaling
Signaling System No. 5
Signalling System No. 7
Telephones portal
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"telecommunication signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"long-distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-distance_calling"},{"link_name":"carrier systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weaver-1"},{"link_name":"2600 Hz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2600_Hz.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"Tone signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_signaling"},{"link_name":"direct current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current"},{"link_name":"trunk lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunk_line"},{"link_name":"rotary dial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_dial"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weaver-1"},{"link_name":"in-band signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-band_signaling"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Breen-2"},{"link_name":"single-frequency signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-frequency_signaling"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"falsing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Bell System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_System"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Breen-2"},{"link_name":"notch filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notch_filter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zucker-5"},{"link_name":"phreaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreaking"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"out-of-band signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_signaling"},{"link_name":"Signalling System 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_System_7"},{"link_name":"channels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_channel"},{"link_name":"T-carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-carrier"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"multi-frequency signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequency_signaling"},{"link_name":"international direct distance dialing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDDD"},{"link_name":"line signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_signaling"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"hacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker"},{"link_name":"2600: The Hacker Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2600:_The_Hacker_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"counterculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture"}],"text":"2600 hertz (2600 Hz) is a frequency in hertz (cycles per second) that was used in telecommunication signaling in mid-20th century long-distance telephone networks using carrier systems.[1]2600 Hz\n\nA 2600 Hz tone\nProblems playing this file? See media help.Tone signaling carrier systems operated in the standard telephony voice frequency range (300Hz to 3500Hz). They replaced direct current (D.C.) signaling on toll trunk lines because they could be used with any type of toll facility over any length of transmission line that was suitable for voice transmissions. This included transmission through line repeaters and other facilities that would distort, block, or otherwise prohibit D.C. loop-disconnect signaling, such as rotary dial pulses, and on-hook/off-hook signaling. Common frequencies for this purpose were 1600Hz, 2000Hz, 2400Hz, 2600Hz, and 3700Hz, the latter being just outside the voice range.[1] These signaling systems were continuous tone methods, so that the idle condition of a trunk line could easily be detected by the presence of the appropriate signaling frequency, in contrast to conditions of a quiet line which could be due to pauses in speech, or arise from line faults. The tones were typically transmitted in the same physical and logical channel, which characterizes these systems as in-band signaling methods, which do not require additional bandwidth for control of the network and benefit from a single amplification facility for speech and signaling.[2]The most common single-frequency signaling (SF) system in use in the United States from the 1950s to the 1970s used the frequency pairing of 2600 with 2400 hertz, while in other countries, some systems combined 2600Hz with a variety of lower frequencies in a compelled mode. Lower frequencies, such as 1600Hz, were used by the 1940s in composite signaling systems, however, the higher signal energy in speech at 1600Hz presented technical problems in protection against false operation.[3] The in-band signaling method was vulnerable to talk-off conditions when the voice of a telephone user accidentally or intentionally generates the same tone or sufficiently strong spectral content at the frequency of the signaling system, a condition also known as falsing.[4] In this instant, the call would be disconnected prematurely, and the trunk placed in idle condition. The Bell System in the United States used special signal-to-guard arrangements in the signaling receiver to detect this condition by comparison with the energy in the frequency spectrum outside the signaling tone.[2] The condition was also often mitigated by narrow-band notch filters during the seized line state.[5]The discovery of this phenomenon by technology-curious individuals in the 1960s, led to the abuse by phreaking, a subculture that exploited the technology to explore national and international telephone networks and place cost-free long-distance telephone calls.[6]Combating abuse, and improving communications, the telephone industry transitioned to out-of-band signaling systems, such as Signalling System 7 (SS7), by the 1980s. This separated the voice and signaling channels, making it impossible to generate control signals in the voice bearer channel. The development of the T-carrier system in the 1960s helped obsoleting single-frequency (SF) signaling. SF signaling was replaced by advanced methods of common channel signaling, a technology in development since the 1920s.[7]In the 1970s, multi-frequency signaling systems came into use for international direct distance dialing (IDDD) which used the frequency of 2600Hz in line signaling in two-frequency mode with 2400Hz, for line seizure during call setup, and for tear-down.2600Hz signaling was a standard for many international signaling systems,[8] such as the Regional System R1.[9]The prominent application of the 2600Hz frequency in telecommunications world-wide inspired the name of many hacker communities and publications, such as 2600: The Hacker Quarterly,[10] and the late 20th-century counterculture 2600.","title":"2600 hertz"}]
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[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Blue box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_box"},{"title":"Signaling System No. 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_System_No._5"}]
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[{"reference":"Weaver, A.; Newell, N.A. (1954-06-07). \"In-Band Single-Frequency Signaling\". Bell System Technical Journal. 33 (6): 1309–1330.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Breen, C.; Dahlbom, C.A. (1960-05-17). \"Signaling Systems for Control of Telephone Switching\". Bell System Technical Journal. 39 (6): 1381–1444.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Shipley, F.F. (1952-05-12). \"Automatic Toll Switching Systems\". The Bell System Technical Journal. 31 (5): 860–882.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fluhr, Z.C.; Porter, P.T. (1978-02-15). \"Control Architecture\". The Bell System Technical Journal. 56 (1): 43–69.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Zucker, H. (1973-07-25). \"Time Domain Analysis and Synthesis of Notch Filters\". Bell System Technical Journal. 53 (2): 283.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lapsley, Phil (2013-11-02). Exploding the Phone: The Untold Story of the Teenagers and Outlaws who Hacked Ma Bell. Grove Atlantic. ISBN 9780802120618.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802120618","url_text":"9780802120618"}]},{"reference":"Dahlbom, C.A.; Ryan, J.S. (1977-05-07). \"History and Description of a New Signaling System\". The Bell System Technical Journal. 57 (2): 225.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Specifications of Signalling System R1 Line Signalling\", ITU-T Recommendation Q.313, International Telecommunication Union, 1983","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pearce, J. Gordon (2013). Telecommunications Switching. Springer. p. 243.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Emmanuel (2008-07-28). The Best of 2600: A Hacker Odyssey. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470294192.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470294192","url_text":"978-0470294192"}]}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mia_Wasikowska
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Mia Wasikowska
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["1 Early life","2 Career","2.1 2005–2009: Early work","2.2 2010–2016: Breakthrough and critical acclaim","2.3 2017–present: Independent films","3 Personal life","4 Filmography","4.1 Film","4.2 Television","4.3 Video games","5 Awards and nominations","6 References","7 External links"]
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Australian actress (born 1989)
Mia WasikowskaWasikowska in 2018Born (1989-10-25) 25 October 1989 (age 34)Canberra, AustraliaOccupationActressYears active2004–present
Mia Wasikowska (/ˌvʌʃɪˈkɒfskə/ VUSH-i-KOF-skə; born 25 October 1989) is an Australian actress. She made her screen debut on the Australian television drama All Saints in 2004, followed by her feature film debut in Suburban Mayhem (2006). She first became known to a wider audience following her critically acclaimed work on the HBO television series In Treatment (2008). She was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female for the film That Evening Sun (2009).
Wasikowska gained worldwide recognition in 2010 after starring as Alice in Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland and appearing in the comedy-drama film The Kids Are All Right. She starred in Cary Fukunaga's Jane Eyre (2011), Gus Van Sant's Restless (2011), Park Chan-wook's Stoker (2013), Jim Jarmusch's Only Lovers Left Alive (2013), John Curran's Tracks (2013), Richard Ayoade's The Double (2013), David Cronenberg's Maps to the Stars (2014), and Guillermo del Toro's Crimson Peak (2015). In 2016, she reprised her role as Alice in the film Alice Through the Looking Glass, and has since appeared in a number of independent films, including Damsel (2018), Judy and Punch (2019), and Bergman Island (2021).
Early life
Wasikowska was born on 25 October 1989 in Canberra, Australia. She attended Cook Primary School, Ainslie Primary School and Canberra High School, and Karabar High School in Queanbeyan, which neighbours Canberra. She has an older sister, Jess, and a younger brother, Kai. Her mother, Marzena Wasikowska, is a Polish photographer, while her father, John Reid, is an Australian photographer and collagist. In 1998, when she was eight years old, Wasikowska and her family moved to Szczecin, Poland for a year, after her mother received a grant to produce a collection of work based on her own experience of emigrating from Poland to Australia in 1974 at the age of 11. Wasikowska and her siblings took part in the production as subjects; she explained to Johanna Schneller of The Globe and Mail in July 2010, "We never had to smile or perform. We weren't always conscious of being photographed. We'd just do our thing, and she'd take pictures of us."
At the age of nine, Wasikowska began studying ballet with Jackie Hallahan at the Canberra Dance Development Centre, with hopes of going professional. She began dancing en pointe at thirteen, and was training 35 hours a week in addition to attending school full-time. Her daily routine consisted of leaving school in the early afternoon and dancing until nine o'clock at night. A spur on her heel hampered her dancing. Her passion for ballet also waned due to the increasing pressure to achieve physical perfection and her growing dissatisfaction with that world in general, and she quit at the age of fourteen. However, she credits ballet with improving her ability to handle her nerves in auditions.
At the same time, she had been exposed to European and Australian cinema at an early age, and was particularly moved by Krzysztof Kieślowski's Three Colours trilogy and Gillian Armstrong's My Brilliant Career. Although shy and averse to performing during her school years, she was inspired to try to break into acting after seeing Holly Hunter in The Piano and Gena Rowlands in A Woman Under the Influence. She felt acting in film was a way to explore human imperfections. She looked up twelve Australian talent agencies on the Internet and contacted them all, but received only one response. Despite her lack of acting experience, she arranged a meeting after persistent callbacks.
Career
2005–2009: Early work
Wasikowska landed her first acting role in 2004 with a two-episode stint on the Australian soap All Saints. She had just turned 15 when she was cast in her Australian film debut, Suburban Mayhem (2006), for which she was nominated for a Young Actor's AFI Award. That year she also appeared in her first short film, Lens Love Story, in which she had no dialogue.
In 2007, Wasikowska appeared in the crocodile horror film Rogue, alongside Radha Mitchell and Sam Worthington. She observed quietly on the set; fellow actor Stephen Curry noted, "We didn't hear a peep out of her for three weeks, which earned her the nickname of 'Rowdy'". She beat nearly 200 other actresses for a part in the drama September (2007) when she was cast on the spot by director Peter Carstairs following her audition. She starred in Spencer Susser's acclaimed short film I Love Sarah Jane, which premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.
At the age of seventeen, Wasikowska received her first big break role in the United States when she was cast as Sophie, a suicidal gymnast, in HBO's acclaimed weekly drama In Treatment; she auditioned for the role by videotape. The part required her to leave school in Canberra and move to Los Angeles for three months, while enrolling in correspondence courses. She earned critical acclaim for her performance as the troubled teenager treated by psychotherapist Paul Weston (Gabriel Byrne), which included praise for her American accent. She revealed in an October 2008 interview with Variety that she was something of a mimic as a child, and that the widely available American films and TV shows in Australia made it easier for Australians to learn to speak like Americans.
This show enabled Wasikowska to gain roles in American films. She played Chaya, the young wife of Asael Bielski (Jamie Bell) in Defiance (2008). Director Edward Zwick cast her, explaining to the Australian edition of Vogue, "Her inner life is so vivid that it comes across even when she's being still." Her next role was as aviation pioneer Elinor Smith in Mira Nair's 2009 biopic Amelia. In June 2008, for her work on In Treatment, she received an Australians in Film Breakthrough Award.
Wasikowska played the supporting role of Pamela Choat in the 2009 Southern Gothic independent film That Evening Sun opposite Hal Holbrook. Director Scott Teems, seeking a young actress who bore a resemblance to Sissy Spacek, initially balked at the casting director's suggestion of Wasikowska for the role. He wanted to cast all native Southerners for the sake of authenticity. However, after auditions with other actresses were unsuccessful, Teems relented and summoned Wasikowska for as audition. During the two hours she had to prepare, she watched Coal Miner's Daughter online to quickly learn a Southern accent, and impressed Teems enough to be the only non-American actor in the film. She was nominated for a 2009 Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female, and the film received a South by Southwest award for Best Ensemble Cast.
2010–2016: Breakthrough and critical acclaim
In July 2008, Wasikowska was cast as the eponymous heroine in Tim Burton's version of Alice in Wonderland, alongside Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway and Helena Bonham Carter. She sent a videotaped audition to casting directors in London, and her first live reading in Los Angeles occurred on the same day as her Evening Sun audition. After three more auditions in London, she was given the role. Burton cited her "old-soul quality" as a catalyst in casting her: "Because you're witnessing this whole thing through her eyes, it needed somebody who can subtly portray that."
Wasikowska at the Independent Spirit Awards on 5 March 2010
Wasikowska portrayed a nineteen-year-old Alice returning to Wonderland for the first time in over a decade after falling down a rabbit hole from an unwanted marriage proposal. Her affinity for the character played a part in her desire for the role, as she had read the Lewis Carroll books as a child and was a fan of Jan Švankmajer's 1988 stop-motion film Alice. She considered Burton's film as a chance to explore a deeper characterisation of Alice, to whom she felt young women her age could relate, saying: "Alice has a certain discomfort within herself, within society and among her peers; I have definitely felt similarly about all of those things, so I could really understand her not fitting in. Alice also an observer who is thinking a lot, and that's similar to how I am."
For Lisa Cholodenko's indie comedy The Kids Are All Right, Wasikowska was cast as Joni, the bookish daughter of a lesbian couple (Annette Bening and Julianne Moore) who was conceived via artificial insemination. At her younger brother's (Josh Hutcherson) request, she seeks out their biological father (Mark Ruffalo). During shooting, she successfully campaigned to have Joni wear pajamas in several home scenes. She explained to Orlando Sentinel film critic Roger Moore, " very comfortable in her place, with who she is. So I pushed to have her, whenever she was at home, in her pajamas. That's comfortable! And that's something I do."
On 25 October, Wasikowska was honored with the Hollywood Awards' Breakthrough Actress Award, which was presented to her by Bryce Dallas Howard, and she won the Australian Film Institute International Award for Best Actress on 12 December for her performance in Alice in Wonderland. According to Forbes, Alice in Wonderland was amongst the highest-grossing films of 2010 with $1.025 billion. As of May 2022, it is the 44th-highest-grossing film of all time.
From March to May 2010, Wasikowska filmed Cary Fukunaga's adaptation of Jane Eyre, in which she starred as the title character opposite Michael Fassbender as Mr. Rochester. She began reading the novel after completion of Alice in Wonderland, during which she asked her agent if a script existed. Two months later, she received a script and was asked to meet with Fukunaga Fukunaga was unfamiliar with her work and was undecided about casting her, so he sought the opinion of director Gus Van Sant, who had worked with Wasikowska on his 2011 film Restless. Fukunga told BlackBook magazine in February 2011, "Gus wrote back: 'Cast her.'" Due to a scheduling conflict, she had to withdraw from the lead in Julia Leigh's 2011 Australian independent film Sleeping Beauty, and she was replaced by Emily Browning.
Wasikowska appeared in Restless (2011), which was filmed from November to December 2009. The portrayal of her character, a terminally ill sixteen-year-old, required her to crop her long hair. From December 2010 to February 2011, Wasikowska filmed Rodrigo García's Albert Nobbs, for which she was a last-minute replacement for Amanda Seyfried.
On 21 April 2011, Wasikowska was named in the Time 100, a listing of the world's most influential people, which featured a brief essay written by Albert Nobbs co-star Glenn Close. In June, Wasikowska was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In December, she was among a group of actors who filmed a series of shorts from The New York Times titled Touch of Evil, which honored the art of cinematic villainy.
Wasikowska at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con
In 2011, Wasikowska played the small supporting role of Shia LaBeouf's character's love interest in John Hillcoat's Lawless. Later in the year, she filmed the lead in Park Chan-wook's English-language debut, Stoker. Lawless premiered at Cannes in May 2012, while Stoker debuted at Sundance in January 2013. Wasikowska also appeared in Miu Miu's spring 2012 fashion campaign. In 2012, she made her second appearance in a Vanity Fair Hollywood Issue, this time being featured on the cover panel.
Filming of her next project, Richard Ayoade's The Double, began in the UK in May 2012. In July, she shot Jim Jarmusch's vampire drama Only Lovers Left Alive, in which she plays the younger sister of Tilda Swinton's character. Filming of Tracks, director John Curran's adaptation of the Robyn Davidson memoir of the same name, began in October 2012 in Australia, with Wasikowska in the lead role. The film was screened in competition at the 2013 Venice Film Festival.
Wasikowska made her directorial debut on a segment of The Turning, a collection of short stories by Australian author Tim Winton. It premiered in August 2013 at the Melbourne International Film Festival. In July 2013, she began filming David Cronenberg's Maps to the Stars in Toronto. The film was released in 2014. She next played the title role in Sophie Barthes' film adaptation of Madame Bovary, which began shooting on 30 September 2014 in Normandy, France.
Wasikowska replaced Emma Stone in Guillermo del Toro's gothic romance Crimson Peak (2015), where she starred alongside Tom Hiddleston and Jessica Chastain. Production commenced in February 2014. The film premiered at Fantastic Fest on 25 September 2015, and was later released in the United States in October. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising the production values, performances and direction.
In 2016, Wasikowska reprised the role of Alice in Alice Through the Looking Glass. Despite receiving generally negative reviews and faring badly at the box office, critics praised its performances and visual effects. This was Wasikowska's last major film studio release before moving on to appear in more independent films.
2017–present: Independent films
In May 2015, Wasikowska joined the cast of Cédric Jimenez's historical thriller The Man with the Iron Heart, based on the novel HHhH. She starred alongside Jason Clarke, Rosamund Pike, Jack O'Connell and Jack Reynor. Principal photography began 14 September 2015 in Prague and Budapest, and ended on 1 February 2016. The film was released in 2017. The same year, she starred in Spike Jonze's stage show Changers: A Dance Story, alongside Lakeith Stanfield. Featuring dance choreography by Ryan Heffington, the show premiered at an Opening Ceremony fashion week presentation in September 2017 before opening to the public for a four-night run at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club.
In 2018, she appeared in David and Nathan Zellner's black comedy western Damsel, reuniting with her Maps to the Stars co-star Robert Pattinson, and in Nicolas Pesce's psychosexual thriller Piercing, based on Ryū Murakami's 1994 novel of the same name. The following year, she starred in Mirrah Foulkes' feature directorial debut Judy and Punch. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 27 January 2019. From July to August of 2019, Wasikowska made her theatre debut as Ralph in the Sydney Theatre Company production of Nigel Williams' stage adaptation of William Golding's Lord of the Flies. She next appeared in Roger Michell's drama Blackbird, alongside Susan Sarandon and Kate Winslet. It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2019.
Wasikowska's sole release of 2020 was Netflix's The Devil All the Time, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Donald Ray Pollock directed by Antonio Campos. She was part of an ensemble cast formed by Tom Holland, Bill Skarsgård, Riley Keough, Sebastian Stan and previous collaborators Clarke and Pattinson, among others names. In 2021, she starred in Mia Hansen-Løve's Bergman Island, alongside Vicky Krieps, Tim Roth and Anders Danielsen Lie. The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 11 July 2021. As of 2021, Wasikowska had moved to focus more on directing and filmmaking with a feature film script written and was seeking financiers. She starred in Robert Connolly's family drama Blueback, alongside Eric Bana, which had its world premiere at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival. In February 2022, it was announced that Wasikowska would portray an unusual schoolteacher in Jessica Hausner's second English-language film Club Zero. Filming began in the United Kingdom and Austria in July.
Personal life
In her spare time, Wasikowska is an avid photographer, often chronicling her travels and capturing images of her film sets with a Rolleiflex camera. During production of Jane Eyre, she had a secret pocket sewn into one of her costumes to conceal a digital camera that she used between takes. One of her on-set images, of Fukunaga and Jane Eyre co-star Jamie Bell, was selected as a finalist in the 2011 National Photographic Portrait Prize hosted by Australia's National Portrait Gallery on 24 February 2011.
From 2013 to 2015, Wasikowska dated actor Jesse Eisenberg, her co-star in The Double.
Wasikowska resides in Sydney, Australia. She speaks some Polish.
Filmography
Film
Key
†
Denotes productions that have not yet been released
Wasikowska at the 2012 AACTA Awards
Year
Title
Role
Director
Notes
2006
Suburban Mayhem
Lilya
Paul Goldman
Eve
Eve
Hannah Hilliard
Short film
2007
Lens Love Story
Girl
Sonia Whiteman
Short film
Skin
Emma
Claire McCarthy
Short film
Cosette
Cosette
Samantha Rebillet
Short film
September
Amelia Hamilton
Peter Carstairs
Rogue
Sherry
Greg McLean
2008
I Love Sarah Jane
Sarah Jane
Spencer Susser
Short film
Summer Breaks
Kara
Sean Kruck
Short film
Defiance
Chaya Dziencielsky
Edward Zwick
2009
That Evening Sun
Pamela Choat
Scott Teems
Amelia
Elinor Smith
Mira Nair
2010
Alice in Wonderland
Alice Kingsleigh
Tim Burton
The Kids Are All Right
Joni
Lisa Cholodenko
2011
Jane Eyre
Jane Eyre
Cary Joji Fukunaga
Restless
Annabel Cotton
Gus Van Sant
Albert Nobbs
Helen Dawes
Rodrigo García
2012
Lawless
Bertha Minnix
John Hillcoat
2013
The Turning
—
Herself
Director Segment: "Long, Clear View"
Stoker
India Stoker
Park Chan-wook
Only Lovers Left Alive
Ava
Jim Jarmusch
Tracks
Robyn Davidson
John Curran
The Double
Hannah
Richard Ayoade
2014
Maps to the Stars
Agatha Weiss
David Cronenberg
Madame Bovary
Emma Bovary
Sophie Barthes
2015
The Nightingale and the Rose
The Nightingale (voice)
Del Kathryn Barton Brendan Fletcher
Short film
Crimson Peak
Edith Cushing
Guillermo del Toro
Madly
—
Herself
Director and writer Segment: "Afterbirth"
2016
Alice Through the Looking Glass
Alice Kingsleigh
James Bobin
2017
The Man with the Iron Heart
Anna Novak
Cédric Jimenez
2018
Damsel
Penelope
David Zellner Nathan Zellner
Piercing
Jackie
Nicolas Pesce
2019
Judy and Punch
Judy
Mirrah Foulkes
Blackbird
Anna
Roger Michell
2020
The Devil All the Time
Helen Hatton
Antonio Campos
2021
Bergman Island
Amy
Mia Hansen-Løve
2022
Blueback
Abby Jackson
Robert Connolly
2023
Club Zero
Miss Novak
Jessica Hausner
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2004–05
All Saints
Lily Watson
Episodes: "Out on a Limb" and "Sins of the Mothers"
2008
In Treatment
Sophie
Regular role (9 episodes)
Video games
Year
Title
Role
2010
Alice in Wonderland
Alice Kingsleigh (voice)
2015
Disney Infinity 3.0
Awards and nominations
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result
2008
Australian Film Institute
Young Actor's Award
Suburban Mayhem
Nominated
2009
AFI International Award for Best Actress
In Treatment
Nominated
SXSW Film Festival
Special Jury Award for Best Ensemble Cast
That Evening Sun
Won
2010
Independent Spirit Awards
Best Supporting Female
Nominated
Australian Film Institute
AFI International Award for Best Actress
Alice in Wonderland
Won
Teen Choice Awards
Choice Movie: Fight
Won
Choice Movie Actress: Fantasy
Nominated
Choice Movie: Breakout Female
Nominated
Hollywood Film Festival
Hollywood Breakthrough Award for Actress of the Year
The Kids Are All Right
Won
Boston Society of Film Critics
Best Ensemble Cast
Nominated
Gotham Awards
Best Ensemble Cast
Nominated
Washington DC Area Film Critics Association
Best Acting Ensemble
Nominated
Detroit Film Critics Society
Best Breakthrough Performance
Nominated
2011
Broadcast Film Critics Association
Critics Choice Award for Best Acting Ensemble
Nominated
Screen Actors Guild
Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
Nominated
Empire Awards
Best Newcomer
Alice in Wonderland
Nominated
British Independent Film Awards
Best Actress
Jane Eyre
Nominated
Alliance of Women Film Journalists
EDA Award for Most Outrageous Age Difference Between Two Lovers
Albert Nobbs
Won
2012
Australian Film Institute
AACTA International Award for Best Actress
Jane Eyre
Nominated
2013
British Independent Film Awards
Best Supporting Actress
The Double
Nominated
AACTA Awards
Best Direction
The Turning
Nominated
2014
Fangoria Chainsaw Awards
Best Actress
Stoker
Nominated
Empire Awards
Best Supporting Actress
Nominated
Saturn Awards
Best Actress
Nominated
Gotham Awards
Best Actress
Tracks
Nominated
San Diego Film Critics Society
Best Actress
Nominated
2015
AACTA Awards
Best Actress
Nominated
Canadian Screen Awards
Best Supporting Actress
Maps to the Stars
Nominated
2016
Fangoria Chainsaw Awards
Best Actress
Crimson Peak
Nominated
Saturn Awards
Best Actress
Nominated
2019
AACTA Awards
Best Actress
Judy and Punch
Nominated
References
^ Robert Pattinson & Mia Wasikowska Answer the Web's Most Searched Questions | WIRED. WIRED. 20 June 2018. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023 – via YouTube.
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External links
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She made her screen debut on the Australian television drama All Saints in 2004, followed by her feature film debut in Suburban Mayhem (2006). She first became known to a wider audience following her critically acclaimed work on the HBO television series In Treatment (2008). She was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female for the film That Evening Sun (2009).Wasikowska gained worldwide recognition in 2010 after starring as Alice in Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland and appearing in the comedy-drama film The Kids Are All Right. She starred in Cary Fukunaga's Jane Eyre (2011), Gus Van Sant's Restless (2011), Park Chan-wook's Stoker (2013), Jim Jarmusch's Only Lovers Left Alive (2013), John Curran's Tracks (2013), Richard Ayoade's The Double (2013), David Cronenberg's Maps to the Stars (2014), and Guillermo del Toro's Crimson Peak (2015). In 2016, she reprised her role as Alice in the film Alice Through the Looking Glass, and has since appeared in a number of independent films, including Damsel (2018), Judy and Punch (2019), and Bergman Island (2021).","title":"Mia Wasikowska"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nerdist-2"},{"link_name":"Canberra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Canberra High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canberra_High_School"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Karabar High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karabar_High_School"},{"link_name":"Queanbeyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queanbeyan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sundaylife-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-familyaffair-7"},{"link_name":"collagist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collage"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fishman-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fieldstudies-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbarlow-10"},{"link_name":"Szczecin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szczecin"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mac-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anca-12"},{"link_name":"Johanna Schneller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_Schneller"},{"link_name":"The Globe and Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globeandmail-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"en pointe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_pointe"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmagint-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-torsun-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blastje-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-18"},{"link_name":"ballet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-18"},{"link_name":"Krzysztof Kieślowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Kie%C5%9Blowski"},{"link_name":"Three Colours trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Colors_trilogy"},{"link_name":"Gillian Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"My Brilliant Career","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Brilliant_Career_(film)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globeandmail-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globeandmail-13"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usatoday-19"},{"link_name":"Holly Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly_Hunter"},{"link_name":"The Piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Piano"},{"link_name":"Gena Rowlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gena_Rowlands"},{"link_name":"A Woman Under the Influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Woman_Under_the_Influence"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackbook2-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmagprint-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackbook2-20"}],"text":"Wasikowska was born on 25 October 1989[2] in Canberra, Australia.[3] She attended Cook Primary School, Ainslie Primary School and Canberra High School,[4] and Karabar High School in Queanbeyan, which neighbours Canberra.[5] She has an older sister, Jess, and a younger brother, Kai.[6][7] Her mother, Marzena Wasikowska, is a Polish photographer, while her father, John Reid, is an Australian photographer and collagist.[8][9][10] In 1998, when she was eight years old, Wasikowska and her family moved to Szczecin, Poland for a year, after her mother received a grant to produce a collection of work based on her own experience of emigrating from Poland to Australia in 1974 at the age of 11.[11][12] Wasikowska and her siblings took part in the production as subjects; she explained to Johanna Schneller of The Globe and Mail in July 2010, \"We never had to smile or perform. We weren't always conscious of being photographed. We'd just do our thing, and she'd take pictures of us.\"[13]At the age of nine, Wasikowska began studying ballet with Jackie Hallahan at the Canberra Dance Development Centre,[14] with hopes of going professional. She began dancing en pointe at thirteen, and was training 35 hours a week in addition to attending school full-time.[15][16] Her daily routine consisted of leaving school in the early afternoon and dancing until nine o'clock at night.[17] A spur on her heel hampered her dancing.[18] Her passion for ballet also waned due to the increasing pressure to achieve physical perfection and her growing dissatisfaction with that world in general, and she quit at the age of fourteen. However, she credits ballet with improving her ability to handle her nerves in auditions.[18]At the same time, she had been exposed to European and Australian cinema at an early age, and was particularly moved by Krzysztof Kieślowski's Three Colours trilogy and Gillian Armstrong's My Brilliant Career.[13] Although shy and averse to performing during her school years,[13][19] she was inspired to try to break into acting after seeing Holly Hunter in The Piano and Gena Rowlands in A Woman Under the Influence.[20] She felt acting in film was a way to explore human imperfections.[21] She looked up twelve Australian talent agencies on the Internet and contacted them all, but received only one response. Despite her lack of acting experience, she arranged a meeting after persistent callbacks.[20]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"All Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Suburban Mayhem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburban_Mayhem"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-18"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smh130810-22"},{"link_name":"AFI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph-5"},{"link_name":"Rogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"Radha Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radha_Mitchell"},{"link_name":"Sam Worthington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Worthington"},{"link_name":"Stephen Curry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Curry_(comedian)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smh130810-22"},{"link_name":"September","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailytelegraph-18"},{"link_name":"Spencer Susser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Susser"},{"link_name":"I Love Sarah Jane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Love_Sarah_Jane"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sundance-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SotW-24"},{"link_name":"In Treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Treatment_(U.S._TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbovid-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-screenwize-26"},{"link_name":"correspondence courses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_education"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-screenwize-26"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Byrne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Byrne"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt080608-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timejan2808-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-feb2008-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bostonglobe1-30"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10actors-31"},{"link_name":"Asael Bielski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asael_Bielski"},{"link_name":"Jamie Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Bell"},{"link_name":"Defiance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defiance_(2008_film)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-defiance-32"},{"link_name":"Edward Zwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Zwick"},{"link_name":"Vogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-voguetalks-33"},{"link_name":"Elinor Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Smith"},{"link_name":"Mira Nair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mira_Nair"},{"link_name":"Amelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia_(film)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-amelia-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aifbreakthrough-35"},{"link_name":"Southern Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Gothic"},{"link_name":"That Evening Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_Evening_Sun_(film)"},{"link_name":"Hal Holbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Holbrook"},{"link_name":"Scott Teems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Teems"},{"link_name":"Sissy Spacek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sissy_Spacek"},{"link_name":"Southerners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hammer-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tes-37"},{"link_name":"Coal Miner's Daughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_Miner%27s_Daughter_(film)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tes-37"},{"link_name":"Independent Spirit Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Award"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ifc-38"}],"sub_title":"2005–2009: Early work","text":"Wasikowska landed her first acting role in 2004 with a two-episode stint on the Australian soap All Saints. She had just turned 15 when she was cast in her Australian film debut, Suburban Mayhem (2006),[18][22] for which she was nominated for a Young Actor's AFI Award.[5] That year she also appeared in her first short film, Lens Love Story, in which she had no dialogue.In 2007, Wasikowska appeared in the crocodile horror film Rogue, alongside Radha Mitchell and Sam Worthington. She observed quietly on the set; fellow actor Stephen Curry noted, \"We didn't hear a peep out of her for three weeks, which earned her the nickname of 'Rowdy'\".[22] She beat nearly 200 other actresses for a part in the drama September (2007) when she was cast on the spot by director Peter Carstairs following her audition.[18] She starred in Spencer Susser's acclaimed short film I Love Sarah Jane, which premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.[23][24]At the age of seventeen, Wasikowska received her first big break role in the United States when she was cast as Sophie, a suicidal gymnast, in HBO's acclaimed weekly drama In Treatment; she auditioned for the role by videotape.[25][26] The part required her to leave school in Canberra and move to Los Angeles for three months, while enrolling in correspondence courses.[26] She earned critical acclaim for her performance as the troubled teenager treated by psychotherapist Paul Weston (Gabriel Byrne),[27][28][29] which included praise for her American accent.[30] She revealed in an October 2008 interview with Variety that she was something of a mimic as a child, and that the widely available American films and TV shows in Australia made it easier for Australians to learn to speak like Americans.[31]This show enabled Wasikowska to gain roles in American films. She played Chaya, the young wife of Asael Bielski (Jamie Bell) in Defiance (2008).[32] Director Edward Zwick cast her, explaining to the Australian edition of Vogue, \"Her inner life is so vivid that it comes across even when she's being still.\"[33] Her next role was as aviation pioneer Elinor Smith in Mira Nair's 2009 biopic Amelia.[34] In June 2008, for her work on In Treatment, she received an Australians in Film Breakthrough Award.[35]Wasikowska played the supporting role of Pamela Choat in the 2009 Southern Gothic independent film That Evening Sun opposite Hal Holbrook. Director Scott Teems, seeking a young actress who bore a resemblance to Sissy Spacek, initially balked at the casting director's suggestion of Wasikowska for the role. He wanted to cast all native Southerners for the sake of authenticity.[36][37] However, after auditions with other actresses were unsuccessful, Teems relented and summoned Wasikowska for as audition. During the two hours she had to prepare, she watched Coal Miner's Daughter online to quickly learn a Southern accent, and impressed Teems enough to be the only non-American actor in the film.[37] She was nominated for a 2009 Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female,[38] and the film received a South by Southwest award for Best Ensemble Cast.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tim Burton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Burton"},{"link_name":"Alice in Wonderland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland_(2010_film)"},{"link_name":"Johnny Depp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Depp"},{"link_name":"Anne Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"Helena Bonham 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Sentinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moore-44"},{"link_name":"Hollywood Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hff-45"},{"link_name":"Bryce Dallas Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryce_Dallas_Howard"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hollywoodnews-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afi101212-47"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forbes-48"},{"link_name":"44th-highest-grossing film of all time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_films"},{"link_name":"Cary Fukunaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_Fukunaga"},{"link_name":"Jane 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Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Browning"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smh-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstshowing-53"},{"link_name":"Restless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restless_(2011_film)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-couriermail-54"},{"link_name":"Rodrigo García","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodrigo_Garc%C3%ADa_(director)"},{"link_name":"Albert Nobbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Nobbs"},{"link_name":"Amanda Seyfried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Seyfried"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-indiewire-55"},{"link_name":"Time 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100"},{"link_name":"Glenn Close","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Close"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-time100-56"},{"link_name":"Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ampas-57"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toe-58"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mia_Wasikowska_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg"},{"link_name":"San Diego Comic-Con","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Comic-Con"},{"link_name":"Shia LaBeouf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_LaBeouf"},{"link_name":"John Hillcoat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hillcoat"},{"link_name":"Lawless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawless_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wettest-59"},{"link_name":"Park Chan-wook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Chan-wook"},{"link_name":"Stoker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoker_(film)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hitfix-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stokerneg-61"},{"link_name":"Miu Miu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miu_Miu"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miumiu-62"},{"link_name":"Vanity Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vf2012-63"},{"link_name":"Richard Ayoade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Ayoade"},{"link_name":"The Double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thr120201-64"},{"link_name":"Jim Jarmusch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Jarmusch"},{"link_name":"Only Lovers Left Alive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Only_Lovers_Left_Alive"},{"link_name":"Tilda Swinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilda_Swinton"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-screendaily-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thr120130-66"},{"link_name":"Tracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracks_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"John Curran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Curran_(director)"},{"link_name":"Robyn Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robyn_Davidson"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tracks-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sbs120903-68"},{"link_name":"Venice Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"The Turning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Turning_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"Tim Winton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Winton"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thr120322-69"},{"link_name":"David Cronenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cronenberg"},{"link_name":"Maps to the Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps_to_the_Stars"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Sophie Barthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Barthes"},{"link_name":"Madame Bovary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Bovary_(2014_film)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bovary-71"},{"link_name":"Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mbvariety-72"},{"link_name":"Emma Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stone"},{"link_name":"Guillermo del Toro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillermo_del_Toro"},{"link_name":"gothic romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_fiction"},{"link_name":"Crimson Peak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimson_Peak"},{"link_name":"Tom Hiddleston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hiddleston"},{"link_name":"Jessica Chastain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Chastain"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Fest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Fest"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Alice Through the Looking Glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Through_the_Looking_Glass_(2016_film)"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"major film studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_film_studios"}],"sub_title":"2010–2016: Breakthrough and critical acclaim","text":"In July 2008, Wasikowska was cast as the eponymous heroine in Tim Burton's version of Alice in Wonderland, alongside Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway and Helena Bonham Carter.[39] She sent a videotaped audition to casting directors in London, and her first live reading in Los Angeles occurred on the same day as her Evening Sun audition.[36] After three more auditions in London, she was given the role.[40] Burton cited her \"old-soul quality\" as a catalyst in casting her: \"Because you're witnessing this whole thing through her eyes, it needed somebody who can subtly portray that.\"[26]Wasikowska at the Independent Spirit Awards on 5 March 2010Wasikowska portrayed a nineteen-year-old Alice returning to Wonderland for the first time in over a decade after falling down a rabbit hole from an unwanted marriage proposal. Her affinity for the character played a part in her desire for the role, as she had read the Lewis Carroll books as a child and was a fan of Jan Švankmajer's 1988 stop-motion film Alice.[41] She considered Burton's film as a chance to explore a deeper characterisation of Alice, to whom she felt young women her age could relate, saying: \"Alice has a certain discomfort within herself, within society and among her peers; I [...] have definitely felt similarly about all of those things, so I could really understand her not fitting in. Alice also [is] an observer who is thinking a lot, and that's similar to how I am.\"[40]For Lisa Cholodenko's indie comedy The Kids Are All Right, Wasikowska was cast as Joni, the bookish daughter of a lesbian couple (Annette Bening and Julianne Moore) who was conceived via artificial insemination. At her younger brother's (Josh Hutcherson) request, she seeks out their biological father (Mark Ruffalo).[42] During shooting, she successfully campaigned to have Joni wear pajamas in several home scenes.[43] She explained to Orlando Sentinel film critic Roger Moore, \"[Joni's] very comfortable in her place, with who she is. So I pushed to have her, whenever she was at home, in her pajamas. That's comfortable! And that's something I do.\"[44]On 25 October, Wasikowska was honored with the Hollywood Awards' Breakthrough Actress Award,[45] which was presented to her by Bryce Dallas Howard,[46] and she won the Australian Film Institute International Award for Best Actress on 12 December for her performance in Alice in Wonderland.[47] According to Forbes, Alice in Wonderland was amongst the highest-grossing films of 2010 with $1.025 billion.[48] As of May 2022, it is the 44th-highest-grossing film of all time.From March to May 2010, Wasikowska filmed Cary Fukunaga's adaptation of Jane Eyre, in which she starred as the title character opposite Michael Fassbender as Mr. Rochester.[49] She began reading the novel after completion of Alice in Wonderland, during which she asked her agent if a script existed. Two months later, she received a script and was asked to meet with Fukunaga[50] Fukunaga was unfamiliar with her work and was undecided about casting her, so he sought the opinion of director Gus Van Sant, who had worked with Wasikowska on his 2011 film Restless.[51] Fukunga told BlackBook magazine in February 2011, \"Gus wrote back: 'Cast her.'\"[20] Due to a scheduling conflict, she had to withdraw from the lead in Julia Leigh's 2011 Australian independent film Sleeping Beauty, and she was replaced by Emily Browning.[52][53]Wasikowska appeared in Restless (2011), which was filmed from November to December 2009. The portrayal of her character, a terminally ill sixteen-year-old, required her to crop her long hair.[54] From December 2010 to February 2011, Wasikowska filmed Rodrigo García's Albert Nobbs, for which she was a last-minute replacement for Amanda Seyfried.[55]On 21 April 2011, Wasikowska was named in the Time 100, a listing of the world's most influential people, which featured a brief essay written by Albert Nobbs co-star Glenn Close.[56] In June, Wasikowska was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[57] In December, she was among a group of actors who filmed a series of shorts from The New York Times titled Touch of Evil, which honored the art of cinematic villainy.[58]Wasikowska at the 2015 San Diego Comic-ConIn 2011, Wasikowska played the small supporting role of Shia LaBeouf's character's love interest in John Hillcoat's Lawless.[59] Later in the year, she filmed the lead in Park Chan-wook's English-language debut, Stoker.[60][61] Lawless premiered at Cannes in May 2012, while Stoker debuted at Sundance in January 2013. Wasikowska also appeared in Miu Miu's spring 2012 fashion campaign.[62] In 2012, she made her second appearance in a Vanity Fair Hollywood Issue, this time being featured on the cover panel.[63]Filming of her next project, Richard Ayoade's The Double, began in the UK in May 2012.[64] In July, she shot Jim Jarmusch's vampire drama Only Lovers Left Alive, in which she plays the younger sister of Tilda Swinton's character.[65][66] Filming of Tracks, director John Curran's adaptation of the Robyn Davidson memoir of the same name, began in October 2012 in Australia, with Wasikowska in the lead role.[67][68] The film was screened in competition at the 2013 Venice Film Festival.Wasikowska made her directorial debut on a segment of The Turning, a collection of short stories by Australian author Tim Winton.[69] It premiered in August 2013 at the Melbourne International Film Festival. In July 2013, she began filming David Cronenberg's Maps to the Stars in Toronto. The film was released in 2014.[70] She next played the title role in Sophie Barthes' film adaptation of Madame Bovary,[71] which began shooting on 30 September 2014 in Normandy, France.[72]Wasikowska replaced Emma Stone in Guillermo del Toro's gothic romance Crimson Peak (2015), where she starred alongside Tom Hiddleston and Jessica Chastain. Production commenced in February 2014. The film premiered at Fantastic Fest on 25 September 2015, and was later released in the United States in October. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising the production values, performances and direction.[73][74]In 2016, Wasikowska reprised the role of Alice in Alice Through the Looking Glass.[75] Despite receiving generally negative reviews and faring badly at the box office, critics praised its performances and visual effects. This was Wasikowska's last major film studio release before moving on to appear in more independent films.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cédric Jimenez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9dric_Jimenez"},{"link_name":"The Man with the Iron Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_with_the_Iron_Heart_(film)"},{"link_name":"HHhH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HHhH"},{"link_name":"Jason Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Clarke_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Rosamund Pike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamund_Pike"},{"link_name":"Jack O'Connell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_O%27Connell_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Jack Reynor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Reynor"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HHHH-76"},{"link_name":"Principal 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Roth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Roth"},{"link_name":"Anders Danielsen Lie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders_Danielsen_Lie"},{"link_name":"Cannes Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Robert Connolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Connolly"},{"link_name":"Blueback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueback_(film)"},{"link_name":"Eric Bana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Bana"},{"link_name":"2022 Toronto International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Toronto_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TIFF-85"},{"link_name":"Jessica Hausner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Hausner"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"2017–present: Independent films","text":"In May 2015, Wasikowska joined the cast of Cédric Jimenez's historical thriller The Man with the Iron Heart, based on the novel HHhH. She starred alongside Jason Clarke, Rosamund Pike, Jack O'Connell and Jack Reynor.[76] Principal photography began 14 September 2015 in Prague and Budapest, and ended on 1 February 2016.[77][78][79] The film was released in 2017. The same year, she starred in Spike Jonze's stage show Changers: A Dance Story, alongside Lakeith Stanfield. Featuring dance choreography by Ryan Heffington, the show premiered at an Opening Ceremony fashion week presentation in September 2017 before opening to the public for a four-night run at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club.[80]In 2018, she appeared in David and Nathan Zellner's black comedy western Damsel, reuniting with her Maps to the Stars co-star Robert Pattinson, and in Nicolas Pesce's psychosexual thriller Piercing, based on Ryū Murakami's 1994 novel of the same name.[81][82] The following year, she starred in Mirrah Foulkes' feature directorial debut Judy and Punch. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 27 January 2019. From July to August of 2019, Wasikowska made her theatre debut as Ralph in the Sydney Theatre Company production of Nigel Williams' stage adaptation of William Golding's Lord of the Flies.[83] She next appeared in Roger Michell's drama Blackbird, alongside Susan Sarandon and Kate Winslet. It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September 2019.Wasikowska's sole release of 2020 was Netflix's The Devil All the Time, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Donald Ray Pollock directed by Antonio Campos. She was part of an ensemble cast formed by Tom Holland, Bill Skarsgård, Riley Keough, Sebastian Stan and previous collaborators Clarke and Pattinson, among others names. In 2021, she starred in Mia Hansen-Løve's Bergman Island, alongside Vicky Krieps, Tim Roth and Anders Danielsen Lie. The film had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 11 July 2021. As of 2021, Wasikowska had moved to focus more on directing and filmmaking with a feature film script written and was seeking financiers.[84] She starred in Robert Connolly's family drama Blueback, alongside Eric Bana, which had its world premiere at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival.[85] In February 2022, it was announced that Wasikowska would portray an unusual schoolteacher in Jessica Hausner's second English-language film Club Zero. Filming began in the United Kingdom and Austria in July.[86]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-torontostar-87"},{"link_name":"Rolleiflex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolleiflex"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-traileraddict-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-traileraddict2-89"},{"link_name":"Jamie Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Bell"},{"link_name":"National Photographic Portrait Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Photographic_Portrait_Prize"},{"link_name":"National Portrait Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centimes-90"},{"link_name":"Jesse Eisenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Eisenberg"},{"link_name":"The Double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_(2013_film)"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smh130810-22"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"text":"In her spare time, Wasikowska is an avid photographer,[87] often chronicling her travels and capturing images of her film sets with a Rolleiflex camera.[88] During production of Jane Eyre, she had a secret pocket sewn into one of her costumes to conceal a digital camera that she used between takes.[89] One of her on-set images, of Fukunaga and Jane Eyre co-star Jamie Bell, was selected as a finalist in the 2011 National Photographic Portrait Prize hosted by Australia's National Portrait Gallery on 24 February 2011.[90]From 2013 to 2015, Wasikowska dated actor Jesse Eisenberg, her co-star in The Double.[91][92]Wasikowska resides in Sydney, Australia.[22][93] She speaks some Polish.[94]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mia_Wasikowska_2,_2012.jpg"},{"link_name":"AACTA Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AACTA_Awards"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"Wasikowska at the 2012 AACTA Awards","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Video games","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Awards and nominations"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Wasikowska at the Independent Spirit Awards on 5 March 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mia_Wasikowska_2010.jpg/170px-Mia_Wasikowska_2010.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wasikowska at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Mia_Wasikowska_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/200px-Mia_Wasikowska_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wasikowska at the 2012 AACTA Awards","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mia_Wasikowska_2%2C_2012.jpg/170px-Mia_Wasikowska_2%2C_2012.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Robert Pattinson & Mia Wasikowska Answer the Web's Most Searched Questions | WIRED. WIRED. 20 June 2018. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Y0RyoZcJ30","url_text":"Robert Pattinson & Mia Wasikowska Answer the Web's Most Searched Questions | WIRED"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231207064453/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Y0RyoZcJ30","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"Maltin, Leonard; Maltin, Jessie (22 June 2018). \"Maltin on Movies #186: Mia Wasikowska\". Nerdist (Interview). Legendary Entertainment. Archived from the original on 22 June 2018. 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The Daily Telegraph. News Limited. 29 November 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,23663,22841059-5007181,00.html","url_text":"\"Career roll taking Mia Wasikowska to the top\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_(Sydney)","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_Limited","url_text":"News Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101202044230/http://www.news.com.au/canberra-teen-on-fast-track/story-e6frfmwr-1111114991646","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Reilly, Natalie (January 2009). \"Young talent time: Mia Wasikowska\". Sunday Life (Australia); reprinted on mia-wasikowska.net. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. 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Archived from the original on 31 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/movies/mia-wasikowska/story-e6frexli-1225836682931","url_text":"\"Aussie Alice 'destined for greatness'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_(Sydney)","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_Limited","url_text":"News Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120131154726/http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/entertainment/movies/mia-wasikowska/story-e6frexli-1225836682931","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wloszczyna, Susan (12 March 2010). \"'Wonderland' star Wasikowska is a wildflower in acting world\". USA Today. Archived from the original on 17 August 2010. 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Retrieved 4 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vtap.com/video/Lens+Love+Story/CL0051399563_4d3ab2a82_c3c6bGVucy5sb3ZlLnN0b3J5fmluOjF-cTpzZX5tdzpMZW5zIExvdmUgU3RvcnksQ0wwMDUyODk3MTIyfmluOjF-cTpybH5idzpDTDAwNTI4OTcxMjIsQ0wwMDUyODk3MTIyfmluOjJ-cTpybH5idzpDTDAwNTI4OTcxMjI","url_text":"\"Lens Love Story\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150706232409/http://www.vtap.com/video/Lens+Love+Story/CL0051399563_4d3ab2a82_c3c6bGVucy5sb3ZlLnN0b3J5fmluOjF-cTpzZX5tdzpMZW5zIExvdmUgU3RvcnksQ0wwMDUyODk3MTIyfmluOjF-cTpybH5idzpDTDAwNTI4OTcxMjIsQ0wwMDUyODk3MTIyfmluOjJ-cTpybH5idzpDTDAwNTI4OTcxMjI","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Skin trailer. 24 June 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2011 – via MySpace.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.myspace.com/video/vid/11440302","url_text":"Skin trailer"}]},{"reference":"Cosette. 12 November 2009. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 4 August 2011 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tA6dXblCB6E&videos=8nphB5d3GUM","url_text":"Cosette"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211118/tA6dXblCB6E","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"I Love Sarah Jane. 2 February 2009. Archived from the original on 10 June 2009. Retrieved 4 August 2011 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090610065158/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYxs7Y7ulrM&feature=related","url_text":"I Love Sarah Jane"},{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYxs7Y7ulrM&videos=2uGc7DoeZ5E","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"Summer Breaks. 2 September 2011. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Faigin
|
Gary Faigin
|
["1 Life","2 Work","3 References","4 External links"]
|
American painter
Gary Faigin is an American artist, author, co-founder and Artistic Director of the Gage Academy of Art, Seattle.
Life
Gary Faigin was born on September 17, 1950, in Detroit, Michigan. His parents were both teachers. As a college student during the Vietnam War, Faigin dropped out of the residential college at the University of Michigan to travel to San Francisco to participate in the communal movement at its high point, in the early 1970s.
In 1976, determined to train as a realist artist, Faigin hitchhiked from the West Coast to New York City specifically to study with famed anatomist Robert Beverly Hale at the Art Students League of New York. He remained a student at the League for four years, focusing on figure drawing, anatomy, and perspective. In addition, he pursued art studies part-time at the National Academy of Design, School of Visual Arts, and Parsons School of Design.
In 1979, Faigin travelled to Paris where he spent a year studying at the famed École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts.
He currently resides in Seattle with his wife Pamela Belyea (m. 1976) and two children (b. 1991 and 1996).
Work
Upon the retirement of Robert Beverly Hale, in 1983, Faigin was asked to teach his Figure Drawing class at the League, a program he presented continuously over the next decade. Concurrently, he taught Perspective and Portrait Drawing at the newly founded New York Academy of Art, the National Academy School of Design, the School of Visual Art, and Parsons School of Design. He opened his own studio in Hell's Kitchen and began personal work focused on self-portraits and still lifes.Cause and Effect, Gary Faigin, Oil on Canvas, 2002, 36"x60", Private Collection
In the summer of 1984, Faigin began a ten-year summer residence in Santa Fe, New Mexico, a locale that afforded him exposure to the burgeoning realist painting scene of the Southwest. His works included pastel landscapes and print making with shows at the Frank Croft and the Realist Art Galleries.
In 1989, Faigin and his wife decided to open a summer art school in Santa Fe; the next summer saw the launch of the Academy of Realist Art at St. John’s College with two sessions and 44 students. That school grew into the current year-round Gage Academy of Art in Seattle. Faigin currently serves as Artistic Director of Gage, leads annual Gage art tours to European and American museums, and teaches painting and drawing. A 2005 photo by Thomas Struth captured Faigin lecturing in front of Las Meninas at the Prado to a group of Gage tour participants.
In 1990, Faigin's The Artist's Complete Guide to Facial Expression was published. It is now in its 17th printing and has also been published in French, Italian, German, Japanese, Russian, and Korean. While the book is employed by artists, it is also popular with digital animators, cartoonists, portrait artists, forensic artists, puppeteers, actors, and art directors, as well as psychologists and plastic surgeons; in the extra features of Shrek, The Artist's Guide is seen in several shots during interviews. In 2010, Faigin and Barbara Mones, the Creative Director of the Computer Animation Lab at the University of Washington, organized an interdisciplinary research team to explore the way human expressions are interpreted on stylized (i.e., animated) faces.
The Frye Art Museum in Seattle presented a retrospective exhibition of Faigin's work in 2001. The show included work from the "Moving Pictures" still life series as well as the "City of Billboard" series. Another ongoing series of paintings has featured houses in peril, a sort of foreshadowing of the mortgage crisis of 2008. In 2006, Faigin's Seattle studio was featured in the first public demonstration of Microsoft's Photosynth using the details in his paintings and drawings to show off its high-resolution capabilities. He was nominated for a Neddy Award in 2009. In 2012, Faigin completed a 16-foot mural for Temple Beth Am in Seattle on the subject of the festivals of the Jewish year.
From 2001-2012, Faigin had a monthly spot as an art critic on the KUOW-FM radio station in Seattle and also posted monthly reviews on the Seattle arts website artdish.com. He also wrote art reviews for The Seattle Times for several years, and more recently artist obituaries. Through the Gage Academy, he has hosted an artist interview series called ArtTalk, some of which appear on the Seattle Channel. Many of these interviews are hosted at Town Hall.
In 2015 Faigin joined the Founding Board of the new Cascadia Art Museum in Edmonds, where is he is on the Executive Committee. He was also made an Artist Fellow of the Rainier Club.
Faigin is represented by Harris/Harvey Galleryin Pike Place Market in Seattle.
References
^ Graves, Jen (April 27, 2007). "A Dickens of a Character". The Stranger. Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. Retrieved November 1, 2008.
^ Tarzan, Deloris (January 16, 1992). "The Timing Was Right For Artists Belyea, Faigin". The Seattle Times. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ Tarzan, Deloris (October 4, 1992). "Learning To See -- Lesson One Is To Forget What You Think Things Look Like - Including Yourself". The Seattle Times. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ Graves, Jen (April 26, 2007). "Art School Confidential - Visual Art". The Stranger. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ Gary Faigin (1990). The Artist's Complete Guide to Facial Expression. ISBN 9780823016280 – via Amazon.com.
^ "Barbara Mones Website". cs.washington.edu. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ Josslin, Victoria (June 25, 2001). "Faigin's fabulous fruit show his skills as art historian". Seattle PI. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ "Gary Faigin". YouTube. January 17, 2010. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^
^ Hackett, Regina (November 26, 2008). "Gimme (back) Shelter: Art for the housing crisis". Seattle PI. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ "2009 Behnke Foundation Neddy Fellowship Award". Behnke Foundation. Retrieved March 23, 2021.
^ "Birth is a Beginning - Gary Faigin Mural". YouTube. November 19, 2011. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ "Sound Focus". KUOW. Archived from the original on December 18, 2008. Retrieved November 1, 2008.
^ "Author: Gary Faigin". artdish.com. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008. Retrieved November 9, 2008.
^ "An Evening With: Roger Shimomura with Gary Faigin". Seattle Channel. July 15, 2015. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
^ "The Rainier Review" (PDF). The Rainier Club. June 2015. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
External links
Gary Faigin fine art website
Gary Faigin facial expression website
Gage Academy of Art in Seattle
Harris/Harvey Gallery in Seattle
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
Korea
Other
SNAC
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gage Academy of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gage_Academy_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Gary Faigin is an American artist, author, co-founder and Artistic Director of the Gage Academy of Art, Seattle.[1]","title":"Gary Faigin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Detroit, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"residential college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_college"},{"link_name":"University of Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan"},{"link_name":"Robert Beverly Hale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Beverly_Hale"},{"link_name":"Art Students League of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Students_League_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Design"},{"link_name":"School of Visual Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Visual_Arts"},{"link_name":"Parsons School of Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsons_School_of_Design"},{"link_name":"École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaux-Arts_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"}],"text":"Gary Faigin was born on September 17, 1950, in Detroit, Michigan. His parents were both teachers. As a college student during the Vietnam War, Faigin dropped out of the residential college at the University of Michigan to travel to San Francisco to participate in the communal movement at its high point, in the early 1970s.In 1976, determined to train as a realist artist, Faigin hitchhiked from the West Coast to New York City specifically to study with famed anatomist Robert Beverly Hale at the Art Students League of New York. He remained a student at the League for four years, focusing on figure drawing, anatomy, and perspective. In addition, he pursued art studies part-time at the National Academy of Design, School of Visual Arts, and Parsons School of Design.In 1979, Faigin travelled to Paris where he spent a year studying at the famed École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts. \nHe currently resides in Seattle with his wife Pamela Belyea (m. 1976) and two children (b. 1991 and 1996).","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Academy of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Hell's Kitchen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell%27s_Kitchen,_Manhattan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cause_and_Effect.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"St. John’s College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis/Santa_Fe)"},{"link_name":"Gage Academy of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gage_Academy_of_Art"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Thomas Struth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Struth"},{"link_name":"Las Meninas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Meninas"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Shrek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrek"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Frye Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frye_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Photosynth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynth"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"KUOW-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KUOW-FM"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"The Seattle Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seattle_Times"},{"link_name":"artist obituaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/visual-arts/michael-spafford-one-of-seattles-most-respected-artists-dies-at-age-86/"},{"link_name":"ArtTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gageacademy.org/arttalk/"},{"link_name":"Seattle Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Channel"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Town Hall.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_Hall_Seattle"},{"link_name":"Founding Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cascadiaartmuseum.org/board-staff/"},{"link_name":"Cascadia Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"Edmonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonds,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Rainier Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainier_Club"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Harris/Harvey Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.harrisharveygallery.com/gary-faigin"},{"link_name":"Pike Place Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pike_Place_Market"}],"text":"Upon the retirement of Robert Beverly Hale, in 1983, Faigin was asked to teach his Figure Drawing class at the League, a program he presented continuously over the next decade. Concurrently, he taught Perspective and Portrait Drawing at the newly founded New York Academy of Art, the National Academy School of Design, the School of Visual Art, and Parsons School of Design. He opened his own studio in Hell's Kitchen and began personal work focused on self-portraits and still lifes.Cause and Effect, Gary Faigin, Oil on Canvas, 2002, 36\"x60\", Private CollectionIn the summer of 1984, Faigin began a ten-year summer residence in Santa Fe, New Mexico, a locale that afforded him exposure to the burgeoning realist painting scene of the Southwest. His works included pastel landscapes and print making with shows at the Frank Croft and the Realist Art Galleries.In 1989, Faigin and his wife decided to open a summer art school in Santa Fe; the next summer saw the launch of the Academy of Realist Art at St. John’s College with two sessions and 44 students. That school grew into the current year-round Gage Academy of Art in Seattle.[2][3] Faigin currently serves as Artistic Director of Gage,[4] leads annual Gage art tours to European and American museums, and teaches painting and drawing. A 2005 photo by Thomas Struth captured Faigin lecturing in front of Las Meninas at the Prado to a group of Gage tour participants.In 1990, Faigin's The Artist's Complete Guide to Facial Expression was published.[5] It is now in its 17th printing and has also been published in French, Italian, German, Japanese, Russian, and Korean. While the book is employed by artists, it is also popular with digital animators, cartoonists, portrait artists, forensic artists, puppeteers, actors, and art directors, as well as psychologists and plastic surgeons; in the extra features of Shrek, The Artist's Guide is seen in several shots during interviews. In 2010, Faigin and Barbara Mones, the Creative Director of the Computer Animation Lab at the University of Washington,[6] organized an interdisciplinary research team to explore the way human expressions are interpreted on stylized (i.e., animated) faces.The Frye Art Museum in Seattle presented a retrospective exhibition of Faigin's work in 2001.[7][8] The show included work from the \"Moving Pictures\" still life series as well as the \"City of Billboard\" series.[9] Another ongoing series of paintings has featured houses in peril, a sort of foreshadowing of the mortgage crisis of 2008.[10] In 2006, Faigin's Seattle studio was featured in the first public demonstration of Microsoft's Photosynth using the details in his paintings and drawings to show off its high-resolution capabilities. He was nominated for a Neddy Award in 2009.[11] In 2012, Faigin completed a 16-foot mural for Temple Beth Am in Seattle on the subject of the festivals of the Jewish year.[12]From 2001-2012, Faigin had a monthly spot as an art critic on the KUOW-FM radio station in Seattle[13] and also posted monthly reviews on the Seattle arts website artdish.com.[14] He also wrote art reviews for The Seattle Times for several years, and more recently artist obituaries. Through the Gage Academy, he has hosted an artist interview series called ArtTalk, some of which appear on the Seattle Channel.[15] Many of these interviews are hosted at Town Hall.In 2015 Faigin joined the Founding Board of the new Cascadia Art Museum in Edmonds, where is he is on the Executive Committee. He was also made an Artist Fellow of the Rainier Club.[16]Faigin is represented by Harris/Harvey Galleryin Pike Place Market in Seattle.","title":"Work"}]
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| null |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_River
|
Brisbane River
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["1 Name","2 Course","2.1 Kangaroo Point Cliffs","2.2 Reaches","2.3 Tributaries","3 History","3.1 20th century","3.2 21st century","3.3 Floods","3.4 Navigation","4 Crossings","4.1 Brisbane Riverwalk","4.2 Cross river tunnel","5 Environmental concerns","6 Flora","7 Fauna","7.1 Queensland lungfish","7.2 Brisbane River cod","7.3 Bull sharks","8 Water Transport","9 Events","10 Named in its honour","11 See also","12 References","12.1 Citations","12.2 Sources","13 Further reading","14 External links"]
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Coordinates: 27°24′S 153°9′E / 27.400°S 153.150°E / -27.400; 153.150River in Queensland, Australia
"Maiwar" redirects here. For the state electoral district, see Electoral district of Maiwar.
Brisbane RiverMaiwarBrisbane River from Kangaroo PointLocation of river mouth in QueenslandEtymologyThomas BrisbaneNative nameMaiwarLocationCountryAustraliaStateQueenslandRegionSouth-East QueenslandCityBrisbanePhysical characteristicsSourceMount Stanley • locationeast of Nanango • coordinates26°39′S 152°22′E / 26.650°S 152.367°E / -26.650; 152.367 • elevation213 m (699 ft)
MouthMoreton Bay • locationeast of Brisbane • coordinates27°24′S 153°9′E / 27.400°S 153.150°E / -27.400; 153.150 • elevation0 m (0 ft)Length344 km (214 mi)Basin size13,652.3 km2 (5,271.2 sq mi)Discharge • locationNear mouth • average51.2 m3/s (1,620 GL/a)
Basin featuresRiver systemBrisbane RiverTributaries • leftStanley River, Moggill Creek, Breakfast Creek • rightLockyer Creek, Bremer River, Oxley Creek, Norman Creek, Bulimba Creek
The Brisbane River (Turrbal: Maiwar) is the longest river in South East Queensland, Australia, and flows through the city of Brisbane, before emptying into Moreton Bay on the Coral Sea. John Oxley, the first European to explore the river, named it after the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Thomas Brisbane in 1823. The penal colony of Moreton Bay later adopted the same name, eventually becoming the present city of Brisbane. The river is a tidal estuary and the water is brackish from its mouth through the majority of the Brisbane metropolitan area westward to the Mount Crosby Weir. The river is wide and navigable throughout the Brisbane metropolitan area.
The river travels 344 km (214 mi) from Mount Stanley. The river is dammed by the Wivenhoe Dam, forming Lake Wivenhoe, the main water supply for Brisbane. The waterway is a habitat for the rare Queensland lungfish, Brisbane River cod (extinct), and bull sharks.
Early travellers along the waterway admired the natural beauty, abundant fish and rich vegetation along its banks. From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875. By the late 1920s, water quality in the river had significantly deteriorated.
Multiple major floods occurred in 1893. In 1974, the most damaging flood on record occurred, causing the 66,000-tonne vessel Robert Miller (largest ship ever built on the river) to break free from its mooring. Other major floods occurred in January 2011 and February 2022.
Extensive port facilities have been constructed on the Fisherman Islands, now known as the Port of Brisbane, located at the mouth of the river on Moreton Bay. There are 16 major bridges that cross the river. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport. The CityCat and KittyCat ferry services deliver passengers along the inner-city reaches of the river.
Name
In 1823 John Oxley named the river after the Governor Thomas Brisbane while surveying the area to locate a new penal settlement. The name is of Scottish origin, dating from at least 1643, from their family lands at Rothiebrisbane, Aberdeenshire. This is the name now used by the Queensland Government.
Maiwar is the name of the river in the Turrbal language (the language of an Aboriginal group native to the Brisbane area). The name is also used for the inner-western state electorate of Maiwar.
According to Archibald Meston and Tom Petrie in 1901, the Aboriginal people of the Brisbane area did not have a single name for the river, but rather they named individual reaches and bends.
Course
Course of the lower reaches of the Brisbane River from Ipswich to Moreton Bay. Legend Brisbane River and Moreton Bay Road bridges Rail bridges Pedestrian only bridges Bus and pedestrian only bridges
The Brisbane River East and West branches traditionally have their headwaters in the ranges east of Kingaroy. The two branches merge into a single watercourse south of Mount Stanley. Using an alternative modern definition, the source is located at the top of Fig Tree Gully in the Bunya Mountains, which are the headwaters of the river's longest tributary Cooyar Creek. Water from the highest point in the catchment has fallen on the Bunya Mountains, 992m above sea level.
The junction of Cooyar Creek and Brisbane River is south of Avoca Vale, and the river then makes its way south past townships including Linville, Moore and Toogoolawah before being joined by the Stanley River, just south of Somerset Dam.
The river runs from there into Lake Wivenhoe, created by the Wivenhoe Dam. Beyond the dam, the river meanders eastward, meeting the Bremer River near Ipswich, then making its way through Brisbane's western suburbs, including Jindalee, Indooroopilly and Toowong.
The Brisbane River then flows past wharves including Pinkenba Wharf and Portside Wharf, past Bulwer Island and Luggage Point through the Port of Brisbane and into southern Bramble Bay an embayment of Moreton Bay.
Kangaroo Point Cliffs
On the southern side of the river, opposite Gardens Point, are the Kangaroo Point Cliffs; made from Triassic aged volcanic rock of rhyolite composition called Brisbane tuff. The Kangaroo Point Cliffs were created by a quarrying operation that, according to Allan Cunninghams' Field Book, was underway prior to 1829 when he observed a "stone wharf presumably used for landing the blocks of stone ferried across the river for the construction of buildings in the settlement". This was in the vicinity of Edward Street ferry terminal. Quarrying this volcanic rock formed part of the hard labour undertaken by the convicts of the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement, which not only provided the convicts with the punishment of hard labour but also provided the settlement with a useful building material. Many of the early buildings including the Commissariat Store, Brisbane were built by convicts using tuff from this quarry. After the penal settlement was closed, the Petrie family leased the cliffs and quarried the tuff for use in their construction projects, but ultimately quarrying this material became uneconomic without the free labour of the convicts.
The volcanic rock Ignimbrite which formed the cliffs was deposited in the Triassic period about 220 million years ago. They currently form the banks of the Brisbane River.
Reaches
A number of the reaches of the Brisbane River are named, including the following listed below (from upstream to downstream), together with their location relative to tributaries of the river and river crossings:
Reach name
Suburb(s)
Coordinates
Image
Notes
Dalys Reach
Karalee
Anstead
27°33′14″S 152°50′56″E / 27.554°S 152.849°E / -27.554; 152.849 (11 December 2017)
Bremer River
Moggill Reach
Riverview
Moggill
27°35′24″S 152°51′22″E / 27.590°S 152.856°E / -27.590; 152.856 (Moggill Reach)
Moggill Ferry Reserve was completely under water after the 2022 Flood
Six Mile Creek
Redbank Reach
Moggill
Redbank
27°35′24″S 152°51′54″E / 27.590°S 152.865°E / -27.590; 152.865 (Redbank Reach)
Muddy Brisbane river covered with debris after days of raining
Goodna Creek
Goodna Reach
Goodna
Moggill
27°35′38″S 152°53′28″E / 27.594°S 152.891°E / -27.594; 152.891 (Goodna Reach)
Goodna Boat Ramp in May 2023
Woogaroo Creek
Cockatoo Reach
Moggill
Wacol
27°35′17″S 152°53′53″E / 27.588°S 152.898°E / -27.588; 152.898 (Cockatoo Reach)
Cockatoo Island of Brisbane River
Wolston Creek
Goggs Reach
RiverhillsBellbowrie
27°33′54″S 152°53′53″E / 27.565°S 152.898°E / -27.565; 152.898 (Goggs Reach)
Newcomb Park, Riverhills QLD
Popes Reach
RiverhillsBellbowrie
27°33′29″S 152°54′04″E / 27.558°S 152.901°E / -27.558; 152.901 (Popes Reach)
Pullen Pullen Creek
Pullen Reach
WestlakePinjarra HillsBellbowrie
27°33′00″S 152°54′14″E / 27.550°S 152.904°E / -27.550; 152.904 (Pullen Reach)
Riverview Farm Park on 11 March 2022
Two Mile Reach
WestlakePinjarra Hills
27°32′35″S 152°54′54″E / 27.543°S 152.915°E / -27.543; 152.915 (Two Mile Reach)
Mount Ommaney Creek
Mount Ommaney Reach
JindaleeMount OmmaneyPinjarra Hills
27°32′06″S 152°55′37″E / 27.535°S 152.927°E / -27.535; 152.927 (Mount Ommaney Reach)
Moggill Creek
Centenary Bridge
Mermaid Reach
Fig Tree PocketKenmoreJindaleeIndooroopilly
27°31′37″S 152°56′53″E / 27.527°S 152.948°E / -27.527; 152.948 (Mermaid Reach)
Sherwood Reach
Fig Tree Pocket
Sherwood
27°31′41″S 152°58′16″E / 27.528°S 152.971°E / -27.528; 152.971 (Sherwood Reach)
Chelmer Reach
ChelmerFig Tree PocketIndooroopilly
27°30′39″S 152°58′03″E / 27.5108°S 152.9675°E / -27.5108; 152.9675 (Chelmer Reach)
Walter Taylor Bridge
Indooroopilly Railway Bridge
Albert Bridge
Jack Pesch Bridge
Indooroopilly Reach
IndooroopillyChelmer
27°30′58″S 152°59′13″E / 27.516°S 152.987°E / -27.516; 152.987 (Indooroopilly Reach)
Canoe Reach
IndooroopillyYeronga
27°31′16″S 153°00′32″E / 27.521°S 153.009°E / -27.521; 153.009 (Canoe Reach)
Long Pocket Reach
IndooroopillyYerongaFairfield
27°30′36″S 152°59′56″E / 27.510°S 152.999°E / -27.510; 152.999 (Long Pocket Reach)
Cemetery Reach
St LuciaDutton Park
27°29′53″S 153°01′12″E / 27.498°S 153.020°E / -27.498; 153.020 (Cemetery Reach)
Eleanor Schonell Bridge
St Lucia Reach
St LuciaHighgate Hill
27°29′28″S 153°00′11″E / 27.491°S 153.003°E / -27.491; 153.003 (St Lucia Reach)
Toowong Reach
ToowongAuchenflowerWest End
27°28′59″S 152°59′49″E / 27.483°S 152.997°E / -27.483; 152.997 (Toowong Reach)
Milton Reach
MiltonAuchenflowerWest End
27°28′26″S 153°00′18″E / 27.474°S 153.005°E / -27.474; 153.005 (Milton Reach)
Go Between Bridge
Merivale Bridge
William Jolly Bridge
Kurilpa Bridge
Victoria Bridge
South Brisbane Reach
South BrisbaneBrisbane CBD
27°28′23″S 153°01′16″E / 27.473°S 153.021°E / -27.473; 153.021 (South Brisbane Reach)
Goodwill Bridge
Captain Cook Bridge
Town Reach
Brisbane CBDKangaroo Point
27°28′26″S 153°01′55″E / 27.474°S 153.032°E / -27.474; 153.032 (Town Reach)
Petrie Bight
Brisbane CBDFortitude ValleyKangaroo Point
27°27′58″S 153°01′55″E / 27.466°S 153.032°E / -27.466; 153.032 (Petrie Bight)
Story Bridge
Shafston Reach
Kangaroo PointNew Farm
27°28′12″S 153°02′20″E / 27.47°S 153.039°E / -27.47; 153.039 (Shafston Reach)
Norman Creek
Humbug Reach
New FarmNorman ParkEast Brisbane
27°28′23″S 153°03′04″E / 27.473°S 153.051°E / -27.473; 153.051 (Humbug Reach)
Bulimba Reach
BulimbaNewstead
27°26′56″S 153°03′00″E / 27.449°S 153.05°E / -27.449; 153.05 (Bulimba Reach)
Breakfast Creek
Hamilton Reach
HamiltonBulimbaMorningside
27°26′24″S 153°03′18″E / 27.440°S 153.055°E / -27.440; 153.055 (Hamilton Reach)
Quarries Reach
Eagle FarmMurarrie
27°26′46″S 153°05′38″E / 27.446°S 153.094°E / -27.446; 153.094 (Quarries Reach)
Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges
Bulimba Creek
Lytton Reach
LyttonPinkenba
27°25′37″S 153°07′34″E / 27.427°S 153.126°E / -27.427; 153.126 (Lytton Reach)
Quarantine Flats Reach
27°24′29″S 153°08′53″E / 27.408°S 153.148°E / -27.408; 153.148 (Quarantine Flats Reach)
Moreton Bay
Tributaries
The following major tributaries flow into the Brisbane River from the north; Breakfast Creek, Moggill Creek and the Stanley River. On the southside Bulimba Creek, Norman Creek, Oxley Creek, Bremer River and Lockyer Creek waterways enter the Brisbane River. The following smaller creeks also flow into the river; Cressbrook Creek, Cooyar Creek, Cubberla Creek, Black Snake Creek, Wolston Creek, Woogaroo Creek, Goodna Creek, Six Mile Creek, Pullen Pullen Creek and Kholo Creek.
History
Aerial view of Brisbane and the Brisbane River
The Brisbane River a short distance downstream of Wivenhoe Dam near Fernvale, while the spillway is open
The Port of Brisbane at the mouth of the Brisbane River on Moreton Bay
Before European settlement, the Brisbane River was spiritually important and a vital food source for the Aboriginal people of the Turrbal people, primarily through fishing in the tidal sections downstream. Additionally, fishing and fire-stick farming took place in the upper reaches of the river where there was freshwater, in some seasons.
Four European navigators, namely James Cook, Matthew Flinders, John Bingle and William Edwardson, all visited Moreton Bay but failed to discover the river. The exploration by Flinders took place during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay in 1799. He spent a total of 15 days in the area, touching down at Woody Point and several other spots, but failed to discover the mouth of the river although there were suspicions of its existence. This is consistent with accounts of many other rivers along the east coast of Australia, which could not be found by seaward exploration but were discovered by inland travellers.
On 21 March 1823, four ticket-of-leave convicts sailing south from Sydney on a timber getting mission to Illawarra, Thomas Pamphlett, John Finnegan, Richard Parsons and John Thompson were blown north by a storm. They went 21 days without water, continuing north in the belief they had been blown south, during which time Thompson died. They landed on Moreton Island on 16 April and made it to the mainland on the south of the Brisbane River. They immediately began trekking north in order to return to Sydney, still believing themselves to be somewhere south of Jervis Bay. Subsequently, they became the first known Europeans to discover the river, stumbling across it somewhere near the entrance. They walked upstream along its banks for nearly a month before making their first crossing at Canoe Reach, the junction of Oxley Creek. It was here they stole a small canoe left by the Turrbal people of the region.
John Oxley was Surveyor General of New South Wales when, in the same year and under orders from Governor Brisbane, he sailed into Moreton Bay looking for a suitable new site for a convict settlement to be established. An entry in Oxley's diary on 19 November 1823 describes his surprise meeting with one of the shipwrecked men:
"We rounded the Point Skirmish about 5 o'clock and observed a number of natives running along the beach towards the vessel, the foremost much lighter in colour than the rest. We were to the last degree astonished when he came abreast the vessel to hear him hail us in good English."
By that time Pamphlett and Finnegan were living with natives near Bribie Island. Parsons, who had continued to travel north in search of Sydney, was picked up by Oxley on 11 September 1824.
On 2 December 1823, Oxley and Stirling, with Finnegan as a somewhat reluctant guide, entered the river and sailed upstream as far as present-day Goodna.: 191 Oxley noted the abundant fish and tall pine trees. Early European explorers marvelled at the sheer natural beauty they witnessed while travelling up the lower reaches.
Reports by early European explorers such as Allan Cunningham and Oxley indicate rainforest once fringed the Brisbane River and its major tributaries, especially on the broader floodplains such as St Lucia and Seventeen Mile Rocks. The coastal lowlands were extensively vegetated with Melaleuca woodlands in low lying, poorly drained coastal areas. When first described by Europeans, the lower reaches of the Brisbane River were fringed by a mosaic of open forest, closed forest and rainforest.
A historic photo of the Brisbane River
In the same year of 1823, the river was named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, the then Governor of New South Wales. Upon the establishment of a local settlement in 1824, other explorers such as Allan Cunningham, Patrick Logan and Major Edmund Lockyer made expeditions and surveys further upstream, and, in May 1825, the Moreton Bay penal colony at Redcliffe under the command of Heny Miller relocated to North Quay.: 192
The entrance to the Brisbane River was surveyed and marked with buoys in May 1825 by Pilot John M Gray sent from Sydney for the purpose by Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane. Gray also transferred the soldiers and convicts from the First Settlement at Redcliffe at this time. The first small private wharves were built on the river in about 1848.: 197 and the once popular, shark-proof river baths were first built in 1857 at Kangaroo Point.: 7 By 1850, nearly all the prime alluvial lands in the Brisbane River valley had been taken up by settlers.
From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes. Throughout much of the 20th century large quantities of sand and gravel were extracted from the estuary of the river. Since the rate of materials being deposited is not as high as that which was removed, the river has acted as a subaqueous mine.
In 1865, water police were stationed on board Proserpine, a hulk moored at the mouth of the Brisbane River.
In 1866, there was a breakwater built at the junction of the Bremer and Brisbane rivers that was designed to stop shingle from blocking the access to the Bremer's boat channel. The first pile light using kerosene was built in 1882.: 198 The steel framed light also served as an early port signal station.
In February 1896, one of the river's worst disasters occurred with the capsize of the ferry Pearl (which struck the anchor chain of the government yacht Lucinda) with the loss of around 40 lives.
20th century
Brisbane River, from Victoria Bridge, showing Goodwill Bridge and a CityCat ferry
By 1928, due to the early settlement of Brisbane, the water quality had deteriorated to the point where several public baths had to cease sourcing water from the river.: 3 Yet even up to the 1930s, the water was said to be very clear, with reports of people seeing the river bed 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) below the surface. Swimming was once popular at Oxley Point under the Walter Taylor Bridge. In the middle tidal reaches in more recent times, visibility has been about 0.2 m (8 in). As Brisbane grew, the condition of the river worsened until at its worst it was no more than an open sewer and waste dump. The banks were cleared of timber and introduced animals and plants rapidly changed the river's ecology to its detriment.: 6
On 25 March 1941, a USA goodwill flotilla arrived in the city docking at wharves along the River and built Naval Base Brisbane.: 25 The largest ship built on the river was the Robert Miller. Construction was near complete when the 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the 1974 Brisbane flood. In 1977, Queen Elizabeth II switched on the Jubilee Fountain positioned in front of the proposed Queensland Cultural Centre. The jets pushed the floodlit river water up to 75 m (246 ft) in the air. The floating fountain sank late on the 31 December 1984. 1987 was proclaimed the "Year of the River" by the Lord Mayor of Brisbane at the time, Sallyanne Atkinson.
Over the 20th century, enough obstacles, sand and gravel had been removed from the river that its channel depth increased the tidal flow and tidal range upstream.
21st century
On 9 August 2020, it was discovered that Google Maps accidentally changed the Brisbane River name to Ithaca Creek after a complaint that Ithaca Creek was incorrectly named Brisbane River.
Floods
The 1893 Brisbane flood
A NASA image of the 2011 flood. The top of the photo is oriented approximately to the southwest. The light-coloured rooftops of residences and other structures contrast sharply with green vegetation and brown, sediment laden flood-waters. Most visible low-lying areas are inundated by flood-water, perhaps the most striking being Rocklea (upper left). Yeronga (lower left) also has evident regions of flooding, as does a park and golf course located along a bend in the Brisbane River to the south of St Lucia (centre). Flooding becomes less apparent near the higher elevations of Mount Coot-tha (right).
The Brisbane River floods frequently, although the occurrence and magnitude of flooding has diminished following the construction of the Wivenhoe Dam on the upper reaches of the River.
Past floods have resulted in both deepening and reduction in river depth, creation of new sand banks and shoals as well as increased transport of suspended sediment from upstream. Before the invention of modern dredging techniques the sediment deposited by flooding created hazards to ships navigating the river. Even medium-sized vessels no longer travel up the Brisbane River beyond the city reach, and dredging of the upper reaches has ceased, allowing the river to recover substantially from the fine silt dislodged by gravel and sand extraction.
Significant floods have occurred several times since the European settlement of Brisbane. There have been 12 Major flood peaks (over 3.5m) recorded at the Brisbane gauge since records began in 1841, including:
14 January 1841, with a maximum river level of 8.43m at the gauge, the highest flood level recorded to date
10 January 1844, 7.1m flood peak at Brisbane.
February 1863, 3.8m flood peak
January 1887, 3.8m flood peak
July 1889, 3.8m flood peak
March 1890, 5.3m flood peak
February 1893, a sequence of flood peaks (8.35 metres and 8.09 metres) over two weeks saw the highest recorded flood level in the Brisbane central business district. Seven lives were lost in the Eclipse Colliery at North Ipswich as a direct result of the flooding. Several other people drowned as well.
June 1897, 5.0m flood peak
February 1907, 3.6m flood peak
27 January 1974, the largest flood to affect Brisbane City in the 20th Century, with a level of 5.45 metres
Post construction of Wivenhoe Dam
11 January 2011 with a level of 4.45 metres
28 February 2022, 4.0m flood peak
Flooding along the Brisbane River has the potential to be devastating, as documented in 1974, 2011 and 2022. For much of the river's length its banks are relatively high, but topped by a broad plain. The river's meandering course means that flood waters from upstream cannot be quickly discharged into Moreton Bay. Thus higher than normal flows cause river levels to rise rapidly and once the top of the banks are breached the floodwaters can spread over wide areas of the city.
Navigation
Brisbane River, taken from the grounds of Newstead House
There has been much dredging and widening work done over the years to allow ships to transport cargo to and from Brisbane the river is no longer dredged. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875.: 192 By early 1825 buoys were being laid along the South Passage and shortly after that the first pilots were commissioned to guide ships entering from Moreton Bay and another service for those travelling upstream.: 196 Flying boats used the waters of the river in Pinkenba, to take-off for domestic and international destinations in the 1930s.: 20
The river depth was progressively increased and narrow points widened to allow larger vessels into the river and further upstream. For navigation and safety reasons the Seventeen Mile Rocks were completely removed in 1965 after numerous partially successful attempts in the past. The northern river bank at the mouth of the river has undergone reclamation projects over the years, especially in the suburbs of Hamilton and Pinkenba. More recently, extensive facilities for the Port of Brisbane have been constructed on Fisherman's Island which has also seen significant land reclamation into the bay.
Early rivers crossings were made using small oared boat ferries, beginning in 1843,: 5 followed by steam ferries. In 1865 the first Victoria Bridge, later destroyed in a flood, was built across the river. Professor Hawken of the University of Queensland undertook a study in 1914 to identify the future crossing points for the river.
Historically, the Brisbane River contained upstream bars and shallows and had a natural tidal limit of only 16 km (10 mi). The current tidal limit now extends 85 km (53 mi) upstream due to continual channel dredging.
Crossings
Main article: Bridges over the Brisbane River
The first bridge built across the Brisbane River was the original timber Victoria Bridge, opened in 1865 between Brisbane and South Brisbane. The current concrete Victoria Bridge is the 4th to be built on the site, the original bridge collapsed after marine borers weakened its timber piles, and the second was destroyed in the 1893 flood.
As of 2012 the Brisbane River is crossed by 16 major bridges (counting the new second Gateway, now Sir Leo Hielscher Bridge), including the historic 1940 Story Bridge and the tolled Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. There are two other major bridges upstream (west) of Brisbane, on the D'Aguilar Highway and the Brisbane Valley Highway. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport.
The Moggill Ferry continues to provide a crossing for vehicles northeast of Ipswich.
The Albert Bridge was the first railway crossing of the Brisbane River, opened in 1876. It was destroyed in the 1893 flood and replaced by a 2 span design that is flood tolerant. A second bridge was built adjacent to it, opened in 1957 in conjunction with the quadruplication of the railway between Roma Street and Corinda. The Merivale Bridge, opened in 1978, connects the South Brisbane railway system to the City.
Four bridges have been built that cater for pedestrians and bicycles, being the Goodwill Bridge and Kurilpa Bridge in the City area, the Eleanor Schonell Bridge between Dutton Park and St Lucia (which also caters for public buses to the University of Queensland St Lucia campus), and the Jack Pesch Bridge between Indooroopilly and Chelmer. The Brisbane City Council has announced plans for a pedestrian and cycle only bridge between Kangaroo Point and the city.
Brisbane Riverwalk
The former Brisbane Riverwalk
New Brisbane Riverwalk in 2021
The Brisbane City Council has developed a network of riverwalk pavements along the banks of the Brisbane River. The Riverwalk runs along much of the Brisbane River foreshore throughout the inner-city area, with the longest span running between Newstead and Toowong. Another popular stretch runs beneath the Kangaroo Point Cliffs between South Brisbane and Kangaroo Point. Several spans of the Riverwalk are built out over the Brisbane River.
An interesting section is the floating walkway between the Story Bridge and Merthyr Road New Farm. Brisbane City planners require many developers of formerly private riverfront blocks to create new sections of the Brisbane Riverwalk that are accessible to the public.
During the 2011 floods, the Lord Mayor of Brisbane, Campbell Newman authorised the destruction of the Brisbane Riverwalk to prevent it floating away and becoming a hazard downstream. The proposed demolition of the Riverwalk was later cancelled.
Early in the morning of 13 January 2011 a several hundred metre long section of the Riverwalk broke away from the main structure and floated downstream. Queensland Police temporarily closed the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges (commonly known as the Gateway Bridge) several times as there were fears that sections of Riverwalk could collide with and damage the bridge. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a tugboat and past other infrastructure before being safely secured. Other tugs and Water Police guided other Riverwalk sections under the bridge. The damaged Riverwalk was rebuilt as a fixed structure by the Brisbane City Council. The 18-month construction commenced in early 2013 and was completed in September 2014.
Cross river tunnel
The Clem Jones Tunnel is currently the only cross river tunnel built in Brisbane. It opened on 16 March 2010. The Cross River Rail tunnel is currently under construction and is expected to be complete in 2024.
Environmental concerns
During the 19th century and early 20th century, the river's surface was periodically choked by large swathes of the noxious weed known as water hyacinth. The plant was originally imported from South America.
Brisbane River from Howard Smith Wharves
Environmentally, the river is in a poor condition and has been so for many years. In 2000, the Brisbane River estuary did not meet the national guidelines for environmental standards. The lower reaches received a very poor rating in the 2008 Healthy Waterways report, an annual assessment of river water quality. The major causes of pollution are excess nutrients, hydrocarbons, pesticides and bacteria which become concentrated in the river and its sediment after flowing off surrounding lands. The river is also considered too murky and it is not recommended to swim in its waters.
Mangroves on the Brisbane River at the CityCat wharf near the QUT
Beginning in the 1950s, the river was dredged for the purpose of extracting sand and gravel. The considerable impacts of that activity include increased turbidity and bank erosion. The effect of the artificial sediment load in Moreton Bay grew to concern environmentalists worried that sediment was choking sea grass paddocks which were grazing territory for dugong. Public outcry led to all commercial dredging being stopped by 1998.
Non-extractive dredging continues in the Brisbane River in order to maintain its navigability.
In 2018, the water quality in the Brisbane River failed to meet many Queensland Government standards. Nitrogen and phosphorus exceeded the maximum levels in all tests conducted in the mid-Brisbane River catchment. Results in the lower- and upper- catchments found maximum levels exceeded for the majority of tests for nitrogen and nearly all tests for phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus primarily enter the river as they are washed in from agriculture areas on the banks upstream.
In 2019, research at the University of Queensland indicated that the river's turbidity cycle (and murky brown colour) is principally driven by exchanges of mud between the channel and mudbanks. However, by planting Crinum pedunculatum in a line parallel to the channel and below the mean water level, the turbidity would reduce to such a degree that the river would appear clear and blue. To date, this has not been attempted
by Brisbane City Council.
Flora
The river has several important ecological areas where remnant populations of mangroves exist; these include areas around drainage culverts, in Breakfast Creek, New Farm, a small preserve at the city bend, near the Queensland University of Technology and around the shipping terminals at the river's terminus into Moreton Bay. These mangroves have recently become classified as protected nature reserves. The noxious water hyacinth weed is still growing in stretches between Fernvale and the Mount Crosby Weir but only poses a minimal risk to drinking water supplies.
Fauna
Queensland lungfish
The Brisbane River at Linville, upstream from Lake Wivenhoe
In 1895–1896, the Queensland lungfish was only found in the Mary and Burnett river systems. Concerned about the species survival, it was introduced into other Queensland waterways with varying success. Self-sustaining populations of lungfish were successfully established in the Brisbane River, the Enoggera Reservoir and the North Pine River.
Brisbane River cod
The freshwater reaches of the Brisbane River once supported a unique species of cod, the Brisbane River cod, which was similar to Murray cod and closely related to eastern freshwater cod and Mary River cod. This unique native fish became extinct somewhere between the 1930s and 1950s due to habitat degradation and overfishing. The river has been restocked with cod from the Mary River.
Bull sharks
The Brisbane River is home to a very large population of bull sharks, thus swimming is not advised due to the dangers imposed by this predatory fish. Ipswich City Council warns against swimming as far up as Colleges Crossing. There have been four recorded shark attack deaths in the river (1862, 1880, 1901 and 1921), and numerous other fatal attacks in surrounding rivers and estuaries. There have also been numerous attacks on family pets, such as dogs. Bull sharks can grow up to between 7–11.5 feet (2.1–3.5 m) in length and be very aggressively territorial, which are unusual for a shark species because they can inhabit brackish water (containing less than 50% seawater) and are known to tolerate freshwater.
Water Transport
The river is traversed by CityCats and other ferries in Brisbane, as it winds its way through the city centre.
Events
See also: List of festivals in Brisbane
The Brisbane River hosts numerous events including the Brisbane Festival, Riverfire, and the Brisbane River Classic fishing competition. Many schools and clubs use the river to conduct rowing regattas on Milton Reach. Sailing regattas are also held on this reach as well as the Hamilton reach.
Riverfire, which began in 1998, was a festival held in September each year at South Bank Parklands and surrounding areas (including the Victoria Bridge), to celebrate the Brisbane River. In 2009, the festival merged with Brisbane Festival. Riverfire, which was held at the end of the Brisbane Festival until 2022 when it will be held at the start of the festival, includes a fireworks display. The final dump-and-burn of Riverfire 2010 was able to be seen as far as the Gold Coast and Toowoomba as the F-111 climbed from 300 ft (91 m) to a higher altitude of about 10,000 ft (3,000 m). The 20th Riverfire attracted nearly 500,000 people to the river.
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Riverfire was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an "Events and festivals".
Named in its honour
The electoral district of Maiwar created in the 2017 Queensland state electoral redistribution was named after the river's indigenous name.
See also
Water portalEnvironment portalQueensland portal
Bridges over the Brisbane River
Riverstage
List of Brisbane ferry wharves
List of rivers of Australia § Queensland
References
Citations
^ Moore, Tony (9 June 2022). "Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges". Brisbane Times. Nine Entertainment. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ a b "Brisbane". Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
^ Brisbane Australia.com. "Brisbane River History". Brisbane Australia.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ "Brisbane River – river in the City of Brisbane (entry 4560)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
^ "Brisbane River (entry 4560)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Lauer, Peter K (1987). "1". Aboriginal Alien Ethnic (PDF). Brisbane History Group. p. 9. ISBN 0959293043. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Moore, Tony (9 June 2022). "Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges". Brisbane Times. Nine Entertainment. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Green, Antony. "Maiwar - QLD Election 2020". ABC. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ "NATIVE NAME OF THE BRISBANE RIVER". The Queenslander. Vol. LXI, no. 1343. Queensland, Australia. 17 August 1901. p. 328. Retrieved 14 July 2022 – via National Library of Australia.
^ "ETHNOLOGY". The Queenslander. Vol. LXI, no. 1345. Queensland, Australia. 31 August 1901. p. 436 (Unknown). Retrieved 14 July 2022 – via National Library of Australia.
^ Brisbane Sunshine Coast (Map) (Fourteenth ed.). Royal Automobile Club of Queensland. July 2002.
^ "Geology – South East Brisbane". Archived from the original on 9 April 2011.
^ "Dalys Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48211)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Moggill Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48208)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Redbank Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48207)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Goodna Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48204)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Cockatoo Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48203)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Goggs Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48202)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
^ "Popes Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48201)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
^ "Pullen Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48200)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
^ "Two Mile Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48199)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
^ "Mount Ommaney Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48198)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Mermaid Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 21660)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Sherwood Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48206)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
^ "Chelmer Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6977)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Indooroopilly Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16669)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Canoe Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6090)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Long Pocket Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20015)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Cemetery Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6769)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "St Lucia Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 32110)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Toowong Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 34969)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Milton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 22137)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "South Brisbane Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 31435)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Town Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 35068)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Petrie Bight – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 26538)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Shafston Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 30553)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Humbug Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16437)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Bulimba Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 4985)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Hamilton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 15283)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Quarries Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 27755)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Lytton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20323)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Quarantine Flats Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 43393)". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
^ "Upper Black Snake Creek Improvement Summary" (PDF). Ipswich City Council. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
^ Gregory, Helen (1996). The Brisbane River story : meanders through time. Australian Marine Conservation Society. ISBN 0-646-30132-2.
^ Gray, Nancy (1966). "Bingle, John (1796–1882)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
^ Fisher, Rod (June 2007). "Linking Heritage – Up, Down and Around the Brisbane River" (PDF). Brisbane's Living Heritage Network. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
^ The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N.
^ Field's New South Wales, p.89 (published 1825)
^ a b c d e f McLeod, G. Roderick (1990). Davie, Peter; Stock, Errol; Low Choy, Darryl (eds.). Some aspects of the History of the Brisbane River. Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ "Brief History of Brisbane City in the 19th Century". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
^ a b Young (1996). 1990 Task M2 State of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay and Waterways. Gutteridge, Haskins & Davey Pty Ltd. pp. 6–8.
^ a b c d e f Longhurst, Robert; Douglas, William (1997). The Brisbane River: A pictorial history. Brisbane: W. D. Incorporated Pty. Ltd.
^ Kemp, J.; Olley, J.M.; Ellison, T.; McMahon, J. (September 2015). "River response to European settlement in the subtropical Brisbane River, Australia". Anthropocene. 11: 48–60. Bibcode:2015Anthr..11...48K. doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.006. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
^ Erskine, Wayne (1990). Davie, Peter; Stock, Errol; Low Choy, Darryl (eds.). Environmental Impacts of sand and gravel extraction on river systems. Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum. pp. 295–302. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ "Policing Queensland Timeline 1864 – 2014". Queensland Police Museum. 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
^ a b c "Anglers still hooked on Brisbane River". Courier Mail. Queensland Newspapers. 22 January 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
^ Young, 1990 in Task M2 State of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay and Waterways – Gutteridge, Haskins & Davey Pty Ltd, p. 6 – 2 1996
^ McBride, Frank; et al. (2009). Brisbane 150 Stories. Brisbane City Council Publication. pp. 250–251. ISBN 978-1-876091-60-6.
^ Hogan, Janet (1982). Living History of Brisbane. Spring Hill, Queensland: Boolarang Publications. p. 128. ISBN 0-908175-41-8.
^ "Sunken fountain pumped up for return to public duty". The Age. Fairfax Media. 4 January 1985. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
^ Graham, Bruce (2004). The Green Coast: The Natural Environment of the Tweed-Moreton Bioregion. Tweed Heads, New South Wales. pp. 150, 152. ISBN 0-9751817-0-X. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "Brisbane River renamed Ithaca Creek in Google Maps glitch". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 10 August 2020. Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
^ "Known Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin, including the Cities of Brisbane and Ipswich". Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
^ "Know Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin". Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
^ "Brisbane River peaking below 1974 level". yahoo!news. Yahoo. 13 January 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
^ Hubert Chanson (2011). "The 2010–2011 Floods in Queensland (Australia): Observations, First Comments and Personal Experience". La Houille Blanche (1). Paris: Societe Hydrotechnique de France: 5–11. ISSN 0018-6368.
^ Holland, I.; Maxwell, O.; Grice, A. (2002). "Chapter 12". Tidal Brisbane River. Brisbane, Australia: Moreton Bay Waterways and Catchments Partnership. pp. 75–82. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ "Brisbane Riverwalk". Must do Brisbane. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
^ Atfield, Cameron (12 January 2011). "Brisbane Riverwalk 'a dangerous missile'". Brisbane Times. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
^ a b Vogler, Sarah; O'Brien, Jodie Munro; Caldwell, Anna (13 January 2011). "Skipper tells how tug boats saved Gateway bridges from collision with runaway Riverwalk debris". Courier-Mail. Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
^ "Council announces new Brisbane Riverwalk plan". ABC News. 10 November 2011. Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
^ "Brisbane's RiverWalk reconstruction gets advance funding". Urban analyst. 12 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
^ "Riverwalk replacement project". Brisbane City Council. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
^ Meadows, Jane (1994). Brisbane's Western Suburbs: our heritage in focus. State Library of Queensland Foundation. p. 87. ISBN 0-7242-6077-3.
^ South East Queensland Regional Strategic Group (2000). Strategic Guide to Natural Resource Management in South East Queensland. Department of Natural Resources. p. 56. ISBN 0-7345-1740-8.
^ "Western Catchments". Healthy Land & Water. Archived from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
^ Johnstone, Craig (22 July 1995). "How we're slowly killing our river". The Courier-Mail – Weekend. p. 1.
^ Jakku, Emma; Burch, David; Rickson, Roy (1 March 2009). "Constructing an environmental problem: Claims-making in the Brisbane River dredging dispute". Australasian Journal of Environmental Management. 16: 25–35. doi:10.1080/14486563.2009.9725214. S2CID 154458960. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
^ Richardson, Darren; Devlin, Toby; Ettema, Steve (October 2017). Port of Brisbane Monitoring Program – Assessment of Sediment from 2017 Maintenance Dredging Activities (PDF) (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
^ Moore, Tony (13 November 2018). "Brisbane River at an ecological 'tipping point'". Brisbane Times. Brisbane. Archived from the original on 26 August 2019. Retrieved 26 August 2019.
^ "UQ eSpace". Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
^ Moore, Tony (8 February 2008). "Choking weed threatens Brisbane's water supply". Brisbane Times. Fairfax Digital. Archived from the original on 25 October 2008. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
^ "The unique Australian Lungfish". Queensland Museum. Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
^ Anon. (2004). New South Wales Eastern (Freshwater) Cod (Maccullochella ikei) Recovery Plan. New South Wales Department of Fisheries, Port Nelson, New South Wales, Australia.
^ Rowland, S.J. (1993) Maccullochella ikei, an endangered species of freshwater cod (Pisces: Percichthyidae) from the Clarence River System, NSW, and M. peelii mariensis, a new subspecies from the Mary River System, QLD. Records of the Australian Museum 45: 121–145.
^ Dawson, Christopher. 'Shovelnose: Tales of the Brisbane River Sharks', Inside History, Brisbane, 2009. '
^ 'Sharks vs Dogs in the Brisbane River' Archived June 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Brisbane River sharks net international interest". UQ News. University of Queensland. 20 February 2002. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
^ "Riverfire by Australian Retirement Trust". Brisbane Festival. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
^ Sorensen, Rosemary (14 September 2009). "Festival kicks off with a bang". The Australian. p. 19.
^ Shorten, Kristin (28 July 2010). "Final hurrah for dinosaurs of the sky at Riverfire". The Courier Mail. p. 17.
^ "Brisbane Festival program responds to city's thirst for contemporary music, circus and spectacle". abc.net.au. ABC News. 3 July 2018. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
^ Bligh, Anna (10 June 2009). "PREMIER UNVEILS QUEENSLAND'S 150 ICONS". Queensland Government. Archived from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
^ Queensland Redistribution Commission (26 May 2017). "Determination of Queensland's Legislative Assembly Electoral Districts" (PDF). Queensland Government Gazette. p. 187. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
Sources
Department of Harbours and Marine (1986). "Harbours and Marine" Port and Harbour Development in Queensland from 1824 to 1985, p. 25. Queensland Government Department of Harbours and Marine.
Steele, J. G. (1975). Brisbane Town in Convict Days 1824–42. Brisbane, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. pp. 1–118.
Further reading
Cook, Margaret. A River with a City Problem: A History of Brisbane Floods (2nd ed. University of Queensland Press, 2023) online review
Woodhouse, Ronald (30 June 1966). "The Brisbane River: a consideration of its potential". Queensland University of Technology. — Report (97 pages) and accompanying maps and diagrams (16 pages)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brisbane River.
Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap
Download coordinates as:
KML
GPX (all coordinates)
GPX (primary coordinates)
GPX (secondary coordinates)
"Reflections on the river" (PDF). Brisbane heritage trails. Brisbane City Council. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2020.
"Roam the river from creek to wharf: Breakfast Creek to Bretts Wharf" (PDF). Heritage trails. Brisbane City Council. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 November 2021.
Historical Brisbane River Map
"Known floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin". Australian Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 4 April 2024.
Humbug Boats — Boats of Humbug Reach, Brisbane River official website
Brisbane River and Southbank Photographs 2006, State Library of Queensland
vteWaterways of the Brisbane Metropolitan catchment, Queensland, AustraliaMajor inlets and harbours
Bramble Bay
Deception Bay
Moreton Bay
Raby Bay
Redland Bay
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Bremer
Brisbane
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Salvin
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Enoggera
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Tingalpa
vteRivers of QueenslandRivers flowing towards the Coral SeaRivers of the Far North Qld catchment
Annan
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Ross (North Qld)
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Rivers of the Central Qld catchment
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Waterpark
Rivers of the Wide Bay–Burnett catchment
Boyne (Wide Bay–Burnett)
Burnett
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Rivers of the Moreton Bayand South East Qld catchments
Albert
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Brisbane
Caboolture
Coomera
Logan
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North Pine
Pine
Pimpama
South Pine
Stanley
Breakfast
Bulimba
Calamvale
Eprapah
Gold
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Rivers flowing towards the Gulf of CarpentariaRivers of Far North Qld catchment
Alice
Archer
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Albert
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Styx (West)
Yappar
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Balonne
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Langlo
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Macintyre
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For the state electoral district, see Electoral district of Maiwar.The Brisbane River (Turrbal: Maiwar) is the longest river in South East Queensland, Australia, and flows through the city of Brisbane, before emptying into Moreton Bay on the Coral Sea. John Oxley, the first European to explore the river, named it after the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Thomas Brisbane in 1823. The penal colony of Moreton Bay later adopted the same name, eventually becoming the present city of Brisbane. The river is a tidal estuary and the water is brackish from its mouth through the majority of the Brisbane metropolitan area westward to the Mount Crosby Weir. The river is wide and navigable throughout the Brisbane metropolitan area.The river travels 344 km (214 mi) from Mount Stanley. The river is dammed by the Wivenhoe Dam, forming Lake Wivenhoe, the main water supply for Brisbane. The waterway is a habitat for the rare Queensland lungfish, Brisbane River cod (extinct), and bull sharks.Early travellers along the waterway admired the natural beauty, abundant fish and rich vegetation along its banks. From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875. By the late 1920s, water quality in the river had significantly deteriorated.Multiple major floods occurred in 1893. In 1974, the most damaging flood on record occurred, causing the 66,000-tonne vessel Robert Miller (largest ship ever built on the river) to break free from its mooring. Other major floods occurred in January 2011 and February 2022.Extensive port facilities have been constructed on the Fisherman Islands, now known as the Port of Brisbane, located at the mouth of the river on Moreton Bay. There are 16 major bridges that cross the river. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport. The CityCat and KittyCat ferry services deliver passengers along the inner-city reaches of the river.","title":"Brisbane River"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Oxley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oxley"},{"link_name":"Governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Thomas Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Turrbal language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turrbal_language"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Maiwar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Maiwar"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Archibald Meston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Meston"},{"link_name":"Tom Petrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Petrie"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"In 1823 John Oxley named the river after the Governor Thomas Brisbane while surveying the area to locate a new penal settlement.[3][4] The name is of Scottish origin, dating from at least 1643, from their family lands at Rothiebrisbane, Aberdeenshire.[citation needed] This is the name now used by the Queensland Government.[5]Maiwar is the name of the river in the Turrbal language (the language of an Aboriginal group native to the Brisbane area).[6][7] The name is also used for the inner-western state electorate of Maiwar.[8]According to Archibald Meston and Tom Petrie in 1901, the Aboriginal people of the Brisbane area did not have a single name for the river, but rather they named individual reaches and bends.[9][10]","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane-River-Bridges-Map-New.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brisbane River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Moreton Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreton_Bay"},{"link_name":"Road bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"},{"link_name":"Rail bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"},{"link_name":"Pedestrian only bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"},{"link_name":"Bus and pedestrian only bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"},{"link_name":"Kingaroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingaroy,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_source"},{"link_name":"Bunya Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunya_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Avoca Vale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoca_Vale"},{"link_name":"Linville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linville,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Toogoolawah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toogoolawah,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Stanley River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_River_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Somerset Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Somerset"},{"link_name":"Lake Wivenhoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wivenhoe_Dam"},{"link_name":"Bremer River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremer_River_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Ipswich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipswich,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Jindalee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jindalee,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Indooroopilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indooroopilly,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Toowong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowong,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Pinkenba Wharf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba_Wharf"},{"link_name":"Portside Wharf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portside_Wharf"},{"link_name":"Bulwer Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulwer_Island"},{"link_name":"Luggage Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrtletown,_Queensland#Luggage_Point"},{"link_name":"Port of Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Bramble Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bramble_Bay"},{"link_name":"Moreton Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreton_Bay"}],"text":"Course of the lower reaches of the Brisbane River from Ipswich to Moreton Bay. Legend Brisbane River and Moreton Bay Road bridges Rail bridges Pedestrian only bridges Bus and pedestrian only bridgesThe Brisbane River East and West branches traditionally have their headwaters in the ranges east of Kingaroy.[11] The two branches merge into a single watercourse south of Mount Stanley. Using an alternative modern definition, the source is located at the top of Fig Tree Gully in the Bunya Mountains, which are the headwaters of the river's longest tributary Cooyar Creek. Water from the highest point in the catchment has fallen on the Bunya Mountains, 992m above sea level.The junction of Cooyar Creek and Brisbane River is south of Avoca Vale, and the river then makes its way south past townships including Linville, Moore and Toogoolawah before being joined by the Stanley River, just south of Somerset Dam.The river runs from there into Lake Wivenhoe, created by the Wivenhoe Dam. Beyond the dam, the river meanders eastward, meeting the Bremer River near Ipswich, then making its way through Brisbane's western suburbs, including Jindalee, Indooroopilly and Toowong.The Brisbane River then flows past wharves including Pinkenba Wharf and Portside Wharf, past Bulwer Island and Luggage Point through the Port of Brisbane and into southern Bramble Bay an embayment of Moreton Bay.","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gardens Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardens_Point,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Kangaroo Point Cliffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_Point_Cliffs"},{"link_name":"Triassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic"},{"link_name":"rhyolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyolite"},{"link_name":"Brisbane tuff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_tuff"},{"link_name":"Edward Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Street,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Moreton Bay Penal Settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreton_Bay_Penal_Settlement"},{"link_name":"Commissariat Store, Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissariat_Store,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Petrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Petrie"},{"link_name":"volcanic rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_rock"},{"link_name":"Ignimbrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignimbrite"},{"link_name":"Triassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Kangaroo Point Cliffs","text":"On the southern side of the river, opposite Gardens Point, are the Kangaroo Point Cliffs; made from Triassic aged volcanic rock of rhyolite composition called Brisbane tuff. The Kangaroo Point Cliffs were created by a quarrying operation that, according to Allan Cunninghams' Field Book, was underway prior to 1829 when he observed a \"stone wharf presumably used for landing the blocks of stone ferried across the river for the construction of buildings in the settlement\". This was in the vicinity of Edward Street ferry terminal. Quarrying this volcanic rock formed part of the hard labour undertaken by the convicts of the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement, which not only provided the convicts with the punishment of hard labour but also provided the settlement with a useful building material. Many of the early buildings including the Commissariat Store, Brisbane were built by convicts using tuff from this quarry. After the penal settlement was closed, the Petrie family leased the cliffs and quarried the tuff for use in their construction projects, but ultimately quarrying this material became uneconomic without the free labour of the convicts.The volcanic rock Ignimbrite which formed the cliffs was deposited in the Triassic period about 220 million years ago.[12] They currently form the banks of the Brisbane River.","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reaches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reach_(geography)"},{"link_name":"river crossings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridges_over_the_Brisbane_River"}],"sub_title":"Reaches","text":"A number of the reaches of the Brisbane River are named, including the following listed below (from upstream to downstream), together with their location relative to tributaries of the river and river crossings:","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Breakfast Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakfast_Creek,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Moggill Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moggill_Creek"},{"link_name":"Stanley River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_River_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Bulimba Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimba_Creek"},{"link_name":"Norman Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Creek_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Oxley Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxley_Creek"},{"link_name":"Bremer River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremer_River_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"Lockyer Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockyer_Creek"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Tributaries","text":"The following major tributaries flow into the Brisbane River from the north; Breakfast Creek, Moggill Creek and the Stanley River. On the southside Bulimba Creek, Norman Creek, Oxley Creek, Bremer River and Lockyer Creek waterways enter the Brisbane River. The following smaller creeks also flow into the river; Cressbrook Creek, Cooyar Creek, Cubberla Creek, Black Snake Creek,[43] Wolston Creek, Woogaroo Creek, Goodna Creek, Six Mile Creek, Pullen Pullen Creek and Kholo Creek.","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrisbaneRiver02_gobeirne-edit1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_River_Downstream_From_Wivenhoe_Dam_2010_While_Spillway_Is_Open.JPG"},{"link_name":"Wivenhoe Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wivenhoe_Dam"},{"link_name":"Fernvale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernvale,_Queensland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_Docks_2004_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"link_name":"Port of Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Moreton Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreton_Bay"},{"link_name":"Turrbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turrbal"},{"link_name":"fire-stick farming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire-stick_farming"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brmeanders-44"},{"link_name":"navigators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigators"},{"link_name":"James Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cook"},{"link_name":"Matthew Flinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Flinders"},{"link_name":"John Bingle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bingle"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"William Edwardson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Edwardson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Port Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Hervey Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hervey_Bay_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Thomas Pamphlett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Pamphlett"},{"link_name":"John Finnegan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Finnegan_(convict)"},{"link_name":"Richard Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Parsons_(convict)"},{"link_name":"John Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thompson_(convict)"},{"link_name":"Moreton Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moreton_Island"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Turrbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turrbal"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Bribie Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribie_Island"},{"link_name":"Goodna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodna,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish"},{"link_name":"pine trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_tree"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Young_p._6_%E2%80%93_8-51"},{"link_name":"Allan Cunningham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Cunningham_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"St Lucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Lucia,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Seventeen Mile Rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeen_Mile_Rocks,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Melaleuca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melaleuca"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Young_p._6_%E2%80%93_8-51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_251308_Two_young_men_having_fun_with_their_home-made_watercraft_on_the_Brisbane_River.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sir Thomas Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Governor of New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governors_of_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Patrick Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Logan"},{"link_name":"Major Edmund Lockyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Lockyer"},{"link_name":"Redcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redcliffe,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Heny Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Miller_(commandant)"},{"link_name":"North Quay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Quay,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"alluvial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rrt-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"sand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand"},{"link_name":"gravel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravel"},{"link_name":"mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-55"},{"link_name":"breakwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)"},{"link_name":"pile light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_lighthouse"},{"link_name":"kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"signal station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_station"},{"link_name":"capsize of the ferry Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsize_of_the_ferry_Pearl"},{"link_name":"Lucinda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucinda_(steam_yacht)"}],"text":"Aerial view of Brisbane and the Brisbane RiverThe Brisbane River a short distance downstream of Wivenhoe Dam near Fernvale, while the spillway is openThe Port of Brisbane at the mouth of the Brisbane River on Moreton BayBefore European settlement, the Brisbane River was spiritually important and a vital food source for the Aboriginal people of the Turrbal people, primarily through fishing in the tidal sections downstream. Additionally, fishing and fire-stick farming took place in the upper reaches of the river where there was freshwater, in some seasons.[44]Four European navigators, namely James Cook, Matthew Flinders, John Bingle[45] and William Edwardson,[46] all visited Moreton Bay but failed to discover the river. The exploration by Flinders took place during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay in 1799. He spent a total of 15 days in the area, touching down at Woody Point and several other spots, but failed to discover the mouth of the river although there were suspicions of its existence. This is consistent with accounts of many other rivers along the east coast of Australia, which could not be found by seaward exploration but were discovered by inland travellers.[47]On 21 March 1823, four ticket-of-leave convicts sailing south from Sydney on a timber getting mission to Illawarra, Thomas Pamphlett, John Finnegan, Richard Parsons and John Thompson were blown north by a storm. They went 21 days without water, continuing north in the belief they had been blown south, during which time Thompson died. They landed on Moreton Island on 16 April and made it to the mainland on the south of the Brisbane River. They immediately began trekking north in order to return to Sydney, still believing themselves to be somewhere south of Jervis Bay.[48] Subsequently, they became the first known Europeans to discover the river, stumbling across it somewhere near the entrance. They walked upstream along its banks for nearly a month before making their first crossing at Canoe Reach, the junction of Oxley Creek. It was here they stole a small canoe left by the Turrbal people of the region.John Oxley was Surveyor General of New South Wales when, in the same year and under orders from Governor Brisbane, he sailed into Moreton Bay looking for a suitable new site for a convict settlement to be established. An entry in Oxley's diary on 19 November 1823 describes his surprise meeting with one of the shipwrecked men:\"We rounded the Point Skirmish about 5 o'clock and observed a number of natives running along the beach towards the vessel, the foremost much lighter in colour than the rest. We were to the last degree astonished when he came abreast the vessel to hear him hail us in good English.\"By that time Pamphlett and Finnegan were living with natives near Bribie Island. Parsons, who had continued to travel north in search of Sydney, was picked up by Oxley on 11 September 1824.On 2 December 1823, Oxley and Stirling, with Finnegan as a somewhat reluctant guide, entered the river and sailed upstream as far as present-day Goodna.[49]: 191 [50] Oxley noted the abundant fish and tall pine trees. Early European explorers marvelled at the sheer natural beauty they witnessed while travelling up the lower reaches.[51]Reports by early European explorers such as Allan Cunningham and Oxley indicate rainforest once fringed the Brisbane River and its major tributaries, especially on the broader floodplains such as St Lucia and Seventeen Mile Rocks. The coastal lowlands were extensively vegetated with Melaleuca woodlands in low lying, poorly drained coastal areas. When first described by Europeans, the lower reaches of the Brisbane River were fringed by a mosaic of open forest, closed forest and rainforest.[51]A historic photo of the Brisbane RiverIn the same year of 1823, the river was named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, the then Governor of New South Wales. Upon the establishment of a local settlement in 1824, other explorers such as Allan Cunningham, Patrick Logan and Major Edmund Lockyer made expeditions and surveys further upstream, and, in May 1825, the Moreton Bay penal colony at Redcliffe under the command of Heny Miller relocated to North Quay.[49]: 192The entrance to the Brisbane River was surveyed and marked with buoys in May 1825 by Pilot John M Gray sent from Sydney for the purpose by Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane. Gray also transferred the soldiers and convicts from the First Settlement at Redcliffe at this time. The first small private wharves were built on the river in about 1848.[49]: 197 and the once popular, shark-proof river baths were first built in 1857 at Kangaroo Point.[52]: 7 By 1850, nearly all the prime alluvial lands in the Brisbane River valley had been taken up by settlers.[53]From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes.[54] Throughout much of the 20th century large quantities of sand and gravel were extracted from the estuary of the river. Since the rate of materials being deposited is not as high as that which was removed, the river has acted as a subaqueous mine.In 1865, water police were stationed on board Proserpine, a hulk moored at the mouth of the Brisbane River.[55]In 1866, there was a breakwater built at the junction of the Bremer and Brisbane rivers that was designed to stop shingle from blocking the access to the Bremer's boat channel. The first pile light using kerosene was built in 1882.[49]: 198 The steel framed light also served as an early port signal station.In February 1896, one of the river's worst disasters occurred with the capsize of the ferry Pearl (which struck the anchor chain of the government yacht Lucinda) with the loss of around 40 lives.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goodwill-Bridge-and-the-CityCat.jpg"},{"link_name":"Victoria Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Goodwill Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodwill_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"CityCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityCat"},{"link_name":"public baths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_bath"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"Walter Taylor Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Taylor_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cm5-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"flotilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flotilla"},{"link_name":"Naval Base Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Base_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b150s-58"},{"link_name":"1974 Brisbane flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_Brisbane_flood"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"Queensland Cultural Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Cultural_Centre"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lhbris-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sunfount-60"},{"link_name":"Lord Mayor of Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Sallyanne Atkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sallyanne_Atkinson"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tgc-61"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"Brisbane River, from Victoria Bridge, showing Goodwill Bridge and a CityCat ferryBy 1928, due to the early settlement of Brisbane, the water quality had deteriorated to the point where several public baths had to cease sourcing water from the river.[52]: 3 Yet even up to the 1930s, the water was said to be very clear, with reports of people seeing the river bed 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) below the surface. Swimming was once popular at Oxley Point under the Walter Taylor Bridge.[56] In the middle tidal reaches in more recent times, visibility has been about 0.2 m (8 in).[57] As Brisbane grew, the condition of the river worsened until at its worst it was no more than an open sewer and waste dump. The banks were cleared of timber and introduced animals and plants rapidly changed the river's ecology to its detriment.[52]: 6On 25 March 1941, a USA goodwill flotilla arrived in the city docking at wharves along the River and built Naval Base Brisbane.[52]: 25 The largest ship built on the river was the Robert Miller.[58] Construction was near complete when the 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the 1974 Brisbane flood. In 1977, Queen Elizabeth II switched on the Jubilee Fountain positioned in front of the proposed Queensland Cultural Centre. The jets pushed the floodlit river water up to 75 m (246 ft) in the air.[59] The floating fountain sank late on the 31 December 1984.[60] 1987 was proclaimed the \"Year of the River\" by the Lord Mayor of Brisbane at the time, Sallyanne Atkinson.Over the 20th century, enough obstacles, sand and gravel had been removed from the river that its channel depth increased the tidal flow and tidal range upstream.[61]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Google Maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps"},{"link_name":"Ithaca Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithaca_Creek"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"21st century","text":"On 9 August 2020, it was discovered that Google Maps accidentally changed the Brisbane River name to Ithaca Creek after a complaint that Ithaca Creek was incorrectly named Brisbane River.[62]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StateLibQld_1_101664.jpg"},{"link_name":"1893 Brisbane flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893_Brisbane_flood"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2011_Flooding_in_Brisbane_Suburbs.JPG"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"2011 flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Queensland_floods"},{"link_name":"Rocklea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocklea,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Yeronga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeronga,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"St Lucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Lucia,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Mount Coot-tha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Coot-tha"},{"link_name":"Wivenhoe Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wivenhoe_Dam"},{"link_name":"sand banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_bank"},{"link_name":"shoals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoal"},{"link_name":"dredging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredging"},{"link_name":"sediment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment"},{"link_name":"hazards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"February 1893","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893_Brisbane_flood"},{"link_name":"central business district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district"},{"link_name":"North Ipswich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Ipswich,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"27 January 1974","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_Brisbane_flood"},{"link_name":"11 January 2011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Queensland_floods#Brisbane_River_catchment"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brpb-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Floods","text":"The 1893 Brisbane floodA NASA image of the 2011 flood. The top of the photo is oriented approximately to the southwest. The light-coloured rooftops of residences and other structures contrast sharply with green vegetation and brown, sediment laden flood-waters. Most visible low-lying areas are inundated by flood-water, perhaps the most striking being Rocklea (upper left). Yeronga (lower left) also has evident regions of flooding, as does a park and golf course located along a bend in the Brisbane River to the south of St Lucia (centre). Flooding becomes less apparent near the higher elevations of Mount Coot-tha (right).The Brisbane River floods frequently, although the occurrence and magnitude of flooding has diminished following the construction of the Wivenhoe Dam on the upper reaches of the River.Past floods have resulted in both deepening and reduction in river depth, creation of new sand banks and shoals as well as increased transport of suspended sediment from upstream. Before the invention of modern dredging techniques the sediment deposited by flooding created hazards to ships navigating the river. Even medium-sized vessels no longer travel up the Brisbane River beyond the city reach, and dredging of the upper reaches has ceased, allowing the river to recover substantially from the fine silt dislodged by gravel and sand extraction.Significant floods have occurred several times since the European settlement of Brisbane.[63] There have been 12 Major flood peaks (over 3.5m)[64] recorded at the Brisbane gauge since records began in 1841, including:14 January 1841, with a maximum river level of 8.43m at the gauge, the highest flood level recorded to date\n10 January 1844, 7.1m flood peak at Brisbane.\nFebruary 1863, 3.8m flood peak\nJanuary 1887, 3.8m flood peak\nJuly 1889, 3.8m flood peak\nMarch 1890, 5.3m flood peak\nFebruary 1893, a sequence of flood peaks (8.35 metres and 8.09 metres) over two weeks saw the highest recorded flood level in the Brisbane central business district. Seven lives were lost in the Eclipse Colliery at North Ipswich as a direct result of the flooding. Several other people drowned as well.\nJune 1897, 5.0m flood peak\nFebruary 1907, 3.6m flood peak\n27 January 1974, the largest flood to affect Brisbane City in the 20th Century, with a level of 5.45 metresPost construction of Wivenhoe Dam11 January 2011 with a level of 4.45 metres[65]\n28 February 2022, 4.0m flood peakFlooding along the Brisbane River has the potential to be devastating, as documented in 1974, 2011 and 2022.[66] For much of the river's length its banks are relatively high, but topped by a broad plain. The river's meandering course means that flood waters from upstream cannot be quickly discharged into Moreton Bay. Thus higher than normal flows cause river levels to rise rapidly and once the top of the banks are breached the floodwaters can spread over wide areas of the city.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Newstead_Park_monument-and-Brisbane-River.jpg"},{"link_name":"Newstead House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newstead_House,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ships"},{"link_name":"cargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo"},{"link_name":"railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"buoys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoy"},{"link_name":"South Passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Passage_(Queensland)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLeod-49"},{"link_name":"Pinkenba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"Seventeen Mile Rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventeen_Mile_Rocks,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Pinkenba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Port of Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Fisherman's Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"land reclamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reclamation"},{"link_name":"ferries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-longhurst-52"},{"link_name":"Victoria Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Hawken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Hawken"},{"link_name":"University of Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Queensland"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Navigation","text":"Brisbane River, taken from the grounds of Newstead HouseThere has been much dredging and widening work done over the years to allow ships to transport cargo to and from Brisbane the river is no longer dredged. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875.[49]: 192 By early 1825 buoys were being laid along the South Passage and shortly after that the first pilots were commissioned to guide ships entering from Moreton Bay and another service for those travelling upstream.[49]: 196 Flying boats used the waters of the river in Pinkenba, to take-off for domestic and international destinations in the 1930s.[52]: 20The river depth was progressively increased and narrow points widened to allow larger vessels into the river and further upstream. For navigation and safety reasons the Seventeen Mile Rocks were completely removed in 1965 after numerous partially successful attempts in the past. The northern river bank at the mouth of the river has undergone reclamation projects over the years, especially in the suburbs of Hamilton and Pinkenba. More recently, extensive facilities for the Port of Brisbane have been constructed on Fisherman's Island which has also seen significant land reclamation into the bay.Early rivers crossings were made using small oared boat ferries, beginning in 1843,[52]: 5 followed by steam ferries. In 1865 the first Victoria Bridge, later destroyed in a flood, was built across the river. Professor Hawken of the University of Queensland undertook a study in 1914 to identify the future crossing points for the river.Historically, the Brisbane River contained upstream bars and shallows and had a natural tidal limit of only 16 km (10 mi). The current tidal limit now extends 85 km (53 mi) upstream due to continual channel dredging.[67]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Victoria Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"1893 flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893_Brisbane_flood"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brisbane_River&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Story Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Leo_Hielscher_Bridges"},{"link_name":"D'Aguilar Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Aguilar_Highway"},{"link_name":"Brisbane Valley Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Valley_Highway"},{"link_name":"Clem Jones Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clem_Jones_Tunnel,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Moggill Ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moggill_Ferry"},{"link_name":"Ipswich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipswich,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Albert Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Roma Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Street_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Corinda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinda_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Merivale Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merivale_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Goodwill Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodwill_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Kurilpa Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurilpa_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Eleanor Schonell Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Schonell_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Dutton Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutton_Park,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"St Lucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Lucia,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"University of Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Jack Pesch Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Pesch_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Indooroopilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indooroopilly"},{"link_name":"Chelmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmer,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Brisbane City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Kangaroo Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_Point,_Queensland"}],"text":"The first bridge built across the Brisbane River was the original timber Victoria Bridge, opened in 1865 between Brisbane and South Brisbane. The current concrete Victoria Bridge is the 4th to be built on the site, the original bridge collapsed after marine borers weakened its timber piles, and the second was destroyed in the 1893 flood.As of 2012[update] the Brisbane River is crossed by 16 major bridges (counting the new second Gateway, now Sir Leo Hielscher Bridge), including the historic 1940 Story Bridge and the tolled Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. There are two other major bridges upstream (west) of Brisbane, on the D'Aguilar Highway and the Brisbane Valley Highway. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport.The Moggill Ferry continues to provide a crossing for vehicles northeast of Ipswich.The Albert Bridge was the first railway crossing of the Brisbane River, opened in 1876. It was destroyed in the 1893 flood and replaced by a 2 span design that is flood tolerant. A second bridge was built adjacent to it, opened in 1957 in conjunction with the quadruplication of the railway between Roma Street and Corinda. The Merivale Bridge, opened in 1978, connects the South Brisbane railway system to the City.Four bridges have been built that cater for pedestrians and bicycles, being the Goodwill Bridge and Kurilpa Bridge in the City area, the Eleanor Schonell Bridge between Dutton Park and St Lucia (which also caters for public buses to the University of Queensland St Lucia campus), and the Jack Pesch Bridge between Indooroopilly and Chelmer. The Brisbane City Council has announced plans for a pedestrian and cycle only bridge between Kangaroo Point and the city.","title":"Crossings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_River_Walk.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_Farm_Riverwalk,_Brisbane_River_views_from_Bowen_Terrace,_2021,_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Newstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newstead,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Toowong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowong"},{"link_name":"Kangaroo Point Cliffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_Point_Cliffs"},{"link_name":"South Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Brisbane,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Kangaroo Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_Point,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Story Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_Bridge"},{"link_name":"New Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Farm,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Campbell Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Newman"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-destruction-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tug_Boat-70"},{"link_name":"Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Leo_Hielscher_Bridges"},{"link_name":"tugboat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboat"},{"link_name":"infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tug_Boat-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"Brisbane Riverwalk","text":"The former Brisbane RiverwalkNew Brisbane Riverwalk in 2021The Brisbane City Council has developed a network of riverwalk pavements along the banks of the Brisbane River.[68] The Riverwalk runs along much of the Brisbane River foreshore throughout the inner-city area, with the longest span running between Newstead and Toowong. Another popular stretch runs beneath the Kangaroo Point Cliffs between South Brisbane and Kangaroo Point. Several spans of the Riverwalk are built out over the Brisbane River.An interesting section is the floating walkway between the Story Bridge and Merthyr Road New Farm. Brisbane City planners require many developers of formerly private riverfront blocks to create new sections of the Brisbane Riverwalk that are accessible to the public.During the 2011 floods, the Lord Mayor of Brisbane, Campbell Newman authorised the destruction of the Brisbane Riverwalk to prevent it floating away and becoming a hazard downstream.[69] The proposed demolition of the Riverwalk was later cancelled.[70]Early in the morning of 13 January 2011 a several hundred metre long section of the Riverwalk broke away from the main structure and floated downstream. Queensland Police temporarily closed the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges (commonly known as the Gateway Bridge) several times as there were fears that sections of Riverwalk could collide with and damage the bridge. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a tugboat and past other infrastructure before being safely secured. Other tugs and Water Police guided other Riverwalk sections under the bridge.[70] The damaged Riverwalk was rebuilt as a fixed structure by the Brisbane City Council.[71] The 18-month construction commenced in early 2013 and was completed in September 2014.[72][73]","title":"Crossings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clem Jones Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clem_Jones_Tunnel,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Cross River Rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_River_Rail"}],"sub_title":"Cross river tunnel","text":"The Clem Jones Tunnel is currently the only cross river tunnel built in Brisbane. It opened on 16 March 2010. The Cross River Rail tunnel is currently under construction and is expected to be complete in 2024.","title":"Crossings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"water hyacinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_hyacinth"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brisbane_from_Howard_Smith_Wharves.jpg"},{"link_name":"Howard Smith Wharves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Smith_Wharves"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sgnrm-75"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cm5-56"},{"link_name":"pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution"},{"link_name":"hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbons"},{"link_name":"pesticides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticides"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"sediment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QUT-CityCat-terminal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mangroves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangroves"},{"link_name":"CityCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityCat"},{"link_name":"wharf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharf"},{"link_name":"QUT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"dugong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugong"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Crinum pedunculatum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crinum_pedunculatum"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"text":"During the 19th century and early 20th century, the river's surface was periodically choked by large swathes of the noxious weed known as water hyacinth. The plant was originally imported from South America.[74]Brisbane River from Howard Smith WharvesEnvironmentally, the river is in a poor condition and has been so for many years. In 2000, the Brisbane River estuary did not meet the national guidelines for environmental standards.[75] The lower reaches received a very poor rating in the 2008 Healthy Waterways report, an annual assessment of river water quality.[56] The major causes of pollution are excess nutrients, hydrocarbons, pesticides and bacteria which become concentrated in the river and its sediment after flowing off surrounding lands.[76] The river is also considered too murky and it is not recommended to swim in its waters.[77]Mangroves on the Brisbane River at the CityCat wharf near the QUTBeginning in the 1950s, the river was dredged for the purpose of extracting sand and gravel. The considerable impacts of that activity include increased turbidity and bank erosion. The effect of the artificial sediment load in Moreton Bay grew to concern environmentalists worried that sediment was choking sea grass paddocks which were grazing territory for dugong. Public outcry led to all commercial dredging being stopped by 1998.\n[78] Non-extractive dredging continues in the Brisbane River in order to maintain its navigability.[79]In 2018, the water quality in the Brisbane River failed to meet many Queensland Government standards. Nitrogen and phosphorus exceeded the maximum levels in all tests conducted in the mid-Brisbane River catchment. Results in the lower- and upper- catchments found maximum levels exceeded for the majority of tests for nitrogen and nearly all tests for phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus primarily enter the river as they are washed in from agriculture areas on the banks upstream.[80]In 2019, research at the University of Queensland indicated that the river's turbidity cycle (and murky brown colour) is principally driven by exchanges of mud between the channel and mudbanks. However, by planting Crinum pedunculatum in a line parallel to the channel and below the mean water level, the turbidity would reduce to such a degree that the river would appear clear and blue.[81] To date, this has not been attempted \nby Brisbane City Council.","title":"Environmental concerns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mangroves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove"},{"link_name":"New Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Farm,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Queensland University of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"nature reserves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_reserve"},{"link_name":"Fernvale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernvale,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Mount Crosby Weir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Crosby_Weir"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bt5-82"}],"text":"The river has several important ecological areas where remnant populations of mangroves exist; these include areas around drainage culverts, in Breakfast Creek, New Farm, a small preserve at the city bend, near the Queensland University of Technology and around the shipping terminals at the river's terminus into Moreton Bay. These mangroves have recently become classified as protected nature reserves. The noxious water hyacinth weed is still growing in stretches between Fernvale and the Mount Crosby Weir but only poses a minimal risk to drinking water supplies.[82]","title":"Flora"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Upper_Brisbane_River_Linville.JPG"},{"link_name":"Linville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linville,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Queensland lungfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_lungfish"},{"link_name":"Enoggera Reservoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoggera_Dam"},{"link_name":"North Pine River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pine_River"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Queensland lungfish","text":"The Brisbane River at Linville, upstream from Lake WivenhoeIn 1895–1896, the Queensland lungfish was only found in the Mary and Burnett river systems. Concerned about the species survival, it was introduced into other Queensland waterways with varying success. Self-sustaining populations of lungfish were successfully established in the Brisbane River, the Enoggera Reservoir and the North Pine River.[83]","title":"Fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brisbane River cod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_River_cod"},{"link_name":"Murray cod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_cod"},{"link_name":"eastern freshwater cod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_freshwater_cod"},{"link_name":"Mary River cod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_River_cod"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Brisbane River cod","text":"The freshwater reaches of the Brisbane River once supported a unique species of cod, the Brisbane River cod, which was similar to Murray cod and closely related to eastern freshwater cod and Mary River cod. This unique native fish became extinct somewhere between the 1930s and 1950s due to habitat degradation and overfishing. The river has been restocked with cod from the Mary River.[84][85]","title":"Fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bull sharks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_sharks"},{"link_name":"swimming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swimming"},{"link_name":"predatory fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_fish"},{"link_name":"Ipswich City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipswich_City_Council"},{"link_name":"Colleges Crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleges_Crossing"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cm5-56"},{"link_name":"shark attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_attack"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"brackish water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_water"},{"link_name":"freshwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Bull sharks","text":"The Brisbane River is home to a very large population of bull sharks, thus swimming is not advised due to the dangers imposed by this predatory fish. Ipswich City Council warns against swimming as far up as Colleges Crossing.[56] There have been four recorded shark attack deaths in the river (1862, 1880, 1901 and 1921), and numerous other fatal attacks in surrounding rivers and estuaries.[86] There have also been numerous attacks on family pets, such as dogs.[87] Bull sharks can grow up to between 7–11.5 feet (2.1–3.5 m) in length and be very aggressively territorial, which are unusual for a shark species because they can inhabit brackish water (containing less than 50% seawater) and are known to tolerate freshwater.[88]","title":"Fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CityCats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityCat"},{"link_name":"ferries in Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry_transport_in_Queensland"}],"text":"The river is traversed by CityCats and other ferries in Brisbane, as it winds its way through the city centre.","title":"Water Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of festivals in Brisbane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Brisbane Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Festival"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Brisbane River Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_River_Classic"},{"link_name":"rowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing_(sport)"},{"link_name":"South Bank Parklands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank_Parklands"},{"link_name":"Victoria Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Bridge,_Brisbane"},{"link_name":"Brisbane Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Festival"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Gold Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Coast,_Queensland"},{"link_name":"Toowoomba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowoomba"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfpr-92"},{"link_name":"Q150","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q150"},{"link_name":"Q150 Icons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q150_Icons"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"text":"See also: List of festivals in BrisbaneThe Brisbane River hosts numerous events including the Brisbane Festival, Riverfire,[89] and the Brisbane River Classic fishing competition. Many schools and clubs use the river to conduct rowing regattas on Milton Reach. Sailing regattas are also held on this reach as well as the Hamilton reach.Riverfire, which began in 1998, was a festival held in September each year at South Bank Parklands and surrounding areas (including the Victoria Bridge), to celebrate the Brisbane River. In 2009, the festival merged with Brisbane Festival.[90] Riverfire, which was held at the end of the Brisbane Festival until 2022 when it will be held at the start of the festival, includes a fireworks display. The final dump-and-burn of Riverfire 2010 was able to be seen as far as the Gold Coast and Toowoomba as the F-111 climbed from 300 ft (91 m) to a higher altitude of about 10,000 ft (3,000 m).[91] The 20th Riverfire attracted nearly 500,000 people to the river.[92]In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Riverfire was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an \"Events and festivals\".[93]","title":"Events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electoral district of Maiwar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Maiwar"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-94"}],"text":"The electoral district of Maiwar created in the 2017 Queensland state electoral redistribution was named after the river's indigenous name.[94]","title":"Named in its honour"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59801"},{"link_name":"\"The Brisbane River: a consideration of its potential\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//digitalcollections.qut.edu.au/6350"}],"text":"Cook, Margaret. A River with a City Problem: A History of Brisbane Floods (2nd ed. University of Queensland Press, 2023) online reviewWoodhouse, Ronald (30 June 1966). \"The Brisbane River: a consideration of its potential\". Queensland University of Technology. — Report (97 pages) and accompanying maps and diagrams (16 pages)","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Course of the lower reaches of the Brisbane River from Ipswich to Moreton Bay. Legend Brisbane River and Moreton Bay Road bridges Rail bridges Pedestrian only bridges Bus and pedestrian only bridges","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Brisbane-River-Bridges-Map-New.jpg/220px-Brisbane-River-Bridges-Map-New.jpg"},{"image_text":"Moggill Ferry Reserve was completely under water after the 2022 Flood","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Moggill_Ferry_Not_in_Operation_Following_2022_Flood.jpg/220px-Moggill_Ferry_Not_in_Operation_Following_2022_Flood.jpg"},{"image_text":"Muddy Brisbane river covered with debris after days of raining","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Redbank_Riverbank.jpg/220px-Redbank_Riverbank.jpg"},{"image_text":"Goodna Boat Ramp in May 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Brisbane_River_%26_Woogaroo_Creek.jpg/220px-Brisbane_River_%26_Woogaroo_Creek.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cockatoo Island of Brisbane River","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Cockatoo_Island_near_Wacol.jpg/220px-Cockatoo_Island_near_Wacol.jpg"},{"image_text":"Newcomb Park, Riverhills QLD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Riverbank_of_Bellbowrie.jpg/220px-Riverbank_of_Bellbowrie.jpg"},{"image_text":"Riverview Farm Park on 11 March 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Riverview_Farm_Park.jpg/220px-Riverview_Farm_Park.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aerial view of Brisbane and the Brisbane River","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/BrisbaneRiver02_gobeirne-edit1.jpg/220px-BrisbaneRiver02_gobeirne-edit1.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Brisbane River a short distance downstream of Wivenhoe Dam near Fernvale, while the spillway is open","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Brisbane_River_Downstream_From_Wivenhoe_Dam_2010_While_Spillway_Is_Open.JPG/220px-Brisbane_River_Downstream_From_Wivenhoe_Dam_2010_While_Spillway_Is_Open.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Port of Brisbane at the mouth of the Brisbane River on Moreton Bay","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Brisbane_Docks_2004_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Brisbane_Docks_2004_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"image_text":"A historic photo of the Brisbane River","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/StateLibQld_1_251308_Two_young_men_having_fun_with_their_home-made_watercraft_on_the_Brisbane_River.jpg/220px-StateLibQld_1_251308_Two_young_men_having_fun_with_their_home-made_watercraft_on_the_Brisbane_River.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brisbane River, from Victoria Bridge, showing Goodwill Bridge and a CityCat ferry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Goodwill-Bridge-and-the-CityCat.jpg/220px-Goodwill-Bridge-and-the-CityCat.jpg"},{"image_text":"The 1893 Brisbane flood","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/StateLibQld_1_101664.jpg/220px-StateLibQld_1_101664.jpg"},{"image_text":"A NASA image of the 2011 flood. The top of the photo is oriented approximately to the southwest. The light-coloured rooftops of residences and other structures contrast sharply with green vegetation and brown, sediment laden flood-waters. Most visible low-lying areas are inundated by flood-water, perhaps the most striking being Rocklea (upper left). Yeronga (lower left) also has evident regions of flooding, as does a park and golf course located along a bend in the Brisbane River to the south of St Lucia (centre). Flooding becomes less apparent near the higher elevations of Mount Coot-tha (right).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/2011_Flooding_in_Brisbane_Suburbs.JPG/220px-2011_Flooding_in_Brisbane_Suburbs.JPG"},{"image_text":"Brisbane River, taken from the grounds of Newstead House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Newstead_Park_monument-and-Brisbane-River.jpg/220px-Newstead_Park_monument-and-Brisbane-River.jpg"},{"image_text":"The former Brisbane Riverwalk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Brisbane_River_Walk.JPG/220px-Brisbane_River_Walk.JPG"},{"image_text":"New Brisbane Riverwalk in 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/New_Farm_Riverwalk%2C_Brisbane_River_views_from_Bowen_Terrace%2C_2021%2C_01.jpg/220px-New_Farm_Riverwalk%2C_Brisbane_River_views_from_Bowen_Terrace%2C_2021%2C_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brisbane River from Howard Smith Wharves","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Brisbane_from_Howard_Smith_Wharves.jpg/220px-Brisbane_from_Howard_Smith_Wharves.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mangroves on the Brisbane River at the CityCat wharf near the QUT","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/QUT-CityCat-terminal.jpg/220px-QUT-CityCat-terminal.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Brisbane River at Linville, upstream from Lake Wivenhoe","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Upper_Brisbane_River_Linville.JPG/220px-Upper_Brisbane_River_Linville.JPG"}]
|
[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drinking_water.jpg"},{"title":"Water portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Water"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg"},{"title":"Environment portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment"},{"title":"Queensland portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Queensland"},{"title":"Bridges over the Brisbane River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridges_over_the_Brisbane_River"},{"title":"Riverstage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverstage"},{"title":"List of Brisbane ferry wharves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brisbane_ferry_wharves"},{"title":"List of rivers of Australia § Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Australia#Queensland"}]
|
[{"reference":"Moore, Tony (9 June 2022). \"Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges\". Brisbane Times. Nine Entertainment. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html","url_text":"\"Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Times","url_text":"Brisbane Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Entertainment","url_text":"Nine Entertainment"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103101937/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane\". Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/AUSTRALIA/AUSTRALIA%20SE%20COAST_BRISBANE/index.html","url_text":"\"Brisbane\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220817233916/https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/AUSTRALIA/AUSTRALIA%20SE%20COAST_BRISBANE/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brisbane Australia.com. \"Brisbane River History\". Brisbane Australia.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-river-history.html","url_text":"\"Brisbane River History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103120117/https://www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-river-history.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane River – river in the City of Brisbane (entry 4560)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 14 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Brisbane_River&types=0&place=Brisbane_River4560","url_text":"\"Brisbane River – river in the City of Brisbane (entry 4560)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane River (entry 4560)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Brisbane_River&types=0&place=Brisbane_River4560","url_text":"\"Brisbane River (entry 4560)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"Lauer, Peter K (1987). \"1\". Aboriginal Alien Ethnic (PDF). Brisbane History Group. p. 9. ISBN 0959293043. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_297113/Papers_Brisbane_History_Group_5.pdf?dsi_version=10ada971086337ed6d813ab060e2873b&Expires=1672745995&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=W3PiaEHXo9qkDM0ykd5Hf518aDylJOyxIZJeilZp3IvLWsFws6EHIg2MbWVvixsyJKA7V4WXgbMozUmuvr2capVFzu7Yc6OYbvSvtEGerAvrbIPNRiP2UK1RstdGjewAwPHO6nNsdhJs8zEHUsQAhbJgGJRXQVxqxoUwawZ5SMqq2GlIQoUxBVxCf~YCauap2jUnvsEeLAcr76RUt1EXNYnqm6EKFz7bi4QNp4vI1gEYsnyDSysFk0LiDZHTUwk0fz0r5QcHfnQagEy0CIrUlU68LEDOO8hqVIQkShKbYad469596zvocp2IgDkGXPVr8hj8WTxgWV57VmoSJT4tMw__","url_text":"Aboriginal Alien Ethnic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0959293043","url_text":"0959293043"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170820132747/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_297113/Papers_Brisbane_History_Group_5.pdf?Expires=1503322057&Signature=PMZZksM0WCAucthDuLhDi5JwrLe4MAbRPt9Ulw7eLGP5SyiJesBYAd84r~gwulrNGDUWG8dSR7u77x3PdgMZMyz3j-lGhbJQ8PvJqLPuJSkhw7LirTK5p0KTbaruLL4fCssRGuEPpDnuFEEdzU3xT7SvcR~fTcVrmw8XL3ymZzWslej-IExCnneltmabOIaNSUT5ItGVc6~uDYBO24V~vAVDVgHEeBn2pzAfvqvrzhOMEd1JaoQhiXH117dh6d7X1Wo-8YW-FvXrHKgcbJmBXb3lZcBVRi3SNRxYihnUH~fbU9kWzXklmx3LW~Nab8FTkEpoFo-~vrjk8w~sop-dEQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Moore, Tony (9 June 2022). \"Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges\". Brisbane Times. Nine Entertainment. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html","url_text":"\"Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Times","url_text":"Brisbane Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Entertainment","url_text":"Nine Entertainment"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103101937/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Green, Antony. \"Maiwar - QLD Election 2020\". ABC. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/qld/2020/guide/maiw","url_text":"\"Maiwar - QLD Election 2020\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103120117/https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/qld/2020/guide/maiw","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NATIVE NAME OF THE BRISBANE RIVER\". The Queenslander. Vol. LXI, no. 1343. Queensland, Australia. 17 August 1901. p. 328. Retrieved 14 July 2022 – via National Library of Australia.","urls":[{"url":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21265538","url_text":"\"NATIVE NAME OF THE BRISBANE RIVER\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Queenslander","url_text":"The Queenslander"}]},{"reference":"\"ETHNOLOGY\". The Queenslander. Vol. LXI, no. 1345. Queensland, Australia. 31 August 1901. p. 436 (Unknown). Retrieved 14 July 2022 – via National Library of Australia.","urls":[{"url":"http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21265850","url_text":"\"ETHNOLOGY\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Queenslander","url_text":"The Queenslander"}]},{"reference":"Brisbane Sunshine Coast (Map) (Fourteenth ed.). Royal Automobile Club of Queensland. July 2002.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Geology – South East Brisbane\". Archived from the original on 9 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110409005903/http://www.vnc.qld.edu.au/enviro/college/env-ch1b.htm","url_text":"\"Geology – South East Brisbane\""},{"url":"http://www.vnc.qld.edu.au/enviro/college/env-ch1b.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Dalys Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48211)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Dalys_Reach&types=0&place=Dalys_Reach48211","url_text":"\"Dalys Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48211)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Moggill Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48208)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Moggill_Reach&types=0&place=Moggill_Reach48208","url_text":"\"Moggill Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48208)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Redbank Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48207)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Redbank_Reach&types=0&place=Redbank_Reach48207","url_text":"\"Redbank Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48207)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Goodna Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48204)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Goodna_Reach&types=0&place=Goodna_Reach48204","url_text":"\"Goodna Reach – reach in City of Ipswich (entry 48204)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Cockatoo Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48203)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Cockatoo_Reach&types=0&place=Cockatoo_Reach48203","url_text":"\"Cockatoo Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48203)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Goggs Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48202)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Goggs_Reach&types=0&place=Goggs_Reach48202","url_text":"\"Goggs Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48202)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Popes Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48201)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Popes_Reach&types=0&place=Popes_Reach48201","url_text":"\"Popes Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48201)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Pullen Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48200)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Pullen_Reach&types=0&place=Pullen_Reach48200","url_text":"\"Pullen Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48200)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Two Mile Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48199)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 10 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Two_Mile_Reach&types=0&place=Two_Mile_Reach48199","url_text":"\"Two Mile Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48199)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Mount Ommaney Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48198)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Mount_Ommaney_Reach&types=0&place=Mount_Ommaney_Reach48198","url_text":"\"Mount Ommaney Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48198)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Mermaid Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 21660)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Mermaid_Reach&types=0&place=Mermaid_Reach21660","url_text":"\"Mermaid Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 21660)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Sherwood Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48206)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 11 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Sherwood_Reach&types=0&place=Sherwood_Reach48206","url_text":"\"Sherwood Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 48206)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Chelmer Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6977)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Chelmer_Reach&types=0&place=Chelmer_Reach6977","url_text":"\"Chelmer Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6977)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Indooroopilly Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16669)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Indooroopilly_Reach&types=0&place=Indooroopilly_Reach16669","url_text":"\"Indooroopilly Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16669)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Canoe Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6090)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Canoe_Reach&types=0&place=Canoe_Reach6090","url_text":"\"Canoe Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6090)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Long Pocket Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20015)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Long_Pocket_Reach&types=0&place=Long_Pocket_Reach20015","url_text":"\"Long Pocket Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20015)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Cemetery Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6769)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Cemetery_Reach&types=0&place=Cemetery_Reach6769","url_text":"\"Cemetery Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 6769)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"St Lucia Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 32110)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=St_Lucia_Reach&types=0&place=St_Lucia_Reach32110","url_text":"\"St Lucia Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 32110)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Toowong Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 34969)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Toowong_Reach&types=0&place=Toowong_Reach34969","url_text":"\"Toowong Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 34969)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Milton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 22137)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Milton_Reach&types=0&place=Milton_Reach22137","url_text":"\"Milton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 22137)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"South Brisbane Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 31435)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=South_Brisbane_Reach&types=0&place=South_Brisbane_Reach31435","url_text":"\"South Brisbane Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 31435)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Town Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 35068)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Town_Reach&types=0&place=Town_Reach35068","url_text":"\"Town Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 35068)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Petrie Bight – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 26538)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Petrie_Bight&types=0&place=Petrie_Bight26538","url_text":"\"Petrie Bight – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 26538)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Shafston Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 30553)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Shafston_Reach&types=0&place=Shafston_Reach30553","url_text":"\"Shafston Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 30553)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Humbug Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16437)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Humbug_Reach&types=0&place=Humbug_Reach16437","url_text":"\"Humbug Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 16437)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Bulimba Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 4985)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Bulimba_Reach&types=0&place=Bulimba_Reach4985","url_text":"\"Bulimba Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 4985)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Hamilton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 15283)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Hamilton_Reach&types=0&place=Hamilton_Reach15283","url_text":"\"Hamilton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 15283)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Quarries Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 27755)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Quarries_Reach&types=0&place=Quarries_Reach27755","url_text":"\"Quarries Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 27755)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Lytton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20323)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Lytton_Reach&types=0&place=Lytton_Reach20323","url_text":"\"Lytton Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 20323)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Quarantine Flats Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 43393)\". Queensland Place Names. Queensland Government. Retrieved 22 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dnrm.qld.gov.au/qld/environment/land/place-names/search#/search=Quarantine_Flats_Reach&types=0&place=Quarantine_Flats_Reach43393","url_text":"\"Quarantine Flats Reach – reach in the City of Brisbane (entry 43393)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Government","url_text":"Queensland Government"}]},{"reference":"\"Upper Black Snake Creek Improvement Summary\" (PDF). Ipswich City Council. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved 9 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ipswich.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/39026/Black-Snake-Creek-Summary.pdf","url_text":"\"Upper Black Snake Creek Improvement Summary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160325223142/http://www.ipswich.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/39026/Black-Snake-Creek-Summary.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gregory, Helen (1996). The Brisbane River story : meanders through time. Australian Marine Conservation Society. ISBN 0-646-30132-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-646-30132-2","url_text":"0-646-30132-2"}]},{"reference":"Gray, Nancy (1966). \"Bingle, John (1796–1882)\". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010094b.htm","url_text":"\"Bingle, John (1796–1882)\""},{"url":"http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110807004322/http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010094b.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Rod (June 2007). \"Linking Heritage – Up, Down and Around the Brisbane River\" (PDF). Brisbane's Living Heritage Network. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110724013141/http://www.brisbanelivingheritage.org/_dbase_upl/Contextual%20History-R.Fisher.pdf","url_text":"\"Linking Heritage – Up, Down and Around the Brisbane River\""},{"url":"http://www.brisbanelivingheritage.org/_dbase_upl/Contextual%20History-R.Fisher.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"McLeod, G. Roderick (1990). Davie, Peter; Stock, Errol; Low Choy, Darryl (eds.). Some aspects of the History of the Brisbane River. Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Museum","url_text":"Queensland Museum"}]},{"reference":"\"Brief History of Brisbane City in the 19th Century\". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927142807/http://www.ourindooroopilly.com/brisbane-history.html","url_text":"\"Brief History of Brisbane City in the 19th Century\""},{"url":"http://www.ourindooroopilly.com/brisbane-history.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Young (1996). 1990 Task M2 State of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay and Waterways. Gutteridge, Haskins & Davey Pty Ltd. pp. 6–8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Longhurst, Robert; Douglas, William (1997). The Brisbane River: A pictorial history. Brisbane: W. D. Incorporated Pty. Ltd.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kemp, J.; Olley, J.M.; Ellison, T.; McMahon, J. (September 2015). \"River response to European settlement in the subtropical Brisbane River, Australia\". Anthropocene. 11: 48–60. Bibcode:2015Anthr..11...48K. doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.006. Archived from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305415300229","url_text":"\"River response to European settlement in the subtropical Brisbane River, Australia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Anthr..11...48K","url_text":"2015Anthr..11...48K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ancene.2015.11.006","url_text":"10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.006"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221021053542/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305415300229","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Erskine, Wayne (1990). Davie, Peter; Stock, Errol; Low Choy, Darryl (eds.). Environmental Impacts of sand and gravel extraction on river systems. Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum. pp. 295–302.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Policing Queensland Timeline 1864 – 2014\". Queensland Police Museum. 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.police.qld.gov.au/aboutUs/facilities/museum/celebrate/history/timeline.htm","url_text":"\"Policing Queensland Timeline 1864 – 2014\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Police_Museum","url_text":"Queensland Police Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181104070905/https://www.police.qld.gov.au/aboutUs/facilities/museum/celebrate/history/timeline.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Anglers still hooked on Brisbane River\". Courier Mail. Queensland Newspapers. 22 January 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121231014150/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,24948099-3044,00.html","url_text":"\"Anglers still hooked on Brisbane River\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Courier-Mail","url_text":"Courier Mail"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Newspapers","url_text":"Queensland Newspapers"},{"url":"http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,24948099-3044,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"McBride, Frank; et al. (2009). Brisbane 150 Stories. Brisbane City Council Publication. pp. 250–251. ISBN 978-1-876091-60-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876091-60-6","url_text":"978-1-876091-60-6"}]},{"reference":"Hogan, Janet (1982). Living History of Brisbane. Spring Hill, Queensland: Boolarang Publications. p. 128. ISBN 0-908175-41-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-908175-41-8","url_text":"0-908175-41-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Sunken fountain pumped up for return to public duty\". The Age. Fairfax Media. 4 January 1985. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19850104&id=gzlVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kJUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2634,842488&hl=en","url_text":"\"Sunken fountain pumped up for return to public duty\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160430220751/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19850104&id=gzlVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kJUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2634,842488&hl=en","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Graham, Bruce (2004). The Green Coast: The Natural Environment of the Tweed-Moreton Bioregion. Tweed Heads, New South Wales. pp. 150, 152. ISBN 0-9751817-0-X. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3101318","url_text":"The Green Coast: The Natural Environment of the Tweed-Moreton Bioregion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9751817-0-X","url_text":"0-9751817-0-X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211115060342/https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3101318","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane River renamed Ithaca Creek in Google Maps glitch\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 10 August 2020. Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-10/brisbane-river-renamed-to-ithaca-creek-in-google-maps-glitch/12540702","url_text":"\"Brisbane River renamed Ithaca Creek in Google Maps glitch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200826015449/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-10/brisbane-river-renamed-to-ithaca-creek-in-google-maps-glitch/12540702","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Known Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin, including the Cities of Brisbane and Ipswich\". Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml","url_text":"\"Known Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin, including the Cities of Brisbane and Ipswich\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140831073347/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Know Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin\". Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml","url_text":"\"Know Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140831073347/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane River peaking below 1974 level\". yahoo!news. Yahoo. 13 January 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://au.news.yahoo.com/brisbane-river-peaking-below-1974-level-8638499.html","url_text":"\"Brisbane River peaking below 1974 level\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211127062233/https://au.news.yahoo.com/brisbane-river-peaking-below-1974-level-8638499.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hubert Chanson (2011). \"The 2010–2011 Floods in Queensland (Australia): Observations, First Comments and Personal Experience\". La Houille Blanche (1). Paris: Societe Hydrotechnique de France: 5–11. ISSN 0018-6368.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Chanson","url_text":"Hubert Chanson"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-6368","url_text":"0018-6368"}]},{"reference":"Holland, I.; Maxwell, O.; Grice, A. (2002). \"Chapter 12\". Tidal Brisbane River. Brisbane, Australia: Moreton Bay Waterways and Catchments Partnership. pp. 75–82.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane Riverwalk\". Must do Brisbane. Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mustdobrisbane.com/outdoors-walks-river/brisbane-riverwalk-brisbane-new-farm","url_text":"\"Brisbane Riverwalk\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180402111711/http://www.mustdobrisbane.com/outdoors-walks-river/brisbane-riverwalk-brisbane-new-farm#","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Atfield, Cameron (12 January 2011). \"Brisbane Riverwalk 'a dangerous missile'\". Brisbane Times. Archived from the original on 22 December 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/environment/weather/brisbane-riverwalk-a-dangerous-missile-20110112-19nwp.html","url_text":"\"Brisbane Riverwalk 'a dangerous missile'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201222070845/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/environment/weather/riverwalk-becomes-300m-floating-missile-20110112-19nwp.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Vogler, Sarah; O'Brien, Jodie Munro; Caldwell, Anna (13 January 2011). \"Skipper tells how tug boats saved Gateway bridges from collision with runaway Riverwalk debris\". Courier-Mail. Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/moggil-ferry-island-party-boat-may-be-sunk-if-they-a-considered-a-risk-of-being-a-danger-to-the-public/story-e6freoof-1225986372966","url_text":"\"Skipper tells how tug boats saved Gateway bridges from collision with runaway Riverwalk debris\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120902090811/http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/moggil-ferry-island-party-boat-may-be-sunk-if-they-a-considered-a-risk-of-being-a-danger-to-the-public/story-e6freoof-1225986372966","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Council announces new Brisbane Riverwalk plan\". ABC News. 10 November 2011. Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-10/council-announces-new-brisbane-riverwalk-plan/3657070","url_text":"\"Council announces new Brisbane Riverwalk plan\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111111001850/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-10/council-announces-new-brisbane-riverwalk-plan/3657070","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brisbane's RiverWalk reconstruction gets advance funding\". Urban analyst. 12 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.urbanalyst.com/in-the-news/queensland/860-brisbanes-riverwalk-reconstruction-gets-advance-funding.html","url_text":"\"Brisbane's RiverWalk reconstruction gets advance funding\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150505020237/http://www.urbanalyst.com/in-the-news/queensland/860-brisbanes-riverwalk-reconstruction-gets-advance-funding.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Riverwalk replacement project\". Brisbane City Council. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-transport/roads-infrastructure-bikeways/bikeway-and-pathway-projects/Riverwalk-replacement/","url_text":"\"Riverwalk replacement project\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140314044325/http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-transport/roads-infrastructure-bikeways/bikeway-and-pathway-projects/Riverwalk-replacement/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Meadows, Jane (1994). Brisbane's Western Suburbs: our heritage in focus. State Library of Queensland Foundation. p. 87. ISBN 0-7242-6077-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7242-6077-3","url_text":"0-7242-6077-3"}]},{"reference":"South East Queensland Regional Strategic Group (2000). Strategic Guide to Natural Resource Management in South East Queensland. 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Brisbane & Bremer River Basin\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240404161325/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://humbugboats.com.au/","external_links_name":"Humbug Boats"},{"Link":"https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/dls06p/alma99258803402061","external_links_name":"Brisbane River and Southbank Photographs 2006"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1243416/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/315526709","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJwXdDWmKdRBPvQG8rJkXd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007292430505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85016939","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_(California)
|
East Bay
|
["1 History and development","2 Cities","3 Culture","4 Transportation","4.1 Rail","5 Economy","6 Major employers","7 Higher education","8 See also","9 References"]
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Coordinates: 37°42′N 122°00′W / 37.7°N 122°W / 37.7; -122Eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area, California, US
For other uses, see East Bay (disambiguation).
37°42′N 122°00′W / 37.7°N 122°W / 37.7; -122
Region in California, United StatesEast BayRegionThe East Bay in 2015, with the Bay Bridge connecting from Oakland to Treasure Island and San FranciscoOakland and the Bay BridgeOaklandMount DiabloMap of incorporated and unincorporated areas in East Bay, CaliforniaCountryUnited StatesStateCaliforniaPart ofSan Francisco Bay AreaPrincipal cityOaklandOther municipalities
List
FremontHaywardConcordBerkeleyAntiochRichmond
Area codes510/341, 925
The East Bay is the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area and includes cities along the eastern shores of the San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay. The region has grown to include inland communities in Alameda and Contra Costa counties. With a population of roughly 2.5 million in 2010, it is the most populous subregion in the Bay Area.
Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay and the third largest in the Bay Area. The city serves as a major transportation hub for the U.S. West Coast, and its port is the largest in Northern California. Increased population has led to the growth of large edge cities such as Alameda, Concord, Emeryville, Fremont, Hayward, Livermore, Pleasanton, San Ramon and Walnut Creek.
History and development
Although initial development in the larger Bay Area focused on San Francisco, the coastal East Bay came to prominence in the middle of the nineteenth century as the part of the Bay Area most accessible by land from the east. The Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 with its western terminus at the newly constructed Oakland Long Wharf, and the new city of Oakland rapidly developed into a significant seaport. Today the Port of Oakland is the Bay Area's largest port and the fifth largest container shipping port in the United States. In 1868, the University of California was formed from the private College of California and a new campus was built in what would become Berkeley. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake saw a large number of refugees flee to the relatively undamaged East Bay, and the region continued to grow rapidly. As the East Bay grew, the push to connect it with a more permanent link than ferry service resulted in the completion of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in 1936.
The Bay Area saw further growth in the decades following World War II, with the population doubling between 1940 and 1960, and doubling again by 2000. The 1937 completion of the Caldecott Tunnel through the Berkeley Hills fueled growth further east, where there was undeveloped land. Cities in the Diablo Valley, including Concord and Walnut Creek, saw their populations increase tenfold or more between 1950 and 1970. The addition of the BART commuter rail system in 1972 further encouraged development in increasingly far-flung regions of the East Bay. Today, the valleys east of the Berkeley Hills contain large affluent suburban communities such as Walnut Creek, San Ramon and Pleasanton.
The East Bay is not a formally defined region, aside from its being described as a region inclusive of Alameda and Contra Costa counties. As development moves generally eastward, new areas are described as being part of the East Bay. In 1996, BART was extended from its terminus in Concord to a new station in Pittsburg, symbolically incorporating the newly expanded Delta communities of Pittsburg and Antioch as extended regions of the East Bay. Beyond the borders of Alameda County, the large population of Tracy is connected as a bedroom community housing commuters traveling to or through the East Bay.
Cities
Except for some hills and ridges which exist as parklands or undeveloped land, and some farmland in eastern Contra Costa and Alameda Counties, the East Bay is highly urbanized. The East Bay shoreline is an urban corridor with several cities exceeding 100,000 residents, including Oakland, Hayward, Fremont, Richmond, and Berkeley. In the inland valleys on the east side of the Berkeley Hills, the land is mostly developed, particularly on the eastern fringe of Contra Costa county and the Tri-Valley area. In the inland valleys, the population density is less and the cities smaller. The only cities exceeding 100,000 residents in the inland valleys are Antioch and Concord.
East Bay cities include:
Acalanes Ridge
Alameda
Alamo
Albany
Alhambra Valley
Antioch
Ashland
Bay Point
Bayview
Berkeley
Bethel Island
Blackhawk
Brentwood
Byron
Camino Tassajara
Canyon
Castle Hill
Castro Valley
Cherryland
Clayton
Clyde
Concord
Contra Costa Centre
Crockett
Danville
Diablo
Discovery Bay
Dublin
East Richmond Heights
El Cerrito
El Sobrante
Emeryville
Fairview
Fremont
Hayward
Hercules
Kensington
Knightsen
Lafayette
Livermore
Martinez
Montalvin Manor
Moraga
Newark
Norris Canyon
North Gate
North Richmond
Oakland
Oakley
Orinda
Pacheco
Piedmont
Pittsburg
Pinole
Pleasant Hill
Pleasanton
Port Costa
Reliez Valley
Richmond
Rodeo
Rollingwood
San Leandro
San Lorenzo
San Miguel
San Pablo
San Ramon
Saranap
Shell Ridge
Sunol
Tara Hills
Union City
Vine Hill
Walnut Creek
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am Unincorporated Community
Culture
The East Bay has a free weekly newspaper, the East Bay Express, which has reported on the culture and politics of the East Bay for over 30 years, and has influenced the identification of the East Bay as a culturally defined region of the Bay Area. The East Bay Monthly, another free newspaper, has been published since 1970. In the early years of the evolution of USA Today, during the early 1980s, they operated regional newspapers, with the region's paper entitled East Bay Today.
The Solano Avenue Stroll, the oldest and largest street festival in the greater San Francisco Bay Area, is held every September on the Solano Avenue shopping district in Albany and Berkeley.
The East Bay is the birthplace of many musical acts, including Creedence Clearwater Revival, Country Joe and the Fish. Counting Crows, Yesterday and Today, Digital Underground, Green Day, Operation Ivy, Primus, Rancid, Set Your Goals, Tower of Power (whose debut album is titled East Bay Grease), The Pointer Sisters, MC Hammer, Tony! Toni! Toné!, Tupac Shakur, Too Short, Spice 1, en Vogue, Pete Escovedo and Sheila E, Keyshia Cole, and Mac Dre. The region is a major center for the development of rock, folk, funk, jazz, hip hop, soul and women's music.
Bay Area thrash metal has centered strongly on the East Bay, including the bands Exodus and Metallica, among others. Possessed and Death, both considered the first death metal bands, have roots or connections in the East Bay: Possessed formed in El Sobrante, with Death debuting nationally while in Concord.
Major music (and sports) venues include the Oakland Arena; adjacent Oakland Coliseum, home of the Oakland A's; the Oakland Paramount Theater, venue for the Oakland East Bay Symphony; the Fox Oakland Theatre, the UC Berkeley Greek Theater, the nonprofit The Freight and Salvage, and the Concord Pavilion (formerly Sleep Train Pavilion).
Major museums include the Oakland Museum of California, the Lawrence Hall of Science and the Chabot Space and Science Center.
The East Bay Regional Parks District operates over fifty parks, many consisting of significant acreage of wildlands, in the East Bay, many directly adjacent to urban centers. Tilden Regional Park, is one of the largest regional parks (2,000 acres (8.1 km2)) located directly adjacent to the urban center of Berkeley. Briones Regional Park, at 5,000 acres, is another large wildlands park near an urban center, Walnut Creek.
The East Bay also has a rich political history. One of the revolutionary movements founded in Oakland was the Black Panther Party.
The East Bay is home to many of the restaurants central to the creation of California Cuisine, including Chez Panisse.
Transportation
vteEast Bay Rail Stations
Legend
to Bakersfield
(2024) Oakley
Antioch
Antioch-Pittsburg
Pittsburg Center
to Sacramento
Pittsburg/Bay Point
Martinez
North Concord/Martinez
(planned) Hercules
Concord
Richmond
Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa Centre
El Cerrito del Norte
Walnut Creek
El Cerrito Plaza
Lafayette
Orinda
North Berkeley
Redwood Valley
Berkeley
Downtown Berkeley
Ashby
Rockridge
Emeryville
MacArthur
Oakland Central
19th Street Oakland
12th StreetOakland City Center
West Oakland
Oakland –
Lake Merritt
Jack London Square
Fruitvale
Oakland Coliseum
OaklandInternational Airport
San Leandro
Bay Fair
Hayward
Castro Valley
Hayward
West Dublin/Pleasanton
South Hayward
Dublin/Pleasanton
Sunol
Niles
Union City
(planned) Ardenwood
Pleasanton
Fremont
Livermore
Fremont
to Stockton–Downtown
Warm Springs/South Fremont
to San Franciscoand San Jose
Silicon ValleyBART extension
Key
Amtrak
BART
Altamont Corridor Express
Redwood Valley Railway
Niles Canyon Railway
All vehicular crossings of the San Francisco Bay land in the counties comprising the East Bay. Interstate highways in the East Bay include: Interstates 80, 580, 680, 880, 980, and 238. California State Routes 24, 4, 13, 92, 160, 242, 84, and Richmond Parkway are limited access highways for at least part of their lengths in the area. State Route 61, State Route 84, State Route 123, State Route 185, and State Route 238 are major surface streets that receive state funding for maintenance. San Pablo Avenue previously carried U.S. Route 40 until the terminus was moved progressively east to Utah.
AC Transit is the major bus transit agency for the region, and provides bus service throughout Alameda and Contra Costa counties, hence the "AC" moniker. County Connection, WestCAT, WHEELS, Tri-Delta Transit and Union City Transit also provide bus service in the East Bay.
Ferry service is provided by San Francisco Bay Ferry from Jack London Square and Alameda Harbor, with service at Richmond Ferry Terminal slated to begin in 2018. Hercules may also see future ferry service to San Francisco.
Bicycle transportation is strongly promoted by city and county agencies, and by organizations like the East Bay Bicycle Coalition.
Major pedestrian paths across the region include the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Bay Area Ridge Trail, the Ohlone Greenway, Iron Horse Regional Trail, Contra Costa Canal Trail, and the Richmond Greenway.
Rail
Rail service in the East Bay dates to the First transcontinental railroad, when the Western Pacific Railroad was contracted by the Central Pacific Railroad to provide the link between the Bay and Sacramento. This railroad eventually became the Niles Canyon Railway. Service to Alameda commenced in September 1869, four months after driving the golden spike at Promintory, Utah. Oakland Long Wharf eventually became the western terminus before ferry service to San Francisco. This road provided the sole link to the rest of the country until about 1879 when a more direct route across the Carquinez Strait was completed. Today, Altamont Corridor Express (ACE) operates commuter rail services through Niles Canyon to San Jose.
Streetcar service across the East Bay was historically provided by the Key System, incorporated in 1902 as the San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose Railway. An amalgamation of several streetcar companies established in the late part of the century, the Key System provided interurban routes across Alameda county, with connections to San Francisco ferries via their private Key System Pier. Southern Pacific ran a competing system, East Bay Electric Lines, until they, too, had the Key System take over operations. When the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opened in 1936, Key System cars could make the trip directly to the Transbay Terminal across the lower deck. Streetcars were replaced with busses in 1948 and transbay service halted in 1958. The system's assets were sold to the newly formed AC Transit in 1960.
The East Bay's modern rail transit service is Bay Area Rapid Transit, or BART, which was primarily designed to deliver commuters to San Francisco via the Transbay Tube, and to a lesser extent Oakland and Berkeley.
Amtrak's California Zephyr terminates in Emeryville, providing connections as far as Chicago, and further stations across the East Bay are served by Amtrak California's Coast Starlight and San Joaquin.
Economy
The East Bay has a mixed economy of services, manufacturing, and small and large businesses. The region is headquarters to a number of highly notable businesses, including Kaiser Permanente, Chevron, and Safeway, among others. The East Bay Economic Development Alliance was founded by Alameda County as the Economic Development Advisory Board in 1990 as a public/private partnership with the mission to promote the East Bay as an important region for development, with Contra Costa County joining in 1996, and the current name chosen in 2006.
Major employers
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The East Bay, as a part of the greater Bay Area, is a highly developed region, and is a major center for new and established economic ventures. Along with the county governments of Alameda and Contra Costa, the largest employers are:
University of California, Berkeley with approximately 20,000 employees
AT&T Inc. with approximately 11,000 employees
The U.S. Postal Service with around 10,000 employees
Tesla with 10,000 employees
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory with approximately 8,750 employees
Chevron Corp. (world headquarters in San Ramon) with 8,730 employees
Safeway (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 7,922 employees
Bank of America with 7,081 employees
PG&E with approximately 5,200 employees
Kaiser Permanente (US headquarters in Oakland) with 4,730 employees
Lucky Stores with 4,631 employees
Bio-Rad Laboratories with 4,300 employees
Wells Fargo with about 4,000 employees
Workday (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 3,865 employees
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with 3,816 employees
Mount Diablo Unified School District with 3,700 employees
West Contra Costa Unified School District with 3,360 employees
Alta Bates Summit Medical Center with 3,100 employees
John Muir Medical Center with 3,023 employees
Sandia National Laboratories with 1,670 employees
Oracle with 1,500 employees
Western Digital with 1,300 employees
Seagate with 1,050 employees
Other major companies with headquarters in the East Bay include 10x Genomics, 24 Hour Fitness, Alibris, ANG Newspapers, Clif Bar, Clorox, Columbus Salame, Dreyer's, Ellie Mae, GE Digital, Ghirardelli Chocolate Company, Gillig Corporation, Leapfrog, Peet's Coffee, Pixar, Ross Stores and Workday. Mervyn's headquarters were located in the East Bay until they declared bankruptcy. The New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI) automobile manufacturing plant employed about 5,100 employees at its peak. Tesla, Inc. has taken over part of the NUMMI plant, which is still the only automobile manufacturing plant in California.
Higher education
The East Bay is served by a number of both public and private higher education institutions:
Colleges
Two-year (community colleges)
Berkeley City College
Chabot College
College of Alameda
Contra Costa College
Diablo Valley College
Laney College
Las Positas College
Los Medanos College
Merritt College
Ohlone College
Universities
Public
California State University, East Bay (CSU East Bay)
University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley)
Private
California College of the Arts
Holy Names University
John F. Kennedy University
Life Chiropractic College West
Mills College
Patten University
Saint Mary's College of California
Samuel Merritt University
See also
San Francisco Bay Area portal
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for East Bay.
East Bay Housing Organizations
Transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area
References
^ "East Bay Division". League of California Cities.
^ "The Association of Bay Area Governments". Abag.ca.gov. April 14, 2011. Retrieved November 4, 2011.
^ "North American Container Traffic, 2009 Port Ranking" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-11.
^ "North Concord Station Information". Retrieved 2010-08-12.
^ Liedtke, Michael (October 1991). "The Oakland Tribune Rides Again". American Journalism Review. Archived from the original on 2014-10-10. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
^ Prince, Richard (August 23, 2011). "Sharpton to Deploy MSNBC on "Battlefield"". Robert C. Maynard Institute for Journalism Education. Archived from the original on May 21, 2013. Retrieved August 18, 2013.
^ John Peel, Albert Mudrian (2004). Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore (page 70). Feral House. ISBN 1-932595-04-X.
^ Possessed band page, Eduardo Rivadavia, Allmusic: "The brutal Seven Churches was arguably the first true death metal album and set the stage for the genre's breakaway from thrash."
^ Aldis, N. & Sherry, J. Heavy Metal Thunder, 2006, San Francisco: Chronicle ISBN 0-8118-5353-5
^ Allmusic.com Death Biography
^
^ "Review of Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California". Contemporary Sociology. 42 (1): 134–135. 2013. doi:10.1177/0094306112468722n. ISSN 0094-3061. JSTOR 41722851. S2CID 220839319.
^ Mulloy, D. J. (2010-07-01). "New Panthers, old Panthers and the politics of black nationalism in the United States". Patterns of Prejudice. 44 (3): 217–238. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2010.489732. ISSN 0031-322X. S2CID 144782902.
^ San Francisco Bay Area : Its People, Prospects and Problems. San Francisco : the associates, 1948., 1948.
^ "What We Don't Learn about the Black Panther Party — but Should. (Cover Story)". Rethinking Schools. 32 (1): 26–33. Fall 2017.
^ Jones, Brenda Payton (February 2007). "The BLACK PANTHERS STILL MAKING a DIFFERENCE". Ebony. 62 (4): 190.
^ Murch, Donna (2007-12-06). "The Campus and the Street: Race, Migration, and the Origins of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, CA". Souls. 9 (4): 333–345. doi:10.1080/10999940701703794. ISSN 1099-9949. S2CID 144004830.
^ "About the East Bay EDA". East Bay Economic Development Alliance. Archived from the original on December 13, 2011.
^ "Statistical Summary and Data on UC Students, Faculty, and Staff". University of California. Archived from the original on 2014-12-08. Retrieved 2014-12-02.
vteEast BayCounties
Alameda
Contra Costa
Major cities
Oakland
Fremont
Hayward
Concord
Berkeley
Richmond
Antioch
Cities and towns25k-100k
Alameda
Brentwood
Castro Valley
Danville
Dublin
Livermore
Martinez
Newark
Oakley
Pittsburg
Pleasant Hill
Pleasanton
San Leandro
San Pablo
San Ramon
Union City
Walnut Creek
Cities and towns10k-25k
Alamo
Albany
Ashland
Bay Point
Cherryland
Clayton
Discovery Bay
El Cerrito
El Sobrante
Emeryville
Fairview
Hercules
Lafayette
Moraga
Orinda
Piedmont
Pinole
San Lorenzo
Cities and towns under 10k
Bayview
Bethel Island
Blackhawk
Byron
Camino Tassajara
Clyde
Crockett
Diablo
East Richmond Heights
Kensington
Knightsen
Montalvin Manor
Mountain View
Pacheco
Port Costa
Rodeo
Rollingwood
Sunol
Tara Hills
Vine Hill
Regional organizations
AC Transit
East Bay Municipal Utility District
East Bay Regional Park District
East Bay Tribune
East Bay Electric Lines (historic)
East Bay Green Corridor
vteSan Francisco Bay AreaBodies ofwater
Bodega Bay
Carquinez Strait
Clifton Forebay
Golden Gate
Grizzly Bay
Guadalupe River
Half Moon Bay
Lake Berryessa
Napa River
Oakland Estuary
Petaluma River
Richardson Bay
Richmond Inner Harbor
Russian River
Sacramento River
San Francisco Bay
San Leandro Bay
San Pablo Bay
Sonoma Creek
Suisun Bay
Tomales Bay
Counties
Alameda
Contra Costa
Marin
Napa
San Francisco
San Mateo
Santa Clara
Solano
Sonoma
CitiesandtownsMajor cities
Oakland
San Francisco
San Jose
100k–250k
Antioch
Berkeley
Concord
Daly City
Fairfield
Fremont
Hayward
Richmond
San Mateo
Santa Clara
Santa Rosa
Sunnyvale
Vacaville
Vallejo
50k–100k
Alameda
Brentwood
Cupertino
Dublin
Gilroy
Livermore
Milpitas
Mountain View
Napa
Novato
Palo Alto
Petaluma
Pittsburg
Pleasanton
Redwood City
San Leandro
San Rafael
San Ramon
South San Francisco
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East Bay (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"37°42′N 122°00′W / 37.7°N 122°W / 37.7; -122","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=East_Bay¶ms=37.7_N_122_W_region:US-CA_type:landmark_dim:60km"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay"},{"link_name":"San Pablo Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pablo_Bay"},{"link_name":"Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"U.S. West Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Oakland"},{"link_name":"Northern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_California"},{"link_name":"edge cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_city"},{"link_name":"Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda,_California"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_California"},{"link_name":"Emeryville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeryville,_California"},{"link_name":"Fremont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont,_California"},{"link_name":"Hayward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayward,_California"},{"link_name":"Livermore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermore,_California"},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_California"},{"link_name":"San Ramon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ramon,_California"},{"link_name":"Walnut Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut_Creek,_California"}],"text":"Eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USFor other uses, see East Bay (disambiguation).37°42′N 122°00′W / 37.7°N 122°W / 37.7; -122Region in California, United StatesThe East Bay is the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area and includes cities along the eastern shores of the San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay. The region has grown to include inland communities in Alameda and Contra Costa counties.[1] With a population of roughly 2.5 million in 2010, it is the most populous subregion in the Bay Area.[2]Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay and the third largest in the Bay Area. The city serves as a major transportation hub for the U.S. West Coast, and its port is the largest in Northern California. Increased population has led to the growth of large edge cities such as Alameda, Concord, Emeryville, Fremont, Hayward, Livermore, Pleasanton, San Ramon and Walnut Creek.","title":"East Bay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Transcontinental Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcontinental_Railroad"},{"link_name":"Oakland Long Wharf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Long_Wharf"},{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"Port of Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Oakland"},{"link_name":"container shipping port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_terminal"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-North_America_Container_Traffic_Rankings-3"},{"link_name":"University of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California"},{"link_name":"College of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_California"},{"link_name":"1906 San Francisco earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake"},{"link_name":"San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Caldecott Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldecott_Tunnel"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Hills"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_California"},{"link_name":"Walnut Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut_Creek,_California"},{"link_name":"BART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BART"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Hills"},{"link_name":"San Ramon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ramon,_California"},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_California"},{"link_name":"BART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BART"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg,_California"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch,_California"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-North_Concord_Station_Information-4"},{"link_name":"Tracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy,_California"},{"link_name":"bedroom community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_town"}],"text":"Although initial development in the larger Bay Area focused on San Francisco, the coastal East Bay came to prominence in the middle of the nineteenth century as the part of the Bay Area most accessible by land from the east. The Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 with its western terminus at the newly constructed Oakland Long Wharf, and the new city of Oakland rapidly developed into a significant seaport. Today the Port of Oakland is the Bay Area's largest port and the fifth largest container shipping port in the United States.[3] In 1868, the University of California was formed from the private College of California and a new campus was built in what would become Berkeley. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake saw a large number of refugees flee to the relatively undamaged East Bay, and the region continued to grow rapidly. As the East Bay grew, the push to connect it with a more permanent link than ferry service resulted in the completion of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in 1936.The Bay Area saw further growth in the decades following World War II, with the population doubling between 1940 and 1960, and doubling again by 2000. The 1937 completion of the Caldecott Tunnel through the Berkeley Hills fueled growth further east, where there was undeveloped land. Cities in the Diablo Valley, including Concord and Walnut Creek, saw their populations increase tenfold or more between 1950 and 1970. The addition of the BART commuter rail system in 1972 further encouraged development in increasingly far-flung regions of the East Bay. Today, the valleys east of the Berkeley Hills contain large affluent suburban communities such as Walnut Creek, San Ramon and Pleasanton.The East Bay is not a formally defined region, aside from its being described as a region inclusive of Alameda and Contra Costa counties. As development moves generally eastward, new areas are described as being part of the East Bay. In 1996, BART was extended from its terminus in Concord to a new station in Pittsburg, symbolically incorporating the newly expanded Delta communities of Pittsburg and Antioch as extended regions of the East Bay.[4] Beyond the borders of Alameda County, the large population of Tracy is connected as a bedroom community housing commuters traveling to or through the East Bay.","title":"History and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"Hayward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayward,_California"},{"link_name":"Fremont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont,_California"},{"link_name":"Richmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_California"},{"link_name":"Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"Tri-Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-Valley"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch,_California"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_California"},{"link_name":"Acalanes Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acalanes_Ridge,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda,_California"},{"link_name":"Alamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Albany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany,_California"},{"link_name":"Alhambra Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_Valley,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch,_California"},{"link_name":"Ashland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashland,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Bay Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_Point,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Bayview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayview,_Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"Bethel Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethel_Island,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Blackhawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackhawk,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Brentwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brentwood,_California"},{"link_name":"Byron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byron,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Camino Tassajara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camino_Tassajara,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Canyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyon,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Castle Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Hill,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Castro Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castro_Valley,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Cherryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherryland,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Clayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton,_California"},{"link_name":"Clyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_California"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_Centre,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Crockett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crockett,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Danville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danville,_California"},{"link_name":"Diablo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablo,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Discovery Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Bay,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_California"},{"link_name":"East Richmond Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Richmond_Heights,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"El Cerrito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Cerrito,_Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"El Sobrante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sobrante,_Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Emeryville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeryville,_California"},{"link_name":"Fairview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairview,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Fremont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont,_California"},{"link_name":"Hayward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayward,_California"},{"link_name":"Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules,_California"},{"link_name":"Kensington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Knightsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knightsen,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Lafayette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette,_California"},{"link_name":"Livermore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livermore,_California"},{"link_name":"Martinez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinez,_California"},{"link_name":"Montalvin Manor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montalvin_Manor,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Moraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moraga,_California"},{"link_name":"Newark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_California"},{"link_name":"Norris Canyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norris_Canyon,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"North Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Gate,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"North Richmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Richmond,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"Oakley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakley,_California"},{"link_name":"Orinda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orinda,_California"},{"link_name":"Pacheco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacheco,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Piedmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont,_California"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg,_California"},{"link_name":"Pinole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinole,_California"},{"link_name":"Pleasant Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasant_Hill,_California"},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_California"},{"link_name":"Port 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Miguel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Miguel,_Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"San Pablo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pablo,_California"},{"link_name":"San Ramon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ramon,_California"},{"link_name":"Saranap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saranap,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Shell Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_Ridge,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Sunol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunol,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Tara Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Hills,_California"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uc-5"},{"link_name":"Union City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_City,_California"},{"link_name":"Vine Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine_Hill,_California"},{"link_name":"Walnut 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for some hills and ridges which exist as parklands or undeveloped land, and some farmland in eastern Contra Costa and Alameda Counties, the East Bay is highly urbanized. The East Bay shoreline is an urban corridor with several cities exceeding 100,000 residents, including Oakland, Hayward, Fremont, Richmond, and Berkeley. In the inland valleys on the east side of the Berkeley Hills, the land is mostly developed, particularly on the eastern fringe of Contra Costa county and the Tri-Valley area. In the inland valleys, the population density is less and the cities smaller. The only cities exceeding 100,000 residents in the inland valleys are Antioch and Concord.East Bay cities include:Acalanes Ridge[i]\nAlameda\nAlamo[i]\nAlbany\nAlhambra Valley[i]\nAntioch\nAshland[i]\nBay Point[i]\nBayview[i]\nBerkeley\nBethel Island[i]\nBlackhawk[i]\nBrentwood\nByron[i]\nCamino Tassajara[i]\nCanyon[i]\nCastle Hill[i]\nCastro Valley[i]\nCherryland[i]\nClayton\nClyde[i]\nConcord\nContra Costa Centre[i]\nCrockett[i]\nDanville\nDiablo[i]\nDiscovery Bay[i]\nDublin\nEast Richmond Heights[i]\nEl Cerrito\nEl Sobrante[i]\nEmeryville\nFairview[i]\nFremont\nHayward\nHercules\nKensington[i]\n\n\nKnightsen[i]\nLafayette\nLivermore\nMartinez\nMontalvin Manor[i]\nMoraga\nNewark\nNorris Canyon[i]\nNorth Gate[i]\nNorth Richmond[i]\nOakland\nOakley\nOrinda\nPacheco[i]\nPiedmont\nPittsburg\nPinole\nPleasant Hill\nPleasanton\nPort Costa[i]\nReliez Valley[i]\nRichmond\nRodeo[i]\nRollingwood[i]\nSan Leandro\nSan Lorenzo[i]\nSan Miguel[i]\nSan Pablo\nSan Ramon\nSaranap[i]\nShell Ridge[i]\nSunol[i]\nTara Hills[i]\nUnion City\nVine Hill\nWalnut Creek^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am Unincorporated Community","title":"Cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East Bay Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Express"},{"link_name":"The East Bay Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_East_Bay_Monthly"},{"link_name":"USA Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today"},{"link_name":"East Bay Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Today"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Solano Avenue Stroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solano_Avenue_Stroll"},{"link_name":"street festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_festival"},{"link_name":"Solano Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solano_Avenue"},{"link_name":"Creedence Clearwater Revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creedence_Clearwater_Revival"},{"link_name":"Country Joe and the Fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_Joe_and_the_Fish"},{"link_name":"Counting Crows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting_Crows"},{"link_name":"Yesterday and Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%26T"},{"link_name":"Digital Underground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Underground"},{"link_name":"Green Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Day"},{"link_name":"Operation Ivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ivy_(band)"},{"link_name":"Primus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primus_(band)"},{"link_name":"Rancid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancid_(band)"},{"link_name":"Set Your Goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_Your_Goals_(band)"},{"link_name":"Tower of Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_Power"},{"link_name":"East Bay Grease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Grease"},{"link_name":"The Pointer Sisters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pointer_Sisters"},{"link_name":"MC Hammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MC_Hammer"},{"link_name":"Tony! Toni! Toné!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony!_Toni!_Ton%C3%A9!"},{"link_name":"Tupac Shakur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupac_Shakur"},{"link_name":"Too Short","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Too_Short"},{"link_name":"Spice 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_1"},{"link_name":"en Vogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_Vogue"},{"link_name":"Pete Escovedo and Sheila E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Escovedo"},{"link_name":"Keyshia Cole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyshia_Cole"},{"link_name":"Mac Dre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Dre"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music"},{"link_name":"funk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_music"},{"link_name":"soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_music"},{"link_name":"women's music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_music"},{"link_name":"Bay Area thrash metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_Area_thrash_metal"},{"link_name":"Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodus_(band)"},{"link_name":"Metallica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica"},{"link_name":"Possessed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possessed_(band)"},{"link_name":"Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_(metal_band)"},{"link_name":"death metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_metal"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-am-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allmusic_bio-11"},{"link_name":"El Sobrante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sobrante,_Contra_Costa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_California"},{"link_name":"Oakland Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Arena"},{"link_name":"Oakland Coliseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Coliseum"},{"link_name":"Oakland A's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Athletics"},{"link_name":"Oakland Paramount Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount_Theatre_(Oakland,_California)"},{"link_name":"Oakland East Bay Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_East_Bay_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Fox Oakland Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Oakland_Theatre"},{"link_name":"UC Berkeley Greek Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearst_Greek_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Freight and Salvage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Freight_and_Salvage"},{"link_name":"Concord Pavilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord_Pavilion"},{"link_name":"Oakland Museum of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Museum_of_California"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Hall of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Hall_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Chabot Space and Science Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chabot_Space_and_Science_Center"},{"link_name":"East Bay Regional Parks District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Regional_Parks_District"},{"link_name":"Tilden Regional Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilden_Park"},{"link_name":"Briones Regional Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briones_Regional_Park"},{"link_name":"Black Panther Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Panther_Party"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"California Cuisine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Cuisine"},{"link_name":"Chez Panisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chez_Panisse"}],"text":"The East Bay has a free weekly newspaper, the East Bay Express, which has reported on the culture and politics of the East Bay for over 30 years, and has influenced the identification of the East Bay as a culturally defined region of the Bay Area. The East Bay Monthly, another free newspaper, has been published since 1970. In the early years of the evolution of USA Today, during the early 1980s, they operated regional newspapers, with the region's paper entitled East Bay Today.[5][6]The Solano Avenue Stroll, the oldest and largest street festival in the greater San Francisco Bay Area, is held every September on the Solano Avenue shopping district in Albany and Berkeley.The East Bay is the birthplace of many musical acts, including Creedence Clearwater Revival, Country Joe and the Fish. Counting Crows, Yesterday and Today, Digital Underground, Green Day, Operation Ivy, Primus, Rancid, Set Your Goals, Tower of Power (whose debut album is titled East Bay Grease), The Pointer Sisters, MC Hammer, Tony! Toni! Toné!, Tupac Shakur, Too Short, Spice 1, en Vogue, Pete Escovedo and Sheila E, Keyshia Cole, and Mac Dre. The region is a major center for the development of rock, folk, funk, jazz, hip hop, soul and women's music.Bay Area thrash metal has centered strongly on the East Bay, including the bands Exodus and Metallica, among others. Possessed and Death, both considered the first death metal bands,[7][8][9][10] have roots or connections in the East Bay: Possessed formed in El Sobrante, with Death debuting nationally while in Concord.Major music (and sports) venues include the Oakland Arena; adjacent Oakland Coliseum, home of the Oakland A's; the Oakland Paramount Theater, venue for the Oakland East Bay Symphony; the Fox Oakland Theatre, the UC Berkeley Greek Theater, the nonprofit The Freight and Salvage, and the Concord Pavilion (formerly Sleep Train Pavilion).Major museums include the Oakland Museum of California, the Lawrence Hall of Science and the Chabot Space and Science Center.The East Bay Regional Parks District operates over fifty parks, many consisting of significant acreage of wildlands, in the East Bay, many directly adjacent to urban centers. Tilden Regional Park, is one of the largest regional parks (2,000 acres (8.1 km2)) located directly adjacent to the urban center of Berkeley. Briones Regional Park, at 5,000 acres, is another large wildlands park near an urban center, Walnut Creek.The East Bay also has a rich political history. One of the revolutionary movements founded in Oakland was the Black Panther Party.[11][12][13][14][15][16][17]The East Bay is home to many of the restaurants central to the creation of California Cuisine, including Chez Panisse.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Interstate highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_highway"},{"link_name":"Interstates 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_80_(California)"},{"link_name":"580","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_580_(California)"},{"link_name":"680","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_680_(California)"},{"link_name":"880","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_880_(California)"},{"link_name":"980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_980_(California)"},{"link_name":"238","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_238_(California)"},{"link_name":"California State Routes 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_24"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_4"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_13"},{"link_name":"92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_92"},{"link_name":"160","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_160"},{"link_name":"242","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_242"},{"link_name":"84","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_84"},{"link_name":"Richmond Parkway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Parkway_(California)"},{"link_name":"State Route 61","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_61"},{"link_name":"State Route 84","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_84"},{"link_name":"State Route 123","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_123"},{"link_name":"State Route 185","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_185"},{"link_name":"State Route 238","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_238"},{"link_name":"San Pablo Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pablo_Avenue"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_40#California_history"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"AC Transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_Transit"},{"link_name":"County Connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Connection"},{"link_name":"WestCAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WestCAT"},{"link_name":"WHEELS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHEELS_(California)"},{"link_name":"Tri-Delta Transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-Delta_Transit"},{"link_name":"Union City Transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_City_Transit"},{"link_name":"Ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Ferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Ferry"},{"link_name":"Jack London Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_London_Square"},{"link_name":"Richmond Ferry Terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Ferry_Terminal"},{"link_name":"Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules_station"},{"link_name":"East Bay Bicycle Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Bicycle_Coalition"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Trail"},{"link_name":"Bay Area Ridge Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_Area_Ridge_Trail"},{"link_name":"Ohlone Greenway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohlone_Greenway"},{"link_name":"Iron Horse Regional Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Horse_Regional_Trail"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_Canal"},{"link_name":"Richmond Greenway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_Greenway"}],"text":"All vehicular crossings of the San Francisco Bay land in the counties comprising the East Bay. Interstate highways in the East Bay include: Interstates 80, 580, 680, 880, 980, and 238. California State Routes 24, 4, 13, 92, 160, 242, 84, and Richmond Parkway are limited access highways for at least part of their lengths in the area. State Route 61, State Route 84, State Route 123, State Route 185, and State Route 238 are major surface streets that receive state funding for maintenance. San Pablo Avenue previously carried U.S. Route 40 until the terminus was moved progressively east to Utah.AC Transit is the major bus transit agency for the region, and provides bus service throughout Alameda and Contra Costa counties, hence the \"AC\" moniker. County Connection, WestCAT, WHEELS, Tri-Delta Transit and Union City Transit also provide bus service in the East Bay.Ferry service is provided by San Francisco Bay Ferry from Jack London Square and Alameda Harbor, with service at Richmond Ferry Terminal slated to begin in 2018. Hercules may also see future ferry service to San Francisco.Bicycle transportation is strongly promoted by city and county agencies, and by organizations like the East Bay Bicycle Coalition.Major pedestrian paths across the region include the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Bay Area Ridge Trail, the Ohlone Greenway, Iron Horse Regional Trail, Contra Costa Canal Trail, and the Richmond Greenway.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"First transcontinental railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad"},{"link_name":"Western Pacific Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Pacific_Railroad_(1862%E2%80%9370)"},{"link_name":"Central Pacific Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Pacific_Railroad"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento"},{"link_name":"Niles Canyon Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niles_Canyon_Railway"},{"link_name":"golden spike at Promintory, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_spike"},{"link_name":"Oakland Long Wharf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Long_Wharf"},{"link_name":"Altamont Corridor Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altamont_Corridor_Express"},{"link_name":"commuter rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_rail"},{"link_name":"Key System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_System"},{"link_name":"streetcar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streetcar"},{"link_name":"Southern Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Transportation_Company"},{"link_name":"San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco%E2%80%93Oakland_Bay_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Transbay Terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transbay_Terminal"},{"link_name":"Bay Area Rapid Transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_Area_Rapid_Transit"},{"link_name":"Transbay Tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transbay_Tube"},{"link_name":"Amtrak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amtrak"},{"link_name":"California Zephyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Zephyr"},{"link_name":"Emeryville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeryville,_California"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Amtrak California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amtrak_California"},{"link_name":"Coast Starlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Starlight"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_(train)"}],"sub_title":"Rail","text":"Rail service in the East Bay dates to the First transcontinental railroad, when the Western Pacific Railroad was contracted by the Central Pacific Railroad to provide the link between the Bay and Sacramento. This railroad eventually became the Niles Canyon Railway. Service to Alameda commenced in September 1869, four months after driving the golden spike at Promintory, Utah. Oakland Long Wharf eventually became the western terminus before ferry service to San Francisco. This road provided the sole link to the rest of the country until about 1879 when a more direct route across the Carquinez Strait was completed. Today, Altamont Corridor Express (ACE) operates commuter rail services through Niles Canyon to San Jose.Streetcar service across the East Bay was historically provided by the Key System, incorporated in 1902 as the San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose Railway. An amalgamation of several streetcar companies established in the late part of the century, the Key System provided interurban routes across Alameda county, with connections to San Francisco ferries via their private Key System Pier. Southern Pacific ran a competing system, East Bay Electric Lines, until they, too, had the Key System take over operations. When the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opened in 1936, Key System cars could make the trip directly to the Transbay Terminal across the lower deck. Streetcars were replaced with busses in 1948 and transbay service halted in 1958. The system's assets were sold to the newly formed AC Transit in 1960.The East Bay's modern rail transit service is Bay Area Rapid Transit, or BART, which was primarily designed to deliver commuters to San Francisco via the Transbay Tube, and to a lesser extent Oakland and Berkeley.Amtrak's California Zephyr terminates in Emeryville, providing connections as far as Chicago, and further stations across the East Bay are served by Amtrak California's Coast Starlight and San Joaquin.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kaiser Permanente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Permanente"},{"link_name":"Chevron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Safeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safeway,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The East Bay has a mixed economy of services, manufacturing, and small and large businesses. The region is headquarters to a number of highly notable businesses, including Kaiser Permanente, Chevron, and Safeway, among others. The East Bay Economic Development Alliance was founded by Alameda County as the Economic Development Advisory Board in 1990 as a public/private partnership with the mission to promote the East Bay as an important region for development, with Contra Costa County joining in 1996, and the current name chosen in 2006.[18]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"AT&T Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Inc."},{"link_name":"U.S. Postal Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service"},{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Chevron Corp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corp."},{"link_name":"San Ramon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Ramon,_California"},{"link_name":"Safeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safeway_Inc."},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_California"},{"link_name":"Bank of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_America"},{"link_name":"PG&E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Gas_and_Electric_Company"},{"link_name":"Kaiser Permanente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Permanente"},{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"Lucky Stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky_Stores"},{"link_name":"Bio-Rad Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bio-Rad"},{"link_name":"Wells Fargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Fargo"},{"link_name":"Workday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workday,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_California"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Mount Diablo Unified School District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Diablo_Unified_School_District"},{"link_name":"West Contra Costa Unified School District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Contra_Costa_Unified_School_District"},{"link_name":"Alta Bates Summit Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Bates_Summit_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"John Muir Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Muir_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"Sandia National Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Western Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Digital"},{"link_name":"Seagate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Technology"},{"link_name":"10x Genomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10x_Genomics"},{"link_name":"24 Hour Fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_Hour_Fitness"},{"link_name":"Alibris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alibris"},{"link_name":"ANG Newspapers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANG_Newspapers"},{"link_name":"Clif Bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clif_Bar"},{"link_name":"Clorox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clorox"},{"link_name":"Columbus Salame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus_Salame"},{"link_name":"Dreyer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreyer%27s"},{"link_name":"Ellie Mae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Mae"},{"link_name":"GE Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE_Digital"},{"link_name":"Ghirardelli Chocolate Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghirardelli_Chocolate_Company"},{"link_name":"Gillig Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillig_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Leapfrog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leapfrog"},{"link_name":"Peet's Coffee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peet%27s_Coffee"},{"link_name":"Pixar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar"},{"link_name":"Ross Stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Stores"},{"link_name":"Workday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workday,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Mervyn's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mervyn%27s"},{"link_name":"New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NUMMI"},{"link_name":"Tesla, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla,_Inc."}],"text":"The East Bay, as a part of the greater Bay Area, is a highly developed region, and is a major center for new and established economic ventures. Along with the county governments of Alameda and Contra Costa, the largest employers are:University of California, Berkeley with approximately 20,000 employees[19][failed verification]\nAT&T Inc. with approximately 11,000 employees\nThe U.S. Postal Service with around 10,000 employees\nTesla with 10,000 employees\nLawrence Livermore National Laboratory with approximately 8,750 employees\nChevron Corp. (world headquarters in San Ramon) with 8,730 employees\nSafeway (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 7,922 employees\nBank of America with 7,081 employees\nPG&E with approximately 5,200 employees\nKaiser Permanente (US headquarters in Oakland) with 4,730 employees\nLucky Stores with 4,631 employees\nBio-Rad Laboratories with 4,300 employees\nWells Fargo with about 4,000 employees\nWorkday (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 3,865 employees\nLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with 3,816 employees\nMount Diablo Unified School District with 3,700 employees\nWest Contra Costa Unified School District with 3,360 employees\nAlta Bates Summit Medical Center with 3,100 employees\nJohn Muir Medical Center with 3,023 employees\nSandia National Laboratories with 1,670 employees\nOracle with 1,500 employees\nWestern Digital with 1,300 employees\nSeagate with 1,050 employeesOther major companies with headquarters in the East Bay include 10x Genomics, 24 Hour Fitness, Alibris, ANG Newspapers, Clif Bar, Clorox, Columbus Salame, Dreyer's, Ellie Mae, GE Digital, Ghirardelli Chocolate Company, Gillig Corporation, Leapfrog, Peet's Coffee, Pixar, Ross Stores and Workday. Mervyn's headquarters were located in the East Bay until they declared bankruptcy. The New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI) automobile manufacturing plant employed about 5,100 employees at its peak. Tesla, Inc. has taken over part of the NUMMI plant, which is still the only automobile manufacturing plant in California.","title":"Major employers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"community colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_college"},{"link_name":"Berkeley City College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_City_College"},{"link_name":"Chabot College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chabot_College"},{"link_name":"College of Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Alameda"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_College"},{"link_name":"Diablo Valley College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablo_Valley_College"},{"link_name":"Laney College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laney_College"},{"link_name":"Las Positas College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Positas_College"},{"link_name":"Los Medanos College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Medanos_College"},{"link_name":"Merritt College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merritt_College"},{"link_name":"Ohlone College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohlone_College"},{"link_name":"California State University, East Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_University,_East_Bay"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"California College of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_College_of_the_Arts"},{"link_name":"Holy Names University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Names_University"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_University"},{"link_name":"Life Chiropractic College West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Chiropractic_College_West"},{"link_name":"Mills College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills_College"},{"link_name":"Patten University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patten_University"},{"link_name":"Saint Mary's College of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mary%27s_College_of_California"},{"link_name":"Samuel Merritt University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Merritt_University"}],"text":"The East Bay is served by a number of both public and private higher education institutions:Colleges\n\nTwo-year (community colleges)\nBerkeley City College\nChabot College\nCollege of Alameda\nContra Costa College\nDiablo Valley College\nLaney College\nLas Positas College\nLos Medanos College\nMerritt College\nOhlone College\n\n\nUniversities\n\nPublic\nCalifornia State University, East Bay (CSU East Bay)\nUniversity of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley)\nPrivate\nCalifornia College of the Arts\nHoly Names University\nJohn F. Kennedy University\nLife Chiropractic College West\nMills College\nPatten University\nSaint Mary's College of California\nSamuel Merritt University","title":"Higher education"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"San Francisco Bay Area portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"title":"East Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/East_Bay#Q2617944"},{"title":"East Bay Housing Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Bay_Housing_Organizations"},{"title":"Transportation in the San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area"}]
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S2CID 220839319.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41722851","url_text":"\"Review of Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0094306112468722n","url_text":"10.1177/0094306112468722n"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0094-3061","url_text":"0094-3061"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41722851","url_text":"41722851"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220839319","url_text":"220839319"}]},{"reference":"Mulloy, D. J. (2010-07-01). \"New Panthers, old Panthers and the politics of black nationalism in the United States\". Patterns of Prejudice. 44 (3): 217–238. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2010.489732. ISSN 0031-322X. S2CID 144782902.","urls":[{"url":"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-13821-001","url_text":"\"New Panthers, old Panthers and the politics of black nationalism in the United States\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0031322X.2010.489732","url_text":"10.1080/0031322X.2010.489732"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-322X","url_text":"0031-322X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144782902","url_text":"144782902"}]},{"reference":"\"What We Don't Learn about the Black Panther Party — but Should. (Cover Story)\". Rethinking Schools. 32 (1): 26–33. Fall 2017.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jones, Brenda Payton (February 2007). \"The BLACK PANTHERS STILL MAKING a DIFFERENCE\". Ebony. 62 (4): 190.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Murch, Donna (2007-12-06). \"The Campus and the Street: Race, Migration, and the Origins of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, CA\". Souls. 9 (4): 333–345. doi:10.1080/10999940701703794. ISSN 1099-9949. S2CID 144004830.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchwithrutgers.com/en/publications/the-campus-and-the-street-race-migration-and-the-origins-of-the-b","url_text":"\"The Campus and the Street: Race, Migration, and the Origins of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, CA\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10999940701703794","url_text":"10.1080/10999940701703794"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1099-9949","url_text":"1099-9949"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144004830","url_text":"144004830"}]},{"reference":"\"About the East Bay EDA\". East Bay Economic Development Alliance. Archived from the original on December 13, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111213203739/http://www.edab.org/east_bay_economic_development_alliance/index.htm","url_text":"\"About the East Bay EDA\""},{"url":"http://www.edab.org/east_bay_economic_development_alliance/index.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Statistical Summary and Data on UC Students, Faculty, and Staff\". University of California. Archived from the original on 2014-12-08. Retrieved 2014-12-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141208101729/http://legacy-its.ucop.edu/uwnews/stat/","url_text":"\"Statistical Summary and Data on UC Students, Faculty, and Staff\""},{"url":"http://legacy-its.ucop.edu/uwnews/stat/","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_176
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Heinkel He 176
|
["1 Design and development","1.1 Background","1.2 Design","1.3 Flight testing and cancellation","1.4 Impact","2 Specifications (He 176 V1)","3 See also","4 References","4.1 Citations","4.2 Bibliography","5 External links"]
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Experimental rocket plane
He 176
Post war artist impression of the He 176
Role
ExperimentalType of aircraft
Manufacturer
Heinkel
First flight
20 June 1939
Status
Cancelled
The Heinkel He 176 was a German experimental rocket-powered aircraft. It was the world's first aircraft to be propelled solely by a liquid-fueled rocket, making its first powered flight on 20 June 1939 with Erich Warsitz at the controls.
The He 176 was developed as a private venture by the Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkel's emphasis on developing technology for high-speed flight. Work on the project began in 1936 after testing with a modified He 72 and a pair of He 112s had shown rocket propulsion to have some viability. The He 176 was purpose-built to harness this propulsion, rather than a modification of existing piston engined-types. The resulting aircraft was relatively compact, was largely composed of wood, and in some respects relatively simplistic. It also incorporated some novel concepts, such as an unconventional reclined seating position for the pilot along with a unique jettisonable nose escape system for emergencies. In December 1937, the He 176 designation was officially assigned to the aircraft.
On 12 September 1939, the He 176 project was ordered to be cancelled, allegedly due to its unimpressive size and performance. However, the aircraft did provide "proof of concept" for rocket propulsion and high speed flight in general; lessons and designs cues were incorporated into subsequent aircraft such as the Heinkel He 280 prototype jet fighter and the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket interceptor. The prototype itself along with most documentation related to the He 176 were destroyed by the end of the war. Warsitz stated his belief that some material may have entered the Soviet/Russian archives. The often quoted performance data of the aircraft, such as its speed reaching 750 km/h, or 800 km/h, is drawn from Warsitz's account, and are usually not based on sound documents. Only two true pictures of the He 176 have survived which were probably taken in Peenemünde while undergoing testing.
Design and development
Background
Opel RAK.1, world's first public flight of a rocket-powered aircraft on September 30, 1929, piloted by Fritz von Opel
During the 1920s, German daredevils and inventors had experimented with the use of solid-fuel rockets to propel various vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, railway carriages, snow sleds, and, by 1929, aircraft such as Alexander Lippisch's Ente and Fritz von Opel's RAK.1. Solid-fuel rockets, however, have major disadvantages when used for aircraft propulsion, as their thrust cannot be throttled, and the engines cannot be shut down until the fuel is exhausted.
In the mid 1930s, the aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun and his rocketry team working at Peenemünde investigated the use of liquid-fuelled rockets for powering aircraft. The German aircraft designer Ernst Heinkel became an enthusiastic supporter of their efforts, initially supplying a He 72 and later a pair of He 112s to support these experiments. During early 1937, one of these aircraft was flown with its piston engine shut down during flight, thus being propelled by rocket power alone. At the same time, Hellmuth Walter's experiments into Hydrogen peroxide monopropellant-based rockets were leading towards light and simple rockets that appeared well-suited for aircraft installation, although at the price of considerable danger and limited duration.
The experimental flights of the He 112 had been subject to the close attention of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) (the German Reich Aviation Ministry), which had become interested in the potential for a rocket-propelled interceptor aircraft. Heinkel decided to establish a secret department at its Rostock facility to pursue such endeavours; work commenced as early as 1936. Unlike the preceding He 112, the design team wanted to produce an aircraft that would be purpose-built to harness this new form of propulsion, and thus achieve superior performance from it; it would be from this effort that the He 176 would emerge.
Design
The basic design of the He 176 was sketched out during the Neuhardenberg rocket motor and booster tests. In 1936, the RLM awarded Heinkel the contract to build the world's first rocket aircraft. It was decided to tailor-build the aircraft to specifically fit the test pilot Erich Warsitz, to minimise the size of the cockpit, along with the rest of the aircraft, to make the aircraft as lightweight as humanly possible. The resulting cockpit was so cramped that the pilot could not even flex his elbows while some controls were often placed in inconvenient positions. Due to the high speed range that the He 176 was designed to encounter, the sensitivity of these controls would have to be adjusted multiple times throughout the flight for the pilot to maintain sufficient control. The cockpit also featured an unconventional reclined seating position was adopted to help the pilot cope with the aircraft's high rate of acceleration, it also helped reduce the frontal area and thereby had performance benefits. A crude plexiglas glazed section was removable so that the pilot could enter the aircraft.
The aircraft itself was relatively compact and in some respects fairly simplistic, being composed almost entirely out of wood, but did possess an advanced and entirely enclosed cockpit with a frameless single-piece clear nose. The undercarriage was a combination of conventional and tricycle gear designs, for which the main gear's struts were intended to retract rearwards into the fuselage while the aerodynamically faired nose wheel and strut were fixed. The greatest diameter of the fuselage was only 700 millimetres (28 in). The overall surface area, including the fuselage, was 5 square metres (54 sq ft), with a 5 metres (16 ft) wingspan, a fuselage length of 5.5 metres (18 ft), a height with the undercarriage deployed at 1.44 metres (4.7 ft), and a wheelbase of 700 millimetres (28 in). The aircraft's rudder proved to be relatively ineffective at slow speeds; during takeoff runs, it proved to be a more practical means of steering the aircraft via differential use of the wheel brakes.
The He 176 featured an elliptical wing that had a wing sweep of 40% and a thickness of 9% at 90 millimetres (3.5 in). The wing had a slight positive dihedral so that sufficient stability would be maintained. The fuel tanks were also integrated into the interior of wings; a new welding technique had to be developed to manufacture these. Significant attention was paid to the reduction of aerodynamic drag. During ground test runs, it was discovered that that wings would often make contact with the ground; to prevent damage from being incurred, the wingtips were outfitted with metal bumpers.
The design team recognised that the conventional means of escaping the aircraft in an emergency situation by bailing out would be extremely difficult at high speed and possibly impossible without fatal injuries being sustained by the pilot. Accordingly, the He 176 was equipped with a unique jettisonable nose escape system. Compressed air was used to separate the nose from the aircraft, then a drogue chute was used to reduce the opening force required. After the drogue was deployed, the flush-fitting cockpit canopy was released and a conventional pilot/parachute bailout occurred. Unmanned scale mockups of the nose section were flight tested from a Heinkel He 111 bomber with positive results.
The original model of the He 176 was designed to be powered by one of the new Walter engines. This engine was similar to that of the He 112, the primary difference being the doubling of its thrust output to 6,000 Newtons, which was largely achieved via the addition of a pump to draw in propellant instead of using compressed air to push the fuel into the engine. The fuel used was 82% hydrogen peroxide. To provide more effective directional controls while flying at slow speeds, a rudder was to be installed within the engine nozzle itself. Detailed design work on the aircraft was completed by July 1937, after which construction of the prototype commenced almost immediately. In December 1937, the He 176 designation was officially assigned to the aircraft.
Flight testing and cancellation
On 20 June 1939, the He 176 performed its maiden flight piloted by Warsitz, the occasion being the first manned rocket flight in the world. Warsitz later described the flight: "On quite another heading from that originally intended she leapt into the air and flew with a yaw and a wobble. I kept her close to the ground while gaining speed, then pulled back gently on the control stick for rapid ascent. I was at 750 kms/hr and without any loss in speed the machine shot skywards at an angle somewhere between vertical and 45°. She was enormously sensitive to the controls...Everything turned out wonderfully, however, and it was a relief to fly round the northern tip of Usedom Island without a sound at 800 kms/hr. I banked sharp left again to straighten up for the airstrip, losing such speed and altitude as I could, and during this steep turn the rocket died as the tanks dried up. The abrupt loss of speed hurled me forward in my restraint straps. I pressed the stick forward, hissed rapidly over the Penne and came in at 500 kms/hr. I crossed the airfield boundary and after several prescribed little bounces the machine came to a stop."
Following the initial test flight, the aircraft received alterations; allegedly the fixed nose wheel was removed at this point as the design team intended for regular landings to use only the two main wheels and the tail. Following an initial round of flight testing, Heinkel demonstrated the He 176 to the RLM, however, the organisation displayed a lack of official interest in the aircraft. According to Warsitz, speaking of Von Braun's cooperation during the tests at Pennemunde: "Although not technically part of the He 176-V1 project with the Walter rocket engine, naturally everything affecting it was of interest to himself and his colleagues because the He 176-V2 was to have the von Braun engine..."
The RLM's unfavourable attitude towards the aircraft was a major contributor to Heinkel's decision to reduce his involvement in rocket propulsion efforts. On 12 September 1939, the discontinuation of the He 176 test programme was officially ordered, allegedly due to dissatisfaction with its performance and size. Only the one aircraft was ever completed prior to the termination of flight testing. After its retirement, the sole He 176 prototype was put on static display at the Berlin Air Museum, it was destroyed by an Allied bombing raid during 1943.
Impact
Prior to the cancellation of the programme, Heinkel had been in the process of designing a more sophisticated rocket powered aircraft, sometimes referred to the He 176 V2, which was allegedly intended for operational use. For this model, a more powerful von Braun engine would have been used, which would have allegedly allowed the He 176 V2 to reach speeds of up to 1,000 kph or 620 mph. No such aircraft were ever constructed, but because it bore the same designation as the aircraft that was actually flown, many books and websites mistakenly publish pictures of this aircraft when intending to illustrate its earlier namesake.
Some of the technical knowledge gained through the He 176 was incorporated into future projects undertaken by Heinkel, such as the He 280 prototype jet fighter.
Germany did eventually fly an operational rocket-propelled fighter, the Alexander Lippisch-designed Me 163 Komet, but this was produced by the competing Messerschmitt firm. By the time that orders to terminate work on the He 176 had been received, early work on the Me 163 project had already commenced. It was powered by a similar rocket engine that was actually a further development of the unit that had powered the He 176.
Specifications (He 176 V1)
Heinkel He 176 V1 with main gear retracted
Data from Heinkel: An aircraft albumGeneral characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 5.21 m (17 ft 1 in)
Wingspan: 5.00 m (16 ft 5 in)
Height: 1.435 m (4 ft 8.5 in)
Wing area: 5.4 m2 (58 sq ft)
Empty weight: 900 kg (1,985 lb)
Gross weight: 1,620 kg (3,572 lb)
Powerplant: 1 × Walter HWK R1-203 liquid-fuelled rocket engine, 5.88 kN (1,323 lbf) thrust , 50 s burn time
Performance
Maximum speed: 750 km/h (466 mph, 405 kn) estimated
Cruise speed: 710 km/h (441 mph, 383 kn) estimated
Range: 109 km (68 mi, 59 nmi)
Service ceiling: 9,000 m (29,500 ft)
Rate of climb: 60.6 m/s (11,930 ft/min)
Time to altitude: 2.5 minutes to 8,000 m (26,250 ft)
See also
Related lists
List of military aircraft of Germany
List of rocket aircraft
References
Citations
^ Koos, Volker. Heinkel He 176 – Dichtung und Wahrheit, Jet&Prop 1/94. pp. 17–21.
^ Van Pelt 2009, pp. 1-5.
^ Van Pelt 2009, pp. 59-62.
^ Neufeld 2013, pp. 58-59.
^ Van Pelt 2009, pp. 60-61.
^ Neufeld 2013, p. 84.
^ Van Pelt 2009, p. 67.
^ a b c LePage 2009, p. 246.
^ Van Pelt 2009, pp. 67-68.
^ a b c d e f g h i Van Pelt 2009, p. 68.
^ a b Van Pelt 2009, pp. 68-69.
^ a b c d e f Van Pelt 2009, p. 69.
^ a b c Tuttle 2002, .
^ a b c Warsitz 2008, pp. 69–85.
^ Neufeld 2013, pp. 59-60.
^ Neufeld 2013, p. 60.
^ a b Heath 2022, p. 213.
^ Warsitz 2008, pp. 97–98.
^ LePage 2009, p. 247.
^ Neufeld 2013, p. 121.
^ Neufeld 2013, p. 61.
^ Turner 1970, pp. 100–101.
Bibliography
Heath, Tim (2022). In Furious Skies: Flying with Hitler's Luftwaffe in the Second World War. Pen and Sword History. ISBN 978-1-5267-8526-8.
LePage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2009). Aircraft of the Luftwaffe, 1935-1945: An Illustrated Guide. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5280-4.
Munson, Kenneth (1978). German Aircraft Of World War 2 in colour. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-0860-3.
Neufeld, Michael J. (2013). The Rocket and the Reich. Smithsonian. ISBN 978-1588344670.
Pelt, Michel van (2012). Rocketing Into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes. New York, US: Springer. ISBN 978-1461432005.
Turner, St. John P. (1970). Heinkel: An aircraft album. Shepperton: Ian Allan. ISBN 07110-01731.
Tuttle, Jim (2002). Eject! The Complete History of U.S. Aircraft Escape Systems. St. Paul, Minnesota, US: MBI Publishing. ISBN 0-7603-1185-4.
Warsitz, Lutz (2008). The First Jet Pilot: The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz. Barnsley: Pen and Sword aviation. ISBN 9781844158188.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Heinkel He 176.
Myhra, David (2013). Heinkel He 176: The untold story of the first liquid-fuelled rocket aircraft in history. RCW Ebook Publishing.
vteHeinkel aircraftCompany designations pre-1933Heinkel Eindecker (HE) monoplanes
HE 1
HE 2
HE 3
HE 4
HE 5
HE 6
HE 7
HE 8
HE 9
HE 10
HE 12
HE 14
HE 18
HE 31
HE 57
HE 58
HE 64
Heinkel Doppeldecker (HD) biplanes
HD 15
HD 16
HD 17
HD 19
HD 20
HD 21
HD 22
HD 23
HD 24
HD 25
HD 26
HD 27
HD 28
HD 29
HD 30
HD 32
HD 33
HD 34
HD 35
HD 36
HD 37
HD 38
HD 39
HD 40
HD 41
HD 42
HD 43
HD 44
HD 45
HD 46
HD 49
HD 50
HD 55
HD 56
HD 59
HD 60
HD 61
HD 62
HD 63
HD 66
RLM designations 1933–1945
He 45
He 46
He 47
He 49
He 50
He 51
He 52
He 57
He 58
He 59
He 60
He 61
He 62
He 63
He 64
He 65
He 66
He 70
He 71
He 72
He 74
He 100
He 111
He 112
He 113
He 114
He 115
He 116
He 118
He 119
He 120
He 162
He 170
He 172
He 176
He 177
He 178
He 179
He 219
He 220
He 270
He 274
He 275
He 277
He 278
He 280
He 319
He 343
He 419
He 519
Projects 1933–1945
P.1041
P.1054
P.1060
P.1062
P.1063
P.1064
P.1065
P.1066
P.1068
P.1069
P.1070
P.1071
P.1072
P.1073
P.1074
P.1075
P.1076
P.1077
P.1078
P.1079
P.1080
Strabo 16
Wespe
Lerche
Foreign designations
Svenska S 5 (HE 5)
Orlogsvaerftet HM.II. (HE 8)
Aichi Type H Carrier Fighter (HD 23)
Type 2 Two-seat Reconnaissance Seaplane (HD 25)
Type 2 Single-seat Reconnaissance Seaplane (HD 26)
Heinkel Three-seat Reconnaissance Seaplane (HD 28)
Aichi E3A (HD 56)
Aichi AB-5 (HD 62)
Hitachi AXHei (He 100)
Heinkel A7He (He 112)
Yokosuka DXHe (He 118)
vteReich Air Ministry (RLM) aircraft designations (list)1 to 100
8-11
Fi 2
8-31
8-41
Fi 5
DFS 6
8-71
Gö 8
Gö 9
Do 10
Do 11/Wn 11
8-124/Do 12
Do 13
Do 14
Do 15
Do 16/Wn 16
Do 17
Do 18
Do 19
Do 20
8-211
Do 22
Do 23
Do 24
Do 253/Kl 25
Do 26/Kl 26
8-27/Do 273/Kl 275
8-281
8-29/Do 29
Fw 30
Kl 31
Kl 32
Ju 33
Ju 34
Kl 35
Kl 36
He 373
He 38/Ju 38
DFS 39
BV 40/DFS 40
He 413
Fw 42/He 42
Fw 43
Fw 44
He 45
He 46/Ju 46
Fw 47/He 47
Ju 48
He 49/Ju 49
He 50/Ju 50
He 51
He 52/Ju 52
Ju 53
DFS 54/NR 54
Fw 55/NR 55
Fw 56
8-574/Fw 57
Fw 58/He 58
He 59
He 60/Ju 60
Fa 61/Fw 61/He 61
Fw 62/He 62
8-634/He 63
Ar 64/He 64
Ar 65/He 65
Ar 66/He 66
Ar 67
Ar 68
Ar 69
He 70
8-714/He 71
He 72
He 733
He 74
Al 75
Ar 76/FZG 766
Ar 77
Ar 783
Ar 79
Ar 80
Ar 81
8-824
8-831
Al 84
Ju 85
Ju 86
Ju 87
Ju 88
Ju 89
Ju 90
Ju 913
Ju 92
Ju 933
Ju 943
Ar 95
Ar 96
Fi 97
Fi 98
Fi 99
Fi 1003/He 100
101 to 200
Al 101
Al 102
Al 103/Fi 103
R
Fh 104
Kl 105
Kl 106
Kl 107
Bf 108
Bf 109/Bf 109R6
Bf 110
He 111/He 111U6
He 112
He 1136
He 114
He 115
He 116
He 1173/Hs 117
He 118
He 119
He 120
Hs 121
Hs 122
Hs 123
Hs 124
Hs 125
Hs 126
Hs 127
Hs 128
Hs 129
Hs 130
Bü 131
Bü 1323/Hs 132
Bü 133
Bü 134
Ha 135
Ha 136/Hü 136
Ha 137
BV 138
Ha 139
Ha 140
BV 141
BV 142
BV 143
BV 144
Go 145
Go 146
Go 147/Ju 147
Go 1483
Go 149
Go 150
Kl 151
Kl 152/Ta 152
Kl 1533/Ta 153
Kl 1543/Ta 154
BV 155/Kl 1553/Me 155
Fi 156
Fi 157
Fi 158
Fw 159
Ju 160
Bf 161
Bf 162/He 162
Bf 163/Li 163/Me 163
Me 164/MeC 164
Bf 165
Fi 166/FK 166
Fi 167
Fi 168
Fi 1693
He 170
He 1713
He 172
He 1733
He 1743
8-1754
He 176
He 177
He 178
He 1795
Bü 180/He 180
Bü 181
Bü 182
Bü 1833/Ta 183
Fl 184
Fl 185
Fw 186/Ju 186
Fw 187/Ju 1872
Fw 1883/Ju 188
Fw 189
Fw 190
Fw 191
Ao 192
Ao 1933/DFS 193
DFS 194/Me 194
Ar 195
Ar 196
Ar 197
Ar 198
Ar 199
Do 2004,6/Fw 200
201 to 300
Si 201
Si 202
DFS 203
Si 204
8-2051
Fw 206
8-2071
Me 208
Me 209 (I)/Me 209 (II)
Me 210
Hü 211
8-2124/Do 212
8-2131
Do 214
Do 215
Do 216
Do 217/Hs 217
Do 2183
He 219
He 220
Do 2213
BV 222
Fa 223
Fa 224
Ao 225/Fa 225
BV 226/Ho 226
FGP 227
DFS 228
Go 229/Ho 229
8-230/DFS 230
Ar 231
Ar 232
Ar 233
Ar 234
Do 2355
Fa 2363
BV 237
BV 238
8-2391
Ar 240
Go 241
Go 242
Me 2433
Go 244
Go 2453
BV 246
8-2471
Ju 248
BV 250/Ho 250
Ho 251
Ho 252
Ju 252
Fi 253/Ho 253
Ho 254/Ta 254
8-2551
Fi 256
SK 257
8-2581
Fw 259
8-2601
Me 261/Me 261w
Me 262
Me 263 (1941)/Me 263 (1942)/Me 263 (1945)
Me 264
Fl 265/Me 265
Fa 266/Go 2663
Ho 267
Ju 268
Fa 269
He 270
We 271
He 2723
He 2733
He 274
He 2755
He 2763
He 277
He 278
He 2793
He 280
He 2813
Fl 282
Fa 283
Fa 284
Fl 285
Ju 286
Ju 287
Do 2884,6/Ju 288
Ju 2893
Ju 290
Hs 291
As 292/Hs 2923
Hs 293
Hs 294
Hs 295
Ar 296/Hs 296
Hs 297
Hs 298
Ju 2993
Fw 300
301 to 349
DFS 301
8-3021
8-3031
8-3041
8-3051
8-3061
8-3071
8-3081
Me 309
Zwilling
Me 310
8-3111
8-3121
8-3134
8-3141
Hs 315
8-3161
Do 317
Do 318
He 319
Me 3203
Me 321
Ju 322
Me 323/ZMe 323
8-3241
Fa 325/Fw 3253
8-3261
Me 327
Me 328
Me 329
Fa 330
DFS 331
DFS 332
Fi 333
Ar 3343/Me 334
Do 335
Fa 336
Ju 3373
8-3381
Fl 339
Ar 340
8-341
WNF 342
He 343
Rk 344/So 3445
Go 345
DFS 346
Rk 347
8-3481
Ba 349
Post-349 (non-sequential)
Ju 352
Fi 356/Ju 356
Me 362
Me 3642
Me 3683
Ju 388
Ju 390
Fw 391
Ar 3933
Ar 396
Ta 400
Me 409
Me 410
Do 417
He 419
ZMe 423
Ar 430/Ka 430
Ar 432
Do 435
Ar 440
8-4454
DFS 446
Ju 452
Me 4622
DFS 468
Ju 488
Fw 491
He 500
Me 509
Me 510
He 519
8-5204
ZSO 523
Ar 532
8-5344
Do 535/He 535
Me 6002
Me 609
Ar 632
Do 635/He 635/Ju 635
1 Not assigned
2 Unofficial/proposed
3 Assigned, but not used before RLM was dissolved
4 Assigned to captured aircraft
5 Unconfirmed
6 Propaganda/cover designation
Note: Official RLM designations had the prefix "8-", but this was usually dropped and replaced with the manufacturer's prefix.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"rocket-powered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_plane"},{"link_name":"liquid-fueled rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-fueled_rocket"},{"link_name":"Erich Warsitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Warsitz"},{"link_name":"Ernst Heinkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Heinkel"},{"link_name":"He 72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_72"},{"link_name":"He 112s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_112"},{"link_name":"Heinkel He 280","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_280"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Me 163","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163"},{"link_name":"Soviet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet"},{"link_name":"Peenemünde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The Heinkel He 176 was a German experimental rocket-powered aircraft. It was the world's first aircraft to be propelled solely by a liquid-fueled rocket, making its first powered flight on 20 June 1939 with Erich Warsitz at the controls.The He 176 was developed as a private venture by the Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkel's emphasis on developing technology for high-speed flight. Work on the project began in 1936 after testing with a modified He 72 and a pair of He 112s had shown rocket propulsion to have some viability. The He 176 was purpose-built to harness this propulsion, rather than a modification of existing piston engined-types. The resulting aircraft was relatively compact, was largely composed of wood, and in some respects relatively simplistic. It also incorporated some novel concepts, such as an unconventional reclined seating position for the pilot along with a unique jettisonable nose escape system for emergencies. In December 1937, the He 176 designation was officially assigned to the aircraft.On 12 September 1939, the He 176 project was ordered to be cancelled, allegedly due to its unimpressive size and performance. However, the aircraft did provide \"proof of concept\" for rocket propulsion and high speed flight in general; lessons and designs cues were incorporated into subsequent aircraft such as the Heinkel He 280 prototype jet fighter and the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket interceptor. The prototype itself along with most documentation related to the He 176 were destroyed by the end of the war. Warsitz stated his belief that some material may have entered the Soviet/Russian archives. The often quoted performance data of the aircraft, such as its speed reaching 750 km/h, or 800 km/h, is drawn from Warsitz's account, and are usually not based on sound documents. Only two true pictures of the He 176 have survived which were probably taken in Peenemünde while undergoing testing.[1]","title":"Heinkel He 176"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opel_RAK1_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fritz von Opel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_von_Opel"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"daredevils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stunt_performer"},{"link_name":"Alexander Lippisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lippisch"},{"link_name":"Ente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ente"},{"link_name":"Fritz von Opel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_von_Opel"},{"link_name":"RAK.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opel_RAK.1_(plane)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_15-2"},{"link_name":"thrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust"},{"link_name":"Wernher von Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun"},{"link_name":"Peenemünde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde"},{"link_name":"Ernst Heinkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Heinkel"},{"link_name":"He 72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_72"},{"link_name":"He 112s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_112"},{"link_name":"piston engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_engine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_592-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Hellmuth Walter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmuth_Walter"},{"link_name":"Hydrogen peroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide"},{"link_name":"monopropellant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopropellant"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_601-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-neufeld_84-6"},{"link_name":"Reichsluftfahrtministerium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reich_Air_Ministry"},{"link_name":"interceptor aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_67-7"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lepage_246-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_678-9"}],"sub_title":"Background","text":"Opel RAK.1, world's first public flight of a rocket-powered aircraft on September 30, 1929, piloted by Fritz von OpelDuring the 1920s, German daredevils and inventors had experimented with the use of solid-fuel rockets to propel various vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, railway carriages, snow sleds, and, by 1929, aircraft such as Alexander Lippisch's Ente and Fritz von Opel's RAK.1.[2] Solid-fuel rockets, however, have major disadvantages when used for aircraft propulsion, as their thrust cannot be throttled, and the engines cannot be shut down until the fuel is exhausted.In the mid 1930s, the aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun and his rocketry team working at Peenemünde investigated the use of liquid-fuelled rockets for powering aircraft. The German aircraft designer Ernst Heinkel became an enthusiastic supporter of their efforts, initially supplying a He 72 and later a pair of He 112s to support these experiments. During early 1937, one of these aircraft was flown with its piston engine shut down during flight, thus being propelled by rocket power alone.[3][4] At the same time, Hellmuth Walter's experiments into Hydrogen peroxide monopropellant-based rockets were leading towards light and simple rockets that appeared well-suited for aircraft installation, although at the price of considerable danger and limited duration.[5][6]The experimental flights of the He 112 had been subject to the close attention of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) (the German Reich Aviation Ministry), which had become interested in the potential for a rocket-propelled interceptor aircraft.[7] Heinkel decided to establish a secret department at its Rostock facility to pursue such endeavours; work commenced as early as 1936.[8] Unlike the preceding He 112, the design team wanted to produce an aircraft that would be purpose-built to harness this new form of propulsion, and thus achieve superior performance from it; it would be from this effort that the He 176 would emerge.[9]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neuhardenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuhardenberg"},{"link_name":"RLM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Aviation_(Nazi_Germany)"},{"link_name":"Erich Warsitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Warsitz"},{"link_name":"cockpit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpit"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_689-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_689-11"},{"link_name":"plexiglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"undercarriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_gear"},{"link_name":"conventional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_landing_gear"},{"link_name":"tricycle gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricycle_gear"},{"link_name":"faired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_fairing"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tuttle-13"},{"link_name":"wheelbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbase"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Warsitz-14"},{"link_name":"rudder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudder"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"elliptical wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_wing"},{"link_name":"wing sweep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_sweep"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Warsitz-14"},{"link_name":"dihedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"welding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding"},{"link_name":"aerodynamic drag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_(physics)#Aerodynamics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"bailing out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachuting"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"drogue chute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drogue_parachute"},{"link_name":"canopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_canopy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tuttle-13"},{"link_name":"Heinkel He 111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_111"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"Walter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmuth_Walter_Kommanditgesellschaft"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"hydrogen peroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_69-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lepage_246-8"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-neufeld_60-16"}],"sub_title":"Design","text":"The basic design of the He 176 was sketched out during the Neuhardenberg rocket motor and booster tests. In 1936, the RLM awarded Heinkel the contract to build the world's first rocket aircraft. It was decided to tailor-build the aircraft to specifically fit the test pilot Erich Warsitz, to minimise the size of the cockpit, along with the rest of the aircraft, to make the aircraft as lightweight as humanly possible.[10] The resulting cockpit was so cramped that the pilot could not even flex his elbows while some controls were often placed in inconvenient positions. Due to the high speed range that the He 176 was designed to encounter, the sensitivity of these controls would have to be adjusted multiple times throughout the flight for the pilot to maintain sufficient control.[11] The cockpit also featured an unconventional reclined seating position was adopted to help the pilot cope with the aircraft's high rate of acceleration, it also helped reduce the frontal area and thereby had performance benefits.[11] A crude plexiglas glazed section was removable so that the pilot could enter the aircraft.[10]The aircraft itself was relatively compact and in some respects fairly simplistic, being composed almost entirely out of wood, but did possess an advanced and entirely enclosed cockpit with a frameless single-piece clear nose.[12] The undercarriage was a combination of conventional and tricycle gear designs, for which the main gear's struts were intended to retract rearwards into the fuselage while the aerodynamically faired nose wheel and strut were fixed.[13] The greatest diameter of the fuselage was only 700 millimetres (28 in). The overall surface area, including the fuselage, was 5 square metres (54 sq ft), with a 5 metres (16 ft) wingspan, a fuselage length of 5.5 metres (18 ft), a height with the undercarriage deployed at 1.44 metres (4.7 ft), and a wheelbase of 700 millimetres (28 in).[14] The aircraft's rudder proved to be relatively ineffective at slow speeds; during takeoff runs, it proved to be a more practical means of steering the aircraft via differential use of the wheel brakes.[12]The He 176 featured an elliptical wing that had a wing sweep of 40% and a thickness of 9% at 90 millimetres (3.5 in).[14] The wing had a slight positive dihedral so that sufficient stability would be maintained.[10] The fuel tanks were also integrated into the interior of wings; a new welding technique had to be developed to manufacture these. Significant attention was paid to the reduction of aerodynamic drag.[10] During ground test runs, it was discovered that that wings would often make contact with the ground; to prevent damage from being incurred, the wingtips were outfitted with metal bumpers.[12]The design team recognised that the conventional means of escaping the aircraft in an emergency situation by bailing out would be extremely difficult at high speed and possibly impossible without fatal injuries being sustained by the pilot.[12] Accordingly, the He 176 was equipped with a unique jettisonable nose escape system. Compressed air was used to separate the nose from the aircraft, then a drogue chute was used to reduce the opening force required. After the drogue was deployed, the flush-fitting cockpit canopy was released and a conventional pilot/parachute bailout occurred.[13] Unmanned scale mockups of the nose section were flight tested from a Heinkel He 111 bomber with positive results.[12]The original model of the He 176 was designed to be powered by one of the new Walter engines. This engine was similar to that of the He 112, the primary difference being the doubling of its thrust output to 6,000 Newtons, which was largely achieved via the addition of a pump to draw in propellant instead of using compressed air to push the fuel into the engine.[10][15] The fuel used was 82% hydrogen peroxide.[10] To provide more effective directional controls while flying at slow speeds, a rudder was to be installed within the engine nozzle itself.[12] Detailed design work on the aircraft was completed by July 1937, after which construction of the prototype commenced almost immediately.[8] In December 1937, the He 176 designation was officially assigned to the aircraft.[16]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"maiden flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_flight"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lepage_246-8"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heath_213-17"},{"link_name":"Usedom Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usedom"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Warsitz_978-18"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"Pennemunde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennemunde"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Warsitz-14"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lepage_247-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-neufeld_121-20"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"bombing raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstrike"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tuttle-13"}],"sub_title":"Flight testing and cancellation","text":"On 20 June 1939, the He 176 performed its maiden flight piloted by Warsitz, the occasion being the first manned rocket flight in the world.[8][17] Warsitz later described the flight: \"On quite another heading from that originally intended she leapt into the air and flew with a yaw and a wobble. I kept her close to the ground while gaining speed, then pulled back gently on the control stick for rapid ascent. I was at 750 kms/hr and without any loss in speed the machine shot skywards at an angle somewhere between vertical and 45°. She was enormously sensitive to the controls...Everything turned out wonderfully, however, and it was a relief to fly round the northern tip of Usedom Island without a sound at 800 kms/hr. I banked sharp left again to straighten up for the airstrip, losing such speed and altitude as I could, and during this steep turn the rocket died as the tanks dried up. The abrupt loss of speed hurled me forward in my restraint straps. I pressed the stick forward, hissed rapidly over the Penne and came in at 500 kms/hr. I crossed the airfield boundary and after several prescribed little bounces the machine came to a stop.\"[18]Following the initial test flight, the aircraft received alterations; allegedly the fixed nose wheel was removed at this point as the design team intended for regular landings to use only the two main wheels and the tail.[10] Following an initial round of flight testing, Heinkel demonstrated the He 176 to the RLM, however, the organisation displayed a lack of official interest in the aircraft. According to Warsitz, speaking of Von Braun's cooperation during the tests at Pennemunde: \"Although not technically part of the He 176-V1 project with the Walter rocket engine, naturally everything affecting it was of interest to himself and his colleagues because the He 176-V2 was to have the von Braun engine...\"[14]The RLM's unfavourable attitude towards the aircraft was a major contributor to Heinkel's decision to reduce his involvement in rocket propulsion efforts. On 12 September 1939, the discontinuation of the He 176 test programme was officially ordered, allegedly due to dissatisfaction with its performance and size.[19][20] Only the one aircraft was ever completed prior to the termination of flight testing. After its retirement, the sole He 176 prototype was put on static display at the Berlin Air Museum, it was destroyed by an Allied bombing raid during 1943.[13]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vanpelt_68-10"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"He 280","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_280"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heath_213-17"},{"link_name":"Alexander Lippisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lippisch"},{"link_name":"Me 163 Komet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-neufeld_61-21"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Impact","text":"Prior to the cancellation of the programme, Heinkel had been in the process of designing a more sophisticated rocket powered aircraft, sometimes referred to the He 176 V2, which was allegedly intended for operational use.[10] For this model, a more powerful von Braun engine would have been used, which would have allegedly allowed the He 176 V2 to reach speeds of up to 1,000 kph or 620 mph.[10] No such aircraft were ever constructed, but because it bore the same designation as the aircraft that was actually flown, many books and websites mistakenly publish pictures of this aircraft when intending to illustrate its earlier namesake.[citation needed]Some of the technical knowledge gained through the He 176 was incorporated into future projects undertaken by Heinkel, such as the He 280 prototype jet fighter.[17]Germany did eventually fly an operational rocket-propelled fighter, the Alexander Lippisch-designed Me 163 Komet, but this was produced by the competing Messerschmitt firm. By the time that orders to terminate work on the He 176 had been received, early work on the Me 163 project had already commenced.[21] It was powered by a similar rocket engine that was actually a further development of the unit that had powered the He 176.[citation needed]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heinkel_He_176_3-view_line_drawing.svg"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stjohnturner-22"}],"text":"Heinkel He 176 V1 with main gear retractedData from Heinkel: An aircraft album[22]General characteristicsCrew: 1\nLength: 5.21 m (17 ft 1 in)\nWingspan: 5.00 m (16 ft 5 in)\nHeight: 1.435 m (4 ft 8.5 in)\nWing area: 5.4 m2 (58 sq ft)\nEmpty weight: 900 kg (1,985 lb)\nGross weight: 1,620 kg (3,572 lb)\nPowerplant: 1 × Walter HWK R1-203 liquid-fuelled rocket engine, 5.88 kN (1,323 lbf) thrust , 50 s burn timePerformanceMaximum speed: 750 km/h (466 mph, 405 kn) estimated\nCruise speed: 710 km/h (441 mph, 383 kn) estimated\nRange: 109 km (68 mi, 59 nmi)\nService ceiling: 9,000 m (29,500 ft)\nRate of climb: 60.6 m/s (11,930 ft/min)\nTime to altitude: 2.5 minutes to 8,000 m (26,250 ft)","title":"Specifications (He 176 V1)"}]
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[{"image_text":"Opel RAK.1, world's first public flight of a rocket-powered aircraft on September 30, 1929, piloted by Fritz von Opel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Opel_RAK1_2.jpg/250px-Opel_RAK1_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Heinkel He 176 V1 with main gear retracted","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Heinkel_He_176_3-view_line_drawing.svg/300px-Heinkel_He_176_3-view_line_drawing.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of military aircraft of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_aircraft_of_Germany"},{"title":"List of rocket aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rocket_aircraft"}]
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[{"reference":"Heath, Tim (2022). In Furious Skies: Flying with Hitler's Luftwaffe in the Second World War. Pen and Sword History. ISBN 978-1-5267-8526-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RWuEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA220","url_text":"In Furious Skies: Flying with Hitler's Luftwaffe in the Second World War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-8526-8","url_text":"978-1-5267-8526-8"}]},{"reference":"LePage, Jean-Denis G.G. (2009). Aircraft of the Luftwaffe, 1935-1945: An Illustrated Guide. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5280-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hdQBTcscxyQC&pg=PA243","url_text":"Aircraft of the Luftwaffe, 1935-1945: An Illustrated Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5280-4","url_text":"978-0-7864-5280-4"}]},{"reference":"Munson, Kenneth (1978). German Aircraft Of World War 2 in colour. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press. ISBN 0-7137-0860-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7137-0860-3","url_text":"0-7137-0860-3"}]},{"reference":"Neufeld, Michael J. (2013). The Rocket and the Reich. Smithsonian. ISBN 978-1588344670.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J8NvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60","url_text":"The Rocket and the Reich"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian","url_text":"Smithsonian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1588344670","url_text":"978-1588344670"}]},{"reference":"Pelt, Michel van (2012). Rocketing Into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes. New York, US: Springer. ISBN 978-1461432005.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4M9i-FXVKckC&pg=PA68","url_text":"Rocketing Into the Future: The History and Technology of Rocket Planes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1461432005","url_text":"978-1461432005"}]},{"reference":"Turner, St. John P. (1970). Heinkel: An aircraft album. Shepperton: Ian Allan. ISBN 07110-01731.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/07110-01731","url_text":"07110-01731"}]},{"reference":"Tuttle, Jim (2002). Eject! The Complete History of U.S. Aircraft Escape Systems. St. Paul, Minnesota, US: MBI Publishing. ISBN 0-7603-1185-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7603-1185-4","url_text":"0-7603-1185-4"}]},{"reference":"Warsitz, Lutz (2008). The First Jet Pilot: The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz. Barnsley: Pen and Sword aviation. ISBN 9781844158188.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781844158188","url_text":"9781844158188"}]},{"reference":"Myhra, David (2013). Heinkel He 176: The untold story of the first liquid-fuelled rocket aircraft in history. RCW Ebook Publishing.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-UwFAQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Heinkel He 176: The untold story of the first liquid-fuelled rocket aircraft in history"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis_van_Dalem
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Cornelis van Dalem
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["1 Life","2 Work","2.1 General","2.2 'Rock paintings'","2.3 Nature vs culture","2.4 The baker of Eeklo","2.5 Publishing","3 Reception","4 References","5 External links"]
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Flemish painter
Farmyard with a beggar
Cornelis van Dalem (1530/35 – 1573 or 1576) was a Flemish painter and draughtsman active in Antwerp in the middle of the 16th century and an important contributor to the development of landscape art in the Low Countries. Van Dalem introduced into landscape painting new themes, which he derived from his humanistic education, and searched for new ways of representing his themes.
Life
Details about his life are scarce. He was likely born in Antwerp. His father was a nobleman originally from Tholen who had moved to Antwerp where he was operating as a cloth merchant. His father was active in the local Chamber of rhetoric 'De Olyftack' in Antwerp and was the chamber's dean in 1552–3. The van Dalem family was a cultured family. Cornelis and his older brother Lodewijk likely enjoyed a humanistic education and were both trained as painters with the obscure artist Jan Adriaensens. Cornelis commenced his training in 1543 and became a master in the Guild of Saint Luke in 1556. The same year married Beatrix van Liedekercke, a member of a wealthy family.
Landscape with nomads with Jan van Wechelen
Despite being a member of the Guild of Saint Luke, Cornelis van Dalem only practiced painting as an amateur and he remained a merchant his entire career. He was independently wealthy and did not need to rely on his art to make a living. However, he regarded art as an important part of his life as is demonstrated by the way he decorated the facade of his Antwerp residence. Cornelis had the façade of his house decorated with a splendour not seen in Northern Europe. The façade had a relief of the goddess Pictura in front of an easel, of Minerva and Mercury as well the stone busts of Durer and Jan van Eyck with laudatory inscriptions.
Bartholomeus Spranger was a registered pupil of van Dalem from 1560 to 1564. Van Dalem appears not to have been concerned much about teaching Spranger the art of painting but more about ensuring that his apprentice kept his studio clean and tidy. At the end of his four years of apprenticeship, Spranger is said to have been frustrated about his lack of progress. Around this time there were also increasing rumours about the possible heretical leanings of the van Dalem household: it was said they never went to the Catholic Church but rather attended Protestant gatherings. These rumours appear to have forced the van Dalems to leave Antwerp and settle on a castle near Breda. Accusations of heresy were said to have been reiterated against Cornelis in 1571 and he may have given refuge to a radical sect of Anabaptists. He died in Breda in 1573.
Work
General
Only a few works by Cornelis van Dalem are known. The majority of these are landscapes. His oeuvre also includes a few genres scenes and possibly an architectural painting of a church interior. He is considered one of the possible candidates for the authorship of the series of landscape drawings attributed to the Master of the Small Landscapes. The importance of van Dalem lies in the fact that he introduced into landscape painting new themes (such as the origin of civilization), which he derived from his humanistic education, and his innovative way of representing his themes.
Van Dalem is known to have collaborated regularly with his fellow artists who painted the staffage in his landscapes or architectural paintings. His most regular collaborator was Jan van Wechelen with whom at least three collaborations are suspected. He further worked with Gillis Mostaert (who may have painted the staffage in the Landscape with Farmhouse, Alte Pinakothek). as well as with Joachim Beuckelaer.
'Rock paintings'
The dawn of civilization
The early 17th century artist biographer Karel van Mander called van Dalem an excellent painter of rocks ('fraye schilder van rotsen'). And indeed several of his landscape paintings feature extensive rock parties with grottos. Examples are the Landscape with Adam and Eve of 1564 (Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts) and the Landscape with herders of c. 1560 (Prado Museum). Van Dalem's rock landscapes often include a grotto where some human activity is going on. These works had an influence on Joos de Momper who was an important adept of the genre and created about 70 paintings of this motif.
One of the most ambitious grotto scenes painted by van Dalem was the composition referred to as The dawn of civilization (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen). In this complex composition van Dalem attempts to depict the origin of human civilization, a very challenging topic for a painting. Only one artist is known to have attempted this subject matter before: the Italian Piero di Cosimo who painted a number of paintings of the state of mankind just before the onset of civilization one of which is in the Ashmolean Museum. Di Cosimo's works deal with the history of early man and derive their visual inspiration from passages in Book 5 of De rerum natura by Lucretius (98-c.55BC), in which the role of fire is emphasized in the origins of life on earth and the birth of community life. Di Cosimo stresses the devastating effects of uncontrolled fire in his composition.
Rocky landscape with nomads
Van Dalem's composition, which was probably made in 1565, is dominated by a high, steep cliff which only leaves a small strip of heaven at the top of the painting. A large round hole in the rock allows a view onto a wide landscape in the distance. The top of the rock is covered with trees and shrubs that are painted very precisely and a flute-playing shepherd descends the cliff amidst his herd of goats. Below the cliff is a cave covered with reeds and people clad in rough clothes. It has been surmised that van Dalem intended to depict primitive man in his natural environment, as described in the De rerum natura. He shows in his composition several elements that were deemed at the time to play a role in the civilization process such as communication, fixed housing, domestication of animals and culture (music). The old man in the middle of the painting steps out of a sort of primitive gate, which symbolizes the border between nature and civilization.
The painting of van Dalem which is represented in the famous gallery painting of The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest by Willem van Haecht also treats a similar subject. Van Dalem's picture is the one just below the chandelier and is referred to as Rocky landscape with nomads. This composition appears to depict a further stage of development in the evolution of man when people have founded communities and wear woven clothes. A painting with a similar subject matter depicting the Flight into Eypt was formerly in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin but was lost during World War II.
Nature vs culture
Landscape with Farmhouse
The paintings dealing with the subject of the development of civilization find their counterpart in the composition Landscape with Farmhouse (1564, Alte Pinakothek). Here van Dalem seems to address the topic of the decay of culture, which is represented in the form of a ruined church, dilapidated hut and barren trees and earth.
The composition's theme of the eternal conflict of man and nature further refers to the idea of the lost paradise and the futility of the efforts of mankind to return to that lost age in which man and nature where one. An alternative reading of the meaning of picture is that it refers to the decay of the Catholic Church particularly because van Dalem put his signature in the ruins of the church.
The baker of Eeklo
An interesting foray into genre painting is the composition The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo which he painted in collaboration with Jan van Wechelen. The original of the painting is lost but a presumed copy of the original is part of the collection of the Rijksmuseum and is on loan to the Muiderslot. There also exist many versions said to have been made by the circle of Cornelis van Dalem and Jan van Wechelen or after Cornelis van Dalem and Jan van Wechelen. The composition was also engraved by Frederik Bouttats the Younger.
The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo
The painting depicts a legend told about the citizens of Eeklo in Flanders. When they were unhappy with the look of their heads, they would go to the village bakery. There the baker and his assistants would lop off their heads and place cabbages on their necks to stem the bleeding. The improved heads would then be kneaded and rolled, rubbed with a new finish, baked in the oven and ultimately replaced. The composition recounts the whole process. However, there was always the risk that a new head would fail to bake, or over-bake, thus resulting in a deformed or deficient head. At the back of the bakery we can see a woman holding a severed head who is having a discussion with the baker dressed in red. She is probably trying to return the head of her husband with which she is not happy. This story had a moral and cautionary message for those who were dissatisfied with their appearance and wanted to do something drastic about it.
Publishing
Cornelis van Damen was also involved in publishing activities. In 1561 he was responsible for the publication of Frans Huys' two-sheet engraving of the entire Strait of Messina seen in bird's-eye view after a design by Pieter Brueghel the Elder. There is still uncertainty as to the actual level of involvement of van Dalen in the publication of this engraving. It has been suggested that possibly van Dalem was only the backer and initiator in whose name the publishing privilege was issued and that the actual publishing was undertaken by an established publisher such as for instance Hieronymus Cock.
Reception
Cornelis van Dalem's paintings were highly esteemed by the next generation of artists: Peter Paul Rubens's estate included one of his works, and a representation of one of his paintings is featured in the famous gallery painting of The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest by Willem van Haecht. The prominent 17th century Antwerp art collector Pieter Stevens is said to have owned one of his paintings. Van Dalem's name was forgotten in later ages and it was only in the early 20th century that art historians such as Ludwig Burchard rediscovered the artist and his work.
References
Landscape with herders
^ a b c d e f Carl Van de Velde. "Dalem, Cornelis van." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 22 Mar. 2015
^ a b c d e f Tanja Michalsky, Projektion und Imagination: Die niederländische Landschaft der Frühen Neuzeit im Diskurs von Geographie und Malerei, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 20 July 2011, p. 249–250 (in German)
^ Sally Metzler, 'Bartholomeus Spranger: Splendor and Eroticism in Imperial Prague', Metropolitan Museum of Art, 3 November 2014, p. 19–20
^ a b Beeldenstorm 2: Close-ups van kunst uit Nederlandse musea, Volume 2 Henk van Os Amsterdam University Press, 1998, p. 145–148 (in Dutch)
^ a b Cornelis van Dalem at the Netherlands Institute for Art History (in Dutch)
^ Church interior with Christ preaching to a crowd, at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
^ Larry Silver, Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: The Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 47
^ Landscape with Farmhouse at the Netherlands Institute for Art History (in Dutch)
^ a b Hans van Wechlen, Peasants merrymaking at a village kermesse at Sotheby's
^ Jan Brueghel de Elder, Mountain landscape with pilgrims in a grotto chapel at the Liechtenstein Collection
^ Piero di Cosimo (1461–1522), The Forest Fire at the Ashmolean Museum
^ Koenraad Jonckheere, Antwerp Art after Iconoclasm: Experiments in Decorum, 1566–1585, Mercatorfonds, 19 February 2013, p. 229
^ Circle of Cornelis van Dalem (Antwerp c. 1530–1573 Breda) and Jan van Wechelen (active Antwerp c. 1530–1550), The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo at Christie's
^ After Cornelis van Dalem (Antwerp c. 1530–1573 Breda) and Jan van Wechelen (active Antwerp c. 1530–1550), The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo at Bonhams
^ Nadine Orenstein, Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Drawings and Prints, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1 Jan 2001, p. 206
External links
Media related to Cornelis van Dalem at Wikimedia Commons
Authority control databases International
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He was likely born in Antwerp. His father was a nobleman originally from Tholen who had moved to Antwerp where he was operating as a cloth merchant. His father was active in the local Chamber of rhetoric 'De Olyftack' in Antwerp and was the chamber's dean in 1552–3. The van Dalem family was a cultured family. Cornelis and his older brother Lodewijk likely enjoyed a humanistic education and were both trained as painters with the obscure artist Jan Adriaensens. Cornelis commenced his training in 1543 and became a master in the Guild of Saint Luke in 1556. The same year married Beatrix van Liedekercke, a member of a wealthy family.[1]Landscape with nomads with Jan van WechelenDespite being a member of the Guild of Saint Luke, Cornelis van Dalem only practiced painting as an amateur and he remained a merchant his entire career.[1] He was independently wealthy and did not need to rely on his art to make a living. However, he regarded art as an important part of his life as is demonstrated by the way he decorated the facade of his Antwerp residence. Cornelis had the façade of his house decorated with a splendour not seen in Northern Europe. The façade had a relief of the goddess Pictura in front of an easel, of Minerva and Mercury as well the stone busts of Durer and Jan van Eyck with laudatory inscriptions.[2]Bartholomeus Spranger was a registered pupil of van Dalem from 1560 to 1564. Van Dalem appears not to have been concerned much about teaching Spranger the art of painting but more about ensuring that his apprentice kept his studio clean and tidy. At the end of his four years of apprenticeship, Spranger is said to have been frustrated about his lack of progress. Around this time there were also increasing rumours about the possible heretical leanings of the van Dalem household: it was said they never went to the Catholic Church but rather attended Protestant gatherings.[3] These rumours appear to have forced the van Dalems to leave Antwerp and settle on a castle near Breda. Accusations of heresy were said to have been reiterated against Cornelis in 1571 and he may have given refuge to a radical sect of Anabaptists.[1][4] He died in Breda in 1573.[5]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ox-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rijks-6"},{"link_name":"Master of the Small Landscapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_the_Small_Landscapes"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tanja-2"},{"link_name":"Jan van Wechelen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_van_Wechelen"},{"link_name":"Gillis Mostaert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillis_Mostaert"},{"link_name":"Landscape with Farmhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalem,_Cornelis_-_Landscape_with_Farmhouse_-_1564.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alte Pinakothek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alte_Pinakothek"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Joachim Beuckelaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Beuckelaer"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rkd-5"}],"sub_title":"General","text":"Only a few works by Cornelis van Dalem are known. The majority of these are landscapes.[1] His oeuvre also includes a few genres scenes and possibly an architectural painting of a church interior.[6] He is considered one of the possible candidates for the authorship of the series of landscape drawings attributed to the Master of the Small Landscapes.[7] The importance of van Dalem lies in the fact that he introduced into landscape painting new themes (such as the origin of civilization), which he derived from his humanistic education, and his innovative way of representing his themes.[2]Van Dalem is known to have collaborated regularly with his fellow artists who painted the staffage in his landscapes or architectural paintings. His most regular collaborator was Jan van Wechelen with whom at least three collaborations are suspected. He further worked with Gillis Mostaert (who may have painted the staffage in the Landscape with Farmhouse, Alte Pinakothek).[8] as well as with Joachim Beuckelaer.[5]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_The_Dawn_of_Civilization_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Karel van Mander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_van_Mander"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wech-9"},{"link_name":"Landscape with Adam and Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_Landscape_with_Adam_and_Eve_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_%26_B._Gerald_Cantor_Center_for_Visual_Arts"},{"link_name":"Landscape with herders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalem-paisaje_con_pastores.jpg"},{"link_name":"Prado Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_del_Prado"},{"link_name":"Joos de Momper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joos_de_Momper"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"The dawn of civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_The_Dawn_of_Civilization_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_Boijmans_Van_Beuningen"},{"link_name":"Piero di Cosimo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero_di_Cosimo"},{"link_name":"Ashmolean Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum"},{"link_name":"Lucretius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Damen_-_Rocky_landscape_with_nomads.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-os-4"},{"link_name":"The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Gallery_of_Cornelis_van_der_Geest.JPG"},{"link_name":"Willem van Haecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_van_Haecht"},{"link_name":"Rocky landscape with nomads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Damen_-_Rocky_landscape_with_nomads.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gemäldegalerie, Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie,_Berlin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tanja-2"}],"sub_title":"'Rock paintings'","text":"The dawn of civilizationThe early 17th century artist biographer Karel van Mander called van Dalem an excellent painter of rocks ('fraye schilder van rotsen').[9] And indeed several of his landscape paintings feature extensive rock parties with grottos. Examples are the Landscape with Adam and Eve of 1564 (Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts) and the Landscape with herders of c. 1560 (Prado Museum). Van Dalem's rock landscapes often include a grotto where some human activity is going on. These works had an influence on Joos de Momper who was an important adept of the genre and created about 70 paintings of this motif.[10]One of the most ambitious grotto scenes painted by van Dalem was the composition referred to as The dawn of civilization (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen). In this complex composition van Dalem attempts to depict the origin of human civilization, a very challenging topic for a painting. Only one artist is known to have attempted this subject matter before: the Italian Piero di Cosimo who painted a number of paintings of the state of mankind just before the onset of civilization one of which is in the Ashmolean Museum. Di Cosimo's works deal with the history of early man and derive their visual inspiration from passages in Book 5 of De rerum natura by Lucretius (98-c.55BC), in which the role of fire is emphasized in the origins of life on earth and the birth of community life. Di Cosimo stresses the devastating effects of uncontrolled fire in his composition.[11]Rocky landscape with nomadsVan Dalem's composition, which was probably made in 1565, is dominated by a high, steep cliff which only leaves a small strip of heaven at the top of the painting. A large round hole in the rock allows a view onto a wide landscape in the distance. The top of the rock is covered with trees and shrubs that are painted very precisely and a flute-playing shepherd descends the cliff amidst his herd of goats. Below the cliff is a cave covered with reeds and people clad in rough clothes. It has been surmised that van Dalem intended to depict primitive man in his natural environment, as described in the De rerum natura. He shows in his composition several elements that were deemed at the time to play a role in the civilization process such as communication, fixed housing, domestication of animals and culture (music).[4] The old man in the middle of the painting steps out of a sort of primitive gate, which symbolizes the border between nature and civilization.The painting of van Dalem which is represented in the famous gallery painting of The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest by Willem van Haecht also treats a similar subject. Van Dalem's picture is the one just below the chandelier and is referred to as Rocky landscape with nomads. This composition appears to depict a further stage of development in the evolution of man when people have founded communities and wear woven clothes. A painting with a similar subject matter depicting the Flight into Eypt was formerly in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin but was lost during World War II.[2]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalem,_Cornelis_-_Landscape_with_Farmhouse_-_1564.jpg"},{"link_name":"Landscape with Farmhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalem,_Cornelis_-_Landscape_with_Farmhouse_-_1564.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alte Pinakothek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alte_Pinakothek"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tanja-2"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Nature vs culture","text":"Landscape with FarmhouseThe paintings dealing with the subject of the development of civilization find their counterpart in the composition Landscape with Farmhouse (1564, Alte Pinakothek). Here van Dalem seems to address the topic of the decay of culture, which is represented in the form of a ruined church, dilapidated hut and barren trees and earth.The composition's theme of the eternal conflict of man and nature further refers to the idea of the lost paradise and the futility of the efforts of mankind to return to that lost age in which man and nature where one.[2] An alternative reading of the meaning of picture is that it refers to the decay of the Catholic Church particularly because van Dalem put his signature in the ruins of the church.[12]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genre painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre_art"},{"link_name":"Rijksmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijksmuseum"},{"link_name":"Muiderslot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muiderslot"},{"link_name":"Frederik Bouttats the Younger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederik_Bouttats_the_Younger"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelis_van_Dalem_and_Jan_van_Wechelen_(copy_after)_-_The_Legend_of_the_Baker_of_Eeklo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"The baker of Eeklo","text":"An interesting foray into genre painting is the composition The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo which he painted in collaboration with Jan van Wechelen. The original of the painting is lost but a presumed copy of the original is part of the collection of the Rijksmuseum and is on loan to the Muiderslot. There also exist many versions said to have been made by the circle of Cornelis van Dalem and Jan van Wechelen or after Cornelis van Dalem and Jan van Wechelen. The composition was also engraved by Frederik Bouttats the Younger.The Legend of the Baker of EekloThe painting depicts a legend told about the citizens of Eeklo in Flanders. When they were unhappy with the look of their heads, they would go to the village bakery. There the baker and his assistants would lop off their heads and place cabbages on their necks to stem the bleeding. The improved heads would then be kneaded and rolled, rubbed with a new finish, baked in the oven and ultimately replaced. The composition recounts the whole process. However, there was always the risk that a new head would fail to bake, or over-bake, thus resulting in a deformed or deficient head. At the back of the bakery we can see a woman holding a severed head who is having a discussion with the baker dressed in red. She is probably trying to return the head of her husband with which she is not happy. This story had a moral and cautionary message for those who were dissatisfied with their appearance and wanted to do something drastic about it.[13][14]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"engraving of the entire Strait of Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frans_Huys_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pieter Brueghel the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter_Brueghel_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Hieronymus Cock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_Cock"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Publishing","text":"Cornelis van Damen was also involved in publishing activities. In 1561 he was responsible for the publication of Frans Huys' two-sheet engraving of the entire Strait of Messina seen in bird's-eye view after a design by Pieter Brueghel the Elder. There is still uncertainty as to the actual level of involvement of van Dalen in the publication of this engraving. It has been suggested that possibly van Dalem was only the backer and initiator in whose name the publishing privilege was issued and that the actual publishing was undertaken by an established publisher such as for instance Hieronymus Cock.[15]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Paul Rubens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens"},{"link_name":"The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Gallery_of_Cornelis_van_der_Geest.JPG"},{"link_name":"Willem van Haecht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem_van_Haecht"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ox-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wech-9"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tanja-2"}],"text":"Cornelis van Dalem's paintings were highly esteemed by the next generation of artists: Peter Paul Rubens's estate included one of his works, and a representation of one of his paintings is featured in the famous gallery painting of The Gallery of Cornelis van der Geest by Willem van Haecht.[1] The prominent 17th century Antwerp art collector Pieter Stevens is said to have owned one of his paintings.[9] Van Dalem's name was forgotten in later ages and it was only in the early 20th century that art historians such as Ludwig Burchard rediscovered the artist and his work.[2]","title":"Reception"}]
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[{"image_text":"Farmyard with a beggar","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_Farmyard_with_a_Beggar.jpg/320px-Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_Farmyard_with_a_Beggar.jpg"},{"image_text":"Landscape with nomads with Jan van Wechelen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Cornelis_van_Dalem%2C_Jan_van_Wechelen_-_Landscape_with_nomads.jpg/320px-Cornelis_van_Dalem%2C_Jan_van_Wechelen_-_Landscape_with_nomads.jpg"},{"image_text":"The dawn of civilization","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_The_Dawn_of_Civilization_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/350px-Cornelis_van_Dalem_-_The_Dawn_of_Civilization_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rocky landscape with nomads","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Cornelis_van_Damen_-_Rocky_landscape_with_nomads.jpg/280px-Cornelis_van_Damen_-_Rocky_landscape_with_nomads.jpg"},{"image_text":"Landscape with Farmhouse","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Dalem%2C_Cornelis_-_Landscape_with_Farmhouse_-_1564.jpg/290px-Dalem%2C_Cornelis_-_Landscape_with_Farmhouse_-_1564.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Legend of the Baker of Eeklo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Cornelis_van_Dalem_and_Jan_van_Wechelen_%28copy_after%29_-_The_Legend_of_the_Baker_of_Eeklo.jpg/300px-Cornelis_van_Dalem_and_Jan_van_Wechelen_%28copy_after%29_-_The_Legend_of_the_Baker_of_Eeklo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Landscape with herders","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Dalem-paisaje_con_pastores.jpg/310px-Dalem-paisaje_con_pastores.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigshospitalet
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Rigshospitalet
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["1 Name","2 History","3 Key figures","4 Services","5 Social and cultural significance","6 Blood contamination","7 Images","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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Coordinates: 55°41′48″N 12°34′00″E / 55.69667°N 12.56667°E / 55.69667; 12.56667Hospital in Capital Region, DenmarkRigshospitaletCapital Region of DenmarkRigshospitalet in November 2005GeographyLocationCopenhagen, Capital Region, DenmarkCoordinates55°41′48″N 12°34′00″E / 55.69667°N 12.56667°E / 55.69667; 12.56667OrganisationFundingGovernment hospitalTypeTeachingAffiliated universityUniversity of CopenhagenServicesEmergency departmentYesBeds1,135HelipadYesHistoryOpened30 March 1757LinksWebsitewww.rigshospitalet.dk
Rigshospitalet (meaning The National, State or Hospital of the Realm, but not usually translated) is the largest public and teaching hospital in Copenhagen and the most highly specialised hospital in Denmark. The hospital's main building is a 16-storey functionalist highrise, one of the tallest structures in the central parts of the city. Rigshospitalet neighbours the Panum Building which houses the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen. As a teaching hospital it is part of the framework organisation Copenhagen University Hospital.
Name
The Danish name is not usually translated to English. The prefix Rigs- is used in the names of some Danish state institutions, especially in a solemn or prestigious context or for authorities serving for the whole Danish Realm including Greenland and the Faroe Islands. It is the genitive of rige ('realm, kingdom, empire') and the cognate word is used similarly in Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic and Dutch (and in German until 1945). The prefix Stats- ('of the state') is more widely used, but implies a slightly lower level in the hierarchy. Although Rigshospitalet was founded as a state hospital, as opposed to the normal hospitals operated by counties, the Danish term Statshospital was until 1977 used only for psychiatric institutions.
The hospital itself explains the name was given because its predecessor, Royal Frederick's Hospital, was handed over to the state and became open to patients from the whole Danish Realm.
Rigshospitalet is often abbreviated RH and colloquially also called Riget (literally meaning 'the realm' or 'the kingdom'), hence the name of von Trier's thriller TV series The Kingdom which was set at the hospital, and Stephen King's American version Kingdom Hospital.
History
Rigshospitalet was founded on 30 March 1757 as Kongelig Frederiks Hospital, named after King Frederick V and situated in Bredgade in central Copenhagen. The buildings are now occupied by the Danish Museum of Art & Design. Since 1903 the state has been the owner of the hospital (whereas other hospitals in Denmark are owned by the regions, formerly by the counties). In 1910 the hospital was renamed and moved to its present location in ten low buildings surrounding a central garden designed by architect Martin Borch. In 1970 most of the buildings were replaced by the present highrise concrete building designed by architect Jørgen Stærmose, while some of the surrounding older buildings still serve hospital functions. In 1995 the hospital was handed over to Hovedstadens Sygehusfællesskab (HS, The Capital Hospital Trust) which in 2007 was absorbed by the Capital Region. In 2007 a helipad was built on top of the hospital. Until then, rescue helicopters and helicopters transferring patients would land in the neighbouring park Fælledparken.
In 2021 Rigshospitalet was ranked as the world's 15th best hospital by Statista and Newsweek.
Key figures
As of 2021, some key figures at Rigshospitalet are:
Key Figures
Value
Inpatients (in process)
75,182
Physical Attendance (Not Hospitalized)
1,147,276
Virtual contacts (telephone, email, video consultations)
371,659
Operations
64,653
Births
5,790
Bed days
344,254
Average length of stay, days
4.63
Unique patients
354,629
Number of standardized beds, incl. patient hotel
1,135
Services
Rigshospitalet's mission is to be Denmark's leading hospital for patients needing highly specialized treatment. Its main specialist role has been enhanced in recent years by the decision that it should serve as the host institution for many of Copenhagen's speciality departments. Because of this, other hospitals refer patients to Rigshospitalet for the unique expertise available there.
Rigshospitalet's neighbor, the Panum Building, houses the University of Copenhagen's Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. This proximity optimizes a close cooperation between the two in the fields of research and development. The Nordic Cochrane Centre and the University Centre for Nursing and Care Research are in Rigshospitalet.
With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually. In addition to its 8,000 personnel (7,000 full-time equivalents), the hospital trains, hosts, and has the in-service advantages of students of medicine and other health care sciences, as well as scientists working within Rigshospitalet under a variety of research grants.
Rigshospitalet has a trauma centre specialised at receiving severely injured patients. Ordinary emergency department treatment has been relegated to the other hospitals in Copenhagen.
Social and cultural significance
The hospital is the location of Lars von Trier's three-season television horror mini-series The Kingdom.
Queen Margrethe II's children, Frederik X and Prince Joachim, were both born at Rigshospitalet (though the Queen had intended to give birth to her firstborn at Amalienborg Palace but had to be transferred to Rigshospitalet where Frederik was delivered by emergency C-section). Likewise, Frederik's four children, Crown Prince Christian, Isabella, Vincent and Josephine, and Joachim's four children, Nikolai, Felix, Henrik and Athena, were all born there.
Blood contamination
Two patients were infected with HIV at Rigshospitalet in February 2007 after getting a blood transfusion with infected blood. The blood had been tested for antibodies, where HIV infections in the very earliest phase potentially can be overlooked. The contagion could, according to experts, probably have been discovered if the blood had been tested with the newer nucleic acid test, which since 2009 is a requirement..
Images
Main entrance
EH101 helicopter takeoff from helipad
Rigshospitalet in 1910
See also
Aarhus University Hospital – the largest hospital in Denmark
Rikshospitalet – a hospital in Norway with a similar function and name
References
^ Rigshospitalet. "Key Numbers". rigshospitalet.dk (in Danish). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
^ , University of Copenhagen
^ Rigshospitalet - in brief, Rigshospitalet
^ The History of Rigshospitalet, Rigshospitalet
^ Newsweek (2021-02-22). "World's Best Hospitals 2021 - Top 200 Global". Newsweek. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
^ "Nøgletal". www.rigshospitalet.dk. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-12-24. Retrieved 2006-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Se historisk foto fra kronprins Frederiks fødsel i farver for første gang: Såååå stor!". DR (in Danish). 27 May 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
^ "To smittet med hiv på Rigshospitalet - Politiken.dk". 17 August 2007. 070818 politiken.dk
^ "Læger vil gøre donorblod mere sikkert - Indland - Nyheder - Berlingske Tidende". 070818 berlingske.dk
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rigshospitalet.
Official website
Website of Copenhagens University Hospital, (in Danish only)
Faculty of Health Sciences website
Authority control databases
ISNI
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_hospital"},{"link_name":"teaching hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_hospital"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"functionalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Panum Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panum_Building"},{"link_name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen_Faculty_of_Health_and_Medical_Sciences"},{"link_name":"University of Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"teaching hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_hospital"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen University Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_University_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Hospital in Capital Region, DenmarkRigshospitalet (meaning The National, State or Hospital of the Realm, but not usually translated) is the largest public and teaching hospital in Copenhagen and the most highly specialised hospital in Denmark. The hospital's main building is a 16-storey functionalist highrise, one of the tallest structures in the central parts of the city. Rigshospitalet neighbours the Panum Building which houses the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen. As a teaching hospital it is part of the framework organisation Copenhagen University Hospital.[2]","title":"Rigshospitalet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Danish Realm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Realm"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"Faroe Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islands"},{"link_name":"cognate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate"},{"link_name":"Royal Frederick's Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiks_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"von Trier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_von_Trier"},{"link_name":"The Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingdom_(TV_miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Stephen King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_King"},{"link_name":"Kingdom Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_Hospital"}],"text":"The Danish name is not usually translated to English.[3] The prefix Rigs- is used in the names of some Danish state institutions, especially in a solemn or prestigious context or for authorities serving for the whole Danish Realm including Greenland and the Faroe Islands. It is the genitive of rige ('realm, kingdom, empire') and the cognate word is used similarly in Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic and Dutch (and in German until 1945). The prefix Stats- ('of the state') is more widely used, but implies a slightly lower level in the hierarchy. Although Rigshospitalet was founded as a state hospital, as opposed to the normal hospitals operated by counties, the Danish term Statshospital was until 1977 used only for psychiatric institutions.The hospital itself explains the name was given because its predecessor, Royal Frederick's Hospital, was handed over to the state and became open to patients from the whole Danish Realm.[4]Rigshospitalet is often abbreviated RH and colloquially also called Riget (literally meaning 'the realm' or 'the kingdom'), hence the name of von Trier's thriller TV series The Kingdom which was set at the hospital, and Stephen King's American version Kingdom Hospital.","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kongelig Frederiks Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiks_Hospital"},{"link_name":"King Frederick V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_V_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Bredgade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bredgade"},{"link_name":"Danish Museum of Art & Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Museum_of_Art_%26_Design"},{"link_name":"regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"counties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Martin Borch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Borch"},{"link_name":"Jørgen Stærmose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B8rgen_St%C3%A6rmose&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hovedstadens Sygehusfællesskab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovedstadens_Sygehusf%C3%A6llesskab"},{"link_name":"Capital Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region_Hovedstaden"},{"link_name":"helipad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helipad"},{"link_name":"rescue helicopters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_medical_services"},{"link_name":"Fælledparken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A6lledparken"},{"link_name":"Statista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statista"},{"link_name":"Newsweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Rigshospitalet was founded on 30 March 1757 as Kongelig Frederiks Hospital, named after King Frederick V and situated in Bredgade in central Copenhagen. The buildings are now occupied by the Danish Museum of Art & Design. Since 1903 the state has been the owner of the hospital (whereas other hospitals in Denmark are owned by the regions, formerly by the counties). In 1910 the hospital was renamed and moved to its present location in ten low buildings surrounding a central garden designed by architect Martin Borch. In 1970 most of the buildings were replaced by the present highrise concrete building designed by architect Jørgen Stærmose, while some of the surrounding older buildings still serve hospital functions. In 1995 the hospital was handed over to Hovedstadens Sygehusfællesskab (HS, The Capital Hospital Trust) which in 2007 was absorbed by the Capital Region. In 2007 a helipad was built on top of the hospital. Until then, rescue helicopters and helicopters transferring patients would land in the neighbouring park Fælledparken.In 2021 Rigshospitalet was ranked as the world's 15th best hospital by Statista and Newsweek.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"As of 2021, some key figures at Rigshospitalet are:[6]","title":"Key figures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Panum Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panum_Building"},{"link_name":"trauma centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_centre"},{"link_name":"emergency department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_department"}],"text":"Rigshospitalet's mission is to be Denmark's leading hospital for patients needing highly specialized treatment.[7] Its main specialist role has been enhanced in recent years by the decision that it should serve as the host institution for many of Copenhagen's speciality departments. Because of this, other hospitals refer patients to Rigshospitalet for the unique expertise available there.Rigshospitalet's neighbor, the Panum Building, houses the University of Copenhagen's Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences. This proximity optimizes a close cooperation between the two in the fields of research and development. The Nordic Cochrane Centre and the University Centre for Nursing and Care Research are in Rigshospitalet.With 1,120 beds, Rigshospitalet has responsibility for 65,000 inpatients and approximately 420,000 outpatients annually. In addition to its 8,000 personnel (7,000 full-time equivalents), the hospital trains, hosts, and has the in-service advantages of students of medicine and other health care sciences, as well as scientists working within Rigshospitalet under a variety of research grants.Rigshospitalet has a trauma centre specialised at receiving severely injured patients. Ordinary emergency department treatment has been relegated to the other hospitals in Copenhagen.","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lars von Trier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_von_Trier"},{"link_name":"The Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riget"},{"link_name":"Queen Margrethe II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margrethe_II_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Frederik X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederik_X"},{"link_name":"Prince Joachim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Joachim_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Amalienborg Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amalienborg_Palace"},{"link_name":"C-section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarean_section"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Crown Prince Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian,_Crown_Prince_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Isabella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Isabella_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Vincent_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Josephine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Josephine_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Nikolai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Nikolai_of_Monpezat"},{"link_name":"Felix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Felix_of_Monpezat"},{"link_name":"Henrik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Henrik_of_Monpezat"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countess_Athena_of_Monpezat"}],"text":"The hospital is the location of Lars von Trier's three-season television horror mini-series The Kingdom.Queen Margrethe II's children, Frederik X and Prince Joachim, were both born at Rigshospitalet (though the Queen had intended to give birth to her firstborn at Amalienborg Palace but had to be transferred to Rigshospitalet where Frederik was delivered by emergency C-section).[8] Likewise, Frederik's four children, Crown Prince Christian, Isabella, Vincent and Josephine, and Joachim's four children, Nikolai, Felix, Henrik and Athena, were all born there.","title":"Social and cultural significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV"},{"link_name":"tested for antibodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_HIV/AIDS#Antibody_tests"},{"link_name":"nucleic acid test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_HIV/AIDS#Nucleic_acid-based_tests_(NAT)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Two patients were infected with HIV at Rigshospitalet in February 2007 after getting a blood transfusion with infected blood. The blood had been tested for antibodies, where HIV infections in the very earliest phase potentially can be overlooked. The contagion could, according to experts, probably have been discovered if the blood had been tested with the newer nucleic acid test, which since 2009 is a requirement..[9][10]","title":"Blood contamination"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rigshospitalet_20130427_0004F_(8739514693).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Takeoff_(8725559246).jpg"},{"link_name":"EH101 helicopter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW101"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rigshospitalet_1910.jpg"}],"text":"Main entrance\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEH101 helicopter takeoff from helipad\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRigshospitalet in 1910","title":"Images"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Aarhus University Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus_University_Hospital"},{"title":"Rikshospitalet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikshospitalet"}]
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[{"reference":"Rigshospitalet. \"Key Numbers\". rigshospitalet.dk (in Danish). Retrieved 3 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rigshospitalet.dk/om-hospitalet/organisation/Sider/noegletal.aspx","url_text":"\"Key Numbers\""}]},{"reference":"Newsweek (2021-02-22). \"World's Best Hospitals 2021 - Top 200 Global\". Newsweek. Retrieved 2022-11-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newsweek.com/best-hospitals-2021","url_text":"\"World's Best Hospitals 2021 - Top 200 Global\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nøgletal\". www.rigshospitalet.dk. Retrieved 2022-09-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rigshospitalet.dk/om-hospitalet/organisation/Sider/noegletal.aspx","url_text":"\"Nøgletal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2005-12-24. Retrieved 2006-06-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051224150029/http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/rh.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/ADM.Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004/$FILE/Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/rh.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/ADM.Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004/$FILE/Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Se historisk foto fra kronprins Frederiks fødsel i farver for første gang: Såååå stor!\". DR (in Danish). 27 May 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/kultur/se-historisk-foto-fra-kronprins-frederiks-foedsel-i-farver-foerste-gang-saaaaaaaa","url_text":"\"Se historisk foto fra kronprins Frederiks fødsel i farver for første gang: Såååå stor!\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_(broadcaster)","url_text":"DR"}]},{"reference":"\"To smittet med hiv på Rigshospitalet - Politiken.dk\". 17 August 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://politiken.dk/indland/article360571.ece","url_text":"\"To smittet med hiv på Rigshospitalet - Politiken.dk\""}]},{"reference":"\"Læger vil gøre donorblod mere sikkert - Indland - Nyheder - Berlingske Tidende\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.berlingske.dk/indland/artikel:aid=930192","url_text":"\"Læger vil gøre donorblod mere sikkert - Indland - Nyheder - Berlingske Tidende\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rigshospitalet¶ms=55_41_48_N_12_34_00_E_region:DK_type:landmark","external_links_name":"55°41′48″N 12°34′00″E / 55.69667°N 12.56667°E / 55.69667; 12.56667"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rigshospitalet¶ms=55_41_48_N_12_34_00_E_region:DK_type:landmark","external_links_name":"55°41′48″N 12°34′00″E / 55.69667°N 12.56667°E / 55.69667; 12.56667"},{"Link":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/","external_links_name":"www.rigshospitalet.dk"},{"Link":"https://www.rigshospitalet.dk/om-hospitalet/organisation/Sider/noegletal.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Key Numbers\""},{"Link":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/RHenglish/Menu/About/?wbc_purpose=Basictar","external_links_name":"Rigshospitalet - in brief"},{"Link":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/RHenglish/Menu/About/Our+history/?wbc_purpose=Basictar","external_links_name":"The History of Rigshospitalet"},{"Link":"https://www.newsweek.com/best-hospitals-2021","external_links_name":"\"World's Best Hospitals 2021 - Top 200 Global\""},{"Link":"https://www.rigshospitalet.dk/om-hospitalet/organisation/Sider/noegletal.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Nøgletal\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051224150029/http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/rh.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/ADM.Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004/$FILE/Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/rh.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/ADM.Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004/$FILE/Rigshospitalet_english_Marts2004.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/kultur/se-historisk-foto-fra-kronprins-frederiks-foedsel-i-farver-foerste-gang-saaaaaaaa","external_links_name":"\"Se historisk foto fra kronprins Frederiks fødsel i farver for første gang: Såååå stor!\""},{"Link":"http://politiken.dk/indland/article360571.ece","external_links_name":"\"To smittet med hiv på Rigshospitalet - Politiken.dk\""},{"Link":"http://www.berlingske.dk/indland/artikel:aid=930192","external_links_name":"\"Læger vil gøre donorblod mere sikkert - Indland - Nyheder - Berlingske Tidende\""},{"Link":"http://www.rigshospitalet.dk/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.kuhdk.dk/","external_links_name":"Website of Copenhagens University Hospital, (in Danish only)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051214204049/http://www.sund.ku.dk/Engelsk/default.htm","external_links_name":"Faculty of Health Sciences website"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000417916429","external_links_name":"ISNI"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-Chief
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Editor-in-chief
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["1 Description","2 References","3 Further reading","4 External links"]
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Publication's editorial leader
An editor-in-chief (EIC), also known as lead editor or chief editor, is a publication's editorial leader who has final responsibility for its operations and policies.
Description
The editor-in-chief heads all departments of the organization and is held accountable for delegating tasks to staff members and managing them. The term is often used at newspapers, magazines, yearbooks, and television news programs. The editor-in-chief is commonly the link between the publisher or proprietor and the editorial staff.
The term is also applied to academic journals, where the editor-in-chief gives the ultimate decision whether a submitted manuscript will be published. This decision is made by the editor-in-chief after seeking input from reviewers selected on the basis of relevant expertise. For larger journals, the decision is often upon the recommendation of one of several associate editors who each have responsibility for a fraction of the submitted manuscripts.
Typical responsibilities of editors-in-chief include:
Ensuring that content is journalistically objective
Fact-checking, spelling, grammar, writing style, page design and photos
Rejecting writing that appears to be plagiarized, ghostwritten, published elsewhere, or of little interest to readers
Evaluating and editing content
Contributing editorial pieces
Motivating and developing editorial staff
Ensuring the final draft is complete
Handling reader complaints and taking responsibility for issues after publication
For books and journals, cross-checking citations and examining references
Working to advance the commercial success of the publication
Position may involve recruiting, hiring and firing staff.
References
^ a b "Job Responsibilities of an Editor-in-chief You Were Totally Unaware Of". CareerStint. Feb 14, 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-01-06. Retrieved 2019-01-06.
^ "editor in chief". The Free Dictionary by Farlex. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
^ "editor in chief definition". Dictionary – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-06-05.
^ Nesvisky, M. (2008). Covering Your Campus: A Guide for Student Newspapers. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7425-5389-7. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
^ a b Young, M. (2007). Death, Sex & Money: Life Inside a Newspaper. Melbourne University Press. pp. 46–51. ISBN 978-0-522-85344-5. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
^ Smith, H. F. (1996). Springboard to Journalism. Columbia Scholastic Press Advisers Association of Columbia University. p. 6. ISBN 9780916082031. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
^ a b Niblock, S. (2003). Inside Journalism. Taylor & Francis. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-135-37256-9. Retrieved July 17, 2017.
Further reading
John La Porte Given (1907). "The Editor-in-Chief". Making a Newspaper. New York: H. Holt and Company. pp. 30–35.
Nathaniel Clark Fowler (1913). "The Editor-in-Chief". The Handbook of Journalism: All about Newspaper Work: Facts and Information. New York: Sully and Kleinteich.
The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd edn 1996, edited by R. W. Burchfield); Bryan A. Garner, Garner's Modern American Usage (2009).
External links
The dictionary definition of editor in chief at Wiktionary
Media related to Editor-in-chief at Wikimedia Commons
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"An editor-in-chief (EIC), also known as lead editor or chief editor, is a publication's editorial leader who has final responsibility for its operations and policies.[1][2][3]","title":"Editor-in-chief"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"newspapers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper"},{"link_name":"magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine"},{"link_name":"yearbooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yearbook"},{"link_name":"television news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_news"},{"link_name":"academic journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journals"},{"link_name":"reviewers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"journalistically objective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalistic_objectivity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nesvisky_2008-4"},{"link_name":"Fact-checking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact_checking"},{"link_name":"ghostwritten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostwriter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Young_2007-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_1996_p._6-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Young_2007-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Niblock_2003-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Niblock_2003-7"}],"text":"The editor-in-chief heads all departments of the organization and is held accountable for delegating tasks to staff members and managing them. The term is often used at newspapers, magazines, yearbooks, and television news programs. The editor-in-chief is commonly the link between the publisher or proprietor and the editorial staff.The term is also applied to academic journals, where the editor-in-chief gives the ultimate decision whether a submitted manuscript will be published. This decision is made by the editor-in-chief after seeking input from reviewers selected on the basis of relevant expertise. For larger journals, the decision is often upon the recommendation of one of several associate editors who each have responsibility for a fraction of the submitted manuscripts.Typical responsibilities of editors-in-chief include:[1]Ensuring that content is journalistically objective[4]\nFact-checking, spelling, grammar, writing style, page design and photos\nRejecting writing that appears to be plagiarized, ghostwritten, published elsewhere, or of little interest to readers\nEvaluating and editing content[5][6]\nContributing editorial pieces\nMotivating and developing editorial staff[5]\nEnsuring the final draft is complete\nHandling reader complaints and taking responsibility for issues after publication\nFor books and journals, cross-checking citations and examining references\nWorking to advance the commercial success of the publication[7]\nPosition may involve recruiting, hiring and firing staff.[7]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R. W. Burchfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._W._Burchfield"},{"link_name":"Bryan A. Garner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_A._Garner"}],"text":"John La Porte Given (1907). \"The Editor-in-Chief\". Making a Newspaper. New York: H. Holt and Company. pp. 30–35.\nNathaniel Clark Fowler (1913). \"The Editor-in-Chief\". The Handbook of Journalism: All about Newspaper Work: Facts and Information. New York: Sully and Kleinteich.\nThe New Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd edn 1996, edited by R. W. Burchfield); Bryan A. Garner, Garner's Modern American Usage (2009).","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Job Responsibilities of an Editor-in-chief You Were Totally Unaware Of\". CareerStint. Feb 14, 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-01-06. Retrieved 2019-01-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190106072828/https://careerstint.com/editor-in-chief-responsibilities","url_text":"\"Job Responsibilities of an Editor-in-chief You Were Totally Unaware Of\""},{"url":"https://careerstint.com/editor-in-chief-responsibilities","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"editor in chief\". The Free Dictionary by Farlex. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefreedictionary.com/editor+in+chief","url_text":"\"editor in chief\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190417181910/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/editor+in+chief","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"editor in chief definition\". Dictionary – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 2009-06-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090605112244/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/editor%20in%20chief.html","url_text":"\"editor in chief definition\""},{"url":"https://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/editor%2520in%2520chief.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Nesvisky, M. (2008). Covering Your Campus: A Guide for Student Newspapers. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7425-5389-7. Retrieved July 17, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=x1nMMBh_4-gC&pg=PA35","url_text":"Covering Your Campus: A Guide for Student Newspapers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield_Publishers","url_text":"Rowman & Littlefield Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5389-7","url_text":"978-0-7425-5389-7"}]},{"reference":"Young, M. (2007). Death, Sex & Money: Life Inside a Newspaper. Melbourne University Press. pp. 46–51. ISBN 978-0-522-85344-5. Retrieved July 17, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V4TJRabjLnQC&pg=PA46","url_text":"Death, Sex & Money: Life Inside a Newspaper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-522-85344-5","url_text":"978-0-522-85344-5"}]},{"reference":"Smith, H. F. (1996). Springboard to Journalism. Columbia Scholastic Press Advisers Association of Columbia University. p. 6. ISBN 9780916082031. Retrieved July 17, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uIvsAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Springboard to Journalism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780916082031","url_text":"9780916082031"}]},{"reference":"Niblock, S. (2003). Inside Journalism. Taylor & Francis. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-135-37256-9. Retrieved July 17, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_XqOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62","url_text":"Inside Journalism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-37256-9","url_text":"978-1-135-37256-9"}]},{"reference":"John La Porte Given (1907). \"The Editor-in-Chief\". Making a Newspaper. New York: H. Holt and Company. pp. 30–35.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Nathaniel Clark Fowler (1913). \"The Editor-in-Chief\". The Handbook of Journalism: All about Newspaper Work: Facts and Information. New York: Sully and Kleinteich.","urls":[]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Literature
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Journal of Economic Literature
|
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
|
"JEL" redirects here. For the motto "Jaungoikoa eta Lagi-zaŕa", see Basque Nationalist Party.
Academic journalJournal of Economic LiteratureDisciplineEconomicsLanguageEnglishEdited bySteven DurlaufPublication detailsFormer name(s)Journal of Economic AbstractsHistory1963–presentPublisherAmerican Economic Association (United States)FrequencyQuarterlyStandard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4J. Econ. Lit.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusCODENJECLB3ISSN0022-0515LCCN73646621JSTOR00220515OCLC no.01788942Links
Journal homepage
Online archive
The Journal of Economic Literature is a peer-reviewed academic journal, published by the American Economic Association, that surveys the academic literature in economics. It was established in 1963 as the Journal of Economic Abstracts, and is currently one of the highest ranked journals in economics. As a review journal, it mainly features essays and reviews of recent economic theories (as opposed to the latest research). The editor-in-chief is Steven Durlauf. In January 2022, the AEA announced that David Romer would become the editor beginning in July 2022.
The journal originated a widely used classification system for publications in the field of economics.
See also
JEL classification codes
References
^ a b Journal of Economic Literature: About JEL, retrieved 6 May 2011.
^ "Journal of Economic Abstracts". JSTOR. American Economic Association. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
^ IDEAS/RePEc Simple Impact Factors for Journals
External links
Official website
Authority control databases: National
Germany
This article about a journal on economics is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.vte
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[]
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[{"title":"JEL classification codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEL_classification_codes"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TD/SMP
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TD/SMP
|
["1 References"]
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This article only references primary sources. Please help improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources.Find sources: "TD/SMP" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
TD/SMP, short for Terminal Device/Session Management Protocol, was a terminal multiplexer system introduced by DEC on their VT330/340 terminals in 1987. The terminal-side was referred to as SSU. TD/SMP allowed data from two separate host sessions to be sent to a compatible computer terminal over a single serial port. The format was patented and never described in depth, limiting it to DEC's own terminal servers and terminals.
References
^ US5165020
vteDigital Equipment CorporationKey people
Ken Olsen (founder and CEO, 1957–1992)
Harlan Anderson (co-founder)
Gordon Bell (VP of engineering)
Robert Palmer (CEO, 1992–1998)
Instruction setarchitectures,processorsPDP-11
LSI-11
F-11
T-11
J-11
VAX
V-11
MicroVAX 78032
CVAX
SOC
Rigel
Mariah
NVAX
Alpha
Alpha 21064
21066
21068
Alpha 21164 (21164PC)
Alpha 21264
Alpha 21364
Alpha 21464
Other
MicroPRISM
StrongARM
Computerterminals
VT05 (1970)
GT40 (1972)
VT50/VT52 (1975)
VT55
VT62
VT100 (1978)
VT101
VT102
VT103
VT105
VT131
VT180
VT220 (1983)
VT240
VT241
VT320 (1987)
VT330
VT340
VT420 (1990)
VT1000 (1990)
VT510 (1993)
VT520 (1994)
VT525
Operatingsystems
DECsys
4K DMS
COS
TOPS-10
RSX-15
TSS/8
OS/8
DOS-11
RT-11
RSTS/E
RSX-11
IAS
DSM-11
TOPS-20
VAX/VMS
VAXELN
Ultrix
MICA
Digital UNIX
Programminglanguages
BASIC-8
DIBOL
FOCAL
MACRO-10
MACRO-11
MUMPS
VAX MACRO
DIGITAL Command Language
Character sets
Code page 1100 (Multinational)
Code page 1287 (Greek)
Code page 1288 (Turkish)
Hebrew
National Replacement
RADIX 50
Special Graphics
Technical
Bus standards
Digital Storage Systems Interconnect
Massbus
Q-Bus
Standard Disk Interconnect
Synchronous Backplane Interconnect
TURBOchannel
Unibus
VAXBI bus
Other hardware
DECtalk
DECtape
DECwriter
Digital Linear Tape
Dynamically Redefined Character Set
Firefly
Flip-Chip module
Gold key
LK201
LK421
Mass Storage Control Protocol
PALcode
RA90
RK05
RL02
Star coupler
System Module
TU81
Related topics
AdvFS
AltaVista
Compaq
CPU Wars
DECnet
DECUS
HP-Interex
Digital Federal Credit Union
Dynamic debugging technique
FX!32
Local Area Transport
Maintenance Operations Protocol
On-line Debugging Tool
PALcode
Record Management Services
ReGIS
Sequence and Batch Language
Sixel
System Reference Manual
Systems Research Center
TD/SMP
The Ultimate Entrepreneur
VT640
WPS-8
Computers template
Category
Commons
This computing article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
| null |
[]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JW_Formoza
|
Formoza Military Unit
|
["1 History","2 Present Day","3 Equipment","4 References"]
|
Polish Special Forces unit
Military Unit FormozaJednostka Wojskowa FormozaEmblem of the unitFounded1975Country PolandBranchPolish Special ForcesTypeSpecial forcesHeadquartersGdyniaNickname(s)FormozaMotto(s)Zaufaj morzu, ono cię ocali'Trust the sea, it will save you'EngagementsIraq occupation, War in Afghanistan, Syrian civil war (Personnel recovery, Emergency evacuation, Marine sabotage)Websiteformoza.wp.mil.plCommandersCurrentcommanderkmdr Jan KwiatkowskiMilitary unit
Jednostka Wojskowa Formoza, (Military Unit Formoza) (2007-2011 Morska Jednostka Działań Specjalnych, MJDS) (Naval Special Operations Unit), previous names: Sekcje Działań Specjalnych Marynarki Wojennej (Polish Navy Special Operations Sections), Grupy Specjalne Płetwonurków (Special Frogmen Groups).
History
A headquarters of Formoza in a former torpedo test platform "Formoza" 54°32′55″N 18°34′02″E / 54.54861°N 18.56722°E / 54.54861; 18.56722.
JWF is now part of Wojska Specjalne (1975-2008 - part of the Polish Navy). The Formoza was founded in 1975. Its first commanding officer was (now a retired) certified commander, kmdr por. dypl. Józef Rembisz. The Research Group on Marine Divers (Zespół Badawczy ds. Płetwonurków Morskich) was created in 1974 in order to develop a concept for the organisation and formation of a specialized marine sabotage division.
The unit was originally intended to comprise three sections of frogmen, a technical section, section and management. But it was necessary to change this premise; a frogman could not go under the water without a safety leash. It was found possible to omit this regulation. A basic team now consists of a pair formed to safeguard each other, three pairs create a special group, five groups – a section. At the very beginning, conscripted soldiers served in the unit, nowadays the unit is entirely professional, which has increased its operating effectiveness. A three-year training system was preserved, for instance, during the first year, mainly shooting, swimming long distances, driving vehicles and foreign languages are practiced.
In September 1987, the unit changed its name to Special Operations Department and the Special Naval Frogman Groups were created in 1990. The unit has formidable striking power, two frogmen may sink or take control of an enemy's ship, several of them may block even a large group of ships. The current official name Formoza comes from a Polish Navy seamen nickname of unit's training base "Formoza" (from relation between mainland, coast and island like PRC and ROC Taiwan - Formosa) - a former WW2 German torpedo test platform, 500 m away from coast in Gdynia Naval Harbour (Formoza means Formosa in Polish).
Present Day
The headquarters are stationed in Gdynia, Poland. It is subordinated to Wojska Specjalne. Reportedly, the Special Operations Sections consist of six groups and a base. Jednostka Wojskowa Formoza is prepared for special operations in times of peace, crisis and war. Its basic tasks include the carrying out of operations on the sea, under water and in on-shore facilities, as well as land special operations. Usually the Formoza co-operates with a water subunit of the JW Grom, the frogmen subunit of the Jednostka Wojskowa Komandosów (formerly 1 Pułk Specjalny Komandosów) and some of its equivalents in the navies of the states belonging to NATO.
Equipment
Standard armament of the mariners from the Special Operations Sections:
9×19mm SIG Sauer P226 pistol,
9×19mm MP5A3 & MP5N pistol,
5.56×45mm H&K G36KV assault rifle
.300 AAC Blackout with conversion kits to 5.56×45mm NATO and 7.62×39mm SIG MCX
5.56×45mm FN Minimi Para machine gun
7.62×51mm M14 rifle
7.62×51mm Accuracy International Arctic Warfare sniper rifle
References
^ a b "The Polish Formoza is No One to Mess With". Business Insider. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
^ "Jednostka Wojskowa FORMOZA - Kierownictwo". formoza.wp.mil.pl. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
^ "Operatorzy Formozy otrzymają nowe karabinki automatyczne" (in Polish). 28 May 2021.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Formoza.
Specwar.info - FORMOZA
Official website - polish
Chloupek, Ireneusz "Formoza". Special-Ops 7/8 2010. ISSN 2080-8771
vteUnderwater diving
Diving activities
Diving modes
Atmospheric pressure diving
Freediving
Saturation diving
Scuba diving
Snorkeling
Surface oriented diving
Surface-supplied diving
Unmanned diving
Diving equipment
Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment
Human factors in diving equipment design
Basic equipment
Diving mask
Snorkel
Swimfin
Breathing gas
Bailout gas
Bottom gas
Breathing air
Decompression gas
Emergency gas supply
Heliox
Hydreliox
Hydrox
Nitrox
Oxygen
Travel gas
Trimix
Buoyancy andtrim equipment
Buoyancy compensator
Power inflator
Dump valve
Variable buoyancy pressure vessel
Diving weighting system
Ankle weights
Integrated weights
Trim weights
Weight belt
Decompressionequipment
Decompression buoy
Decompression chamber
Decompression cylinder
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Diving stage
Jersey upline
Jonline
Diving suit
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JIM suit
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Rash vest
Wetsuit
Dive skins
Hot-water suit
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Anti-fog
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Free-flow helmet
Lightweight demand helmet
Orinasal mask
Reclaim helmet
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Diving mask
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Half mask
Instrumentation
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Depth gauge
Dive computer
Dive timer
Diving watch
Helium release valve
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
Pneumofathometer
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Diver propulsion vehicle
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Diving stage
Swimfin
Monofin
PowerSwim
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Wet sub
Safetyequipment
Alternative air source
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Diver's cutting tool
Diver's knife
Diver's telephone
Through-water communications
Underwater acoustic communication
Diving bell
Diving safety harness
Emergency gas supply
Bailout block
Bailout bottle
Lifeline
Screw gate carabiner
Emergency locator beacon
Rescue tether
Safety helmet
Shark-proof cage
Snoopy loop
Navigation equipment
Distance line
Diving compass
Dive reel
Line marker
Surface marker buoy
Silt screw
Underwaterbreathingapparatus
Atmospheric diving suit
Diving cylinder
Burst disc
Scuba cylinder valve
Diving helmet
Reclaim helmet
Diving regulator
Mechanism of diving regulators
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Regulator freeze
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Twin-hose regulator
Full-face diving mask
Open-circuitscuba
Scuba set
Bailout bottle
Decompression cylinder
Independent doubles
Manifolded twin set
Scuba manifold
Pony bottle
Scuba configuration
Sidemount
Sling cylinder
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Carbon dioxide scrubber
Carleton CDBA
Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment
Cryogenic rebreather
CUMA
DSEA
Dolphin
Halcyon PVR-BASC
Halcyon RB80
IDA71
Interspiro DCSC
LAR-5
LAR-6
LAR-V
LARU
Mark IV Amphibian
Porpoise
Ray
Siebe Gorman CDBA
Salvus
Siva
Surface-supplieddiving equipment
Air line
Diver's umbilical
Diving air compressor
Gas panel
Hookah
Scuba replacement
Snuba
Standard diving dress
Divingequipmentmanufacturers
AP Diving
Apeks
Aqua Lung America
Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
Beuchat
René Cavalero
Cis-Lunar
Cressi-Sub
Dacor
DESCO
Dive Xtras
Divex
Diving Unlimited International
Drägerwerk
Fenzy
Maurice Fernez
Technisub
Oscar Gugen
Heinke
HeinrichsWeikamp
Johnson Outdoors
Mares
Morse Diving
Nemrod
Oceanic Worldwide
Porpoise
Shearwater Research
Siebe Gorman
Submarine Products
Suunto
Diving support equipmentAccess equipment
Boarding stirrup
Diver lift
Diving bell
Diving ladder
Diving platform (scuba)
Diving stage
Downline
Jackstay
Launch and recovery system
Messenger line
Moon pool
Breathing gashandling
Air filtration
Activated carbon
Hopcalite
Molecular sieve
Silica gel
Booster pump
Carbon dioxide scrubber
Cascade filling system
Diver's pump
Diving air compressor
Diving air filter
Water separator
High pressure breathing air compressor
Low pressure breathing air compressor
Gas blending
Gas blending for scuba diving
Gas panel
Gas reclaim system
Gas storage bank
Gas storage quad
Gas storage tube
Helium analyzer
Nitrox production
Membrane gas separation
Pressure swing adsorption
Oxygen analyser
Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
Oxygen compatibility
Decompressionequipment
Air-lock
Built-in breathing system
Decompression tables
Diving bell
Bell cursor
Closed bell
Clump weight
Launch and recovery system
Wet bell
Diving chamber
Diving stage
Recreational Dive Planner
Saturation system
Platforms
Dive boat
Canoe and kayak diving
Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
Liveaboard
Subskimmer
Diving support vessel
HMS Challenger (K07)
Underwaterhabitat
Aquarius Reef Base
Continental Shelf Station Two
Helgoland Habitat
Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
SEALAB
Tektite habitat
Remotely operatedunderwater vehicles
8A4-class ROUV
ABISMO
Atlantis ROV Team
CURV
Deep Drone
Épaulard
Global Explorer ROV
Goldfish-class ROUV
Kaikō ROV
Kaşif ROUV
Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
Mini Rover ROV
OpenROV
ROV KIEL 6000
ROV PHOCA
Scorpio ROV
Sea Dragon-class ROV
Seabed tractor
Seafox drone
SeaPerch
SJT-class ROUV
T1200 Trenching Unit
VideoRay UROVs
Safety equipment
Diver down flag
Diving shot
ENOS Rescue-System
Hyperbaric lifeboat
Hyperbaric stretcher
Jackstay
Jonline
Reserve gas supply
General
Diving spread
Air spread
Saturation spread
Hot water system
Sonar
Underwater acoustic positioning system
Underwater acoustic communication
FreedivingActivities
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Haenyeo
Pearl hunting
Ama
Snorkeling
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Underwater rugby
Underwater target shooting
Competitions
Nordic Deep
Vertical Blue
Disciplines
Constant weight (CWT)
Constant weight bi-fins (CWTB)
Constant weight without fins (CNF)
Dynamic apnea (DYN)
Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
Free immersion (FIM)
No-limits apnea (NLT)
Static apnea (STA)
Skandalopetra diving
Variable weight apnea (VWT)
Variable weight apnea without fins
Equipment
Diving mask
Diving suit
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Snorkel (swimming)
Speargun
Swimfins
Monofin
Water polo cap
Freedivers
Deborah Andollo
Simone Arrigoni
Peppo Biscarini
Michael Board
Sara Campbell
Derya Can Göçen
Goran Čolak
Carlos Coste
Robert Croft
Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
Yasemin Dalkılıç
Leonardo D'Imporzano
Flavia Eberhard
Şahika Ercümen
Emma Farrell
Francisco Ferreras
Pierre Frolla
Flavia Eberhard
Mehgan Heaney-Grier
Elisabeth Kristoffersen
Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych
Loïc Leferme
Enzo Maiorca
Jacques Mayol
Audrey Mestre
Karol Meyer
Kate Middleton
Stéphane Mifsud
Alexey Molchanov
Natalia Molchanova
Dave Mullins
Patrick Musimu
Guillaume Néry
Herbert Nitsch
Umberto Pelizzari
Liv Philip
Annelie Pompe
Stig Severinsen
Tom Sietas
Aharon Solomons
Martin Štěpánek
Walter Steyn
Tanya Streeter
William Trubridge
Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
Fatma Uruk
Danai Varveri
Alessia Zecchini
Nataliia Zharkova
Hazards
Barotrauma
Drowning
Freediving blackout
Deep-water blackout
Shallow-water blackout
Hypercapnia
Hypothermia
Historical
Ama
Octopus wrestling
Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming
Organisations
AIDA International
Scuba Schools International
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
Performance Freediving International
Professional divingOccupations
Ama
Commercial diver
Commercial offshore diver
Hazmat diver
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Haenyeo
Media diver
Police diver
Public safety diver
Scientific diver
Underwater archaeologist
Militarydiving
Army engineer diver
Canadian Armed Forces Divers
Clearance diver
Frogman
Minentaucher
Royal Navy ships diver
United States military divers
U.S. Navy diver
U.S.Navy master diver
Militarydivingunits
Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)
Commando Hubert
Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)
Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei
Decima Flottiglia MAS
Frogman Corps (Denmark)
Fuerzas Especiales
Fukuryu
GRUMEC
Grup Gerak Khas
Jagdkommando
JW Formoza
JW GROM
JW Komandosów
Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine
KOPASKA
MARCOS
Marine Commandos
Marinejegerkommandoen
Marine Raider Regiment
Minedykkerkommandoen
Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit
Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)
Naval Service Diving Section
Naval Special Operations Command
Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)
Royal Engineers
Russian commando frogmen
Sappers Divers Group
Shayetet 13
Special Air Service
Special Air Service Regiment
Special Actions Detachment
Special Boat Service
Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)
Special Forces Command (Turkey)
Special Forces Group (Belgium)
Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)
Special Service Group (Navy)
Special Warfare Diving and Salvage
Tactical Divers Group
US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions
US Navy SEALs
Underwater Construction Teams
Underwater Demolition Command
Underwater Demolition Team
Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)
UNGERIN
Underwaterwork
Commercial offshore diving
Dive leader
Diver training
Recreational diver training
Hazmat diving
Hyperbaric welding
Marine construction
Offshore construction
Underwater construction
Media diving
Nondestructive testing
Pearl hunting
Police diving
Potable water diving
Public safety diving
Scientific diving
Ships husbandry
Sponge diving
Submarine pipeline
Underwater archaeology
Archaeology of shipwrecks
Underwater cutting and welding
Underwater demolition
Underwater inspection
Underwater logging
Underwater photography
Underwater search and recovery
Underwater searches
Underwater videography
Underwater survey
Salvage diving
SS Egypt
Kronan
La Belle
SS Laurentic
RMS Lusitania
Mars
Mary Rose
USS Monitor
HMS Royal George
Vasa
Divingcontractors
COMEX
Helix Energy Solutions Group
International Marine Contractors Association
Tools andequipment
Abrasive waterjet
Airlift
Baited remote underwater video
In-water surface cleaning
Brush cart
Cavitation cleaning
Pressure washing
Pigging
Lifting bag
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
Thermal lance
Tremie
Water jetting
Underwaterweapons
Limpet mine
Speargun
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Underwaterfirearm
Gyrojet
Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
Powerhead
Underwater pistols
Heckler & Koch P11
SPP-1 underwater pistol
Underwater revolvers
AAI underwater revolver
Underwater rifles
ADS amphibious rifle
APS underwater rifle
ASM-DT amphibious rifle
QBS-06
Recreational diving
Recreational dive sites
Index of recreational dive sites
List of wreck diving sites
Outline of recreational dive sites
Specialties
Altitude diving
Cave diving
Deep diving
Ice diving
Muck diving
Open-water diving
Rebreather diving
Sidemount diving
Solo diving
Technical diving
Underwater photography
Wreck diving
Diverorganisations
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS)
Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)
Diving tourismindustry
Dive center
Diving in East Timor
Diving in the Maldives
Environmental impact of recreational diving
Scuba diving tourism
Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands
Shark tourism
Sinking ships for wreck diving sites
Underwater diving on Guam
Diving eventsand festivals
Diversnight
Underwater Bike Race
Diving safety
Human factors in diving equipment design
Human factors in diving safety
Life-support system
Safety-critical system
Scuba diving fatalities
Underwater diving emergency
Water safety
Water surface searches
Divinghazards
List of diving hazards and precautions
Environmental
Current
Delta-P
Entanglement hazard
Overhead
Silt out
Wave action
Equipment
Freeflow
Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment
Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus
Single point of failure
Physiological
Cold shock response
Decompression
Nitrogen narcosis
Oxygen toxicity
Seasickness
Uncontrolled decompression
Diver behaviour and competence
Lack of competence
Overconfidence effect
Panic
Task loading
Trait anxiety
Willful violation
Consequences
Barotrauma
Decompression sickness
Drowning
Hypothermia
Hypoxia
Hypercapnia
Hyperthermia
Non-freezing cold injury
Divingprocedures
Ascending and descending
Emergency ascent
Boat diving
Canoe and kayak diving
Buddy diving
buddy check
Decompression
Decompression practice
Pyle stop
Ratio decompression
Dive briefing
Dive log
Dive planning
Rule of thirds
Scuba gas planning
Diver communications
Diver rescue
Diver training
Doing It Right
Drift diving
Gas blending for scuba diving
Night diving
Rebreather diving
Scuba gas management
Solo diving
Riskmanagement
Checklist
Hazard identification and risk assessment
Hazard analysis
Job safety analysis
Risk assessment
Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue
Risk control
Hierarchy of hazard controls
Incident pit
Lockout–tagout
Permit To Work
Redundancy
Safety data sheet
Situation awareness
Diving team
Bellman
Chamber operator
Diver medical technician
Diver's attendant
Diving supervisor
Diving systems technician
Gas man
Life support technician
Stand-by diver
Equipmentsafety
Breathing gas quality
Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
Hydrostatic test
Sustained load cracking
Diving regulator
Breathing performance of regulators
Occupationalsafety andhealth
Association of Diving Contractors International
International Marine Contractors Association
Code of practice
Contingency plan
Diving regulations
Emergency response plan
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Operations manual
Standard operating procedure
Diving medicineDivingdisorders
List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
Cramp
Motion sickness
Surfer's ear
Pressurerelated
Alternobaric vertigo
Barostriction
Barotrauma
Air embolism
Aerosinusitis
Barodontalgia
Dental barotrauma
Middle ear barotrauma
Pulmonary barotrauma
Compression arthralgia
Decompression illness
Dysbarism
Oxygen
Freediving blackout
Hyperoxia
Hypoxia
Oxygen toxicity
Inert gases
Avascular necrosis
Decompression sickness
Dysbaric osteonecrosis
Inner ear decompression sickness
Isobaric counterdiffusion
Taravana
High-pressure nervous syndrome
Hydrogen narcosis
Nitrogen narcosis
Carbon dioxide
Hypercapnia
Hypocapnia
Breathing gascontaminants
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Immersionrelated
Asphyxia
Drowning
Hypothermia
Immersion diuresis
Instinctive drowning response
Laryngospasm
Salt water aspiration syndrome
Swimming-induced pulmonary edema
Treatment
Demand valve oxygen therapy
First aid
Hyperbaric medicine
Hyperbaric treatment schedules
In-water recompression
Oxygen therapy
Therapeutic recompression
Personnel
Diving Medical Examiner
Diving Medical Practitioner
Diving Medical Technician
Hyperbaric nursing
Screening
Atrial septal defect
Effects of drugs on fitness to dive
Fitness to dive
Psychological fitness to dive
ResearchResearchers indiving physiologyand medicine
Arthur J. Bachrach
Albert R. Behnke
Peter B. Bennett
Paul Bert
George F. Bond
Robert Boyle
Alf O. Brubakk
Albert A. Bühlmann
John R. Clarke
Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
Kenneth William Donald
William Paul Fife
John Scott Haldane
Robert William Hamilton Jr.
Henry Valence Hempleman
Leonard Erskine Hill
Brian Andrew Hills
Felix Hoppe-Seyler
Christian J. Lambertsen
Simon Mitchell
Charles Momsen
Neal W. Pollock
John Rawlins
Charles Wesley Shilling
Edward D. Thalmann
Jacques Triger
Diving medicalresearchorganisations
Aerospace Medical Association
Divers Alert Network (DAN)
Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
Rubicon Foundation
South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)
Law
Civil liability in recreational diving
Diving regulations
Duty of care
List of legislation regulating underwater diving
Investigation of diving accidents
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
History of underwater diving
History of decompression research and development
History of Diving Museum
History of scuba diving
List of researchers in underwater diving
Lyons Maritime Museum
Man in the Sea Museum
Timeline of diving technology
Pearling in Western Australia
US Navy decompression models and tables
Archeologicalsites
SS Commodore
USS Monitor
Queen Anne's Revenge
Whydah Gally
Underwater artand artists
The Diver
Jason deCaires Taylor
Engineersand inventors
Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont
William Beebe
Georges Beuchat
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Joseph-Martin Cabirol
John R. Clarke
Jacques Cousteau
Charles Anthony Deane
John Deane
Louis de Corlieu
Auguste Denayrouze
Ted Eldred
Henry Fleuss
Émile Gagnan
Karl Heinrich Klingert
Peter Kreeft
Christian J. Lambertsen
Yves Le Prieur
John Lethbridge
Ernest William Moir
Joseph Salim Peress
Auguste Piccard
Joe Savoie
Willard Franklyn Searle
Gordon Smith
Augustus Siebe
Pierre-Marie Touboulic
Jacques Triger
Historicalequipment
Aqua-Lung
RV Calypso
SP-350 Denise
Magnesium torch
Nikonos
Porpoise regulator
Standard diving dress
Sub Marine Explorer
Vintage scuba
Diverpropulsionvehicles
Advanced SEAL Delivery System
Cosmos CE2F series
Dry Combat Submersible
Human torpedo
Motorised Submersible Canoe
Necker Nymph
R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
SEAL Delivery Vehicle
Shallow Water Combat Submersible
Siluro San Bartolomeo
Welfreighter
Wet Nellie
Military andcovert operations
Raid on Alexandria (1941)
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
Scientific projects
1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
Mission 31
Awards and events
Hans Hass Award
International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame
London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures
NOGI Awards
Women Divers Hall of Fame
IncidentsDive boat incidents
Sinking of MV Conception
Diver rescues
Alpazat cave rescue
Tham Luang cave rescue
Early diving
John Day (carpenter)
Charles Spalding
Ebenezer Watson
Freediving fatalities
Loïc Leferme
Audrey Mestre
Nicholas Mevoli
Natalia Molchanova
Offshorediving incidents
Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
Drill Master diving accident
Star Canopus diving accident
Stena Seaspread diving accident
Venture One diving accident
Waage Drill II diving accident
Wildrake diving accident
Professionaldiving fatalities
Roger Baldwin
John Bennett
Victor F. Guiel Jr.
Francis P. Hammerberg
Craig M. Hoffman
Peter Henry Michael Holmes
Johnson Sea Link accident
Edwin Clayton Link
Gerard Anthony Prangley
Per Skipnes
Robert John Smyth
Albert D. Stover
Richard A. Walker
Lothar Michael Ward
Joachim Wendler
Bradley Westell
Arne Zetterström
Scuba divingfatalities
1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident
Ricardo Armbruster
Allan Bridge
David Bright
Berry L. Cannon
Cotton Coulson
Cláudio Coutinho
E. Yale Dawson
Deon Dreyer
Milan Dufek
Sheck Exley
Maurice Fargues
Fernando Garfella Palmer
Guy Garman
Steve Irwin
death
Jim Jones
Henry Way Kendall
Artur Kozłowski
Yuri Lipski
Kirsty MacColl
Agnes Milowka
François de Roubaix
Chris and Chrissy Rouse
Dave Shaw
Wesley C. Skiles
Dewey Smith
Rob Stewart
Esbjörn Svensson
Josef Velek
PublicationsManuals
NOAA Diving Manual
U.S. Navy Diving Manual
Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival
Underwater Handbook
Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving
The new science of skin and scuba diving
Professional Diver's Handbook
Basic Scuba
Standards andCodes of Practice
Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)
DIN 7876
IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving
ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers
General non-fiction
The Darkness Beckons
Goldfinder
The Last Dive
Shadow Divers
The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure
Research
List of Divers Alert Network publications
Dive guides
Training and registrationDivertraining
Competence and assessment
Competency-based learning
Refresher training
Skill assessment
Diver training standard
Diving instructor
Diving school
Occupational diver training
Commercial diver training
Military diver training
Public safety diver training
Scientific diver training
Recreational diver training
Introductory diving
Teaching method
Muscle memory
Overlearning
Stress exposure training
Skills
Combat sidestroke
Diver navigation
Diver trim
Ear clearing
Frenzel maneuver
Valsalva maneuver
Finning techniques
Scuba skills
Buddy breathing
Low impact diving
Diamond Reef System
Surface-supplied diving skills
Underwater searches
RecreationalscubacertificationlevelsCore diving skills
Advanced Open Water Diver
Autonomous diver
CMAS* scuba diver
CMAS** scuba diver
Introductory diving
Low Impact Diver
Master Scuba Diver
Open Water Diver
Supervised diver
Leadership skills
Dive leader
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Master Instructor
Specialist skills
Rescue Diver
Solo diver
Diver trainingcertificationand registrationorganisations
European Underwater Federation (EUF)
International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
List of diver certification organizations
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Nautical Archaeology Society
Universal Referral Program
World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)
Commercial divercertificationauthorities
Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
Commercial diver registration in South Africa
Divers Institute of Technology
Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
Department of Employment and Labour
Commercial divingschools
Divers Academy International
Norwegian diver school
Free-divingcertificationagencies
AIDA International (AIDA)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Performance Freediving International (PI)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Recreationalscubacertificationagencies
American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
International Life Saving Federation (ILS)
Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
Scuba Diving International (SDI)
Scuba Educators International (SEI)
Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
United Diving Instructors (UDI)
YMCA SCUBA Program
Scientific divercertificationauthorities
American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
CMAS Scientific Committee
Technical divercertificationagencies
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
Technical Extended Range (TXR)
Cavediving
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Technical Diving International (TDI)
Military divertraining centres
Defence Diving School
Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center
Underwater Escape Training Unit
Military divertraining courses
United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course
Underwater sportsSurface snorkeling
Finswimming
Snorkeling/breath-hold
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Australia
Turkey
Underwater rugby
Colombia
United States
Underwater target shooting
Breath-hold
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Open Circuit Scuba
Immersion finswimming
Sport diving
Underwater cycling
Underwater orienteering
Underwater photography
Rebreather
Underwater photography
Sports governingorganisations and federations
International
AIDA International
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
National
AIDA Hellas
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
British Octopush Association
British Underwater Sports Association
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
South African Underwater Sports Federation
Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
Underwater Society of America)
Competitions
14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship
Underwater Hockey World Championships
Underwater Orienteering World Championships
Underwater Rugby World Championships
Underwater diversPioneersof diving
Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro
Aquanaut
Mary Bonnin
Amelia Behrens-Furniss
James F. Cahill
Jacques Cousteau
Billy Deans
Dottie Frazier
Trevor Hampton
Hans Hass
Dick Rutkowski
Teseo Tesei
Arne Zetterström
Underwaterscientistsarchaeologists andenvironmentalists
Michael Arbuthnot
Robert Ballard
George Bass
Mensun Bound
Louis Boutan
Hugh Bradner
Cathy Church
Eugenie Clark
James P. Delgado
Sylvia Earle
John Christopher Fine
George R. Fischer
Anders Franzén
Honor Frost
Fernando Garfella Palmer
David Gibbins
Graham Jessop
Swietenia Puspa Lestari
Pilar Luna
Robert F. Marx
Anna Marguerite McCann
Innes McCartney
Charles T. Meide
Mark M. Newell
Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova
John Peter Oleson
Mendel L. Peterson
Richard Pyle
Andreas Rechnitzer
William R. Royal
Margaret Rule
Gunter Schöbel
Stephanie Schwabe
Myriam Seco
E. Lee Spence
Robert Sténuit
Peter Throckmorton
Cristina Zenato
Scuba recordholders
Pascal Bernabé
Jim Bowden
Mark Ellyatt
Sheck Exley
Nuno Gomes
Claudia Serpieri
Krzysztof Starnawski
Underwaterfilmmakersand presenters
Samir Alhafith
David Attenborough
Ramón Bravo
Jean-Michel Cousteau
Richie Kohler
Paul Rose
Andy Torbet
Ivan Tors
Andrew Wight
Underwaterphotographers
Doug Allan
Tamara Benitez
Georges Beuchat
Adrian Biddle
Jonathan Bird
Eric Cheng
Neville Coleman
Jacques Cousteau
John D. Craig
Ben Cropp
Bernard Delemotte
David Doubilet
Candice Farmer
John Christopher Fine
Rodney Fox
Ric Frazier
Stephen Frink
Peter Gimbel
Monty Halls
Hans Hass
Henry Way Kendall
Rudie Kuiter
Joseph B. MacInnis
Luis Marden
Agnes Milowka
Noel Monkman
Pete Oxford
Steve Parish
Zale Parry
Pierre Petit
Leni Riefenstahl
Peter Scoones
Brian Skerry
Wesley C. Skiles
E. Lee Spence
Philippe Tailliez
Ron Taylor
Valerie Taylor
Albert Tillman
John Veltri
Stan Waterman
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|
[{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Military unitJednostka Wojskowa Formoza, (Military Unit Formoza) (2007-2011 Morska Jednostka Działań Specjalnych, MJDS) (Naval Special Operations Unit), previous names: Sekcje Działań Specjalnych Marynarki Wojennej (Polish Navy Special Operations Sections), Grupy Specjalne Płetwonurków (Special Frogmen Groups).","title":"Formoza Military Unit"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Formoza_p.jpg"},{"link_name":"54°32′55″N 18°34′02″E / 54.54861°N 18.56722°E / 54.54861; 18.56722","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Formoza_Military_Unit¶ms=54_32_55_N_18_34_02_E_type:landmark_region:PL"},{"link_name":"Wojska Specjalne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_forces_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Polish Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Navy"},{"link_name":"commanding officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commanding_officer"},{"link_name":"commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander"},{"link_name":"Józef Rembisz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B3zef_Rembisz&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"marine sabotage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabotage"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%E2%80%9Cbusiness-insider%E2%80%9D-1"},{"link_name":"mainland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland"},{"link_name":"coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast"},{"link_name":"island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island"},{"link_name":"PRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"ROC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Formosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formosa"}],"text":"A headquarters of Formoza in a former torpedo test platform \"Formoza\" 54°32′55″N 18°34′02″E / 54.54861°N 18.56722°E / 54.54861; 18.56722.JWF is now part of Wojska Specjalne (1975-2008 - part of the Polish Navy). The Formoza was founded in 1975. Its first commanding officer was (now a retired) certified commander, kmdr por. dypl. Józef Rembisz. The Research Group on Marine Divers (Zespół Badawczy ds. Płetwonurków Morskich) was created in 1974 in order to develop a concept for the organisation and formation of a specialized marine sabotage division.[1]The unit was originally intended to comprise three sections of frogmen, a technical section, section and management. But it was necessary to change this premise; a frogman could not go under the water without a safety leash. It was found possible to omit this regulation. A basic team now consists of a pair formed to safeguard each other, three pairs create a special group, five groups – a section. At the very beginning, conscripted soldiers served in the unit, nowadays the unit is entirely professional, which has increased its operating effectiveness. A three-year training system was preserved, for instance, during the first year, mainly shooting, swimming long distances, driving vehicles and foreign languages are practiced.In September 1987, the unit changed its name to Special Operations Department and the Special Naval Frogman Groups were created in 1990. The unit has formidable striking power, two frogmen may sink or take control of an enemy's ship, several of them may block even a large group of ships. The current official name Formoza comes from a Polish Navy seamen nickname of unit's training base \"Formoza\" (from relation between mainland, coast and island like PRC and ROC Taiwan - Formosa) - a former WW2 German torpedo test platform, 500 m away from coast in Gdynia Naval Harbour (Formoza means Formosa in Polish).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gdynia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gdynia"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"JW Grom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GROM"},{"link_name":"frogmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogmen"},{"link_name":"Jednostka Wojskowa Komandosów","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Special_Commando_Regiment"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"}],"text":"The headquarters are stationed in Gdynia, Poland. It is subordinated to Wojska Specjalne. Reportedly, the Special Operations Sections consist of six groups and a base. Jednostka Wojskowa Formoza is prepared for special operations in times of peace, crisis and war. Its basic tasks include the carrying out of operations on the sea, under water and in on-shore facilities, as well as land special operations. Usually the Formoza co-operates with a water subunit of the JW Grom, the frogmen subunit of the Jednostka Wojskowa Komandosów (formerly 1 Pułk Specjalny Komandosów) and some of its equivalents in the navies of the states belonging to NATO.","title":"Present Day"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SIG Sauer P226 pistol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P226"},{"link_name":"MP5A3 & MP5N pistol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_MP5"},{"link_name":"H&K G36KV assault rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_G36"},{"link_name":"SIG MCX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_MCX"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"FN Minimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FN_Minimi"},{"link_name":"M14 rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M14_rifle"},{"link_name":"Accuracy International Arctic Warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accuracy_International_Arctic_Warfare"}],"text":"Standard armament of the mariners from the Special Operations Sections:9×19mm SIG Sauer P226 pistol,\n9×19mm MP5A3 & MP5N pistol,\n5.56×45mm H&K G36KV assault rifle\n.300 AAC Blackout with conversion kits to 5.56×45mm NATO and 7.62×39mm SIG MCX[3]\n5.56×45mm FN Minimi Para machine gun\n7.62×51mm M14 rifle\n7.62×51mm Accuracy International Arctic Warfare sniper rifle","title":"Equipment"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A headquarters of Formoza in a former torpedo test platform \"Formoza\" 54°32′55″N 18°34′02″E / 54.54861°N 18.56722°E / 54.54861; 18.56722.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Formoza_p.jpg/350px-Formoza_p.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"The Polish Formoza is No One to Mess With\". Business Insider. Retrieved 29 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businessinsider.com/the-polish-formoza-is-no-one-to-mess-with-2013-8","url_text":"\"The Polish Formoza is No One to Mess With\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Insider","url_text":"Business Insider"}]},{"reference":"\"Jednostka Wojskowa FORMOZA - Kierownictwo\". formoza.wp.mil.pl. Retrieved 14 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://formoza.wp.mil.pl/pl/pages/kierownictwo-2017-01-16-4/","url_text":"\"Jednostka Wojskowa FORMOZA - Kierownictwo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Operatorzy Formozy otrzymają nowe karabinki automatyczne\" [Formoza operators will receive new automatic rifles] (in Polish). 28 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://radar.rp.pl/modernizacja-sil-zbrojnych/23187-operatorzy-formozy-otrzymaja-nowe-karabinki-automatyczne","url_text":"\"Operatorzy Formozy otrzymają nowe karabinki automatyczne\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://formoza.wp.mil.pl/","external_links_name":"formoza.wp.mil.pl"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Formoza_Military_Unit¶ms=54_32_55_N_18_34_02_E_type:landmark_region:PL","external_links_name":"54°32′55″N 18°34′02″E / 54.54861°N 18.56722°E / 54.54861; 18.56722"},{"Link":"https://www.businessinsider.com/the-polish-formoza-is-no-one-to-mess-with-2013-8","external_links_name":"\"The Polish Formoza is No One to Mess With\""},{"Link":"https://formoza.wp.mil.pl/pl/pages/kierownictwo-2017-01-16-4/","external_links_name":"\"Jednostka Wojskowa FORMOZA - Kierownictwo\""},{"Link":"https://radar.rp.pl/modernizacja-sil-zbrojnych/23187-operatorzy-formozy-otrzymaja-nowe-karabinki-automatyczne","external_links_name":"\"Operatorzy Formozy otrzymają nowe karabinki automatyczne\""},{"Link":"http://en.specwar.info/special_forces/FORMOZA/","external_links_name":"Specwar.info - FORMOZA"},{"Link":"http://www.formoza.wp.mil.pl/","external_links_name":"Official website - polish"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Yardley
|
Jonathan Yardley
|
["1 Background and education","2 Career","3 Publications","3.1 Books","3.2 As editor","4 Awards","5 Personal life","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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American book critic (born 1939)
Jonathan YardleyYardley in 2011Born (1939-10-27) October 27, 1939 (age 84)Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.EducationUniversity of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (BA)Occupation(s)Book critic, authorEmployer(s)New York Times, Miami Herald, Washington PostKnown forFrank criticismSpouses
Rosemary Roberts
(m. 1961; div. 1975)
Susan L. Hartt
(m. 1975; div. 1998)
Marie Arana (m. 1999)
Children2, including JimAwardsPulitzer Prize for Criticism 1981
Jonathan Yardley (born October 27, 1939) is an American author and former book critic at The Washington Post from 1981 to December 2014, and held the same post from 1978 to 1981 at the Washington Star. In 1981, he received the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism.
Background and education
Yardley was born on October 27, 1939, in Pittsburgh and spent his childhood in Chatham, Virginia. His father, William Woolsey Yardley, was a teacher of English and the classics, as well as an Episcopal minister and a headmaster at two East Coast private schools. His mother was Helen Gregory Yardley.
Yardley graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. There, he was a member of St. Anthony Hall and was the editor of the student newspaper, The Daily Tar Heel, in 1961.
Career
After leaving Chapel Hill, Yardley interned at the New York Times as assistant to James Reston, the columnist and Washington Bureau chief. From 1964 to 1974, Yardley worked as an editorial writer and book reviewer at the Greensboro Daily News; during this time, he was also a Nieman Fellow at Harvard University, academic year 1968-1969, where he studied American literature and literary biography. From 1974 to 1978, Yardley served as book editor of the Miami Herald. From 1978 to 1981, he was the book critic at the Washington Star, receiving a Pulitzer Prize for distinguished criticism in 1981. In 1981, Yardley became book critic and columnist at the Washington Post.
Yardley is the author of several books, among them biographies of Frederick Exley and Ring Lardner. His memoir about his family, Our Kind of People, describes his parents' 50-year marriage and casts a wry eye on the American WASP experience. He edited H.L. Mencken's posthumous literary and journalistic memoir, My Life as Author and Editor. He has written introductions to books by Graham Greene, A. J. Liebling, Booth Tarkington and others.
Yardley is known simultaneously as a scathingly frank critic and a starmaker. Among the talents he has brought to public light and championed are Michael Chabon, Edward P. Jones, Anne Tyler, William Boyd, Olga Grushin and John Berendt. He wrote a famously harsh review of Joe McGinniss' book The Last Brother: The Rise and Fall of Teddy Kennedy, saying "Not merely is it a textbook example of shoddy journalistic and publishing ethics; it is also a genuinely, unrelievedly rotten book, one without a single redeeming virtue, an embarrassment that should bring nothing except shame to everyone associated with it."
In February 2003, Yardley began a series called "Second Reading", described as “An occasional series in which The Post’s book critic reconsiders notable and/or neglected books from the past.” Every month or so, for the next seven years, he published essays about notable books from the past, many of which had gone out of print or were in some way seen as worth reading again. It was in this series that he gained attention for his highly critical look at The Catcher in the Rye in 2004. A collection of the Second Reading columns was published by Europa Editions in July 2011.
On December 5, 2014, Yardley announced his retirement as book critic of the Post.
Publications
Books
Second Reading: Notable and Neglected Books Revisited. New York: Europa Editions, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60945-008-3
Monday Morning Quarterback. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998. ISBN 0-8476-9204-3 ISBN 978-0847692040
Misfit: The Strange Life of Frederick Exley. New York: Random House, 1997. ISBN 0-679-43949-8 ISBN 978-0679439493
Out of Step: Notes From a Purple Decade. New York: Random House, 1993. ISBN 0-517-10628-0 ISBN 978-0-517-10628-0
States of Mind: A Personal Journey Through the Mid-Atlantic. Villard Publishing, 1993. ISBN 0-394-58911-4 ISBN 978-0394589114
Our Kind of People: The Story of an American Family. New York: Grove Press, 1989. ISBN 1-55584-174-0 ISBN 978-1555841744
Ring: A Biography of Ring Lardner. New York: Random House, 1977. ISBN 0-394-49811-9 ISBN 978-0394498119
As editor
H.L. Mencken, My Life as Author and Editor. New York: Knopf, 1993. ISBN 0-679-41315-4 ISBN 978-0679413158
Awards
Yardley was awarded the 1981 Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. Yardley has been a Nieman Fellow. Yardley was awarded an honorary doctorate of letters by George Washington University in 1987, and a distinguished alumnus award by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1989.
Personal life
Yardley is married to biographer/novelist Marie Arana, the former editor of Washington Post Book World. His sons, Jim Yardley and William Yardley, with his first wife Rosemary Roberts, are New York Times reporters, and William writes for the Los Angeles Times as well. He and his son Jim are one of two father-son recipients of the Pulitzer Prize.
See also
Michael Dirda
Ron Charles
References
^ UNC Special Collections Library
^ Williams, Michael (October 9, 2012). "St. Anthony Hall Donates Autograph Album from the 1860's". UNC University Libraries. Retrieved March 12, 2022.
^ Yardley, Jonathan (July 28, 1993). "'The Last Brother:' It's Not As Bad as You Heard. It's Worse". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
^ Subject: Why Spill Vitriol on Such a Squalid Screed?
^ Yardley, Jonathan. "Second Reading". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
^ "The Neglected Books Page: Jonathan Yardley's Second Readings". January 10, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
^ Yardley, Jonathan (October 19, 2004). "J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly". The Washington Post. p. C01. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
^ Yardley, Jonathan (December 5, 2014). "After More Than Three Decades and 3,000 Reviews, a Fond Farewell". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 16, 2014.
^ Offman, Craig (July 15, 1999). "Washington Post Book World editor steps down". Salon. Archived from the original on February 5, 2006. Retrieved February 27, 2007.
^ "Recent work by William Yardley for the New York Times". New York Times. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
^ "William Yardley bio". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 21, 2018.
External links
Inventory of the Jonathan Yardley Papers, 1792-2006, in the Southern Historical Collection, UNC-Chapel Hill.
Jonathan Yardley at IMDb
Interview at Washington Technology
Book reviews, by Yardley at The Washington Post
Appearances on C-SPAN
vtePulitzer Prize for Criticism (1976–2000)
Alan M. Kriegsman (1976)
William McPherson (1977)
Walter Kerr (1978)
Paul Gapp (1979)
William A. Henry III (1980)
Jonathan Yardley (1981)
Martin Bernheimer (1982)
Manuela Hoelterhoff (1983)
Paul Goldberger (1984)
Howard Rosenberg (1985)
Donal Henahan (1986)
Richard Eder (1987)
Tom Shales (1988)
Michael Skube (1989)
Allan Temko (1990)
David Shaw (1991)
Michael Dirda (1993)
Lloyd Schwartz (1994)
Margo Jefferson (1995)
Robert Campbell (1996)
Tim Page (1997)
Michiko Kakutani (1998)
Blair Kamin (1999)
Henry Allen (2000)
Complete list
(1970–1975)
(1976–2000)
(2001–2025)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
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WorldCat
National
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BnF data
Germany
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Other
SNAC
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"critic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critic"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"Washington Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Star"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Criticism"}],"text":"Jonathan Yardley (born October 27, 1939) is an American author and former book critic at The Washington Post from 1981 to December 2014, and held the same post from 1978 to 1981 at the Washington Star. In 1981, he received the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism.","title":"Jonathan Yardley"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Chatham, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatham,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Episcopal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_at_Chapel_Hill"},{"link_name":"St. Anthony Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Anthony_Hall"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"The Daily Tar Heel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Tar_Heel"}],"text":"Yardley was born on October 27, 1939, in Pittsburgh and spent his childhood in Chatham, Virginia.[1] His father, William Woolsey Yardley, was a teacher of English and the classics, as well as an Episcopal minister and a headmaster at two East Coast private schools. His mother was Helen Gregory Yardley.Yardley graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. There, he was a member of St. Anthony Hall[2] and was the editor of the student newspaper, The Daily Tar Heel, in 1961.","title":"Background and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"James Reston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Reston"},{"link_name":"Nieman Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieman_Fellow"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"literary biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biography_in_literature"},{"link_name":"Miami Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Herald"},{"link_name":"Washington Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Star"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"Frederick Exley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Exley"},{"link_name":"Ring Lardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_Lardner"},{"link_name":"WASP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant"},{"link_name":"H.L. Mencken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.L._Mencken"},{"link_name":"Graham Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Greene"},{"link_name":"A. J. Liebling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._J._Liebling"},{"link_name":"Booth Tarkington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booth_Tarkington"},{"link_name":"Michael Chabon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Chabon"},{"link_name":"Edward P. Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_P._Jones"},{"link_name":"Anne Tyler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Tyler"},{"link_name":"William Boyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Boyd_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Olga Grushin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Grushin"},{"link_name":"John Berendt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Berendt"},{"link_name":"Joe McGinniss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_McGinniss"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Catcher in the Rye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catcher_in_the_Rye"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"After leaving Chapel Hill, Yardley interned at the New York Times as assistant to James Reston, the columnist and Washington Bureau chief. From 1964 to 1974, Yardley worked as an editorial writer and book reviewer at the Greensboro Daily News; during this time, he was also a Nieman Fellow at Harvard University, academic year 1968-1969, where he studied American literature and literary biography. From 1974 to 1978, Yardley served as book editor of the Miami Herald. From 1978 to 1981, he was the book critic at the Washington Star, receiving a Pulitzer Prize for distinguished criticism in 1981. In 1981, Yardley became book critic and columnist at the Washington Post.Yardley is the author of several books, among them biographies of Frederick Exley and Ring Lardner. His memoir about his family, Our Kind of People, describes his parents' 50-year marriage and casts a wry eye on the American WASP experience. He edited H.L. Mencken's posthumous literary and journalistic memoir, My Life as Author and Editor. He has written introductions to books by Graham Greene, A. J. Liebling, Booth Tarkington and others.Yardley is known simultaneously as a scathingly frank critic and a starmaker. Among the talents he has brought to public light and championed are Michael Chabon, Edward P. Jones, Anne Tyler, William Boyd, Olga Grushin and John Berendt. He wrote a famously harsh review of Joe McGinniss' book The Last Brother: The Rise and Fall of Teddy Kennedy, saying \"Not merely is it a textbook example of shoddy journalistic and publishing ethics; it is also a genuinely, unrelievedly rotten book, one without a single redeeming virtue, an embarrassment that should bring nothing except shame to everyone associated with it.\"[3][4]In February 2003, Yardley began a series called \"Second Reading\",[5] described as “An occasional series in which The Post’s book critic reconsiders notable and/or neglected books from the past.” Every month or so, for the next seven years, he published essays about notable books from the past, many of which had gone out of print or were in some way seen as worth reading again.[6] It was in this series that he gained attention for his highly critical look at The Catcher in the Rye in 2004.[7] A collection of the Second Reading columns was published by Europa Editions in July 2011.On December 5, 2014, Yardley announced his retirement as book critic of the Post.[8]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second Reading: Notable and Neglected Books Revisited.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books/about/Second_Reading.html?id=zBWFE92C364C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-60945-008-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60945-008-3"},{"link_name":"Rowman & Littlefield Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield_Publishers"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8476-9204-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-9204-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0847692040","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847692040"},{"link_name":"Random House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_House"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-679-43949-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-43949-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0679439493","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679439493"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-517-10628-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-10628-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-517-10628-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-10628-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-394-58911-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-58911-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0394589114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394589114"},{"link_name":"Grove Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grove_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55584-174-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55584-174-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1555841744","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1555841744"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-394-49811-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-49811-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0394498119","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394498119"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Second Reading: Notable and Neglected Books Revisited. New York: Europa Editions, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60945-008-3\nMonday Morning Quarterback. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998. ISBN 0-8476-9204-3 ISBN 978-0847692040\nMisfit: The Strange Life of Frederick Exley. New York: Random House, 1997. ISBN 0-679-43949-8 ISBN 978-0679439493\nOut of Step: Notes From a Purple Decade. New York: Random House, 1993. ISBN 0-517-10628-0 ISBN 978-0-517-10628-0\nStates of Mind: A Personal Journey Through the Mid-Atlantic. Villard Publishing, 1993. ISBN 0-394-58911-4 ISBN 978-0394589114\nOur Kind of People: The Story of an American Family. New York: Grove Press, 1989. ISBN 1-55584-174-0 ISBN 978-1555841744\nRing: A Biography of Ring Lardner. New York: Random House, 1977. ISBN 0-394-49811-9 ISBN 978-0394498119","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"H.L. Mencken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.L._Mencken"},{"link_name":"Knopf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-679-41315-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-41315-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0679413158","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0679413158"}],"sub_title":"As editor","text":"H.L. Mencken, My Life as Author and Editor. New York: Knopf, 1993. ISBN 0-679-41315-4 ISBN 978-0679413158","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Criticism"},{"link_name":"Nieman Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieman_Fellow"}],"text":"Yardley was awarded the 1981 Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. Yardley has been a Nieman Fellow. Yardley was awarded an honorary doctorate of letters by George Washington University in 1987, and a distinguished alumnus award by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1989.","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marie Arana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Arana"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Jim Yardley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Yardley"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"}],"text":"Yardley is married to biographer/novelist Marie Arana, the former editor of Washington Post Book World.[9] His sons, Jim Yardley and William Yardley,[10] with his first wife Rosemary Roberts, are New York Times reporters, and William writes for the Los Angeles Times as well.[11] He and his son Jim are one of two father-son recipients of the Pulitzer Prize.","title":"Personal life"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Michael Dirda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dirda"},{"title":"Ron Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Charles_(critic)"}]
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[{"reference":"Yardley, Jonathan (July 28, 1993). \"'The Last Brother:' It's Not As Bad as You Heard. It's Worse\". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/the-last-brother-its-not-as-bad-as-you-heard-its-worse/2014/03/11/bd7c94a6-a92e-11e3-8d62-419db477a0e6_story.html","url_text":"\"'The Last Brother:' It's Not As Bad as You Heard. It's Worse\""}]},{"reference":"Yardley, Jonathan. \"Second Reading\". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/linkset/2005/04/19/LI2005041903474.html","url_text":"\"Second Reading\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Neglected Books Page: Jonathan Yardley's Second Readings\". January 10, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://neglectedbooks.com/?page_id=315","url_text":"\"The Neglected Books Page: Jonathan Yardley's Second Readings\""}]},{"reference":"Yardley, Jonathan (October 19, 2004). \"J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly\". The Washington Post. p. C01. Retrieved February 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43680-2004Oct18.html","url_text":"\"J.D. Salinger's Holden Caulfield, Aging Gracelessly\""}]},{"reference":"Yardley, Jonathan (December 5, 2014). \"After More Than Three Decades and 3,000 Reviews, a Fond Farewell\". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 16, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/after-more-than-three-decades-and-3000-reviews-a-fond-farewell/2014/12/05/456eeac6-73eb-11e4-a589-1b102c2f81d0_story.html","url_text":"\"After More Than Three Decades and 3,000 Reviews, a Fond Farewell\""}]},{"reference":"Offman, Craig (July 15, 1999). \"Washington Post Book World editor steps down\". Salon. Archived from the original on February 5, 2006. Retrieved February 27, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060205035413/http://www.salon.com/books/log/1999/07/15/arana/","url_text":"\"Washington Post Book World editor steps down\""},{"url":"http://www.salon.com/books/log/1999/07/15/arana/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Recent work by William Yardley for the New York Times\". New York Times. Retrieved February 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/by/william-yardley","url_text":"\"Recent work by William Yardley for the New York Times\""}]},{"reference":"\"William Yardley bio\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/la-bio-william-yardley-staff.html","url_text":"\"William Yardley bio\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_power
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Graph power
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["1 Properties","1.1 Coloring","1.2 Hamiltonicity","2 Computational complexity","3 Induced subgraphs","4 References"]
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Graph operation: linking all pairs of nodes of distance ≤ k
The square of a graph
In graph theory, a branch of mathematics, the kth power Gk of an undirected graph G is another graph that has the same set of vertices, but in which two vertices are adjacent when their distance in G is at most k. Powers of graphs are referred to using terminology similar to that of exponentiation of numbers: G2 is called the square of G, G3 is called the cube of G, etc.
Graph powers should be distinguished from the products of a graph with itself, which (unlike powers) generally have many more vertices than the original graph.
Properties
If a graph has diameter d, then its d-th power is the complete graph. If a graph family has bounded clique-width, then so do its d-th powers for any fixed d.
Coloring
Graph coloring on the square of a graph may be used to assign frequencies to the participants of wireless communication networks so that no two participants interfere with each other at any of their common neighbors, and to find graph drawings with high angular resolution.
Both the chromatic number and the degeneracy of the kth power of a planar graph of maximum degree Δ are O(Δ⌊k/2⌋), where the degeneracy bound shows that a greedy coloring algorithm may be used to color the graph with this many colors. For the special case of a square of a planar graph, Wegner conjectured in 1977 that the chromatic number of the square of a planar graph is at most max(Δ + 5, 3Δ/2 + 1), and it is known that the chromatic number is at most 5Δ/3 + O(1). More generally, for any graph with degeneracy d and maximum degree Δ, the degeneracy of the square of the graph is O(dΔ), so many types of sparse graph other than the planar graphs also have squares whose chromatic number is proportional to Δ.
Although the chromatic number of the square of a nonplanar graph with maximum degree Δ may be proportional to Δ2 in the worst case, it is smaller for graphs of high girth, being bounded by O(Δ2 / log Δ) in this case.
Determining the minimum number of colors needed to color the square of a graph is NP-hard, even in the planar case.
Hamiltonicity
The cube of every connected graph necessarily contains a Hamiltonian cycle. It is not necessarily the case that the square of a connected graph is Hamiltonian, and it is NP-complete to determine whether the square is Hamiltonian. Nevertheless, by Fleischner's theorem, the square of a 2-vertex-connected graph is always Hamiltonian.
Computational complexity
The kth power of a graph with n vertices and m edges may be computed in time O(mn) by performing a breadth first search starting from each vertex to determine the distances to all other vertices, or slightly faster using more sophisticated algorithms. Alternatively, If A is an adjacency matrix for the graph, modified to have nonzero entries on its main diagonal, then the nonzero entries of Ak give the adjacency matrix of the kth power of the graph, from which it follows that constructing kth powers may be performed in an amount of time that is within a logarithmic factor of the time for matrix multiplication.
The kth powers of trees can be recognized in time linear in the size of the input graph.
Given a graph, deciding whether it is the square of another graph is NP-complete.
Moreover, it is NP-complete to determine whether a graph is a kth power of another graph, for a given number k ≥ 2, or whether it is a kth power of a bipartite graph, for k > 2.
Induced subgraphs
K4 as the half-square of a cube graph
The half-square of a bipartite graph G is the subgraph of G2 induced by one side of the bipartition of G. Map graphs are the half-squares of planar graphs, and halved cube graphs are the half-squares of hypercube graphs.
Leaf powers are the subgraphs of powers of trees induced by the leaves of the tree. A k-leaf power is a leaf power whose exponent is k.
References
^ Bondy, Adrian; Murty, U. S. R. (2008), Graph Theory, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 244, Springer, p. 82, ISBN 9781846289699.
^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Graph Power", MathWorld
^ Todinca, Ioan (2003), "Coloring powers of graphs of bounded clique-width", Graph-theoretic concepts in computer science, Lecture Notes in Comput. Sci., vol. 2880, Springer, Berlin, pp. 370–382, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-39890-5_32, MR 2080095.
^ a b Agnarsson, Geir; Halldórsson, Magnús M. (2000), "Coloring powers of planar graphs", Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA '00), San Francisco, California, USA, pp. 654–662{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
^ Formann, M.; Hagerup, T.; Haralambides, J.; Kaufmann, M.; Leighton, F. T.; Symvonis, A.; Welzl, E.; Woeginger, G. (1993), "Drawing graphs in the plane with high resolution", SIAM Journal on Computing, 22 (5): 1035–1052, doi:10.1137/0222063, MR 1237161.
^ Kramer, Florica; Kramer, Horst (2008), "A survey on the distance-colouring of graphs", Discrete Mathematics, 308 (2–3): 422–426, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2006.11.059, MR 2378044.
^ Molloy, Michael; Salavatipour, Mohammad R. (2005), "A bound on the chromatic number of the square of a planar graph", Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B, 94 (2): 189–213, doi:10.1016/j.jctb.2004.12.005, hdl:1807/9473, MR 2145512.
^ Alon, Noga; Mohar, Bojan (2002), "The chromatic number of graph powers", Combinatorics, Probability and Computing, 11 (1): 1–10, doi:10.1017/S0963548301004965, MR 1888178, S2CID 2706926.
^ Agnarsson & Halldórsson (2000) list publications proving NP-hardness for general graphs by McCormick (1983) and Lin and Skiena (1995), and for planar graphs by Ramanathan and Lloyd (1992, 1993).
^ Bondy & Murty (2008), p. 105.
^ Underground, Polly (1978), "On graphs with Hamiltonian squares", Discrete Mathematics, 21 (3): 323, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(78)90164-4, MR 0522906.
^ Diestel, Reinhard (2012), "10. Hamiltonian cycles", Graph Theory (PDF) (corrected 4th electronic ed.).
^ Chan, Timothy M. (2012), "All-pairs shortest paths for unweighted undirected graphs in
o
(
m
n
)
{\displaystyle o(mn)}
time", ACM Transactions on Algorithms, 8 (4): A34:1–A34:17, doi:10.1145/2344422.2344424, MR 2981912, S2CID 1212001
^ Hammack, Richard; Imrich, Wilfried; Klavžar, Sandi (2011), Handbook of Product Graphs, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 94, ISBN 9781439813058.
^ Chang, Maw-Shang; Ko, Ming-Tat; Lu, Hsueh-I (2015), "Linear-Time Algorithms for Tree Root Problems", Algorithmica, 71 (2): 471–495, doi:10.1007/s00453-013-9815-y, S2CID 253971732.
^ Motwani, R.; Sudan, M. (1994), "Computing roots of graphs is hard", Discrete Applied Mathematics, 54: 81–88, doi:10.1016/0166-218x(94)00023-9.
^ Le, Van Bang; Nguyen, Ngoc Tuy (2010), "Hardness results and efficient algorithms for graph powers", Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science: 35th International Workshop, WG 2009, Montpellier, France, June 24-26, 2009, Revised Papers, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5911, Berlin: Springer, pp. 238–249, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11409-0_21, ISBN 978-3-642-11408-3, MR 2587715.
^ Chen, Zhi-Zhong; Grigni, Michelangelo; Papadimitriou, Christos H. (2002), "Map graphs", Journal of the ACM, 49 (2): 127–138, arXiv:cs/9910013, doi:10.1145/506147.506148, MR 2147819, S2CID 2657838.
^ Shpectorov, S. V. (1993), "On scale embeddings of graphs into hypercubes", European Journal of Combinatorics, 14 (2): 117–130, doi:10.1006/eujc.1993.1016, MR 1206617.
^ Nishimura, N.; Ragde, P.; Thilikos, D.M. (2002), "On graph powers for leaf-labeled trees", Journal of Algorithms, 42: 69–108, doi:10.1006/jagm.2001.1195.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Square_of_a_graph.svg"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"undirected graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undirected_graph"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation"},{"link_name":"square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_number"},{"link_name":"cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_product"}],"text":"The square of a graphIn graph theory, a branch of mathematics, the kth power Gk of an undirected graph G is another graph that has the same set of vertices, but in which two vertices are adjacent when their distance in G is at most k. Powers of graphs are referred to using terminology similar to that of exponentiation of numbers: G2 is called the square of G, G3 is called the cube of G, etc.[1]Graph powers should be distinguished from the products of a graph with itself, which (unlike powers) generally have many more vertices than the original graph.","title":"Graph power"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_diameter"},{"link_name":"complete graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"clique-width","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clique-width"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"If a graph has diameter d, then its d-th power is the complete graph.[2] If a graph family has bounded clique-width, then so do its d-th powers for any fixed d.[3]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graph coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ah00-4"},{"link_name":"graph drawings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_drawing"},{"link_name":"angular resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_resolution_(graph_drawing)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"chromatic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_number"},{"link_name":"degeneracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"planar graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_graph"},{"link_name":"greedy coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_coloring"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ah00-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"sparse graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_graph"},{"link_name":"girth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girth_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hard"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Coloring","text":"Graph coloring on the square of a graph may be used to assign frequencies to the participants of wireless communication networks so that no two participants interfere with each other at any of their common neighbors,[4] and to find graph drawings with high angular resolution.[5]Both the chromatic number and the degeneracy of the kth power of a planar graph of maximum degree Δ are O(Δ⌊k/2⌋), where the degeneracy bound shows that a greedy coloring algorithm may be used to color the graph with this many colors.[4] For the special case of a square of a planar graph, Wegner conjectured in 1977 that the chromatic number of the square of a planar graph is at most max(Δ + 5, 3Δ/2 + 1), and it is known that the chromatic number is at most 5Δ/3 + O(1).[6][7] More generally, for any graph with degeneracy d and maximum degree Δ, the degeneracy of the square of the graph is O(dΔ), so many types of sparse graph other than the planar graphs also have squares whose chromatic number is proportional to Δ.Although the chromatic number of the square of a nonplanar graph with maximum degree Δ may be proportional to Δ2 in the worst case, it is smaller for graphs of high girth, being bounded by O(Δ2 / log Δ) in this case.[8]Determining the minimum number of colors needed to color the square of a graph is NP-hard, even in the planar case.[9]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hamiltonian cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_cycle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Fleischner's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleischner%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"2-vertex-connected graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-vertex-connected_graph"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Hamiltonicity","text":"The cube of every connected graph necessarily contains a Hamiltonian cycle.[10] It is not necessarily the case that the square of a connected graph is Hamiltonian, and it is NP-complete to determine whether the square is Hamiltonian.[11] Nevertheless, by Fleischner's theorem, the square of a 2-vertex-connected graph is always Hamiltonian.[12]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"breadth first search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadth_first_search"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"adjacency matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"matrix multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"bipartite graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite_graph"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The kth power of a graph with n vertices and m edges may be computed in time O(mn) by performing a breadth first search starting from each vertex to determine the distances to all other vertices, or slightly faster using more sophisticated algorithms.[13] Alternatively, If A is an adjacency matrix for the graph, modified to have nonzero entries on its main diagonal, then the nonzero entries of Ak give the adjacency matrix of the kth power of the graph,[14] from which it follows that constructing kth powers may be performed in an amount of time that is within a logarithmic factor of the time for matrix multiplication.The kth powers of trees can be recognized in time linear in the size of the input graph.\n[15]Given a graph, deciding whether it is the square of another graph is NP-complete.\n[16]\nMoreover, it is NP-complete to determine whether a graph is a kth power of another graph, for a given number k ≥ 2, or whether it is a kth power of a bipartite graph, for k > 2.[17]","title":"Computational complexity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Demi-3-cube.svg"},{"link_name":"cube graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_graph"},{"link_name":"half-square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-square"},{"link_name":"bipartite graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartite_graph"},{"link_name":"Map graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_graph"},{"link_name":"planar graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_graph"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"halved cube graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halved_cube_graph"},{"link_name":"hypercube graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercube_graph"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Leaf powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_power"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"K4 as the half-square of a cube graphThe half-square of a bipartite graph G is the subgraph of G2 induced by one side of the bipartition of G. Map graphs are the half-squares of planar graphs,[18] and halved cube graphs are the half-squares of hypercube graphs.[19]Leaf powers are the subgraphs of powers of trees induced by the leaves of the tree. A k-leaf power is a leaf power whose exponent is k.[20]","title":"Induced subgraphs"}]
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[{"image_text":"The square of a graph","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Square_of_a_graph.svg/300px-Square_of_a_graph.svg.png"},{"image_text":"K4 as the half-square of a cube graph","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Demi-3-cube.svg/180px-Demi-3-cube.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Bondy, Adrian; Murty, U. S. R. (2008), Graph Theory, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 244, Springer, p. 82, ISBN 9781846289699","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HuDFMwZOwcsC&pg=PA82","url_text":"Graph Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846289699","url_text":"9781846289699"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W., \"Graph Power\", MathWorld","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/GraphPower.html","url_text":"\"Graph Power\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Todinca, Ioan (2003), \"Coloring powers of graphs of bounded clique-width\", Graph-theoretic concepts in computer science, Lecture Notes in Comput. Sci., vol. 2880, Springer, Berlin, pp. 370–382, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-39890-5_32, MR 2080095","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-39890-5_32","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-39890-5_32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2080095","url_text":"2080095"}]},{"reference":"Agnarsson, Geir; Halldórsson, Magnús M. (2000), \"Coloring powers of planar graphs\", Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA '00), San Francisco, California, USA, pp. 654–662","urls":[]},{"reference":"Formann, M.; Hagerup, T.; Haralambides, J.; Kaufmann, M.; Leighton, F. T.; Symvonis, A.; Welzl, E.; Woeginger, G. (1993), \"Drawing graphs in the plane with high resolution\", SIAM Journal on Computing, 22 (5): 1035–1052, doi:10.1137/0222063, MR 1237161","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._Thomson_Leighton","url_text":"Leighton, F. T."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emo_Welzl","url_text":"Welzl, E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_J._Woeginger","url_text":"Woeginger, G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIAM_Journal_on_Computing","url_text":"SIAM Journal on Computing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2F0222063","url_text":"10.1137/0222063"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1237161","url_text":"1237161"}]},{"reference":"Kramer, Florica; Kramer, Horst (2008), \"A survey on the distance-colouring of graphs\", Discrete Mathematics, 308 (2–3): 422–426, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2006.11.059, MR 2378044","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Mathematics_(journal)","url_text":"Discrete Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.disc.2006.11.059","url_text":"10.1016/j.disc.2006.11.059"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2378044","url_text":"2378044"}]},{"reference":"Molloy, Michael; Salavatipour, Mohammad R. (2005), \"A bound on the chromatic number of the square of a planar graph\", Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B, 94 (2): 189–213, doi:10.1016/j.jctb.2004.12.005, hdl:1807/9473, MR 2145512","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Combinatorial_Theory","url_text":"Journal of Combinatorial Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jctb.2004.12.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.jctb.2004.12.005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F9473","url_text":"1807/9473"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2145512","url_text":"2145512"}]},{"reference":"Alon, Noga; Mohar, Bojan (2002), \"The chromatic number of graph powers\", Combinatorics, Probability and Computing, 11 (1): 1–10, doi:10.1017/S0963548301004965, MR 1888178, S2CID 2706926","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noga_Alon","url_text":"Alon, Noga"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojan_Mohar","url_text":"Mohar, Bojan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics,_Probability_and_Computing","url_text":"Combinatorics, Probability and Computing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0963548301004965","url_text":"10.1017/S0963548301004965"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1888178","url_text":"1888178"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2706926","url_text":"2706926"}]},{"reference":"Underground, Polly (1978), \"On graphs with Hamiltonian squares\", Discrete Mathematics, 21 (3): 323, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(78)90164-4, MR 0522906","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Chv%C3%A1tal","url_text":"Underground, Polly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Mathematics_(journal)","url_text":"Discrete Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0012-365X%2878%2990164-4","url_text":"10.1016/0012-365X(78)90164-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0522906","url_text":"0522906"}]},{"reference":"Diestel, Reinhard (2012), \"10. Hamiltonian cycles\", Graph Theory (PDF) (corrected 4th electronic ed.)","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/diestel/books/graph.theory/preview/Ch10.pdf","url_text":"Graph Theory"}]},{"reference":"Chan, Timothy M. (2012), \"All-pairs shortest paths for unweighted undirected graphs in \n \n \n \n o\n (\n m\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle o(mn)}\n \n time\", ACM Transactions on Algorithms, 8 (4): A34:1–A34:17, doi:10.1145/2344422.2344424, MR 2981912, S2CID 1212001","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2344422.2344424","url_text":"10.1145/2344422.2344424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2981912","url_text":"2981912"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1212001","url_text":"1212001"}]},{"reference":"Hammack, Richard; Imrich, Wilfried; Klavžar, Sandi (2011), Handbook of Product Graphs, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 94, ISBN 9781439813058","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandi_Klav%C5%BEar","url_text":"Klavžar, Sandi"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WiB6UO1nqHAC&pg=PA94","url_text":"Handbook of Product Graphs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439813058","url_text":"9781439813058"}]},{"reference":"Chang, Maw-Shang; Ko, Ming-Tat; Lu, Hsueh-I (2015), \"Linear-Time Algorithms for Tree Root Problems\", Algorithmica, 71 (2): 471–495, doi:10.1007/s00453-013-9815-y, S2CID 253971732","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmica","url_text":"Algorithmica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00453-013-9815-y","url_text":"10.1007/s00453-013-9815-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253971732","url_text":"253971732"}]},{"reference":"Motwani, R.; Sudan, M. (1994), \"Computing roots of graphs is hard\", Discrete Applied Mathematics, 54: 81–88, doi:10.1016/0166-218x(94)00023-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Applied_Mathematics","url_text":"Discrete Applied Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-218x%2894%2900023-9","url_text":"10.1016/0166-218x(94)00023-9"}]},{"reference":"Le, Van Bang; Nguyen, Ngoc Tuy (2010), \"Hardness results and efficient algorithms for graph powers\", Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science: 35th International Workshop, WG 2009, Montpellier, France, June 24-26, 2009, Revised Papers, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5911, Berlin: Springer, pp. 238–249, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11409-0_21, ISBN 978-3-642-11408-3, MR 2587715","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-11409-0_21","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-11409-0_21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-11408-3","url_text":"978-3-642-11408-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2587715","url_text":"2587715"}]},{"reference":"Chen, Zhi-Zhong; Grigni, Michelangelo; Papadimitriou, Christos H. (2002), \"Map graphs\", Journal of the ACM, 49 (2): 127–138, arXiv:cs/9910013, doi:10.1145/506147.506148, MR 2147819, S2CID 2657838","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christos_Papadimitriou","url_text":"Papadimitriou, Christos H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM","url_text":"Journal of the ACM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/cs/9910013","url_text":"cs/9910013"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F506147.506148","url_text":"10.1145/506147.506148"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2147819","url_text":"2147819"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2657838","url_text":"2657838"}]},{"reference":"Shpectorov, S. V. (1993), \"On scale embeddings of graphs into hypercubes\", European Journal of Combinatorics, 14 (2): 117–130, doi:10.1006/eujc.1993.1016, MR 1206617","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Journal_of_Combinatorics","url_text":"European Journal of Combinatorics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Feujc.1993.1016","url_text":"10.1006/eujc.1993.1016"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1206617","url_text":"1206617"}]},{"reference":"Nishimura, N.; Ragde, P.; Thilikos, D.M. (2002), \"On graph powers for leaf-labeled trees\", Journal of Algorithms, 42: 69–108, doi:10.1006/jagm.2001.1195","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Algorithms","url_text":"Journal of Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjagm.2001.1195","url_text":"10.1006/jagm.2001.1195"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_(category_theory)
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Category of topological spaces
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["1 As a concrete category","2 Limits and colimits","3 Other properties","4 Relationships to other categories","5 See also","6 Citations","7 References"]
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In mathematics, the category of topological spaces, often denoted Top, is the category whose objects are topological spaces and whose morphisms are continuous maps. This is a category because the composition of two continuous maps is again continuous, and the identity function is continuous. The study of Top and of properties of topological spaces using the techniques of category theory is known as categorical topology.
N.B. Some authors use the name Top for the categories with topological manifolds, with
compactly generated spaces as objects and continuous maps as morphisms or with the category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces.
As a concrete category
Like many categories, the category Top is a concrete category, meaning its objects are sets with additional structure (i.e. topologies) and its morphisms are functions preserving this structure. There is a natural forgetful functor
U : Top → Set
to the category of sets which assigns to each topological space the underlying set and to each continuous map the underlying function.
The forgetful functor U has both a left adjoint
D : Set → Top
which equips a given set with the discrete topology, and a right adjoint
I : Set → Top
which equips a given set with the indiscrete topology. Both of these functors are, in fact, right inverses to U (meaning that UD and UI are equal to the identity functor on Set). Moreover, since any function between discrete or between indiscrete spaces is continuous, both of these functors give full embeddings of Set into Top.
Top is also fiber-complete meaning that the category of all topologies on a given set X (called the fiber of U above X) forms a complete lattice when ordered by inclusion. The greatest element in this fiber is the discrete topology on X, while the least element is the indiscrete topology.
Top is the model of what is called a topological category. These categories are characterized by the fact that every structured source
(
X
→
U
A
i
)
I
{\displaystyle (X\to UA_{i})_{I}}
has a unique initial lift
(
A
→
A
i
)
I
{\displaystyle (A\to A_{i})_{I}}
. In Top the initial lift is obtained by placing the initial topology on the source. Topological categories have many properties in common with Top (such as fiber-completeness, discrete and indiscrete functors, and unique lifting of limits).
Limits and colimits
The category Top is both complete and cocomplete, which means that all small limits and colimits exist in Top. In fact, the forgetful functor U : Top → Set uniquely lifts both limits and colimits and preserves them as well. Therefore, (co)limits in Top are given by placing topologies on the corresponding (co)limits in Set.
Specifically, if F is a diagram in Top and (L, φ : L → F) is a limit of UF in Set, the corresponding limit of F in Top is obtained by placing the initial topology on (L, φ : L → F). Dually, colimits in Top are obtained by placing the final topology on the corresponding colimits in Set.
Unlike many algebraic categories, the forgetful functor U : Top → Set does not create or reflect limits since there will typically be non-universal cones in Top covering universal cones in Set.
Examples of limits and colimits in Top include:
The empty set (considered as a topological space) is the initial object of Top; any singleton topological space is a terminal object. There are thus no zero objects in Top.
The product in Top is given by the product topology on the Cartesian product. The coproduct is given by the disjoint union of topological spaces.
The equalizer of a pair of morphisms is given by placing the subspace topology on the set-theoretic equalizer. Dually, the coequalizer is given by placing the quotient topology on the set-theoretic coequalizer.
Direct limits and inverse limits are the set-theoretic limits with the final topology and initial topology respectively.
Adjunction spaces are an example of pushouts in Top.
Other properties
The monomorphisms in Top are the injective continuous maps, the epimorphisms are the surjective continuous maps, and the isomorphisms are the homeomorphisms.
The extremal monomorphisms are (up to isomorphism) the subspace embeddings. In fact, in Top all extremal monomorphisms happen to satisfy the stronger property of being regular.
The extremal epimorphisms are (essentially) the quotient maps. Every extremal epimorphism is regular.
The split monomorphisms are (essentially) the inclusions of retracts into their ambient space.
The split epimorphisms are (up to isomorphism) the continuous surjective maps of a space onto one of its retracts.
There are no zero morphisms in Top, and in particular the category is not preadditive.
Top is not cartesian closed (and therefore also not a topos) since it does not have exponential objects for all spaces. When this feature is desired, one often restricts to the full subcategory of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces CGHaus or the category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces. However, Top is contained in the exponential category of pseudotopologies, which is itself a subcategory of the (also exponential) category of convergence spaces.
Relationships to other categories
The category of pointed topological spaces Top• is a coslice category over Top.
The homotopy category hTop has topological spaces for objects and homotopy equivalence classes of continuous maps for morphisms. This is a quotient category of Top. One can likewise form the pointed homotopy category hTop•.
Top contains the important category Haus of Hausdorff spaces as a full subcategory. The added structure of this subcategory allows for more epimorphisms: in fact, the epimorphisms in this subcategory are precisely those morphisms with dense images in their codomains, so that epimorphisms need not be surjective.
Top contains the full subcategory CGHaus of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces, which has the important property of being a Cartesian closed category while still containing all of the typical spaces of interest. This makes CGHaus a particularly convenient category of topological spaces that is often used in place of Top.
The forgetful functor to Set has both a left and a right adjoint, as described above in the concrete category section.
There is a functor to the category of locales Loc sending a topological space to its locale of open sets. This functor has a right adjoint that sends each locale to its topological space of points. This adjunction restricts to an equivalence between the category of sober spaces and spatial locales.
The homotopy hypothesis relates Top with ∞Grpd, the category of ∞-groupoids. The conjecture states that ∞-groupoids are equivalent to topological spaces modulo weak homotopy equivalence.
See also
Category of groups – category in mathematicsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Category of metric spaces – mathematical category with metric spaces as its objects and distance-non-increasing maps as its morphismsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Category of sets – Category in mathematics where the objects are sets
Category of topological spaces with base point – Topological space with a distinguished pointPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Category of topological vector spaces – Topological category
Citations
^ Dolecki 2009, pp. 1–51
References
Adámek, Jiří, Herrlich, Horst, & Strecker, George E.; (1990). Abstract and Concrete Categories (4.2MB PDF). Originally publ. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60922-6. (now free on-line edition).
Dolecki, Szymon; Mynard, Frederic (2016). Convergence Foundations Of Topology. New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing Company. ISBN 978-981-4571-52-4. OCLC 945169917.
Dolecki, Szymon (2009). "An initiation into convergence theory" (PDF). In Mynard, Frédéric; Pearl, Elliott (eds.). Beyond Topology. Contemporary Mathematics. Vol. 486. pp. 115–162. doi:10.1090/conm/486/09509. ISBN 9780821842799. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
Dolecki, Szymon; Mynard, Frédéric (2014). "A unified theory of function spaces and hyperspaces: local properties" (PDF). Houston J. Math. 40 (1): 285–318. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
Herrlich, Horst: Topologische Reflexionen und Coreflexionen. Springer Lecture Notes in Mathematics 78 (1968).
Herrlich, Horst: Categorical topology 1971–1981. In: General Topology and its Relations to Modern Analysis and Algebra 5, Heldermann Verlag 1983, pp. 279–383.
Herrlich, Horst & Strecker, George E.: Categorical Topology – its origins, as exemplified by the unfolding of the theory of topological reflections and coreflections before 1971. In: Handbook of the History of General Topology (eds. C.E.Aull & R. Lowen), Kluwer Acad. Publ. vol 1 (1997) pp. 255–341.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"topological manifolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_manifold"},{"link_name":"compactly generated spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactly_generated_space"},{"link_name":"category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_compactly_generated_weak_Hausdorff_spaces"}],"text":"N.B. Some authors use the name Top for the categories with topological manifolds, with \ncompactly generated spaces as objects and continuous maps as morphisms or with the category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces.","title":"Category of topological spaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"concrete category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_category"},{"link_name":"sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"forgetful functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgetful_functor"},{"link_name":"category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"left adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_adjoint"},{"link_name":"discrete topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_topology"},{"link_name":"right adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_adjoint"},{"link_name":"indiscrete topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiscrete_topology"},{"link_name":"right inverses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function#Left_and_right_inverses"},{"link_name":"identity functor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_functor"},{"link_name":"full embeddings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_embedding"},{"link_name":"category of all topologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_of_topologies"},{"link_name":"fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"complete lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"},{"link_name":"inclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_inclusion"},{"link_name":"greatest element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_element"},{"link_name":"least element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_element"},{"link_name":"topological category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_category"},{"link_name":"structured source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structured_source&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"initial lift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Initial_lift&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"initial topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_topology"}],"text":"Like many categories, the category Top is a concrete category, meaning its objects are sets with additional structure (i.e. topologies) and its morphisms are functions preserving this structure. There is a natural forgetful functorU : Top → Setto the category of sets which assigns to each topological space the underlying set and to each continuous map the underlying function.The forgetful functor U has both a left adjointD : Set → Topwhich equips a given set with the discrete topology, and a right adjointI : Set → Topwhich equips a given set with the indiscrete topology. Both of these functors are, in fact, right inverses to U (meaning that UD and UI are equal to the identity functor on Set). Moreover, since any function between discrete or between indiscrete spaces is continuous, both of these functors give full embeddings of Set into Top.Top is also fiber-complete meaning that the category of all topologies on a given set X (called the fiber of U above X) forms a complete lattice when ordered by inclusion. The greatest element in this fiber is the discrete topology on X, while the least element is the indiscrete topology.Top is the model of what is called a topological category. These categories are characterized by the fact that every structured source \n \n \n \n (\n X\n →\n U\n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n )\n \n I\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X\\to UA_{i})_{I}}\n \n has a unique initial lift \n \n \n \n (\n A\n →\n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n )\n \n I\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (A\\to A_{i})_{I}}\n \n. In Top the initial lift is obtained by placing the initial topology on the source. Topological categories have many properties in common with Top (such as fiber-completeness, discrete and indiscrete functors, and unique lifting of limits).","title":"As a concrete category"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complete and cocomplete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_category"},{"link_name":"limits and colimits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagram_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"initial topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_topology"},{"link_name":"final topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_topology"},{"link_name":"cones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"empty set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"},{"link_name":"initial object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_object"},{"link_name":"singleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singleton_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"terminal object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_object"},{"link_name":"zero objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_object"},{"link_name":"product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"product topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_topology"},{"link_name":"Cartesian product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"coproduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coproduct_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"disjoint union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint_union_(topology)"},{"link_name":"equalizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equaliser_(mathematics)#In_category_theory"},{"link_name":"subspace topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspace_topology"},{"link_name":"coequalizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coequalizer"},{"link_name":"quotient topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_topology"},{"link_name":"Direct limits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_limit"},{"link_name":"inverse limits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_limit"},{"link_name":"final topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_topology"},{"link_name":"initial topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_topology"},{"link_name":"Adjunction spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunction_space"},{"link_name":"pushouts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushout_(category_theory)"}],"text":"The category Top is both complete and cocomplete, which means that all small limits and colimits exist in Top. In fact, the forgetful functor U : Top → Set uniquely lifts both limits and colimits and preserves them as well. Therefore, (co)limits in Top are given by placing topologies on the corresponding (co)limits in Set.Specifically, if F is a diagram in Top and (L, φ : L → F) is a limit of UF in Set, the corresponding limit of F in Top is obtained by placing the initial topology on (L, φ : L → F). Dually, colimits in Top are obtained by placing the final topology on the corresponding colimits in Set.Unlike many algebraic categories, the forgetful functor U : Top → Set does not create or reflect limits since there will typically be non-universal cones in Top covering universal cones in Set.Examples of limits and colimits in Top include:The empty set (considered as a topological space) is the initial object of Top; any singleton topological space is a terminal object. There are thus no zero objects in Top.\nThe product in Top is given by the product topology on the Cartesian product. The coproduct is given by the disjoint union of topological spaces.\nThe equalizer of a pair of morphisms is given by placing the subspace topology on the set-theoretic equalizer. Dually, the coequalizer is given by placing the quotient topology on the set-theoretic coequalizer.\nDirect limits and inverse limits are the set-theoretic limits with the final topology and initial topology respectively.\nAdjunction spaces are an example of pushouts in Top.","title":"Limits and colimits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"monomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomorphism"},{"link_name":"injective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective"},{"link_name":"epimorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimorphism"},{"link_name":"surjective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective"},{"link_name":"isomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism"},{"link_name":"homeomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism"},{"link_name":"extremal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_monomorphism"},{"link_name":"subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspace_topology"},{"link_name":"regular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_monomorphism"},{"link_name":"quotient maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_map_(topology)"},{"link_name":"retracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_(topology)"},{"link_name":"zero morphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_morphism"},{"link_name":"preadditive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preadditive_category"},{"link_name":"cartesian closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_closed_category"},{"link_name":"topos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topos"},{"link_name":"exponential objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_object"},{"link_name":"compactly generated Hausdorff spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactly_generated_Hausdorff_space"},{"link_name":"category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_compactly_generated_weak_Hausdorff_spaces"},{"link_name":"pseudotopologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pseudotopologies&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"convergence spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_space"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dolecki_2009_Init._Conv._1-51-1"}],"text":"The monomorphisms in Top are the injective continuous maps, the epimorphisms are the surjective continuous maps, and the isomorphisms are the homeomorphisms.\nThe extremal monomorphisms are (up to isomorphism) the subspace embeddings. In fact, in Top all extremal monomorphisms happen to satisfy the stronger property of being regular.\nThe extremal epimorphisms are (essentially) the quotient maps. Every extremal epimorphism is regular.\nThe split monomorphisms are (essentially) the inclusions of retracts into their ambient space.\nThe split epimorphisms are (up to isomorphism) the continuous surjective maps of a space onto one of its retracts.\nThere are no zero morphisms in Top, and in particular the category is not preadditive.\nTop is not cartesian closed (and therefore also not a topos) since it does not have exponential objects for all spaces. When this feature is desired, one often restricts to the full subcategory of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces CGHaus or the category of compactly generated weak Hausdorff spaces. However, Top is contained in the exponential category of pseudotopologies, which is itself a subcategory of the (also exponential) category of convergence spaces.[1]","title":"Other properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pointed topological spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointed_topological_space"},{"link_name":"coslice category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coslice_category"},{"link_name":"homotopy category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_category_of_topological_spaces"},{"link_name":"homotopy equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_equivalent"},{"link_name":"quotient category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_category"},{"link_name":"Hausdorff spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausdorff_space"},{"link_name":"full subcategory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_subcategory"},{"link_name":"dense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_set"},{"link_name":"images","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"codomains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codomain"},{"link_name":"surjective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective"},{"link_name":"compactly generated Hausdorff spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactly_generated_Hausdorff_space"},{"link_name":"Cartesian closed category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_closed_category"},{"link_name":"locales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locale_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"sober spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sober_space"},{"link_name":"homotopy hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"∞-groupoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%88%9E-groupoid"},{"link_name":"weak homotopy equivalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_equivalence_(homotopy_theory)"}],"text":"The category of pointed topological spaces Top• is a coslice category over Top.\nThe homotopy category hTop has topological spaces for objects and homotopy equivalence classes of continuous maps for morphisms. This is a quotient category of Top. One can likewise form the pointed homotopy category hTop•.\nTop contains the important category Haus of Hausdorff spaces as a full subcategory. The added structure of this subcategory allows for more epimorphisms: in fact, the epimorphisms in this subcategory are precisely those morphisms with dense images in their codomains, so that epimorphisms need not be surjective.\nTop contains the full subcategory CGHaus of compactly generated Hausdorff spaces, which has the important property of being a Cartesian closed category while still containing all of the typical spaces of interest. This makes CGHaus a particularly convenient category of topological spaces that is often used in place of Top.\nThe forgetful functor to Set has both a left and a right adjoint, as described above in the concrete category section.\nThere is a functor to the category of locales Loc sending a topological space to its locale of open sets. This functor has a right adjoint that sends each locale to its topological space of points. This adjunction restricts to an equivalence between the category of sober spaces and spatial locales.\nThe homotopy hypothesis relates Top with ∞Grpd, the category of ∞-groupoids. The conjecture states that ∞-groupoids are equivalent to topological spaces modulo weak homotopy equivalence.","title":"Relationships to other categories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Dolecki_2009_Init._Conv._1-51_1-0"},{"link_name":"Dolecki 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDolecki2009"}],"text":"^ Dolecki 2009, pp. 1–51","title":"Citations"}]
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[]
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Module:Citation/CS1/sandbox/styles.css
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_turbine
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Screw turbine
|
["1 History","2 Application","3 Design","3.1 Flow rate","4 Examples","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
|
Water turbine which uses the principle of the Archimedean screw
Reverse action of the Archimedean screw, the principle of the screw turbine gaining energy from water flowing down through the screw
Screw turbines typically have three or four flights (second row)
Two parallel screw turbines capable of producing 75 kW each, in Monmouth, Wales
Video of a 40 kW screw turbine in Munich, Germany
A screw turbine (also known as an Archimedean turbine, Archimedes screw generator or ASG, or Archimedes screw turbine or AST) is water turbine that converts the potential energy of water on an upstream level into work. This hydropower converter is driven by the weight of water, similar to water wheels, and can be considered as a quasi-static pressure machine. Archimedes screw generators operate in a wide range of flows (0.01
m
3
/
s
{\displaystyle m^{3}/s}
to 14.5
m
3
/
s
{\displaystyle m^{3}/s}
) and heads (0.1 m to 10 m), including low heads and moderate flow rates that are not ideal for traditional turbines and not occupied by high performance technologies.
Archimedes' screw can be used to generate power if they are driven by flowing fluid instead of lifting fluid. Water transiting the screw from high to low elevation generates a torque on the helical plane surfaces, causing the screw to rotate. The Archimedes screw generator consists of a rotor in the shape of an Archimedean screw which rotates in a semicircular trough. Water flows into the screw and its weight presses down onto the blades of the turbine, which in turn forces the turbine to turn. Water flows freely off the end of the screw into the river. The upper end of the screw is connected to a generator through a gearbox. The Archimedes screw is theoretically a reversible hydraulic machine, and there are examples of single installations where screws can be used alternately as pumps and generators.
History
A screw turbine at a small hydro power plant in Goryn, Poland
The Archimedean screw is an ancient invention, attributed to Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC.), and commonly used to raise water from a watercourse for irrigation purposes. In 1819 the French engineer Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836) suggested using the Archimedean screw as a type of water wheel. In 1916 William Moerscher applied for a U.S. patent on the hydrodynamic screw turbine.
Application
12 kW screw turbine at the Cragside estate
The Archimedean screw turbine is applied on rivers with a relatively low head (from 0.1 m to 10 m) and on low flows (0.01 m3/s up to around 10 m3/s on one turbine). Due to the construction and slow movement of the blades of the turbine, the turbine is considered to be friendly to aquatic wildlife. It is often labelled as "fish friendly". The Archimedean turbine may be used in situations where there is a stipulation for the preservation and care of the environment and wildlife.
Design
An Archimedes Screw Turbine (AST) hydroelectricity powerplant can be considered as a system with three major components: a reservoir, a weir, and the AST (which is connected to the system by a control gate and trash rack). At most real AST locations, the incoming flow must be divided between the AST and a parallel weir. Typically, a minimum flow over the weir is mandated for the protection of the local environment. Other outlets as well as a fish ladder could be considered as the other components of this system. A comprehensive guide about the principles of designing Archimedes screw turbines and screw hydropower plants is available in "Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures".
Flow rate
To design Archimedes screw turbines and hydropower plants, it is essential to estimate the amount of water is passing through the screw turbine since the amount of power generated by an Archimedes screw turbine is proportional to the volume flow rate of water through it. The volume of water that enters an Archimedes screw turbine depends on the inlet water depth and the screw's rotation speed. To estimates the total flow rate passing through an Archimedes screw turbine for different rotation speeds (ω) and inlet water levels the following equation could be used:
Q
=
α
Q
M
a
x
(
A
E
/
A
M
a
x
)
β
(
ω
/
ω
M
)
γ
{\displaystyle Q=\alpha Q_{Max}(A_{E}/A_{Max})^{\beta }(\omega /\omega _{M})^{\gamma }}
Where
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }
,
β
{\displaystyle \beta }
and
γ
{\displaystyle \gamma }
are constants related to the screw properties. Preliminary investigations suggest that
α
=
1.242
{\displaystyle \alpha =1.242}
,
β
=
1.311
{\displaystyle \beta =1.311}
, and
γ
=
0.822
{\displaystyle \gamma =0.822}
give reasonable predictions of
Q
{\displaystyle Q}
for a wide range of small to full-scale AST sizes.
Examples
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (March 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
United Kingdom
Woolston, Cheshire weir on the River Mersey 486 kW, Under construction
Devon, Totnes 320 kW, Commissioned December 2015
Romney, Berkshire, 270 kW, Installed to provide a renewable source of energy to Windsor Castle, Commissioned July 2013
Bealey’s Weir, Radcliffe, 100 kW, Commissioned May 2012
Mapledurham, River Thames, UK’s largest flow capacity (8 m³/s) single screw, 99 kW.
Buckfast, River Dart, screw turbine and fishpass, 84 kW
UK’s first community owned hydro scheme, and fishpass, 63 kW at New Mills.
UK’s first grid connected screw turbine, 50 kW at River Dart Country Park.
Bainbridge, community owned screw turbine, 37 kW
Tipton, River Otter, 30 kW
Rochdale, screw turbine and fishpass, 20 kW
Cragside, the birthplace of hydroelectricity, 12 kW
Tillydrone, Aberdeen Community Energy, 100 kW, UK's first urban micro-hydro
United States
Hanover Pond on the Quinnipiac River in Meriden, Connecticut, 105 kW (or 920,000 kWh/year), grid connected, commissioned April, 2017; the first screw turbine installation in the US.
References
^ United States 1434138, William Moerscher, "Water-power system", issued October 31, 1922
^ YoosefDoost, Arash; Lubitz, William David (2020-09-08). "Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures". Sustainability. 12 (18): 7352. doi:10.3390/su12187352. ISSN 2071-1050.
^ "Woolston | Planning Application". Warrington Borough Council. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
^ "Woolston | Project Overview". renfin.eu. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
^ "Woolston | Local News Items". Warrington Worldwide. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
^ "Totnes | MannPower Consulting". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.
^ "Romney | MannPower Consulting". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.
^ "Bealeys Weir | MannPower Consulting". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.
^ a b c d e f g "Hydro Power Case Studies, Micro-Hydro Case Studies - Western Renewable Energy". www.westernrenew.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.
^ "Hydropower returns to Cragside". National Trust. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
^ Philippa Gerrard (4 November 2016). "Powering Up". Press and Journal. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
^ Andrew Ragall, Ancient technology in Meriden's Hannover Pond dam begins generating electricity, Meriden Record Journal, April 27, 2017
^ New England Hydropower Energizes First Archimedes Screw Turbine in U.S., PR Newswire, April 27, 2017
Further reading
P. J. Kantert: Manual for Archimedean Screw Pump, Hirthammer Verlag 2008, ISBN 978-3-88721-896-6
P. J. Kantert: Praxishandbuch Schneckenpumpe. Hirthammer Verlag 2008, ISBN 978-3-88721-202-5
K. Brada, K.-A. Radlik - Water Screw Motor to Micro Power Plant - First Experiences of Construction and Operation (1998)
K. Brada - Micro Power Plant with Water Screw Motor (1995)
K. Brada, K.-A. Radlik - Water Power Screw - Characteristic and Use (1996)
K. Brada, K.-A. Radlik, (1996). Water screw motor for micropower plant. 6th Intl. Symp. Heat exchange and renewable energy sources, 43–52, W. Nowak, ed. Wydaw Politechniki Szczecińskiej, Szczecin, Poland.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Archimedes' screw power plants.
Landustrie- Information on one of the manufacturers
spaansbabcock.com/products/screw-turbine Information on one of the manufacturers
(in Polish) The first screw turbine in Poland
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_smal_back.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helical_screw_single_double_triple_quadruple_start.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monmouth_New_Hydro_Scheme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538784.jpg"},{"link_name":"water turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_turbine"},{"link_name":"potential energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy"},{"link_name":"work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(physics)"},{"link_name":"water wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wheel"},{"link_name":"Archimedes' screw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw"}],"text":"Reverse action of the Archimedean screw, the principle of the screw turbine gaining energy from water flowing down through the screwScrew turbines typically have three or four flights (second row)Two parallel screw turbines capable of producing 75 kW each, in Monmouth, WalesVideo of a 40 kW screw turbine in Munich, GermanyA screw turbine (also known as an Archimedean turbine, Archimedes screw generator or ASG, or Archimedes screw turbine or AST) is water turbine that converts the potential energy of water on an upstream level into work. This hydropower converter is driven by the weight of water, similar to water wheels, and can be considered as a quasi-static pressure machine. Archimedes screw generators operate in a wide range of flows (0.01 \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n /\n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m^{3}/s}\n \n to 14.5 \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n 3\n \n \n \n /\n \n s\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m^{3}/s}\n \n) and heads (0.1 m to 10 m), including low heads and moderate flow rates that are not ideal for traditional turbines and not occupied by high performance technologies.Archimedes' screw can be used to generate power if they are driven by flowing fluid instead of lifting fluid. Water transiting the screw from high to low elevation generates a torque on the helical plane surfaces, causing the screw to rotate. The Archimedes screw generator consists of a rotor in the shape of an Archimedean screw which rotates in a semicircular trough. Water flows into the screw and its weight presses down onto the blades of the turbine, which in turn forces the turbine to turn. Water flows freely off the end of the screw into the river. The upper end of the screw is connected to a generator through a gearbox. The Archimedes screw is theoretically a reversible hydraulic machine, and there are examples of single installations where screws can be used alternately as pumps and generators.","title":"Screw turbine"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turbina_Archimedesa_MEW_Goryn.jpg"},{"link_name":"Archimedes of Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_of_Syracuse"},{"link_name":"irrigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moerscher-1"}],"text":"A screw turbine at a small hydro power plant in Goryn, PolandThe Archimedean screw is an ancient invention, attributed to Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC.), and commonly used to raise water from a watercourse for irrigation purposes. In 1819 the French engineer Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836) suggested using the Archimedean screw as a type of water wheel. In 1916 William Moerscher applied for a U.S. patent on the hydrodynamic screw turbine.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cragside_Archimedes%27_screw_from_top.jpg"}],"text":"12 kW screw turbine at the Cragside estateThe Archimedean screw turbine is applied on rivers with a relatively low head (from 0.1 m to 10 m) and on low flows (0.01 m3/s up to around 10 m3/s on one turbine). Due to the construction and slow movement of the blades of the turbine, the turbine is considered to be friendly to aquatic wildlife. It is often labelled as \"fish friendly\". The Archimedean turbine may be used in situations where there is a stipulation for the preservation and care of the environment and wildlife.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"An Archimedes Screw Turbine (AST) hydroelectricity powerplant can be considered as a system with three major components: a reservoir, a weir, and the AST (which is connected to the system by a control gate and trash rack). At most real AST locations, the incoming flow must be divided between the AST and a parallel weir. Typically, a minimum flow over the weir is mandated for the protection of the local environment. Other outlets as well as a fish ladder could be considered as the other components of this system. A comprehensive guide about the principles of designing Archimedes screw turbines and screw hydropower plants is available in \"Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures\".[2]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Flow rate","text":"To design Archimedes screw turbines and hydropower plants, it is essential to estimate the amount of water is passing through the screw turbine since the amount of power generated by an Archimedes screw turbine is proportional to the volume flow rate of water through it. The volume of water that enters an Archimedes screw turbine depends on the inlet water depth and the screw's rotation speed. To estimates the total flow rate passing through an Archimedes screw turbine for different rotation speeds (ω) and inlet water levels the following equation could be used:Q\n =\n α\n \n Q\n \n M\n a\n x\n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n E\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n A\n \n M\n a\n x\n \n \n \n )\n \n β\n \n \n (\n ω\n \n /\n \n \n ω\n \n M\n \n \n \n )\n \n γ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q=\\alpha Q_{Max}(A_{E}/A_{Max})^{\\beta }(\\omega /\\omega _{M})^{\\gamma }}Where \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n, \n \n \n \n β\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beta }\n \n and \n \n \n \n γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma }\n \n are constants related to the screw properties. Preliminary investigations suggest that \n \n \n \n α\n =\n 1.242\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha =1.242}\n \n , \n \n \n \n β\n =\n 1.311\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beta =1.311}\n \n , and \n \n \n \n γ\n =\n 0.822\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma =0.822}\n \n give reasonable predictions of \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q}\n \n for a wide range of small to full-scale AST sizes.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Woolston, Cheshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolston,_Cheshire"},{"link_name":"River Mersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Mersey"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woolston-1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woolston-2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woolston-3-5"},{"link_name":"Totnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totnes"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Totnes-1-6"},{"link_name":"Berkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkshire"},{"link_name":"Windsor Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Castle"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Romney-7"},{"link_name":"Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe,_Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bealey%E2%80%99s_Weir-8"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"River Dart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Dart"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"New Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mills"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"River Dart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Dart"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"Bainbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Bain_Hydro"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"River Otter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Otter,_Devon"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"Rochdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochdale"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western_Renewable_Energy-9"},{"link_name":"Cragside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cragside"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-National_Trust-10"},{"link_name":"Tillydrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillydrone"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen Community Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Community_Energy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACE-11"},{"link_name":"Quinnipiac River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinnipiac_River"},{"link_name":"Meriden, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meriden,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ragall-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_England_Hydropower-13"}],"text":"United KingdomWoolston, Cheshire weir on the River Mersey 486 kW, Under construction[3][4][5]\nDevon, Totnes 320 kW, Commissioned December 2015[6]\nRomney, Berkshire, 270 kW, Installed to provide a renewable source of energy to Windsor Castle, Commissioned July 2013[7]\nBealey’s Weir, Radcliffe, 100 kW, Commissioned May 2012[8]\nMapledurham, River Thames, UK’s largest flow capacity (8 m³/s) single screw, 99 kW.[9]\nBuckfast, River Dart, screw turbine and fishpass, 84 kW[9]\nUK’s first community owned hydro scheme, and fishpass, 63 kW at New Mills.[9]\nUK’s first grid connected screw turbine, 50 kW at River Dart Country Park.[9]\nBainbridge, community owned screw turbine, 37 kW[9]\nTipton, River Otter, 30 kW[9]\nRochdale, screw turbine and fishpass, 20 kW[9]\nCragside, the birthplace of hydroelectricity, 12 kW[10]\nTillydrone, Aberdeen Community Energy, 100 kW, UK's first urban micro-hydro[11]United StatesHanover Pond on the Quinnipiac River in Meriden, Connecticut, 105 kW (or 920,000 kWh/year), grid connected, commissioned April, 2017; the first screw turbine installation in the US.[12][13]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-88721-896-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88721-896-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-88721-202-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-88721-202-5"}],"text":"P. J. Kantert: Manual for Archimedean Screw Pump, Hirthammer Verlag 2008, ISBN 978-3-88721-896-6\nP. J. Kantert: Praxishandbuch Schneckenpumpe. Hirthammer Verlag 2008, ISBN 978-3-88721-202-5\nK. Brada, K.-A. Radlik - Water Screw Motor to Micro Power Plant - First Experiences of Construction and Operation (1998)\nK. Brada - Micro Power Plant with Water Screw Motor (1995)\nK. Brada, K.-A. Radlik - Water Power Screw - Characteristic and Use (1996)\nK. Brada, K.-A. Radlik, (1996). Water screw motor for micropower plant. 6th Intl. Symp. Heat exchange and renewable energy sources, 43–52, W. Nowak, ed. Wydaw Politechniki Szczecińskiej, Szczecin, Poland.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Reverse action of the Archimedean screw, the principle of the screw turbine gaining energy from water flowing down through the screw","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_smal_back.gif/220px-Archimedes-screw_one-screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated_smal_back.gif"},{"image_text":"Screw turbines typically have three or four flights (second row)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Helical_screw_single_double_triple_quadruple_start.png/220px-Helical_screw_single_double_triple_quadruple_start.png"},{"image_text":"Two parallel screw turbines capable of producing 75 kW each, in Monmouth, Wales","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Monmouth_New_Hydro_Scheme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538784.jpg/220px-Monmouth_New_Hydro_Scheme_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1538784.jpg"},{"image_text":"Video of a 40 kW screw turbine in Munich, Germany"},{"image_text":"A screw turbine at a small hydro power plant in Goryn, Poland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Turbina_Archimedesa_MEW_Goryn.jpg/220px-Turbina_Archimedesa_MEW_Goryn.jpg"},{"image_text":"12 kW screw turbine at the Cragside estate","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cragside_Archimedes%27_screw_from_top.jpg/220px-Cragside_Archimedes%27_screw_from_top.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"YoosefDoost, Arash; Lubitz, William David (2020-09-08). \"Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures\". Sustainability. 12 (18): 7352. doi:10.3390/su12187352. ISSN 2071-1050.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu12187352","url_text":"\"Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu12187352","url_text":"10.3390/su12187352"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-1050","url_text":"2071-1050"}]},{"reference":"\"Woolston | Planning Application\". Warrington Borough Council. Retrieved 2021-03-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://planning.warrington.gov.uk/swiftlg/apas/run/WPHAPPDETAIL.DisplayUrl?theApnID=2018/32951","url_text":"\"Woolston | Planning Application\""}]},{"reference":"\"Woolston | Project Overview\". renfin.eu. Retrieved 2021-03-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.renfin.eu/news/new-projects-in-england/","url_text":"\"Woolston | Project Overview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Woolston | Local News Items\". Warrington Worldwide. Retrieved 2021-03-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.warrington-worldwide.co.uk/?s=woolston+weir+power","url_text":"\"Woolston | Local News Items\""}]},{"reference":"\"Totnes | MannPower Consulting\". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/totnes/","url_text":"\"Totnes | MannPower Consulting\""}]},{"reference":"\"Romney | MannPower Consulting\". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/romney/","url_text":"\"Romney | MannPower Consulting\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bealeys Weir | MannPower Consulting\". www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/bealeys-weir/","url_text":"\"Bealeys Weir | MannPower Consulting\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hydro Power Case Studies, Micro-Hydro Case Studies - Western Renewable Energy\". www.westernrenew.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.westernrenew.co.uk/wre/case_studies","url_text":"\"Hydro Power Case Studies, Micro-Hydro Case Studies - Western Renewable Energy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hydropower returns to Cragside\". National Trust. Retrieved 2016-08-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/hydropower-returns-to-cragside","url_text":"\"Hydropower returns to Cragside\""}]},{"reference":"Philippa Gerrard (4 November 2016). \"Powering Up\". Press and Journal. Retrieved 20 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/news/environment/3649566/powering-up-how-a-community-cut-through-bureaucratic-red-tape-to-make-a-splash-with-the-uks-first-urban-micro-hyrdo/","url_text":"\"Powering Up\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_and_Journal","url_text":"Press and Journal"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Screw_turbine&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this section"},{"Link":"http://www.google.com/patents/US1434138","external_links_name":"United States 1434138"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu12187352","external_links_name":"\"Archimedes Screw Turbines: A Sustainable Development Solution for Green and Renewable Energy Generation—A Review of Potential and Design Procedures\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu12187352","external_links_name":"10.3390/su12187352"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-1050","external_links_name":"2071-1050"},{"Link":"https://planning.warrington.gov.uk/swiftlg/apas/run/WPHAPPDETAIL.DisplayUrl?theApnID=2018/32951","external_links_name":"\"Woolston | Planning Application\""},{"Link":"https://www.renfin.eu/news/new-projects-in-england/","external_links_name":"\"Woolston | Project Overview\""},{"Link":"https://www.warrington-worldwide.co.uk/?s=woolston+weir+power","external_links_name":"\"Woolston | Local News Items\""},{"Link":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/totnes/","external_links_name":"\"Totnes | MannPower Consulting\""},{"Link":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/romney/","external_links_name":"\"Romney | MannPower Consulting\""},{"Link":"http://www.mannpower-hydro.co.uk/project/bealeys-weir/","external_links_name":"\"Bealeys Weir | MannPower Consulting\""},{"Link":"http://www.westernrenew.co.uk/wre/case_studies","external_links_name":"\"Hydro Power Case Studies, Micro-Hydro Case Studies - Western Renewable Energy\""},{"Link":"https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/hydropower-returns-to-cragside","external_links_name":"\"Hydropower returns to Cragside\""},{"Link":"https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/news/environment/3649566/powering-up-how-a-community-cut-through-bureaucratic-red-tape-to-make-a-splash-with-the-uks-first-urban-micro-hyrdo/","external_links_name":"\"Powering Up\""},{"Link":"http://www.myrecordjournal.com/news/meriden/meridennews/10261795-154/ancient-technology-in-meridens-hanover-pond-dam-begins-generating-electricity.html","external_links_name":"Andrew Ragall, Ancient technology in Meriden's Hannover Pond dam begins generating electricity, Meriden Record Journal, April 27, 2017"},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-england-hydropower-energizes-first-archimedes-screw-turbine-site-in-u-s-300446129.html","external_links_name":"New England Hydropower Energizes First Archimedes Screw Turbine in U.S., PR Newswire, April 27, 2017"},{"Link":"https://landustrie.nl/en/products/hydropower/hydropower-screws/","external_links_name":"Landustrie- Information on one of the manufacturers"},{"Link":"https://www.spaansbabcock.com/products/screw-turbine","external_links_name":"spaansbabcock.com/products/screw-turbine"},{"Link":"http://www.dobraenergia.info/","external_links_name":"The first screw turbine in Poland"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldon_process
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Weldon process
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["1 References","2 Further reading"]
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The Weldon process is a process developed in 1866 by Walter Weldon for recovering manganese dioxide for re-use in chlorine manufacture. Commercial operations started at the Gamble works in St. Helens in 1869. The process is described in considerable detail in the book, The Alkali Industry, by J.R. Partington,D.Sc.
The common method to manufacture chlorine at the time, was to react manganese dioxide (and related oxides) with hydrochloric acid to give chlorine:
MnO2 + 4 HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
Weldon's contribution was to develop a process to recycle the manganese. The waste manganese(II) chloride solution is treated with lime, steam and oxygen, producing calcium manganite(IV):
2 MnCl2 + 3 Ca(OH)2 + O2 → CaO·2MnO2 + 3 H2O + 2 CaCl2
The resulting calcium manganite can be reacted with HCl as in related processes:
CaO·2MnO2 + 10 HCl → CaCl2 + 2 MnCl2 + 2 Cl2 + 5 H2O
The manganese(II) chloride can be recycled, while the calcium chloride is a waste byproduct.
The Weldon process was first replaced by the Deacon process and later by the Chloralkali process.
References
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Weldon process" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Further reading
"The Chlorine industry". Lenntech. Retrieved 11 September 2018.
Lunge, Georg (1911). "Alkali Manufacture § Preparation of Chlorine" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 666–66.
Partington, J.R. (1919). The Alkali Industry. London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox.
This industry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydrochloric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"manganese(II) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese(II)_chloride"},{"link_name":"calcium manganite(IV)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calcium_manganite(IV)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"CaO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxide"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Deacon process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deacon_process"},{"link_name":"Chloralkali process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloralkali_process"}],"text":"The common method to manufacture chlorine at the time, was to react manganese dioxide (and related oxides) with hydrochloric acid to give chlorine:MnO2 + 4 HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2OWeldon's contribution was to develop a process to recycle the manganese. The waste manganese(II) chloride solution is treated with lime, steam and oxygen, producing calcium manganite(IV):2 MnCl2 + 3 Ca(OH)2 + O2 → CaO·2MnO2 + 3 H2O + 2 CaCl2The resulting calcium manganite can be reacted with HCl as in related processes:CaO·2MnO2 + 10 HCl → CaCl2 + 2 MnCl2 + 2 Cl2 + 5 H2OThe manganese(II) chloride can be recycled, while the calcium chloride is a waste byproduct.[citation needed]The Weldon process was first replaced by the Deacon process and later by the Chloralkali process.","title":"Weldon process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Chlorine industry\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lenntech.com/Chemistry/chlorine-industry.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Alkali Manufacture § Preparation of Chlorine\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Alkali_Manufacture#Preparation_of_Chlorine"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"The Alkali Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/alkaliin8dustry00partuoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Factory.svg"},{"link_name":"industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_industry"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weldon_process&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Industry-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Industry-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Industry-stub"}],"text":"\"The Chlorine industry\". Lenntech. Retrieved 11 September 2018.\nLunge, Georg (1911). \"Alkali Manufacture § Preparation of Chlorine\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 666–66.\nPartington, J.R. (1919). The Alkali Industry. London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox.This industry-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"The Chlorine industry\". Lenntech. Retrieved 11 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lenntech.com/Chemistry/chlorine-industry.htm","url_text":"\"The Chlorine industry\""}]},{"reference":"Lunge, Georg (1911). \"Alkali Manufacture § Preparation of Chlorine\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 666–66.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Alkali_Manufacture#Preparation_of_Chlorine","url_text":"\"Alkali Manufacture § Preparation of Chlorine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Partington, J.R. (1919). The Alkali Industry. London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/alkaliin8dustry00partuoft","url_text":"The Alkali Industry"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Krakowska
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Opera Krakowska
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["1 The new venue","2 Cultural significance","3 References","4 External links"]
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Opera house in Krakow, Poland
Opera KrakowskaNew House of the Kraków OperaAddressKrakówPolandTypeOpera HouseCapacity760ConstructionOpened1954 (2008, at this location)ArchitectRomuald LoeglerWebsiteOfficial website
The Opera Krakowska (also known as the Kraków Opera) is an opera house located in Kraków, Poland. It was founded in 1954 in postwar Kraków, although the tradition of opera in the city dates back to 1628 when the first ever full libretto in Polish was released by the local publishing house, followed by the first fully-fledged opera performance in the city in March 1782. The Kraków Opera company stages 200 performances each year, including ballet, operettas and musicals for the young, with an audience occupancy rate of 98%. The Kraków Opera's main repertoire includes both international and Polish operatic classics, reaffirming its status as one of the country's leading opera companies.
The long list of names of renowned artists associated with it includes conductors such as Kazimierz Kord, Robert Satanowski, Jan Latham-Koenig, Roland Bader and Aurelio Canonici; set designers such as Tadeusz Kantor, Lidia Zamkow, Józef Szajna, Krystyna Zachwatowicz; and a plethora of opera singers, many of whom began their careers there, including Teresa Żylis-Gara, Wiesław Ochman, and Mariusz Kwiecień.
The new venue
For dozens of years, the Kraków Opera, now located at Lubicz 48 Street, lacked its own premises and instead used a number of concert venues in the city. The only permanent stage where the opera performances were staged for decades was the landmark Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków Old Town. The construction of the new opera house which can seat 760 people started in 2004. The new house opened in the autumn of 2008.
The building of the new opera house was more expensive than originally thought. The ensuing dispute between the designer and the contractor who requested additional funds lasted for over two years. Among the reasons offered were the curtain walls for the office complex next door as well as the structural protection of other neighboring buildings. Romuald Loegler, designer of the opera, wrote letters attesting to his disagreement with the general contractor – Hochtief company Poland – whose director refused to talk to the media sending questions to general manager of the company, Piotr Rozkruta. The dispute reached the Department of Education and Culture in Kraków's city government until a special consultant was appointed by the province. The building costs rose about 10%; however, the financing of the project was never in danger, as explained by Krzysztof Markiel, the head of the department. In 2009 the new venue was awarded the Archa-Szopa 2009, an anti-award of Gazeta Wyborcza, as the worst new building in Kraków.
Cultural significance
Long before the new opera house was unveiled, the Kraków Opera utilized historical interiors and landmark architecture in Kraków, as well as other cities, for staging its own performances. Groundbreaking productions in natural settings included the Straszny Dwór opera performance at the Renaissance Courtyard of the Niepołomice Castle in 2002 and 2003; Madama Butterfly was staged in the depths of the centuries-old Wieliczka Salt Mine in 2003, while Tosca by Giacomo Puccini and Straszny Dwór (The Haunted Manor) by Stanisław Moniuszko were performed against the arresting background of the Wawel Castle in 2005. The open-air performances included Halka, offered at the Zakrzówek Nature Park in 2004; it was recognized by the some critics as the most important event of the entire season. More than five thousand people saw that opera. In the summertime, the Kraków Opera also used the open-air stage at the Kraków Barbican. The visual significance of the location enriched the impact of operatic music not only for the regular patrons, but also for the numerous tourists.
World famous soloists have visited the Kraków Opera's stage, including singers from the Metropolitan Opera in New York City and La Scala in Milan. A number of noted Polish singers also performed there. The company's performers travel abroad every year to participate in special events and festivals in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, England, United States and as far as Chile.
References
^ a b "Opera Krakowska". Kultura polska, Polskie Centrum Informacji Muzycznej, Związek Kompozytorów Polskich (in Polish). Adam Mickiewicz Institute, Culture.pl. January 2002. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
^ a b c d The Opera Krakowska official website: "About us"
^ "Info with biography of Aurelio Canonici in English" (PDF). (91.3 KB)
^ (in Polish) Info with biography of Teresa Żylis-Gara at WIEM Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 6, 2009.
^ Culture directory and reviews: Opera at Cracow-life.com
^ In the news: "New Krakow Opera House Opens"
^ Wojciech Pelowski, Tomasz Jakub Handzlik, Opera Krakowska, Kraków - Gazeta.pl "Opóźnienia i większe koszty budowy krakowskiej opery", 2006-04-03. (in Polish)
^ Kraków. Budynek Opery Archi-Szopą 2009 - Encyklopedia Teatru Polskiego 2022-01.15 (in Polish)
External links
Marek Strzała, Opera in Krakow
Neal Bedford, Steve Fallon, Neil Wilson, Poland Page 205
Opera Krakowska's official website in English
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Opera Krakowska.
Authority control databases
VIAF
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"opera house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_house"},{"link_name":"Kraków","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera"},{"link_name":"libretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libretto"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-culture.pl-1"},{"link_name":"ballet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet"},{"link_name":"operettas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operetta"},{"link_name":"musicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre"},{"link_name":"opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-culture.pl-1"},{"link_name":"Kazimierz Kord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Kord"},{"link_name":"Robert Satanowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Satanowski"},{"link_name":"Jan Latham-Koenig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Latham-Koenig"},{"link_name":"Roland Bader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Bader"},{"link_name":"Aurelio Canonici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurelio_Canonici"},{"link_name":"set designers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scenic_design"},{"link_name":"Tadeusz Kantor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeusz_Kantor"},{"link_name":"Lidia Zamkow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidia_Zamkow"},{"link_name":"Józef Szajna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Szajna"},{"link_name":"Krystyna Zachwatowicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystyna_Zachwatowicz"},{"link_name":"Teresa Żylis-Gara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_%C5%BBylis-Gara"},{"link_name":"Wiesław Ochman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wies%C5%82aw_Ochman"},{"link_name":"Mariusz Kwiecień","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariusz_Kwiecie%C5%84"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O-K-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Opera Krakowska (also known as the Kraków Opera) is an opera house located in Kraków, Poland. It was founded in 1954 in postwar Kraków, although the tradition of opera in the city dates back to 1628 when the first ever full libretto in Polish was released by the local publishing house, followed by the first fully-fledged opera performance in the city in March 1782.[1] The Kraków Opera company stages 200 performances each year, including ballet, operettas and musicals for the young, with an audience occupancy rate of 98%. The Kraków Opera's main repertoire includes both international and Polish operatic classics, reaffirming its status as one of the country's leading opera companies.[1]The long list of names of renowned artists associated with it includes conductors such as Kazimierz Kord, Robert Satanowski, Jan Latham-Koenig, Roland Bader and Aurelio Canonici; set designers such as Tadeusz Kantor, Lidia Zamkow, Józef Szajna, Krystyna Zachwatowicz; and a plethora of opera singers, many of whom began their careers there, including Teresa Żylis-Gara, Wiesław Ochman, and Mariusz Kwiecień.[2][3][4]","title":"Opera Krakowska"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Juliusz Słowacki Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Kraków Old Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Old_Town"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O-K-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Hochtief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochtief"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pelowski-7"},{"link_name":"Gazeta Wyborcza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krak%C3%B3w._Budynek_Opery_Archi-Szop%C4%85_2009-8"}],"text":"For dozens of years, the Kraków Opera, now located at Lubicz 48 Street, lacked its own premises and instead used a number of concert venues in the city. The only permanent stage where the opera performances were staged for decades was the landmark Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków Old Town. The construction of the new opera house which can seat 760 people started in 2004. The new house opened in the autumn of 2008.[2][5][6]The building of the new opera house was more expensive than originally thought. The ensuing dispute between the designer and the contractor who requested additional funds lasted for over two years. Among the reasons offered were the curtain walls for the office complex next door as well as the structural protection of other neighboring buildings. Romuald Loegler, designer of the opera, wrote letters attesting to his disagreement with the general contractor – Hochtief company Poland – whose director refused to talk to the media sending questions to general manager of the company, Piotr Rozkruta. The dispute reached the Department of Education and Culture in Kraków's city government until a special consultant was appointed by the province. The building costs rose about 10%; however, the financing of the project was never in danger, as explained by Krzysztof Markiel, the head of the department.[7] In 2009 the new venue was awarded the Archa-Szopa 2009, an anti-award of Gazeta Wyborcza, as the worst new building in Kraków.[8]","title":"The new venue"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Straszny Dwór","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Haunted_Manor"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_architecture"},{"link_name":"Niepołomice Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niepo%C5%82omice_Castle"},{"link_name":"Madama Butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madama_Butterfly"},{"link_name":"Wieliczka Salt Mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wieliczka_Salt_Mine"},{"link_name":"Tosca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tosca"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Puccini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini"},{"link_name":"Stanisław Moniuszko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko"},{"link_name":"Wawel Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawel_Castle"},{"link_name":"Halka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halka"},{"link_name":"Zakrzówek Nature Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Krak%C3%B3w#D%C4%99bniki"},{"link_name":"Kraków Barbican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Barbican"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O-K-2"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"La Scala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Scala"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O-K-2"}],"text":"Long before the new opera house was unveiled, the Kraków Opera utilized historical interiors and landmark architecture in Kraków, as well as other cities, for staging its own performances. Groundbreaking productions in natural settings included the Straszny Dwór opera performance at the Renaissance Courtyard of the Niepołomice Castle in 2002 and 2003; Madama Butterfly was staged in the depths of the centuries-old Wieliczka Salt Mine in 2003, while Tosca by Giacomo Puccini and Straszny Dwór (The Haunted Manor) by Stanisław Moniuszko were performed against the arresting background of the Wawel Castle in 2005. The open-air performances included Halka, offered at the Zakrzówek Nature Park in 2004; it was recognized by the some critics as the most important event of the entire season. More than five thousand people saw that opera. In the summertime, the Kraków Opera also used the open-air stage at the Kraków Barbican. The visual significance of the location enriched the impact of operatic music not only for the regular patrons, but also for the numerous tourists.[2]World famous soloists have visited the Kraków Opera's stage, including singers from the Metropolitan Opera in New York City and La Scala in Milan. A number of noted Polish singers also performed there. The company's performers travel abroad every year to participate in special events and festivals in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, England, United States and as far as Chile.[2]","title":"Cultural significance"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Opera Krakowska\". Kultura polska, Polskie Centrum Informacji Muzycznej, Związek Kompozytorów Polskich (in Polish). Adam Mickiewicz Institute, Culture.pl. January 2002. Retrieved March 5, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.culture.pl/inne-instytucje/-/eo_event_asset_publisher/sh2A/content/opera-krakowska","url_text":"\"Opera Krakowska\""}]},{"reference":"\"Info with biography of Aurelio Canonici in English\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aureliocanonici.com/doc/Biography.pdf","url_text":"\"Info with biography of Aurelio Canonici in English\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.opera.krakow.pl/english.php","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.culture.pl/inne-instytucje/-/eo_event_asset_publisher/sh2A/content/opera-krakowska","external_links_name":"\"Opera Krakowska\""},{"Link":"http://www.opera.krakow.pl/english.php?id=386","external_links_name":"The Opera Krakowska official website: \"About us\""},{"Link":"http://www.aureliocanonici.com/doc/Biography.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Info with biography of Aurelio Canonici in English\""},{"Link":"http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/73426,,,,zylis_gara_teresa,haslo.html","external_links_name":"Info with biography of Teresa Żylis-Gara"},{"Link":"http://www.cracow-life.com/culture/culture_details/1240-Opera","external_links_name":"Culture directory and reviews: Opera"},{"Link":"http://poland.homesgofast.com/news/new-krakow-opera-house-opens-I1265/","external_links_name":"In the news: \"New Krakow Opera House Opens\""},{"Link":"http://miasta.gazeta.pl/krakow/1,35796,3257937.html","external_links_name":"Opera Krakowska, Kraków - Gazeta.pl"},{"Link":"https://encyklopediateatru.pl/artykuly/81070/krakow-budynek-opery-archi-szopa-2009","external_links_name":"Kraków. Budynek Opery Archi-Szopą 2009 - Encyklopedia Teatru Polskiego"},{"Link":"http://www.krakow-info.com/opera.htm","external_links_name":"Opera in Krakow"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe3UzP5I2vsC&dq=%22Opera+Krakowska%22&pg=PA205","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"http://www.opera.krakow.pl/english.php","external_links_name":"Opera Krakowska's official website in English"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/137399931","external_links_name":"VIAF"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPL11
|
60S ribosomal protein L11
|
["1 Function","2 Interactions","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
|
Protein found in humans
For the programming language RPL-11, see Filetab.
RPL11Available structuresPDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB List of PDB id codes4UG0, 4V6X, 4XXB, 5AJ0, 4V5Z, 4UJD, 4D67, 4D5Y, 4UJE, 4UJC,%%s4UJE, 4XXB, 4UJD, 4D67, 4V5Z, 4V6X, 5AJ0, 4UJC, 4D5Y, 4UG0IdentifiersAliasesRPL11, DBA7, GIG34, L11, ribosomal protein L11, uL5External IDsOMIM: 604175; MGI: 1914275; HomoloGene: 37376; GeneCards: RPL11; OMA:RPL11 - orthologsGene location (Human)Chr.Chromosome 1 (human)Band1p36.11Start23,691,742 bpEnd23,696,835 bpGene location (Mouse)Chr.Chromosome 4 (mouse)Band4|4 D3Start135,755,576 bpEnd135,780,739 bpRNA expression patternBgeeHumanMouse (ortholog)Top expressed inganglionic eminencemonocyteventricular zonegranulocyteleft ovaryskin of hipright ovaryright lungbody of stomachlymph nodeTop expressed inyolk sacembryoembryoliptail of embryogenital tubercleventricular zonedentate gyrus of hippocampal formation granule cellmorulablastocystMore reference expression dataBioGPSMore reference expression dataGene ontologyMolecular function
rRNA binding
protein binding
RNA binding
structural constituent of ribosome
5S rRNA binding
ubiquitin protein ligase binding
ubiquitin ligase inhibitor activity
Cellular component
cytosol
ribosome
membrane
intracellular anatomical structure
nucleolus
cytosolic large ribosomal subunit
extracellular exosome
nucleus
extracellular matrix
nucleoplasm
cytoplasm
protein-containing complex
polysomal ribosome
Biological process
protein targeting
viral transcription
SRP-dependent cotranslational protein targeting to membrane
ribosomal large subunit biogenesis
translational initiation
nuclear-transcribed mRNA catabolic process, nonsense-mediated decay
rRNA processing
protein biosynthesis
ribosomal large subunit assembly
positive regulation of gene expression
positive regulation of protein binding
protein stabilization
negative regulation of ubiquitin protein ligase activity
negative regulation of ubiquitin-dependent protein catabolic process
negative regulation of protein neddylation
regulation of signal transduction by p53 class mediator
negative regulation of proteasomal ubiquitin-dependent protein catabolic process
protein localization to nucleus
positive regulation of signal transduction by p53 class mediator
positive regulation of intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway by p53 class mediator
cytoplasmic translation
Sources:Amigo / QuickGOOrthologsSpeciesHumanMouseEntrez613567025EnsemblENSG00000142676ENSMUSG00000059291UniProtP62913Q5VVD0Q9CXW4RefSeq (mRNA)NM_001199802NM_000975NM_025919RefSeq (protein)NP_000966NP_001186731NP_000966.2NP_080195Location (UCSC)Chr 1: 23.69 – 23.7 MbChr 4: 135.76 – 135.78 MbPubMed searchWikidataView/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse
60S ribosomal protein L11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RPL11 gene.
Function
Ribosomes, the organelles that catalyze protein synthesis, consist of a small 40S subunit and a large 60S subunit. Together these subunits are composed of 4 RNA species and approximately 80 structurally distinct proteins. This gene encodes a ribosomal protein that is a component of the 60S subunit. The protein belongs to the L5P family of ribosomal proteins. It is located in the cytoplasm. The protein probably associates with the 5S rRNA. Alternative splice variants encoding different isoforms may exist, but they have not been fully characterized. As is typical for genes encoding ribosomal proteins, there are multiple processed pseudogenes of this gene dispersed through the genome.
Interactions
RPL11 has been shown to interact with:
BLMH,
Mdm2,
NOP53,
P16,
P53, and
Promyelocytic leukemia protein
References
^ a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000142676 – Ensembl, May 2017
^ a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000059291 – Ensembl, May 2017
^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
^ Kenmochi N, Kawaguchi T, Rozen S, Davis E, Goodman N, Hudson TJ, Tanaka T, Page DC (Aug 1998). "A map of 75 human ribosomal protein genes". Genome Res. 8 (5): 509–23. doi:10.1101/gr.8.5.509. PMID 9582194.
^ Graphodatsky AS, Vorobieva NV, Filipenko ML, Voronina EV, Frengen E, Prydz H (Jun 1999). "Assignment of the L11 ribosomal protein gene (RPL11) to human chromosome 1p36.1→p35 by in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 84 (1–2): 97–98. doi:10.1159/000015228. PMID 10343117. S2CID 26672114.
^ Koldamova RP, Lefterov IM, DiSabella MT, Almonte C, Watkins SC, Lazo JS (Jun 1999). "Human bleomycin hydrolase binds ribosomal proteins". Biochemistry. 38 (22): 7111–7. doi:10.1021/bi990135l. PMID 10353821.
^ a b c Zhang Y, Wolf GW, Bhat K, Jin A, Allio T, Burkhart WA, Xiong Y (Dec 2003). "Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway". Mol. Cell. Biol. 23 (23): 8902–12. doi:10.1128/mcb.23.23.8902-8912.2003. PMC 262682. PMID 14612427.
^ Dai MS, Sun XX, Lu H (Jul 2008). "Aberrant expression of nucleostemin activates p53 and induces cell cycle arrest via inhibition of MDM2". Mol. Cell. Biol. 28 (13): 4365–76. doi:10.1128/MCB.01662-07. PMC 2447154. PMID 18426907.
^ Uchi R, Kogo R, Kawahara K, Sudo T, Yokobori T, Eguchi H, et al. (October 2013). "PICT1 regulates TP53 via RPL11 and is involved in gastric cancer progression". British Journal of Cancer. 109 (8): 2199–206. doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.561. PMC 3798961. PMID 24045667.
^ Bernardi R, Scaglioni PP, Bergmann S, Horn HF, Vousden KH, Pandolfi PP (Jul 2004). "PML regulates p53 stability by sequestering Mdm2 to the nucleolus". Nat. Cell Biol. 6 (7): 665–72. doi:10.1038/ncb1147. PMID 15195100. S2CID 26281860.
Further reading
Wool IG, Chan YL, Glück A (1996). "Structure and evolution of mammalian ribosomal proteins". Biochem. Cell Biol. 73 (11–12): 933–947. doi:10.1139/o95-101. PMID 8722009.
Mishin VP, Filipenko ML, Muravlev AI, Karpova GG, Mertvetsov NP (1995). "". Bioorg. Khim. 21 (2): 158–60. PMID 7748210.
Kato S, Sekine S, Oh SW, Kim NS, Umezawa Y, Abe N, Yokoyama-Kobayashi M, Aoki T (1995). "Construction of a human full-length cDNA bank". Gene. 150 (2): 243–250. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(94)90433-2. PMID 7821789.
Koldamova RP, Lefterov IM, DiSabella MT, Almonte C, Watkins SC, Lazo JS (1999). "Human bleomycin hydrolase binds ribosomal proteins". Biochemistry. 38 (22): 7111–7117. doi:10.1021/bi990135l. PMID 10353821.
Andersen JS, Lyon CE, Fox AH, Leung AK, Lam YW, Steen H, Mann M, Lamond AI (2002). "Directed proteomic analysis of the human nucleolus". Curr. Biol. 12 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2002CBio...12....1A. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00650-9. PMID 11790298. S2CID 14132033.
Voronina EN, Kolokol'tsova TD, Nechaeva EA, Filipenko ML (2003). "". Mol. Biol. (Mosk.). 37 (3): 425–35. PMID 12815950.
Lohrum MA, Ludwig RL, Kubbutat MH, Hanlon M, Vousden KH (2004). "Regulation of HDM2 activity by the ribosomal protein L11". Cancer Cell. 3 (6): 577–587. doi:10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00134-X. PMID 12842086.
Odintsova TI, Müller EC, Ivanov AV, Egorov TA, Bienert R, Vladimirov SN, Kostka S, Otto A, Wittmann-Liebold B, Karpova GG (2004). "Characterization and analysis of posttranslational modifications of the human large cytoplasmic ribosomal subunit proteins by mass spectrometry and Edman sequencing". J. Protein Chem. 22 (3): 249–258. doi:10.1023/A:1025068419698. PMID 12962325. S2CID 10710245.
Zhang Y, Wolf GW, Bhat K, Jin A, Allio T, Burkhart WA, Xiong Y (2003). "Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway". Mol. Cell. Biol. 23 (23): 8902–8912. doi:10.1128/MCB.23.23.8902-8912.2003. PMC 262682. PMID 14612427.
Bhat KP, Itahana K, Jin A, Zhang Y (2004). "Essential role of ribosomal protein L11 in mediating growth inhibition-induced p53 activation". EMBO J. 23 (12): 2402–2412. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600247. PMC 423289. PMID 15152193.
Bernardi R, Scaglioni PP, Bergmann S, Horn HF, Vousden KH, Pandolfi PP (2004). "PML regulates p53 stability by sequestering Mdm2 to the nucleolus". Nat. Cell Biol. 6 (7): 665–672. doi:10.1038/ncb1147. PMID 15195100. S2CID 26281860.
Dai MS, Lu H (2004). "Inhibition of MDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and degradation by ribosomal protein L5". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (43): 44475–44482. doi:10.1074/jbc.M403722200. PMID 15308643.
Rual JF, Venkatesan K, Hao T, Hirozane-Kishikawa T, Dricot A, Li N, Berriz GF, Gibbons FD, Dreze M, Ayivi-Guedehoussou N, Klitgord N, Simon C, Boxem M, Milstein S, Rosenberg J, Goldberg DS, Zhang LV, Wong SL, Franklin G, Li S, Albala JS, Lim J, Fraughton C, Llamosas E, Cevik S, Bex C, Lamesch P, Sikorski RS, Vandenhaute J, Zoghbi HY, Smolyar A, Bosak S, Sequerra R, Doucette-Stamm L, Cusick ME, Hill DE, Roth FP, Vidal M (2005). "Towards a proteome-scale map of the human protein-protein interaction network". Nature. 437 (7062): 1173–1178. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1173R. doi:10.1038/nature04209. PMID 16189514. S2CID 4427026.
Dai MS, Shi D, Jin Y, Sun XX, Zhang Y, Grossman SR, Lu H (2006). "Regulation of the MDM2-p53 pathway by ribosomal protein L11 involves a post-ubiquitination mechanism". J. Biol. Chem. 281 (34): 24304–24313. doi:10.1074/jbc.M602596200. PMC 1783840. PMID 16803902.
Lindström MS, Jin A, Deisenroth C, White Wolf G, Zhang Y (2007). "Cancer-associated mutations in the MDM2 zinc finger domain disrupt ribosomal protein interaction and attenuate MDM2-induced p53 degradation". Mol. Cell. Biol. 27 (3): 1056–1068. doi:10.1128/MCB.01307-06. PMC 1800693. PMID 17116689.
External links
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Diamond-Blackfan Anemia
vteProtein biosynthesis: translation (bacterial, archaeal, eukaryotic)ProteinsInitiation factorBacterial
IF1
IF2
IF3
Mitochondrial
MTIF1
MTIF2
MTIF3
Archaeal
aIF1
aIF2
aIF5
aIF6
EukaryoticeIF1
eIF1
B
SUI1 family
eIF1A
Y
eIF2
α
kinase
β
γ
eIF2A
eIF2B
1
2
3
4
5
eIF2D
eIF3
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
eIF4
A
1
2
3
E1
2
3
G
1
2
3
B
H
eIF5
EIF5
EIF5A
2
5B
eIF6
EIF6
Elongation factorBacterial/Mitochondrial
EF-Tu
EF-Ts
EF-G
EF-4
EF-P
TSFM
GFM1
GFM2
Archaeal/Eukaryotic
a/eEF-1
A1
2
3
B
P1
P2
P3
D
E
G
a/eEF-2
Release factor
Class 1
eRF1
Class 2/RF3
GSPT1
GSPT2
Ribosomal ProteinsCytoplasmic60S subunit
RPL3
RPL4
RPL5
RPL6
RPL7
RPL7A
RPL8
RPL9
RPL10
RPL10A
RPL10-like
RPL11
RPL12
RPL13
RPL13A
RPL14
RPL15
RPL17
RPL18
RPL18A
RPL19
RPL21
RPL22
RPL23
RPL23A
RPL24
RPL26
RPL27
RPL27A
RPL28
RPL29
RPL30
RPL31
RPL32
RPL34
RPL35
RPL35A
RPL36
RPL36A
RPL37
RPL37A
RPL38
RPL39
RPL40
RPL41
RPLP0
RPLP1
RPLP2
RRP15-like
RSL24D1
40S subunit
RPSA
RPS2
RPS3
RPS3A
RPS4 (RPS4X, RPS4Y1, RPS4Y2)
RPS5
RPS6
RPS7
RPS8
RPS9
RPS10
RPS11
RPS12
RPS13
RPS14
RPS15
RPS15A
RPS16
RPS17
RPS18
RPS19
RPS20
RPS21
RPS23
RPS24
RPS25
RPS26
RPS27
RPS27A
RPS28
RPS29
RPS30
RACK1
Mitochondrial39S subunit
MRPL1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
28S subunit
MRPS1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Other concepts
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
Reading frame
Start codon
Stop codon
Shine-Dalgarno sequence/Kozak consensus sequence
vteRibosomal RNA / ribosome subunitsArchaea(70S)Large (50S):
5S23SSmall (30S):
16SBacteria(70S)Large (50S):
5S23SSmall (30S):
16SEukaryotesCytoplasmic (80S)Large (60S):
5S5.8S28SSmall (40S):
18SMitochondrial (55S)Large (28S):
MT-RNR2, 16SMT-tRNAValSmall (39S):
MT-RNR1, 12SChloroplast (70S)Large (50S):
5S4.5S23SSmall (30S):
16SRibosomal proteins(See article table)
This article on a gene on human chromosome 1 is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Filetab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filetab"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"gene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid9582194-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10343117-6"}],"text":"For the programming language RPL-11, see Filetab.60S ribosomal protein L11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RPL11 gene.[5][6]","title":"60S ribosomal protein L11"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"protein synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_synthesis"},{"link_name":"40S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40S"},{"link_name":"60S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/60S"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"ribosomal protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomal_protein"},{"link_name":"cytoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm"},{"link_name":"Alternative splice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_splicing"},{"link_name":"isoforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoform"},{"link_name":"pseudogenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudogene"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Ribosomes, the organelles that catalyze protein synthesis, consist of a small 40S subunit and a large 60S subunit. Together these subunits are composed of 4 RNA species and approximately 80 structurally distinct proteins. This gene encodes a ribosomal protein that is a component of the 60S subunit. The protein belongs to the L5P family of ribosomal proteins. It is located in the cytoplasm. The protein probably associates with the 5S rRNA. Alternative splice variants encoding different isoforms may exist, but they have not been fully characterized. As is typical for genes encoding ribosomal proteins, there are multiple processed pseudogenes of this gene dispersed through the genome.[citation needed]","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein-protein_interaction"},{"link_name":"BLMH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BLMH"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid10353821-7"},{"link_name":"Mdm2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mdm2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14612427-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid18426907-9"},{"link_name":"NOP53","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLTSCR2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"P16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P16_(gene)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14612427-8"},{"link_name":"P53","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P53"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid14612427-8"},{"link_name":"Promyelocytic leukemia protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyelocytic_leukemia_protein"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15195100-11"}],"text":"RPL11 has been shown to interact with:BLMH,[7]\nMdm2,[8][9]\nNOP53,[10]\nP16,[8]\nP53,[8] and\nPromyelocytic leukemia protein[11]","title":"Interactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1139/o95-101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1139%2Fo95-101"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8722009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8722009"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7748210","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7748210"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0378-1119(94)90433-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-1119%2894%2990433-2"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"7821789","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7821789"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1021/bi990135l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1021%2Fbi990135l"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10353821","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10353821"},{"link_name":"\"Directed proteomic analysis of the human nucleolus\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2801%2900650-9"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2002CBio...12....1A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CBio...12....1A"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00650-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2801%2900650-9"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11790298","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11790298"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"14132033","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14132033"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12815950","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12815950"},{"link_name":"\"Regulation of HDM2 activity by the ribosomal protein L11\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1535-6108%2803%2900134-X"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00134-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1535-6108%2803%2900134-X"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12842086","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12842086"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1023/A:1025068419698","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1025068419698"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12962325","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12962325"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10710245","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10710245"},{"link_name":"\"Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC262682"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1128/MCB.23.23.8902-8912.2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1128%2FMCB.23.23.8902-8912.2003"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"262682","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC262682"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"14612427","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14612427"},{"link_name":"\"Essential role of ribosomal protein L11 in mediating growth inhibition-induced p53 activation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC423289"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/sj.emboj.7600247","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.emboj.7600247"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"423289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC423289"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"15152193","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15152193"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/ncb1147","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fncb1147"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"15195100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15195100"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"26281860","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26281860"},{"link_name":"\"Inhibition of MDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and degradation by ribosomal protein L5\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M403722200"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1074/jbc.M403722200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M403722200"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"15308643","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15308643"},{"link_name":"Zoghbi HY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huda_Zoghbi"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2005Natur.437.1173R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.437.1173R"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/nature04209","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04209"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"16189514","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16189514"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4427026","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4427026"},{"link_name":"\"Regulation of the MDM2-p53 pathway by ribosomal protein L11 involves a post-ubiquitination mechanism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1783840"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1074/jbc.M602596200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M602596200"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1783840","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1783840"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"16803902","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16803902"},{"link_name":"\"Cancer-associated mutations in the MDM2 zinc finger domain disrupt ribosomal protein interaction and attenuate MDM2-induced p53 degradation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1800693"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1128/MCB.01307-06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1128%2FMCB.01307-06"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1800693","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1800693"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"17116689","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17116689"}],"text":"Wool IG, Chan YL, Glück A (1996). \"Structure and evolution of mammalian ribosomal proteins\". Biochem. Cell Biol. 73 (11–12): 933–947. doi:10.1139/o95-101. PMID 8722009.\nMishin VP, Filipenko ML, Muravlev AI, Karpova GG, Mertvetsov NP (1995). \"[Cloning and determination of the primary structure of DNA complementary to the mRNA of human ribosomal protein L11]\". Bioorg. Khim. 21 (2): 158–60. PMID 7748210.\nKato S, Sekine S, Oh SW, Kim NS, Umezawa Y, Abe N, Yokoyama-Kobayashi M, Aoki T (1995). \"Construction of a human full-length cDNA bank\". Gene. 150 (2): 243–250. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(94)90433-2. PMID 7821789.\nKoldamova RP, Lefterov IM, DiSabella MT, Almonte C, Watkins SC, Lazo JS (1999). \"Human bleomycin hydrolase binds ribosomal proteins\". Biochemistry. 38 (22): 7111–7117. doi:10.1021/bi990135l. PMID 10353821.\nAndersen JS, Lyon CE, Fox AH, Leung AK, Lam YW, Steen H, Mann M, Lamond AI (2002). \"Directed proteomic analysis of the human nucleolus\". Curr. Biol. 12 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:2002CBio...12....1A. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00650-9. PMID 11790298. S2CID 14132033.\nVoronina EN, Kolokol'tsova TD, Nechaeva EA, Filipenko ML (2003). \"[Structural and functional analysis of the human ribosomal protein L11 gene]\". Mol. Biol. (Mosk.). 37 (3): 425–35. PMID 12815950.\nLohrum MA, Ludwig RL, Kubbutat MH, Hanlon M, Vousden KH (2004). \"Regulation of HDM2 activity by the ribosomal protein L11\". Cancer Cell. 3 (6): 577–587. doi:10.1016/S1535-6108(03)00134-X. PMID 12842086.\nOdintsova TI, Müller EC, Ivanov AV, Egorov TA, Bienert R, Vladimirov SN, Kostka S, Otto A, Wittmann-Liebold B, Karpova GG (2004). \"Characterization and analysis of posttranslational modifications of the human large cytoplasmic ribosomal subunit proteins by mass spectrometry and Edman sequencing\". J. Protein Chem. 22 (3): 249–258. doi:10.1023/A:1025068419698. PMID 12962325. S2CID 10710245.\nZhang Y, Wolf GW, Bhat K, Jin A, Allio T, Burkhart WA, Xiong Y (2003). \"Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway\". Mol. Cell. Biol. 23 (23): 8902–8912. doi:10.1128/MCB.23.23.8902-8912.2003. PMC 262682. PMID 14612427.\nBhat KP, Itahana K, Jin A, Zhang Y (2004). \"Essential role of ribosomal protein L11 in mediating growth inhibition-induced p53 activation\". EMBO J. 23 (12): 2402–2412. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600247. PMC 423289. PMID 15152193.\nBernardi R, Scaglioni PP, Bergmann S, Horn HF, Vousden KH, Pandolfi PP (2004). \"PML regulates p53 stability by sequestering Mdm2 to the nucleolus\". Nat. Cell Biol. 6 (7): 665–672. doi:10.1038/ncb1147. PMID 15195100. S2CID 26281860.\nDai MS, Lu H (2004). \"Inhibition of MDM2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and degradation by ribosomal protein L5\". J. Biol. Chem. 279 (43): 44475–44482. doi:10.1074/jbc.M403722200. PMID 15308643.\nRual JF, Venkatesan K, Hao T, Hirozane-Kishikawa T, Dricot A, Li N, Berriz GF, Gibbons FD, Dreze M, Ayivi-Guedehoussou N, Klitgord N, Simon C, Boxem M, Milstein S, Rosenberg J, Goldberg DS, Zhang LV, Wong SL, Franklin G, Li S, Albala JS, Lim J, Fraughton C, Llamosas E, Cevik S, Bex C, Lamesch P, Sikorski RS, Vandenhaute J, Zoghbi HY, Smolyar A, Bosak S, Sequerra R, Doucette-Stamm L, Cusick ME, Hill DE, Roth FP, Vidal M (2005). \"Towards a proteome-scale map of the human protein-protein interaction network\". Nature. 437 (7062): 1173–1178. Bibcode:2005Natur.437.1173R. doi:10.1038/nature04209. PMID 16189514. S2CID 4427026.\nDai MS, Shi D, Jin Y, Sun XX, Zhang Y, Grossman SR, Lu H (2006). \"Regulation of the MDM2-p53 pathway by ribosomal protein L11 involves a post-ubiquitination mechanism\". J. Biol. Chem. 281 (34): 24304–24313. doi:10.1074/jbc.M602596200. PMC 1783840. PMID 16803902.\nLindström MS, Jin A, Deisenroth C, White Wolf G, Zhang Y (2007). \"Cancer-associated mutations in the MDM2 zinc finger domain disrupt ribosomal protein interaction and attenuate MDM2-induced p53 degradation\". Mol. Cell. Biol. 27 (3): 1056–1068. doi:10.1128/MCB.01307-06. PMC 1800693. PMID 17116689.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"Human PubMed Reference:\". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=gene&cmd=Link&LinkName=gene_pubmed&from_uid=6135","url_text":"\"Human PubMed Reference:\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mouse PubMed Reference:\". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=gene&cmd=Link&LinkName=gene_pubmed&from_uid=67025","url_text":"\"Mouse PubMed Reference:\""}]},{"reference":"Kenmochi N, Kawaguchi T, Rozen S, Davis E, Goodman N, Hudson TJ, Tanaka T, Page DC (Aug 1998). \"A map of 75 human ribosomal protein genes\". Genome Res. 8 (5): 509–23. doi:10.1101/gr.8.5.509. PMID 9582194.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fgr.8.5.509","url_text":"\"A map of 75 human ribosomal protein genes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1101%2Fgr.8.5.509","url_text":"10.1101/gr.8.5.509"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9582194","url_text":"9582194"}]},{"reference":"Graphodatsky AS, Vorobieva NV, Filipenko ML, Voronina EV, Frengen E, Prydz H (Jun 1999). \"Assignment of the L11 ribosomal protein gene (RPL11) to human chromosome 1p36.1→p35 by in situ hybridization\". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 84 (1–2): 97–98. doi:10.1159/000015228. PMID 10343117. S2CID 26672114.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000015228","url_text":"10.1159/000015228"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10343117","url_text":"10343117"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26672114","url_text":"26672114"}]},{"reference":"Koldamova RP, Lefterov IM, DiSabella MT, Almonte C, Watkins SC, Lazo JS (Jun 1999). \"Human bleomycin hydrolase binds ribosomal proteins\". Biochemistry. 38 (22): 7111–7. doi:10.1021/bi990135l. PMID 10353821.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbi990135l","url_text":"10.1021/bi990135l"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10353821","url_text":"10353821"}]},{"reference":"Zhang Y, Wolf GW, Bhat K, Jin A, Allio T, Burkhart WA, Xiong Y (Dec 2003). \"Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway\". Mol. Cell. Biol. 23 (23): 8902–12. doi:10.1128/mcb.23.23.8902-8912.2003. PMC 262682. PMID 14612427.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC262682","url_text":"\"Ribosomal protein L11 negatively regulates oncoprotein MDM2 and mediates a p53-dependent ribosomal-stress checkpoint pathway\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2Fmcb.23.23.8902-8912.2003","url_text":"10.1128/mcb.23.23.8902-8912.2003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC262682","url_text":"262682"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14612427","url_text":"14612427"}]},{"reference":"Dai MS, Sun XX, Lu H (Jul 2008). \"Aberrant expression of nucleostemin activates p53 and induces cell cycle arrest via inhibition of MDM2\". Mol. Cell. Biol. 28 (13): 4365–76. doi:10.1128/MCB.01662-07. PMC 2447154. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin
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Cardinal Mazarin
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["1 Early life","2 Papal envoy","3 Cardinal and deputy of Richelieu","4 Chief minister of France – Diplomacy","5 Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)","5.1 The Fronde of the Parliament","5.2 The Fronde of the Princes","6 Financing the Kingdom – Fouquet and Colbert","7 Patron of the arts","8 Educator of Louis XIV","9 Final military and diplomatic accomplishments (1658–1661)","10 Death","11 The Mazarinettes","12 In fiction","13 Notes and citations","14 Books cited in text","15 Further reading","16 External links"]
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Catholic cardinal (1602–1661)
His EminenceCardinal MazarinPortrait of Jules Mazarin by Pierre Mignard (1658)First Minister of StateIn office4 December 1642 – 9 March 1661MonarchsLouis XIIIQueen Anne (regent)Louis XIVPreceded byThe Duke of RichelieuSucceeded byJean-Baptiste Colbert
Personal detailsBornGiulio Raimondo Mazzarino(1602-07-14)14 July 1602Pescina, Abruzzo Ultra, Kingdom of NaplesDied9 March 1661(1661-03-09) (aged 58)Vincennes, Île-de-France, FranceAlma materRoman CollegeProfessionClergyman, statesmanCardinal, Bishop of MetzMetropolisImmediately Subject to the Holy SeeDioceseMetzSeeMetzAppointed29 November 1653Term ended1658PredecessorHenri de BourbonSuccessorFranz Egon of FürstenbergOther post(s)Abbot of Cluny (1654–1661)OrdersCreated cardinal16 December 1641by Pope Urban VIIIRankCardinal-deaconPersonal detailsDenominationCatholic ChurchMottoFirmando firmior hæretHinc ordo, hinc copia rerumSignature
Styles ofJules Raymond MazarinReference styleHis EminenceSpoken styleYour EminenceInformal styleCardinalSeeMetz
Jules Mazarin (born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini; 14 July 1602 – 9 March 1661), known as Cardinal Mazarin, was an Italian Catholic prelate, diplomat and politician who served as the chief minister to the Kings of France Louis XIII and Louis XIV from 1642 to his death.
After serving as a papal diplomat for Pope Urban VIII, Mazarin offered his diplomatic services to Cardinal Richelieu and moved to Paris in 1640. After the death of Richelieu in 1642, Mazarin took his place as first minister of Louis XIII, and then of Louis XIV, when he succeeded to the throne in 1643. Mazarin acted as the head of the government for Anne of Austria, the regent for the young Louis XIV. Mazarin was also made responsible for the king's education until he came of age.
The first years of Mazarin in office were marked by military victories in the Thirty Years' War, which he used to make France the main European power and establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–1648). A major uprising against Anne of Austria and Mazarin, called the Fronde and led by the nobles of the Parlement of Paris, broke out in Paris in 1648, followed by a second Fronde, led by Louis, Grand Condé, who had turned from his chief ally to his chief enemy. Mazarin took Anne of Austria and Louis XIV out of Paris and then shifted his base to Germany for a time. Turenne, a general loyal to Louis XIV and Mazarin, defeated Condé, and Mazarin made a triumphal return to Paris in 1653.
The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1657 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories. In 1657 he made a military alliance with England. In 1658 he unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of 50 small German principalities, which were now linked by a treaty with France. The same year, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. Between February and June 1659, Mazarin conducted intensive negotiations with the Spanish. On 7 November 1659, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which added Artois, the Cerdagne and Roussillon as new provinces of France. That was followed in June 1660 by an even more important diplomatic event that had been carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain. The marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. The marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Habsburgs and France.
Exhausted by his diplomatic efforts, Mazarin died in 1661.
Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France for nearly two decades, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of the principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, have remained the basis of international law to this day.
In addition to his diplomacy, Mazarin was an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian opera on a grand scale to Paris and assembled a remarkable art collection, much of which today can be seen in the Louvre. He also founded the Bibliothèque Mazarine, the first true public library in France, which is now found in the Institut de France, across the Seine from the Louvre.
Early life
Giulio Mazzarino was born on 14 July 1602 in Pescina in the Abruzzo province of Italy, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Rome. His parents were residents of Rome, spending the summer in Pescina to escape the summer heat. His father, Pietro Mazzarino (1576–1654), had moved to Rome from Sicily in 1590 to become a chamberlain in the family of Filippo I Colonna, the Grand Constable of Naples. His father became a citizen of Rome in 1608. His mother Ortensia Bufalini (1575–1644) was a native of Rome, from the Bufalini family of nobility whose origins were in Città di Castello in Umbria. The family had moved to Rome in the Middle Ages. She was the goddaughter of Filippo I Colonna, her husband's employer. Giulio was the eldest of six children, two boys and four girls.
Through the influence of the Colonnas, Giulio was admitted at the age of seven to the Jesuit College in Rome, the most respected school in the city. Though he declined to join their order, he excelled in his studies. In 1618, at the age of sixteen, he gave a public lecture on theories explaining Halley's comet, which appeared in that year. He also excelled in theatrics; he was chosen to play the part of the newly sainted Ignatius of Loyola in a religious pageant. He also acquired the habit of gambling at cards, and was frequently in debt. A particular favourite game of his was a variant of Hoc named after him: Hoc Mazarin.
When he was twenty his father decided to send him away from the bad influences of Rome. Giulio accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, who was eighteen, to the Complutense University of Madrid (then located in Alcalá de Henares) in Spain. He studied law with Girolamo during the daytime and in the evenings continued to gamble and again was in debt. A notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry, and Giulio accepted. Girolamo Colonna wrote urgently to his father in Rome, and Giulio was ordered to return immediately to Rome, without his fiancée.
Papal envoy
Upon his return to Rome, he resumed his studies, this time in law. In 1628 he received the title of doctor in utroque jure, meaning he could practice both civil and canonical law. In the same year Ferdinand II, the Habsburg emperor, laid claim to a papal territory, the Valtellina, in the Italian alps. Pope Urban VIII raised an army to defend his territory. The Prince of Palestrina, who was also a member of the Colonna family, commanded a new regiment of the Papal army, and invited Giulio to become a lieutenant in the regiment. Since neither the regiment nor Giulio had any military experience, they were assigned to a town far from the front line. Giulio knew little of military discipline. He received a message from Rome informing that his mother was seriously ill. Without asking permission from his commander, he immediately rode to Rome, and stayed there until his mother had recovered. He was summoned before the Pope, Urban VIII, to explain why he had deserted his post. He threw himself at the feet of the Pope, and pleaded to be pardoned for his excess of loyalty to his family. The Pope was impressed by Giulio's spontaneity and eloquence, forgave his desertion, and invited him to become a Papal emissary.
In 1628 Mazarin was named the secretary to Jean-François Sacchetti, a senior papal diplomat, who was trying to prevent the impending War of the Mantuan Succession between the armies of France and Spain for dominance of that region of northern Italy. Throughout 1629 and 1630 he shuttled between Milan, Mantua, Turin, Casale and France, trying to find a solution to the crisis before the fighting began. This became, throughout his career, his standard method of diplomacy; traveling continually, getting to know and win the trust of as many decision-makers as possible. During this time he came to know Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the head of diplomacy for the papacy, and, more important, Cardinal Richelieu of France, his future mentor, whom he first met in Lyon on 29 January 1630. Richelieu was aloof and confrontational; he wrote afterwards: "This Mazarini is here more to spy than to negotiate....He is so Spanish and so Savoyard that what he says shouldn't be taken as gospel truth."
Mazarin carrying the peace agreement to the armies at Casale, crying "Peace! Peace!" (18th century engraving)
Richelieu at first decided to ignore Mazarin's diplomacy and to send the French army across the Alps into Italy. On 26 October 1630 the French and Spanish armies met outside the walls of the French-held town of Casale, ready to fight. Suddenly, a man on horseback with a flag appeared, galloping toward them, crying "Pace! Pace!" ("Peace! Peace!") It was Mazarin, carrying an agreement from the Spanish commander to evacuate their soldiers from the town if the French would leave Montferrat to Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Mazarin brought together the Spanish and French commanders and explained the terms of the agreement, which were readily accepted by both sides. Mazarin had achieved his first diplomatic success.
The result of Mazarin's first diplomatic efforts was the Treaty of Cherasco, 6 April 1631, in which the Emperor and the Duke of Savoy recognized the possession of Mantua and part of Monferrat by Charles Gonzaga and the French occupation of the strategic stronghold of Pinerolo, the gate to the valley of the Po, to the great satisfaction of Richelieu and King Louis XIII of France.
The Pope sent Mazarin to Paris at the beginning of 1631 to work out the final details of the agreement. He returned to France again from April to July 1632. He had his first interview with Lous XIII and with the Queen, Anne of Austria, in May 1632. He tried to persuade Louis XIII to send a military expedition to capture Geneva, the fortress of the Protestant movement, but the King, who had good relations with the Swiss cantons, rejected the idea. Mazarin returned to Rome in November 1632, and made a new friend and ally, Antonio Barberini, the nephew of the Pope and one of his chief diplomats, and his older brother, Francesco Barberini, the Cardinal Secretary of State. With their assistance, he established himself as a guardian of French interests in Rome, and then of papal interests in France. In 1632, he was named papal vice-legate at Avignon, appointed a prelate, and began to wear ecclesiastical dress, though he was not and never became a priest.
Mazarin as a papal envoy in Paris (1632)
While in Rome, Mazarin sent regular gifts of flowers, perfumes and delicacies to the women of the French court, and more valuable gifts, including statues and Renaissance paintings, to Richelieu. In 1634 he was named nuncio extraordinary to Paris by Urban VIII, and entrusted with the mission of persuading Louis XIII to undertake a grand naval crusade against the Turks. The goal was to create a combined fleet of the ships of Christian nations to seize the Turkish ports around the Mediterranean. Mazarin, a realist, knew that, given the rivalries between European powers, this project would never take place.
A new crisis arrived on 19 May 1635; France declared war on the Habsburg rulers of Austria and Spain. Mazarin wrote later that he had done his best to persuade Richelieu to avoid a war. He wrote that in March 1635 he gave Richelieu all his reasons to maintain the peace. "His Eminence told me, as he stood up," Mazarin wrote, "that I courted Peace as if she were the woman of my dreams. Then he shook my hand, and concluded, 'You are no longer on the side of France.'" Mazarin returned to Avignon on 7 April 1636.
During all of his negotiations, Mazarin was very careful not to be too critical of the French court and Richelieu, and they remained in contact. In November 1636 he left Avignon to return to Rome, carrying instructions from Richelieu that made him a discreet ambassador for the king of France.
The atmosphere within the papal curia was hostile to France and to Richelieu; Spanish priests occupied many positions in the hierarchy and they considered him, with reason, an agent of France. When the Pope refused to send him back to France, or to represent the papacy at a peace conference, he wrote: "I am not a subject of the King of France, but I believe I can truly say that the declarations of the Spanish have declared me to be French, so that with justice one can say that France is my country."
His position in Rome was increasingly difficult. He had the affection of Pope Urban VIII, but he was disliked by Cardinal Barberini, the chief of Papal diplomacy, and by the large contingent of Spaniards in the papal household. He spent his time collecting sculpture and other works of art which he sent to Richelieu for the Cardinal's new palace in Paris. He considered serving the rulers of Savoy, Poland, or Queen Henriette of England, but in the end he decided to enter the service of Richelieu and France. However, Richelieu was in no hurry to bring him to Paris; he valued the diplomatic contributions Mazarin was making in Rome, as well as the art treasures he was acquiring. He kept Mazarin in Rome for two more years. Richelieu did one important favor for Mazarin; in October 1638 he put forward Mazarin's name as a candidate for Cardinal when the next vacancy opened up. In December 1638, when a sitting Cardinal died, Mazarin was nominated as a Cardinal. He had to wait the entire year of 1639 before his new position was confirmed. Then on 14 December 1639, he departed Rome for the port of Civitavecchia, boarded an armed French ship to Marseille, and then traveled from Lyon to Paris, where he arrived on 5 January 1640.
Cardinal and deputy of Richelieu
Portrait of Cardinal Jules Mazarin by Simon Vouet (before 1649, private collection)
When he arrived in Paris, Mazarin was welcomed warmly by the King, by Richelieu, and by the Queen, Anne of Austria, to whom Mazarin had regularly sent perfumes, fans, gloves and other gifts. The Queen was at this time pregnant with her second child, and it was already anticipated that she would be the regent when King Louis XIII died. Mazarin advised Richelieu on both political and cultural matters. He recommended artists to bring from Rome to Paris, and in 1640 he commissioned a bust of Richelieu from the sculptor Bernini in Rome, sending Bernini pictures of Richelieu. The bust of Richelieu arrived in August 1641. Mazarin declared that it was perfect, so lifelike that, as he wrote, "it seemed about to speak", but French tastes did not approve of the Baroque style. The other members of the Court condemned the work, and Mazarin wrote back to Bernini, sending him more pictures of Richelieu and asking him to try again.
Richelieu sent Mazarin on several delicate diplomatic missions, including a long trip to Savoy to straighten out the tangled political affairs there: the regency of Christine, the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, was challenged by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy. (See Piedmontese Civil War) Mazarin successfully secured Christine's position, and established a solid alliance between Savoy and France. This task kept him away from Paris for nine months, until June 1641. On 16 December 1641, though he had not reached his fortieth birthday, he received what he most desired, he was formally made a Cardinal.
He had established a cordial relationship with Richelieu; Richelieu jokingly referred to him as Rinzama (an anagram of his name), or Nunzinicardo ("dear little envoy"), or, most frequently, Colmarduccio, or Colmardo. When was asked what it meant, he translated into French as Frère Coupechou, the term for a junior candidate monk who was assigned to chop cabbage in the kitchen of the abbey. However, he did not send Mazarin on the mission that he most wanted, as delegate of France to a Europe-wide peace conference. Richelieu's attention was devoted to making war; Richelieu, who was elderly and in poor health, took the King, who was also in poor health, the court and Mazarin on a series of long military expeditions, to suppress a rebellion in Catalonia, to capture Roussillon, and, in January 1642, to lay siege to Narbonne.
On 11 June 1642, while in Tarascon on one of the long military expeditions, Mazarin was presented with evidence that Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIII, and the Marquis of Cinq-Mars, one of the King's closest advisors, had made a secret agreement with the King of Spain, without the knowledge of Richelieu or the King. It appeared probable that the Queen, Anne of Austria, was also aware of this secret betrayal of Richelieu, but did not tell him or the King. Cinq-Mars was arrested, Gaston was disgraced, and another conspirator, the Duke of Bouillon, was granted a pardon on the condition of revealing all the details of the plot to Mazarin, and surrendering the important fortress of Sedan to the King. Mazarin did not reveal the participation of the Queen in the conspiracy, but his knowledge gave him even greater leverage at the court. The destruction of the conspiracy against the King was one of the last acts of Cardinal Richelieu. He fell ill and died on 4 December 1642.
Chief minister of France – Diplomacy
Anne of Austria with her children Louis XIV of France and Philippe, Duke of Orléans (unknown artist)
The succession of Mazarin to the position of chief minister of Louis XIII was not automatic or immediate. Despite the accounts of some later historians, Richelieu did not name Mazarin as his successor. Richelieu did, according to Mazarin himself, advise the King to employ Mazarin, who until that time had no official position at Court.
After the death of Richelieu, Louis XIII named three prominent figures to advise him; François Sublet de Noyers, Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny and Mazarin. Mazarin and de Chavigny immediately joined together to get rid of de Noyers. They hinted to the King that de Noyers had secretly made an agreement with Anne of Austria to make her the regent of France after the King's death. The King, who had little love for the Queen and in his will had refused to make her his Regent, was furious; de Noyers was forced to resign on 10 April 1643.
Louis XIII died 14 May 1643, just five months after Richelieu. His successor, Louis XIV, was just four years old. The King had specifically instructed that his wife, Anne of Austria, not rule in his place as regent. However, as soon as he was dead, she applied to the body of nobles known as the Parlement of Paris, and had his will annulled. She was declared Regent on 18 May. The Queen had a particular dislike of de Chavigny, the other chief advisor chosen by Louis XIII. He had been close to Richelieu and was the only real rival in experience to Mazarin. The evening that she became regent, she declared that Mazarin would be her chief minister and head of her government.
The management style of Mazarin was entirely different from that of Richelieu. The contrast was described by Cardinal Retz, the future enemy of Mazarin, in his Memoires: "One saw on the steps of the throne, where the sharp and fearsome Richelieu had thundered rather than governed the people, a leader who is gentle, benevolent, and demands nothing...He has the spirit, the insinuation, the playfulness, the manners, but also a certain laziness...."
Cardinal Retz and other rivals in the court underestimated Mazarin's skills, energy and determination. Mazarin continued Richelieu's costly war against the chief rivals of France in Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. The victories of Condé and Turenne finally brought Austria to the bargaining table and ended the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48)
Mazarin's policies also added Alsace (though not Strasbourg) to France. He settled Protestant princes in secularized bishoprics and abbacies in reward for their political opposition to the Habsburgs, building a network of French influence as a buffer in the western part of the Empire. In 1657, he made an attempt to get Louis XIV elected as Holy Roman Emperor. In 1658 he formed the League of the Rhine, which was designed to check the House of Austria in central Germany. In 1659 he made peace with Habsburg Spain in the Peace of the Pyrenees, which added to French territory Roussillon and northern Cerdanya—as French Cerdagne—in the far south as well as part of the Low Countries.
Towards Protestantism at home, Mazarin pursued a policy of promises and calculated delay to defuse the armed insurrection of the Ardèche (1653), for example, and to keep the Huguenots disarmed: for six years they believed themselves to be on the eve of recovering the protections of the Edict of Nantes, but in the end they obtained nothing.
There was constant friction with the pontificate of the Spanish Cardinal Pamphilj, elected Pope on 15 September 1644 as Innocent X. Mazarin protected the Barberini cardinals, nephews of the late Pope, and the Bull against them was voted by the Parlement of Paris "null and abusive"; France made a show of preparing to take Avignon by force, and Innocent backed down. Mazarin was more consistently an enemy of Jansenism, in particular during the formulary controversy, more for its political implications than out of theology. On his deathbed he warned young Louis "not to tolerate the Jansenist sect, not even their name." After his death, Louis XIV did not appoint a new principal minister and instead governed himself, marking the beginning of a new era of centralized government in France.
Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)
Main article: The Fronde
Mazarin's long war against the Habsburgs, the final part of the Thirty Years War, was successful, but the cost was enormous. Resentment grew against the Spanish Queen and her Italian prime minister, and culminated in the Fronde, a rebellion against the government by members of the nobility and discontented citizens of Paris, which lasted from 1648 until 1653.
Mazarin was forced to raise money by any means possible to support the war against the Habsburgs. His financial counselor was Michel Particelli d'Emery, also Italian. When taxes, loans, and the sale of titles did not bring in enough, he sought new sources of income. He discovered an old law dating to Henry IV which forbade Parisians to build houses outside the city limits. Since the city had grown well outside its old boundaries, in 1644 he imposed heavy fines on all those who lived outside the city limits. In addition, he taxed all merchandise being brought into the city. One measure caused particular resentment among the nobility; he imposed a special tax on all the nobles who served on the various royal courts and councils, amounting to four years of their fees.
The Fronde of the Parliament
An anti-Mazarin cartoon from the Fronde (about 1650). The caption reads, "Despite Mazarin, the frondeurs assure the safety of the state."
The center of resistance was the Paris parlement, an ancient assembly of nobles which served as a high court of appeals. It was a period of rebellion against monarchs across Europe; independence movements appeared in the Spanish provinces of Catalonia and Portugal, a revolutionary seized power in Naples, and Charles I of England, the brother-in-law of Louis XIII, was deposed and executed in 1649. In Paris, the members of the parlement called a special session to debate Mazarin's measures. The meeting was forbidden by Regent, Anne of Austria, but went ahead anyway. The parlement issued a charter, inspired by the writ of Habeas Corpus in England, which revoked the authority of the King's justice officials, forbade any new taxes without the approval of the parlement, and declared that no royal subjects could be imprisoned without due process of law.
Mazarin recommended to the Queen that she listen to the parlement and modify her decrees, but she was furious at their opposition. She waited until the right moment to strike back. The occasion she chose was the celebration of a major victory of the French Army over the Spanish at the Battle of Lens in Belgium on 26 August 1648. On the day that a special mass was held at the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris to celebrate the victory, she gave orders to the Captain of her guards to arrest the leaders of the parlement, including the popular Pierre Broussel. News of the arrest quickly spread in Paris, and crowds came out into the street to protest and to build barricades. That evening Mazarin wrote in his journal, "the parlement has performed the functions of the King, and the people have deferred to it entirely."
During the Fronde, the anti-Mazarin crowds of Paris enjoyed listening to Mazarinades, popular songs with verses mocking the Cardinal. Dozens were written and published, accusing him of virtually all possible faults and crimes. Mazarin had a sense of humor, and when the Fronde was finished, he had the best Mazarinades collected and performed in a concert at his palace.
The rebellion lasted for three years. It took its popular name, Fronde, from the children's slings (frondes) which were used by the mobs in the Paris streets to hurl stones. It combined the anger of the Parisians against the new taxes with the resentment of the nobility against the reduction of their ancient privileges. It was led over time by an odd assortment of allies; Gaston d'Orleans, the brother of Louis XIII; Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé a brilliant general but poor politician, and the Cardinal Paul de Gondi, a consummate intriguer. Each of them had different goals, but all agreed that Mazarin should fall.
When the Fronde began, the French Army, commanded by the Prince de Condé was far from Paris, fighting the Austrians. Mazarin quickly sent an envoy to the Emperor in Vienna, calling for a truce and peace conference. The Peace of Westphalia, ending the war, was signed 24 October 1648. Despite the peace, disturbances continued in the streets of Paris. During the night of January 6, 1649, Mazarin secretly took the young Louis XIV, Anne of Austria and the court to the safety of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, just west of Paris. Mazarin then set to work intriguing to divide the different factions of the Fronde. His goal was to separate the members of the Parlement and the more radical Parisian street demonstrators, who were united only by their dislike of Mazarin and Anne of Austria.
As soon as the war was concluded, he brought Condé and his army back to Paris and placed the city under blockade. He then persuaded the Parlement that they had more to fear from an uprising of the Parisiens than they did from him. On 14 March 1649 Mazarin accepted many of the reforms demanded by the Parlement. In return, the Parlement supporters laid down their weapons and allowed Anne of Austria, the young Louis XIV and Mazarin to return to Paris.
The Fronde of the Princes
Louis the Prince de Condé, leader of the second Fronde
The Parlement accepted Mazarin and his government, but the Fronde was still not finished. Many frondeurs were unhappy with the compromise reached in 1649. Once in Paris, Condé made endless demands on Anne of Austria until she finally angrily dismissed him. One of the other leaders of the Fronde, Jean François Paul de Gondi, soon persuaded Condé to join him in bringing down both Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Mazarin had an excellent network of agents, and immediately learned of the plot. On 18 January 1650 Mazarin had Condé, Condé's brother, Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti and his brother-in-law, Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville arrested.
The agreements of 1649 had brought peace to Paris, but the unrest of the Fronde continued in other parts of France. Opponents of Mazarin disrupted tax collection and administration. As the rebellion grew, Mazarin observed that the rebels were only united in opposition to him. He decided it was wisest to resign his position and leave France while he could. He had Condé freed from prison, and, after a long journey to different cities, settled in Brühl near Cologne, as the guest of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne.
From Germany, he sent daily instructions to Anne of Austria and to his agents in France. The strategy was to sow distrust among the different factions of the Fronde. Mazarin's instructions were carried out meticulously by Anne of Austria. His intrigues succeeded in preventing the proposed marriage between one of the leading Frondeurs, the Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti with Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse, another of his principal enemies in Paris. He was greatly aided by the political ineptitude of Condé, who offended many of his natural allies. Mazarin urged Anne of Austria to bring him back to Paris as soon as possible, "to correct the greatest attack ever made against the royal authority".
Battle between the Fronde forces of the Prince de Conde and the army loyal to Anne of Austria and Mazarin
Once back in Paris, Mazarin soon made an alliance with his old enemy, Cardinal Jean François Paul de Gondi. Condé departed to Bordeaux to gather reinforcements. He raised an army of Spanish and French soldiers, and marched on Paris, arriving on 2 July. The soldiers loyal to the Queen, commanded by Turenne, were waiting, and trapped Condé's army against the walls of Paris. An ally of Condé, the Grande Mademoiselle, ordered the gates of the city opened to rescue Condé's army. The battle was witnessed from the hills of Charonne by the young Louis XIV.
As soon as Condé's soldiers entered Paris, he demanded an immediate purge of Mazarin's supporters. Riots broke out around the Bastille, and were suppressed with great difficulty. The Presidents of the Parlement, now allies of Mazarin, demanded that the violence be stopped and that Condé take his army out of Paris. Reluctantly, Condé left the city, going to the Spanish Netherlands, pursued by Turenne.
Louis XIV, now of age to claim his throne, re-entered Paris in October 1652, accompanied by his mother and by Turenne. Mazarin had to wait longer to make his return, which was carefully orchestrated with his help. The Parlement de Paris was first transferred by Anne of Austria from Paris to Pontoise, to see how many members would accept her authority. A majority appeared at the meeting. Following the prepared plan, the Parlement respectfully asked that Mazarin be dismissed, and Anne of Austria agreed. Mazarin, knowing this was the plan, accepted this decision, and waited a respectful time in exile. He made his return to Paris in February 1653. He was welcomed with a triumphal banquet at the Hotel de Ville, where crowds earlier had demanded his downfall.
Financing the Kingdom – Fouquet and Colbert
Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances
Finding money was a primary preoccupation for Mazarin throughout his entire time as first minister. His new taxes on Parisians and the nobility had provoked the first Fronde, but the end of the Fronde did not resolve the problem. The government had borrowed huge amounts to finance the campaigns against the first Fronde and against Condé, and also had to pay for the continual travels of the Regent and the young King, and the elaborate festivities, parades, and cavalcades that accompanied their travel and every major event. The royal budget for 1653 was about 109 million livres, which amounted to eight hundred tons of silver or sixty tons of gold. Expenditures were the greatest between 1656 and 1659. Twenty-seven agreements were made with bankers, who loaned the government 98 million livres to supplement the money collected through ordinary taxes.
Following the death of his first finance minister, La Vieuville, on 2 February 1653, Mazarin chose a new minister, Nicolas Fouquet. At the age of twenty-five, Fouquet had inherited a very large fortune after the death of his young first wife, and an even greater fortune when he married the second time, to Marie-Madeleine de Castille, whose family was one of the wealthiest in Europe. Fouquet began as a master of receipts at age twenty, then an intendant to the army, then Procuror-General for the Parlement of Paris at the age of thirty-five.
Through his family connections, Fouquet had amassed a fortune of three to four million livres. One of the reasons for Fouquet's rapid rise was his willingness to lend very large sums to Mazarin for his various projects. In November 1657 Mazarin needed 11.8 million livres to pay the Army of the North. Fouquet, drawing upon his wealthy relatives, was able to provide the money. In 1659 he provided another loan of five million livres.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the enemy and successor of Fouquet One effect of the enormous amount of money in the market during the period of the Regency of Anne of Austria and Mazarin was a decline in the value of the Livre tournois, the French royal unit of account, lost twenty percent of its value against the gold Florentine Florin coin. However, without the money lent by Fouquet and other aristocratic financiers, Louis XIV could never have accomplished his early military and diplomatic successes.
The great rival of Fouquet was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was also recommended to Louis XIV and brought into the government by Mazarin. Soon after he became an assistant to Mazarin, he wrote a mémoire to Mazarin, claiming that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also accused Fouquet of using royal funds for his own enrichment. Mazarin did not defend Fouquet; shortly before his own death, he agreed that Fouquet had to go. Shortly after Mazarin's death, Fouquet was accused by Colbert of misuse of state funds, his property was confiscated, and he was put into prison until his death, with Colbert eventually taking his place.
The personal fortune of Mazarin at the time of his death was immense, amounting to 35 million livres, not counting the sums he left to his nieces. It exceeded the second-greatest personal fortune of the century, that of Richelieu, worth some 20 million livres. About one third of the personal fortune of Mazarin came from some twenty-one abbeys around France, each of which paid him an annual share of their revenue. Unlike members of the nobility, he did not have any large estates; his only real estate was the palace in Paris which he purchased in 1649, and added several surrounding houses. It was valued at 1.2 million livres. Thirty-seven percent of his fortune was in easily transportable jewels and cash. Within the ebony cabinets of his rooms at the Louvre his heirs found 450 pearls of high quality, plus quantities of gold chains and crosses, and rings with precious stones, altogether adding another 400,000 livres. He left to his family jewels worth an estimated 2.5 million livres, and gave a collection of diamonds worth 50,000 livres to the new Queen, and a 14-carat diamond called The Rose of England, valued at 73,000 livres, to the Queen Mother. The most valuable legacies of all, including a set of eighteen diamonds known as the "Mazarins", worth two million livres, were given to the young Louis XIV.
Patron of the arts
Mazarin seated within the Gallery of his Palace (1659)
Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione, by Raphael, purchased by Mazarin from Richelieu
Torelli's set design for Act 5 of Pierre Corneille's Andromède as performed at the Petit-Bourbon in 1650
Carved coat of arms of Mazarin on a bookcase in the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris
Mazarin was second only to Louis XIV as a patron of the arts in France in the 17th century. In 1648 he founded the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. After his death in 1661, the inventory of his art collection at the Mazarin Palace recorded 858 paintings, 128 statues, 185 busts, plus 150 carpets, 514 pieces of jewelry and fine silver, and 317 precious stones, not counting the famous Mazarin diamonds, which he left to Louis XIV. His collection included works by most of the major French and Italian artists of his time and before, going back to the Renaissance. His acquisitions included works by Poussin, Rubens, Corregio, Van Dyck, Titian, and many others, as well as the famous Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael, which had belonged to Charles I of England, and had been bought by Richelieu. Just before his death, he visited his gallery for the last time with his deputy Brienne, and told him: "Ah, my poor friend, I must leave all this. Farewell, dear paintings, which cost me so much and which I so much loved." Many of the paintings he owned are now in the Louvre.
The Palais Mazarin (Mazarin Palace) was created by Mazarin beginning in 1643, soon after he became first minister, when he rented four adjacent hôtels on the north side of the Rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs between the Rue Vivienne to the east and the Rue de Richelieu on the west and across from the Palais Royal, which was the King's residence. He commissioned François Mansart to add a garden wing with two superimposed galleries running north from the west end of the easternmost building, the Hôtel Tubeuf, where he could display his art. Between 1645 and 1647 he commissioned the Italian painter Giovanni Francesco Romanelli to create scenes from the works of Ovid on the ceiling of the upper gallery (although much modified, now known as the Galerie Mazarine). In 1721, the Palais Mazarin became the site of the King's Library (Bibliothèque du Roi), now the Richelieu site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Mazarin spent little time in his Palace; he lived most of the time in the Palais Royal, when Louis XIV was in residence there, or in the Louvre. Near the end of his life he resided in the Château de Vincennes, where he decorated a suite of rooms. He also had the moats of the chateau turned into a kind of zoo, with lions, tigers, bears and other exotic animals, for the amusement of the young King.
Mazarin also played an important role in bringing Italian music to Paris. Before Mazarin, Italian opera was very little known or appreciated in Paris. Louis XIII, Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici had all brought Italian musicians to Paris, but Mazarin did it more systematically and on a much larger scale. After his arrival as a minister in 1643, he invited the famous soprano Leonora Baroni and the castrato Atto Melani. Melani doubled as a diplomat; Mazarin sent him on several secret missions to other courts in Europe.
Due to Mazarin's efforts, seven Italian operas were performed in Paris between 1645 and 1662. In 1645 Mazarin brought to Paris the famous scenery designer Giacomo Torelli, who staged Sacrati's opera La finta pazza. In 1647, for Carnaval, he staged a lavish production of the premiere of Orfeo by Luigi Rossi. Later on Torelli became involved more in the ballet de cour than in opera, reflecting the passion of the king for dancing. Torelli's career in France came to a definitive end in 1661, when he worked on sets for Molière's Les fâcheux, presented by Nicholas Fouquet as part of his grand fête at Vaux-le-Vicomte in honor of the King, the overly ostentatious display which ultimately led to Fouquet's imprisonment.
Mazarin was also a famous collector of books. In 1646, he brought to Paris his collection of nine thousand volumes, which he installed in his residence. It was the second-largest library in Paris, second only to the library of the King. However, when Mazarin was forced to leave Paris during the Fronde, his library was seized by the Fronde leaders, and was dispersed. He then began a second library with what was left of the first. The library grew to over 25,000 volumes and was open to all scholars after 1643. It is recognized as the first true public library in France. In his will, he gave his library to the Collège des Quatre-Nations which he had founded in 1661. The original bookcases of his library were transferred to the reading room of the College of Quatre-Nations when it was built.
Educator of Louis XIV
The wedding of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa. Mazarin is at their right.
From the eighth birthday of the young Louis XIV, Mazarin took the title "Superintendent of the Royal Education" and managed every aspect of the young King's studies. All of the King's activities were governed and scheduled by Mazarin; his time of rising, his prayers, his physical exercise (paume fencing, and dance) followed by a morning lesson in politics with Mazarin himself. In the afternoons he was charged to write an essay each day for Mazarin on what he had learned. The education he gave Louis was purely practical, not theoretical. Among other topics, he instructed the King in the fine art of dissimulation, or lying, when needed, and always, when making an agreement, to leave a way out.
Beginning in 1659, as the King reached the age of twenty-one, and Mazarin approached the end of his life, he wrote a series of guidelines in political affairs for the King. When the King set off on his journey to Spain to be married, Mazarin wrote to him: "Remember, I ask you, what I have had the honor to tell you, when you asked me the way to take to become a great King....it is necessary to begin by making the greatest efforts to not be dominated by any passion....because, otherwise, if any misfortune arrives, regardless of what good will you have, you will not be able to do what has to be done."
Despite Mazarin's instructions, Louis XIV continued to correspond with Mazarin's niece Marie, with the tacit collusion of his mother. Mazarin immediately adopted a stricter tone: "God established Kings...for watching over the well-being, safety and peace of their subjects; and not to sacrifice this well-being and safety for their personal passions...you must remember your responsibilities to God for your actions and for your safety, and to the world for the support of your glory and your reputation." Mazarin also threatened to depart France with his family if the King did not agree to stop communicating with Marie. In response, Louis wrote a new letter to his mother, promising that henceforth he would forget Marie and concentrate exclusively on "the great occupation of King". (Grand metier du Roi)
Final military and diplomatic accomplishments (1658–1661)
The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1658 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories, including the marriage of Louis XIV. In 1658, after long and intense preparation, Mazarin unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of fifty small German principalities which were now linked by a treaty with France. They promised not to allow enemy forces pass through them to invade France. This treaty weakened both the old Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs, This gave a new measure of security to France's eastern border. In the same month, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. This marked the end of the threats to France from the north, from the Spanish Netherlands.
Negotiation of a draft peace treaty between France and Spain took place between February and June 1659, but many critical details remained unresolved. Mazarin and Spain's Dom Luis de Haro personally took charge of the negotiations on 13 August. Their conferences, which continued for three months, were held on the French-Spanish border on the island of Faisans, midway between French Hendaye and Spanish Fuenterrabía, in the river Bidassoa. The resulting Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on 7 November 1659 and added Artois, Cerdanya, and Roussillon as new provinces of France. It also provided for an even more important diplomatic event carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain, the French celebration of which followed in June 1660 in nearby Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. This marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Austrians and France.
Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day.
Death
Tomb of Mazarin in the Institut de France
In his last months, Mazarin resided mainly in the Louvre Palace. A large fire broke out in the Gallery of Apollo, the main picture gallery of the Louvre, and destroyed many pictures, greatly upsetting Mazarin. It was the beginning of his decline. When his doctor informed him that his end was near, Mazarin asked, "How long?" The Doctor replied "two months." Mazarin responded, "That's enough."
Mazarin had already prepared several wills. Knowing that his enemies at court were telling Louis XIV that he was taking money that belonged rightfully to the King, his first will, which he made public, cleverly left all of his fortune to Louis XIV. Mazarin probably calculated that the King would be too embarrassed to take all of his mentor's and chief Minister's wealth. The King waited for three days, then refused to accept it. Mazarin had also prepared a different will, which left a large sum for the establishment of the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which he had founded for students from the four new provinces which he had added to the territory of France by the Treaty of Westphalia. The college, now the Institut de France, was eventually built directly across the Seine from the Louvre, where it is visible from the Palace. Mazarin asked that his remains be interred there, where they rest today in a marble monument beneath the dome. The college is home to the five French academies, including the Academie Française.
The Mazarinettes
Main article: Mazarinettes
Laura Mancini, Duchess of Mercœur
Anne Marie Martinozzi, Princess of Conti
Olympia Mancini, by Pierre Mignard
Laura Martinozzi, Duchess of Modena
Marie Mancini, whom Louis XIV wished to marry
Hortense Mancini, Duchess Mazarin.
Marie Anne Mancini, who became Duchess of Bouillon.
Mazarin did not have children, but he did have seven nieces: five from the Mancini family (daughters of his sister Girolama) and two from the Martinozzi family (daughters of his sister Laura). The nieces all moved to Paris, and Mazarin devoted care to arranging marriages for them, always with wealthy and aristocratic families. The nieces were known for their beauty, wit and ambition, and became known as the Mazarinettes.
Laura Mancini was the eldest of the five famous Mancini sisters. She married Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, grandson of King Henry IV, and was the mother of the great general the Duke of Vendôme. Both Olympia Mancini and Marie Mancini had romantic relationships with the young Louis XIV. He wished to marry Marie, but was prevented by his mother and by Mazarin, who had greater plans to marry Louis to a princess of Spain. In 1657 Olympia was married to Prince Eugene of Savoy, and became the mother of Eugene of Savoy, a famous general for the Austrians. Marie became the wife of the Italian nobleman Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, of the same family that had employed Mazarin's father as an intendant. Hortense Mancini was married shortly before Mazarin's death to a nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, who thereafter took the title Duke Mazarin. After fleeing from her abusive marriage, Hortense became for a time the mistress of King Charles II of England. Marie Anne Mancini married the Duke of Bouillon soon after the death of Mazarin.
As for the two Martinozzi sisters, Anne Marie Martinozzi married the Prince de Conti in 1654. Her sister Laura Martinozzi married Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena, and was the mother of Mary of Modena, who became Queen Consort of England as the wife of King James II.
In fiction
Mazarin is a major character in Alexandre Dumas' novels Twenty Years After and Le Vicomte de Bragelonne. In them, Mazarin is portrayed as greedy and devious, as well as the Queen's lover.
Mazarin plays a significant part in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's historical novel, Francesca Carrara. He acts as uncle to his niece, Marie Mancini and her fictional sister, Henriette, both of whom have important roles.
Cardinal Mazarin is an important supporting character in Rafael Sabatini's novel The Suitors of Yvonne. His plans set the main plot of the book in progress. He is portrayed fairly accurately as being ambitious and ruthless, but very protective of his family.
Mazarin is a character of some importance in 1634: The Galileo Affair by Eric Flint and Andrew Dennis, and also in 1636: The Cardinal Virtues by Eric Flint and Walter H. Hunt.
A diamond called the "Mazarin stone" is searched for in a 1921 Sherlock Holmes short story by Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone".
Mazarin is a major character in the 2005 series Young Blades, portrayed by Michael Ironside.
Mazarin (played by Gérard Depardieu) serves as the mastermind antagonist in the Hallmark movie La Femme Musketeer. Personality- and ambition-wise, he is nearly identical to Cardinal Richelieu.
Umberto Eco's novel The Island of the Day Before takes place just after the transition from Richelieu's rule to Mazarin's. Its protagonist witnesses the death watch for Richelieu and is subsequently forced by Mazarin to undertake a bizarre mission to the other side of the world.
Mazarin plays a central role in the play "Vincent in Heaven", which tells the story of St. Vincent DePaul.
Mazarin is a character in the French TV series of the 1960s, Le Chevalier Tempête, shown in the UK as The Flashing Blade. He was played by the Belgian actor Giani Esposito.
Mazarin is claimed to be the actual biological father of Louis XIV in Edward Rutherfurd's novel, Paris (2013).
Mazarin is the antagonist of the novel Enchantress of Paris (2015) by Marci Jefferson. Mazarin uses the wiles of his niece, Marie Mancini, in an attempt to secure his power over the king.
Notes and citations
Notes
^ Pronunciation: (/ˈmæzərɪn/, also UK: /ˈmæzəræ̃/, US: /ˌmæzəˈræ̃/, French:
^ Italian:
Citations
^ "Mazarin". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
^ "Mazarin, Jules". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
^ "Mazarin". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
^ "Mazarin". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
^ For "Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini", see Dethan 1991, p. 979. For "Giulio Mazzarino", see Poncet 2018, p. 24. For the surname "Mazarini", see Dethan 1959, p. 9; Dethan 1977, p. 11; Treasure 1995, p. 404. Some sources give his surname as "Mazzarini", for example, Buelow 2004, p. 158 Archived 2016-05-28 at the Wayback Machine or Viaggio del Cardinale Mazzarini a St Jean de Luz l'anno 1659 Archived 2021-06-27 at the Wayback Machine; others, as "Mazarino" (Dizionario italiano multimediale e multilingue d'Ortografia e di Pronunzia Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine or Il cardinale Mazarino Archived 2021-06-27 at the Wayback Machine).
^ Poncet 2018, p. 24.
^ a b c d Dethan 1959, p. 10.
^ "English: Bufalini Family 1491 to 1782" (PDF). 1965.
^ Parlett 1991, pp. 88/89.
^ Dethan 1959, p. 11.
^ Poncet 2018, p. 32.
^ Dethan 1959, p. 13.
^ Dethan 1959, p. 14.
^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 16.
^ Dethan 1959, p. 22.
^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 38.
^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 24.
^ Poncet 2018, p. 118.
^ Dethan 1959, pp. 42–43.
^ a b c Dethan 1959, p. 45.
^ Dethan 1959, pp. 45–49.
^ Dethan 1959, pp. 47–49.
^ a b c Dethan 1959, pp. 50–51.
^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 53.
^ O'Connor 1978, pp. 5–9.
^ Jones, Colin (1994). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-43294-8.
^ This section draws upon the chapter "Le vaincu de la Fronde deviant monarque absolu" by Jacques de Bourbon-Busset in Mazarin, edited by Georges Mongrédien (Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 53–81).
^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 54.
^ a b Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 56.
^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 56–58.
^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 59–60.
^ a b c Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 60–61.
^ a b Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 75.
^ Hatton 1972, p. 24.
^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 76.
^ a b Goubert 1990, p. 434.
^ a b c Goubert 1990, p. 439.
^ Goubert 1990, pp. 439–443.
^ Goubert 1990, p. 478.
^ a b c Poncet 2018, p. 92.
^ Georges Dethan, "Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal" in The New Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed., Chicago, 1991) vol. 7, p. 979.
^ Cosnac, Les richesses du palais Mazarin (1884) Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Colombier 1959, p. 113.
^ Thackray, Anne (1996). "Mazarin family (1) Cardinal Jules Mazarin ", vol. 20, pp. 895–896 Archived 2018-12-29 at the Wayback Machine, in The Dictionary of Art (34 vols.), edited by Jane Turner. New York: Grove. ISBN 978-1884446009.
^ Braham, Allan; Smith, Peter (1973). François Mansart, p. 71. London: A. Zwemmer. ISBN 978-0302022511; Ayers, Andrew (2004). The Architecture of Paris, p. 58. Stuttgart; London: Edition Axel Menges. ISBN 978-3930698967; Sauval, Henri (1724). Histoire et recherches des antiquite's de la ville de Paris, vol. 2, pp. 172–180 Archived 2022-06-01 at the Wayback Machine. Paris: Charles Moette; Jacques Chardon.
^ Banham, Martin (1995). The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre, 2nd ed., Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521434379.
^ James R. Anthony (1992), "Mazarin, Cardinal Jules Mazzarini, Giulio Raimondo Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine", Grove Music Online.
^ Aronson, Arnold; Roy, Donald (1995). "Torelli, Giacomo", pp. 1116–1117 in The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre, 2nd ed., edited by Martin Banham. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521434379.
^ Hatton 1972, p. 18.
^ Poncet 2018, pp. 92–93.
^ Mongrédien 1959, pp. 256–258.
^ a b Mongrédien 1959, p. 260.
^ a b c Mongrédien 1959, p. 292.
^ Bluche 1990, p. 86.
^ This section draws mainly upon "Chapter VI: Le vieille homme et le jeune Roi" by Jean d'Ormesson in Mazarin (Ormesson 1959, pp. 201–225).
^ a b Colombier 1959, pp. 130–143.
^ Paris (novel), pp. 458–460 and p. 493, Ballantine Books Trade Paperback Edition (2014)
Books cited in text
Bluche, François (1990). Louis XIV. New York: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0531151129.
Buelow, George J. (2004). A history of baroque music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34365-9.
Bourbon-Busset, Jacques de (1959). "Chapitre II: Le vaincu de la Fronde devient monarque absolu". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 53–81. OCLC 742625187.
Colombier, Pierre du (1959). "Chapitre IV: Le Premier ministre se fait l'ambassadeur de l'art italien". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 113–151. OCLC 742625187.
Dethan, Georges (1959). "Chapitre I: Le jeune Monsignore à la conquête de Richelieu". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 7–51. OCLC 742625187.
Dethan, Georges (1977). The Young Mazarin. Translated by Baron, Stanley. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500870044.
Dethan, Georges (1991). "Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. pp. 979–980. ISBN 0-85229-529-4.
Goubert, Pierre (1990). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2-213-01650-X.
Mongrédien, Georges (1959). "Chapitre VIII: Le rideau s'est levé sur le Grand Siècle". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 255–292. OCLC 742625187.
O'Connor, John T. (1978). Negotiator Out of Season: Career of Wilhelm Egon Von Furstenberg, 1629–1704. Athens: U of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-0436-6.
Ormesson, Jean d' (1959). "Chapitre VI: Le vieil homme et le jeune Roi". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 201–225. OCLC 742625187.
Parlett, David (1991). A History of Card Games. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282905-X.
Poncet, Olivier (2018). Mazarin l'Italien (in French). Paris: Tallandier. ISBN 979-10-210-3105-0.
Treasure, Geoffrey (1995). Mazarin: The Crisis of Absolutism in France. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-014573.
Further reading
Biography portal
Bonney, R. "The Paradox of Mazarin." History Today 32. (Feb 1982): 18–24.
Bonney, Richard. "Cardinal Mazarin and the great nobility during the Fronde." English Historical Review 96.381 (1981): 818–833.
Bonney, Richard. Society And Government In France Under Richelieu And Mazarin 1624–61 (Springer, 1988).
Ekberg, Carl J. "Abel Servien, Cardinal Mazarin, and the Formulation of French Foreign Policy, 1653–1659." International History Review 3.3 (1981): 317–329.
Haffemayer, Stéphane. "Mazarin, Information and Communication During the Fronde (1648–1653)." Media History 22.3-4 (2016): 386–400.
Hassall, Arthur. Mazarin (1903)
Perkins, James Breck (1886). France Under Mazarin (2 volumes). New York: Putnam. Vols. 1 & 2 at Internet Archive.
Sonnino, Paul. Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde (Harvard UP, 2008). 307 pp
Wilkinson, Richard. "Cardinal Mazarin" History Today (April 1996) 46#4 pp 39–45.
Hatton, Ragnhild Marie (1972). Louis XIV and His World. New York: Putnam.
External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
a brief biography of Mazarin
Media related to Jules Cardinal Mazarin at Wikimedia Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:San_Giustino,_Family_Bufalini_1491_-_1782.pdf
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Jules Mazarin" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Mazarin and the Fronde
Catholic Church titles
Preceded byArmand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti
Abbot of Cluny 1654–1661
Succeeded byRinaldo d'Este
Political offices
Preceded byCardinal Richelieu
Chief Minister to the French Monarch 1643–1661
Succeeded byJean-Baptiste Colbert
French royalty
Preceded byCharles III Gonzaga
Duke of Nevers 1659–1661
Succeeded byPhilippe Jules Mancini
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After the death of Richelieu in 1642, Mazarin took his place as first minister of Louis XIII, and then of Louis XIV, when he succeeded to the throne in 1643. Mazarin acted as the head of the government for Anne of Austria, the regent for the young Louis XIV. Mazarin was also made responsible for the king's education until he came of age.The first years of Mazarin in office were marked by military victories in the Thirty Years' War, which he used to make France the main European power and establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–1648). A major uprising against Anne of Austria and Mazarin, called the Fronde and led by the nobles of the Parlement of Paris, broke out in Paris in 1648, followed by a second Fronde, led by Louis, Grand Condé, who had turned from his chief ally to his chief enemy. Mazarin took Anne of Austria and Louis XIV out of Paris and then shifted his base to Germany for a time. Turenne, a general loyal to Louis XIV and Mazarin, defeated Condé, and Mazarin made a triumphal return to Paris in 1653.The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1657 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories. In 1657 he made a military alliance with England. In 1658 he unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of 50 small German principalities, which were now linked by a treaty with France. The same year, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. Between February and June 1659, Mazarin conducted intensive negotiations with the Spanish. On 7 November 1659, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which added Artois, the Cerdagne and Roussillon as new provinces of France. That was followed in June 1660 by an even more important diplomatic event that had been carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain. The marriage took place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. The marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Habsburgs and France.\nExhausted by his diplomatic efforts, Mazarin died in 1661.Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France for nearly two decades, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of the principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, have remained the basis of international law to this day.In addition to his diplomacy, Mazarin was an important patron of the arts. He introduced Italian opera on a grand scale to Paris and assembled a remarkable art collection, much of which today can be seen in the Louvre. He also founded the Bibliothèque Mazarine, the first true public library in France, which is now found in the Institut de France, across the Seine from the Louvre.","title":"Cardinal Mazarin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pescina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescina"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201824-8"},{"link_name":"Filippo I Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_I_Colonna"},{"link_name":"Grand Constable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Constable"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195910-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Bufalini family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castello_Bufalini"},{"link_name":"Città di Castello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello"},{"link_name":"Umbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195910-9"},{"link_name":"Jesuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuit"},{"link_name":"College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegio_Romano"},{"link_name":"Halley's comet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_comet"},{"link_name":"Ignatius of Loyola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195910-9"},{"link_name":"Hoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeux_de_hocs"},{"link_name":"Hoc Mazarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoc_Mazarin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParlett199188/89-11"},{"link_name":"Girolamo Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Colonna"},{"link_name":"Complutense University of Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complutense_University_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"Alcalá de Henares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares"},{"link_name":"dowry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195911-12"}],"text":"Giulio Mazzarino was born on 14 July 1602 in Pescina in the Abruzzo province of Italy, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Rome. His parents were residents of Rome, spending the summer in Pescina to escape the summer heat.[6] His father, Pietro Mazzarino (1576–1654), had moved to Rome from Sicily in 1590 to become a chamberlain in the family of Filippo I Colonna, the Grand Constable of Naples.[7] His father became a citizen of Rome in 1608. His mother Ortensia Bufalini [8] (1575–1644) was a native of Rome, from the Bufalini family of nobility whose origins were in Città di Castello in Umbria. The family had moved to Rome in the Middle Ages. She was the goddaughter of Filippo I Colonna, her husband's employer. Giulio was the eldest of six children, two boys and four girls.[7]Through the influence of the Colonnas, Giulio was admitted at the age of seven to the Jesuit College in Rome, the most respected school in the city. Though he declined to join their order, he excelled in his studies. In 1618, at the age of sixteen, he gave a public lecture on theories explaining Halley's comet, which appeared in that year. He also excelled in theatrics; he was chosen to play the part of the newly sainted Ignatius of Loyola in a religious pageant. He also acquired the habit of gambling at cards, and was frequently in debt.[7] A particular favourite game of his was a variant of Hoc named after him: Hoc Mazarin.[9]When he was twenty his father decided to send him away from the bad influences of Rome. Giulio accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, who was eighteen, to the Complutense University of Madrid (then located in Alcalá de Henares) in Spain. He studied law with Girolamo during the daytime and in the evenings continued to gamble and again was in debt. A notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry, and Giulio accepted. Girolamo Colonna wrote urgently to his father in Rome, and Giulio was ordered to return immediately to Rome, without his fiancée.[10]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201832-13"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Valtellina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtellina"},{"link_name":"Pope Urban VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII"},{"link_name":"Prince of Palestrina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taddeo_Barberini"},{"link_name":"Colonna family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonna_family"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195913-14"},{"link_name":"War of the Mantuan Succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195910-9"},{"link_name":"Casale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casale_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195914-15"},{"link_name":"Francesco Barberini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Barberini_(1597%E2%80%931679)"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195916-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italian_-_Cardinal_Mazarin_Riding_To_Villafranca_with_the_Treaty_of_Peace_-_Walters_371161.jpg"},{"link_name":"Casale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casale_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"Montferrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montferrat"},{"link_name":"Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195916-16"},{"link_name":"Duke of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_I,_Duke_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Pinerolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinerolo"},{"link_name":"Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_(river)"},{"link_name":"Louis XIII of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Antonio Barberini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Barberini"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon"},{"link_name":"prelate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelate"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195922-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jules_Mazarin_in_1632.jpg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195938-18"},{"link_name":"nuncio extraordinary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuncio"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195924-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet2018118-20"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195938-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195924-19"},{"link_name":"Civitavecchia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitavecchia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195942%E2%80%9343-21"}],"text":"Upon his return to Rome, he resumed his studies, this time in law. In 1628 he received the title of doctor in utroque jure, meaning he could practice both civil and canonical law.[11] In the same year Ferdinand II, the Habsburg emperor, laid claim to a papal territory, the Valtellina, in the Italian alps. Pope Urban VIII raised an army to defend his territory. The Prince of Palestrina, who was also a member of the Colonna family, commanded a new regiment of the Papal army, and invited Giulio to become a lieutenant in the regiment. Since neither the regiment nor Giulio had any military experience, they were assigned to a town far from the front line. Giulio knew little of military discipline. He received a message from Rome informing that his mother was seriously ill. Without asking permission from his commander, he immediately rode to Rome, and stayed there until his mother had recovered. He was summoned before the Pope, Urban VIII, to explain why he had deserted his post. He threw himself at the feet of the Pope, and pleaded to be pardoned for his excess of loyalty to his family. The Pope was impressed by Giulio's spontaneity and eloquence, forgave his desertion, and invited him to become a Papal emissary.[12]In 1628 Mazarin was named the secretary to Jean-François Sacchetti, a senior papal diplomat, who was trying to prevent the impending War of the Mantuan Succession between the armies of France and Spain for dominance of that region of northern Italy.[7] Throughout 1629 and 1630 he shuttled between Milan, Mantua, Turin, Casale and France, trying to find a solution to the crisis before the fighting began. This became, throughout his career, his standard method of diplomacy; traveling continually, getting to know and win the trust of as many decision-makers as possible.[13] During this time he came to know Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the head of diplomacy for the papacy, and, more important, Cardinal Richelieu of France, his future mentor, whom he first met in Lyon on 29 January 1630. Richelieu was aloof and confrontational; he wrote afterwards: \"This Mazarini is here more to spy than to negotiate....He is so Spanish and so Savoyard that what he says shouldn't be taken as gospel truth.\"[14]Mazarin carrying the peace agreement to the armies at Casale, crying \"Peace! Peace!\" (18th century engraving)Richelieu at first decided to ignore Mazarin's diplomacy and to send the French army across the Alps into Italy. On 26 October 1630 the French and Spanish armies met outside the walls of the French-held town of Casale, ready to fight. Suddenly, a man on horseback with a flag appeared, galloping toward them, crying \"Pace! Pace!\" (\"Peace! Peace!\") It was Mazarin, carrying an agreement from the Spanish commander to evacuate their soldiers from the town if the French would leave Montferrat to Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Mazarin brought together the Spanish and French commanders and explained the terms of the agreement, which were readily accepted by both sides. Mazarin had achieved his first diplomatic success.[14]The result of Mazarin's first diplomatic efforts was the Treaty of Cherasco, 6 April 1631, in which the Emperor and the Duke of Savoy recognized the possession of Mantua and part of Monferrat by Charles Gonzaga and the French occupation of the strategic stronghold of Pinerolo, the gate to the valley of the Po, to the great satisfaction of Richelieu and King Louis XIII of France.The Pope sent Mazarin to Paris at the beginning of 1631 to work out the final details of the agreement. He returned to France again from April to July 1632. He had his first interview with Lous XIII and with the Queen, Anne of Austria, in May 1632. He tried to persuade Louis XIII to send a military expedition to capture Geneva, the fortress of the Protestant movement, but the King, who had good relations with the Swiss cantons, rejected the idea. Mazarin returned to Rome in November 1632, and made a new friend and ally, Antonio Barberini, the nephew of the Pope and one of his chief diplomats, and his older brother, Francesco Barberini, the Cardinal Secretary of State. With their assistance, he established himself as a guardian of French interests in Rome, and then of papal interests in France. In 1632, he was named papal vice-legate at Avignon, appointed a prelate, and began to wear ecclesiastical dress, though he was not and never became a priest.[15]Mazarin as a papal envoy in Paris (1632)While in Rome, Mazarin sent regular gifts of flowers, perfumes and delicacies to the women of the French court, and more valuable gifts, including statues and Renaissance paintings, to Richelieu.[16] In 1634 he was named nuncio extraordinary to Paris by Urban VIII, and entrusted with the mission of persuading Louis XIII to undertake a grand naval crusade against the Turks. The goal was to create a combined fleet of the ships of Christian nations to seize the Turkish ports around the Mediterranean. Mazarin, a realist, knew that, given the rivalries between European powers, this project would never take place.A new crisis arrived on 19 May 1635; France declared war on the Habsburg rulers of Austria and Spain. Mazarin wrote later that he had done his best to persuade Richelieu to avoid a war. He wrote that in March 1635 he gave Richelieu all his reasons to maintain the peace. \"His Eminence told me, as he stood up,\" Mazarin wrote, \"that I courted Peace as if she were the woman of my dreams. Then he shook my hand, and concluded, 'You are no longer on the side of France.'\"[17] Mazarin returned to Avignon on 7 April 1636.[18]During all of his negotiations, Mazarin was very careful not to be too critical of the French court and Richelieu, and they remained in contact. In November 1636 he left Avignon to return to Rome, carrying instructions from Richelieu that made him a discreet ambassador for the king of France.[16]The atmosphere within the papal curia was hostile to France and to Richelieu; Spanish priests occupied many positions in the hierarchy and they considered him, with reason, an agent of France. When the Pope refused to send him back to France, or to represent the papacy at a peace conference, he wrote: \"I am not a subject of the King of France, but I believe I can truly say that the declarations of the Spanish have declared me to be French, so that with justice one can say that France is my country.\"[17]His position in Rome was increasingly difficult. He had the affection of Pope Urban VIII, but he was disliked by Cardinal Barberini, the chief of Papal diplomacy, and by the large contingent of Spaniards in the papal household. He spent his time collecting sculpture and other works of art which he sent to Richelieu for the Cardinal's new palace in Paris. He considered serving the rulers of Savoy, Poland, or Queen Henriette of England, but in the end he decided to enter the service of Richelieu and France. However, Richelieu was in no hurry to bring him to Paris; he valued the diplomatic contributions Mazarin was making in Rome, as well as the art treasures he was acquiring. He kept Mazarin in Rome for two more years. Richelieu did one important favor for Mazarin; in October 1638 he put forward Mazarin's name as a candidate for Cardinal when the next vacancy opened up. In December 1638, when a sitting Cardinal died, Mazarin was nominated as a Cardinal. He had to wait the entire year of 1639 before his new position was confirmed. Then on 14 December 1639, he departed Rome for the port of Civitavecchia, boarded an armed French ship to Marseille, and then traveled from Lyon to Paris, where he arrived on 5 January 1640.[19]","title":"Papal envoy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Simon_vouet_portrait_du_cardinal_jules_mazarin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Simon Vouet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Vouet"},{"link_name":"Anne of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195945-22"},{"link_name":"Bernini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernini"},{"link_name":"Baroque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195945-22"},{"link_name":"Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy"},{"link_name":"Christine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Marie_of_France"},{"link_name":"Maurice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Francis,_Prince_of_Carignano"},{"link_name":"Piedmontese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmontese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195945-22"},{"link_name":"Catalonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia"},{"link_name":"Roussillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roussillon"},{"link_name":"Narbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narbonne"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195945%E2%80%9349-23"},{"link_name":"Tarascon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarascon"},{"link_name":"Gaston, Duke of Orléans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans"},{"link_name":"Marquis of Cinq-Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Coiffier_de_Ruz%C3%A9,_Marquis_of_Cinq-Mars"},{"link_name":"Sedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Sedan"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195947%E2%80%9349-24"}],"text":"Portrait of Cardinal Jules Mazarin by Simon Vouet (before 1649, private collection)When he arrived in Paris, Mazarin was welcomed warmly by the King, by Richelieu, and by the Queen, Anne of Austria, to whom Mazarin had regularly sent perfumes, fans, gloves and other gifts. The Queen was at this time pregnant with her second child, and it was already anticipated that she would be the regent when King Louis XIII died.[20] Mazarin advised Richelieu on both political and cultural matters. He recommended artists to bring from Rome to Paris, and in 1640 he commissioned a bust of Richelieu from the sculptor Bernini in Rome, sending Bernini pictures of Richelieu. The bust of Richelieu arrived in August 1641. Mazarin declared that it was perfect, so lifelike that, as he wrote, \"it seemed about to speak\", but French tastes did not approve of the Baroque style. The other members of the Court condemned the work, and Mazarin wrote back to Bernini, sending him more pictures of Richelieu and asking him to try again.[20]Richelieu sent Mazarin on several delicate diplomatic missions, including a long trip to Savoy to straighten out the tangled political affairs there: the regency of Christine, the Duchess of Savoy, and sister of Louis XIII, was challenged by her brothers-in-law, the princes Maurice and Thomas of Savoy. (See Piedmontese Civil War) Mazarin successfully secured Christine's position, and established a solid alliance between Savoy and France. This task kept him away from Paris for nine months, until June 1641. On 16 December 1641, though he had not reached his fortieth birthday, he received what he most desired, he was formally made a Cardinal.[20]He had established a cordial relationship with Richelieu; Richelieu jokingly referred to him as Rinzama (an anagram of his name), or Nunzinicardo (\"dear little envoy\"), or, most frequently, Colmarduccio, or Colmardo. When was asked what it meant, he translated into French as Frère Coupechou, the term for a junior candidate monk who was assigned to chop cabbage in the kitchen of the abbey. However, he did not send Mazarin on the mission that he most wanted, as delegate of France to a Europe-wide peace conference. Richelieu's attention was devoted to making war; Richelieu, who was elderly and in poor health, took the King, who was also in poor health, the court and Mazarin on a series of long military expeditions, to suppress a rebellion in Catalonia, to capture Roussillon, and, in January 1642, to lay siege to Narbonne.[21]On 11 June 1642, while in Tarascon on one of the long military expeditions, Mazarin was presented with evidence that Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIII, and the Marquis of Cinq-Mars, one of the King's closest advisors, had made a secret agreement with the King of Spain, without the knowledge of Richelieu or the King. It appeared probable that the Queen, Anne of Austria, was also aware of this secret betrayal of Richelieu, but did not tell him or the King. Cinq-Mars was arrested, Gaston was disgraced, and another conspirator, the Duke of Bouillon, was granted a pardon on the condition of revealing all the details of the plot to Mazarin, and surrendering the important fortress of Sedan to the King. Mazarin did not reveal the participation of the Queen in the conspiracy, but his knowledge gave him even greater leverage at the court.[22] The destruction of the conspiracy against the King was one of the last acts of Cardinal Richelieu. He fell ill and died on 4 December 1642.","title":"Cardinal and deputy of Richelieu"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anne_of_Austria_(Queen_mother)_with_her_two_sons_Louis_XIV_of_France_and_Philippe,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(unknown_artist).jpg"},{"link_name":"Anne of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195950%E2%80%9351-25"},{"link_name":"François Sublet de Noyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Sublet_de_Noyers"},{"link_name":"Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Bouthillier,_comte_de_Chavigny"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195950%E2%80%9351-25"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Parlement of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDethan195950%E2%80%9351-25"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Retz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Paul_de_Gondi"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195953-26"},{"link_name":"Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Turenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_de_la_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Vicomte_de_Turenne"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Peace of Westphalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia"},{"link_name":"Alsace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor19785%E2%80%939-27"},{"link_name":"League of the Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_the_Rhine"},{"link_name":"Habsburg Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain"},{"link_name":"Peace of the Pyrenees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_the_Pyrenees"},{"link_name":"Roussillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roussillon"},{"link_name":"French Cerdagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Cerdagne"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"Ardèche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che"},{"link_name":"Huguenots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot"},{"link_name":"Edict of Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes"},{"link_name":"Innocent X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_X"},{"link_name":"Barberini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barberini"},{"link_name":"Parlement of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Jansenism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansenism"},{"link_name":"formulary controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulary_controversy"},{"link_name":"Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Anne of Austria with her children Louis XIV of France and Philippe, Duke of Orléans (unknown artist)The succession of Mazarin to the position of chief minister of Louis XIII was not automatic or immediate. Despite the accounts of some later historians, Richelieu did not name Mazarin as his successor. Richelieu did, according to Mazarin himself, advise the King to employ Mazarin, who until that time had no official position at Court.[23]After the death of Richelieu, Louis XIII named three prominent figures to advise him; François Sublet de Noyers, Léon Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny and Mazarin. Mazarin and de Chavigny immediately joined together to get rid of de Noyers. They hinted to the King that de Noyers had secretly made an agreement with Anne of Austria to make her the regent of France after the King's death. The King, who had little love for the Queen and in his will had refused to make her his Regent, was furious; de Noyers was forced to resign on 10 April 1643.[23]Louis XIII died 14 May 1643, just five months after Richelieu. His successor, Louis XIV, was just four years old. The King had specifically instructed that his wife, Anne of Austria, not rule in his place as regent. However, as soon as he was dead, she applied to the body of nobles known as the Parlement of Paris, and had his will annulled. She was declared Regent on 18 May. The Queen had a particular dislike of de Chavigny, the other chief advisor chosen by Louis XIII. He had been close to Richelieu and was the only real rival in experience to Mazarin. The evening that she became regent, she declared that Mazarin would be her chief minister and head of her government.[23]The management style of Mazarin was entirely different from that of Richelieu. The contrast was described by Cardinal Retz, the future enemy of Mazarin, in his Memoires: \"One saw on the steps of the throne, where the sharp and fearsome Richelieu had thundered rather than governed the people, a leader who is gentle, benevolent, and demands nothing...He has the spirit, the insinuation, the playfulness, the manners, but also a certain laziness....\"[24]Cardinal Retz and other rivals in the court underestimated Mazarin's skills, energy and determination. Mazarin continued Richelieu's costly war against the chief rivals of France in Europe, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain. The victories of Condé and Turenne finally brought Austria to the bargaining table and ended the Thirty Years' War with the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48)Mazarin's policies also added Alsace (though not Strasbourg) to France. He settled Protestant princes in secularized bishoprics and abbacies in reward for their political opposition to the Habsburgs, building a network of French influence as a buffer in the western part of the Empire. In 1657, he made an attempt to get Louis XIV elected as Holy Roman Emperor.[25] In 1658 he formed the League of the Rhine, which was designed to check the House of Austria in central Germany. In 1659 he made peace with Habsburg Spain in the Peace of the Pyrenees, which added to French territory Roussillon and northern Cerdanya—as French Cerdagne—in the far south as well as part of the Low Countries.Towards Protestantism at home, Mazarin pursued a policy of promises and calculated delay to defuse the armed insurrection of the Ardèche (1653), for example, and to keep the Huguenots disarmed: for six years they believed themselves to be on the eve of recovering the protections of the Edict of Nantes, but in the end they obtained nothing.There was constant friction with the pontificate of the Spanish Cardinal Pamphilj, elected Pope on 15 September 1644 as Innocent X. Mazarin protected the Barberini cardinals, nephews of the late Pope, and the Bull against them was voted by the Parlement of Paris \"null and abusive\"; France made a show of preparing to take Avignon by force, and Innocent backed down. Mazarin was more consistently an enemy of Jansenism, in particular during the formulary controversy, more for its political implications than out of theology. On his deathbed he warned young Louis \"not to tolerate the Jansenist sect, not even their name.\" After his death, Louis XIV did not appoint a new principal minister and instead governed himself, marking the beginning of a new era of centralized government in France.[26]","title":"Chief minister of France – Diplomacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thirty Years War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years_War"},{"link_name":"the Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fronde"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Michel Particelli d'Emery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Particelli_d%27Emery"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195954-30"}],"text":"Mazarin's long war against the Habsburgs, the final part of the Thirty Years War, was successful, but the cost was enormous. Resentment grew against the Spanish Queen and her Italian prime minister, and culminated in the Fronde, a rebellion against the government by members of the nobility and discontented citizens of Paris, which lasted from 1648 until 1653.[27]Mazarin was forced to raise money by any means possible to support the war against the Habsburgs. His financial counselor was Michel Particelli d'Emery, also Italian. When taxes, loans, and the sale of titles did not bring in enough, he sought new sources of income. He discovered an old law dating to Henry IV which forbade Parisians to build houses outside the city limits. Since the city had grown well outside its old boundaries, in 1644 he imposed heavy fines on all those who lived outside the city limits. In addition, he taxed all merchandise being brought into the city. One measure caused particular resentment among the nobility; he imposed a special tax on all the nobles who served on the various royal courts and councils, amounting to four years of their fees.[28]","title":"Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mazarinade.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"Paris parlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Catalonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reapers%27_War"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neapolitan_Republic_(1647)"},{"link_name":"Charles I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Habeas Corpus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_Corpus"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195956-31"},{"link_name":"Battle of Lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lens"},{"link_name":"Notre Dame de Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Pierre Broussel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Broussel"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195956-31"},{"link_name":"Mazarinades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazarinade"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"slings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sling_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"Gaston d'Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans"},{"link_name":"Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_II_de_Bourbon,_Prince_de_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Paul de Gondi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_de_Gondi"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195956%E2%80%9358-32"},{"link_name":"Peace of Westphalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia"},{"link_name":"Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Saint-Germain-en-Laye"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195959%E2%80%9360-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195960%E2%80%9361-34"}],"sub_title":"The Fronde of the Parliament","text":"An anti-Mazarin cartoon from the Fronde (about 1650). The caption reads, \"Despite Mazarin, the frondeurs assure the safety of the state.\"The center of resistance was the Paris parlement, an ancient assembly of nobles which served as a high court of appeals. It was a period of rebellion against monarchs across Europe; independence movements appeared in the Spanish provinces of Catalonia and Portugal, a revolutionary seized power in Naples, and Charles I of England, the brother-in-law of Louis XIII, was deposed and executed in 1649. In Paris, the members of the parlement called a special session to debate Mazarin's measures. The meeting was forbidden by Regent, Anne of Austria, but went ahead anyway. The parlement issued a charter, inspired by the writ of Habeas Corpus in England, which revoked the authority of the King's justice officials, forbade any new taxes without the approval of the parlement, and declared that no royal subjects could be imprisoned without due process of law.[29]Mazarin recommended to the Queen that she listen to the parlement and modify her decrees, but she was furious at their opposition. She waited until the right moment to strike back. The occasion she chose was the celebration of a major victory of the French Army over the Spanish at the Battle of Lens in Belgium on 26 August 1648. On the day that a special mass was held at the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris to celebrate the victory, she gave orders to the Captain of her guards to arrest the leaders of the parlement, including the popular Pierre Broussel. News of the arrest quickly spread in Paris, and crowds came out into the street to protest and to build barricades. That evening Mazarin wrote in his journal, \"the parlement has performed the functions of the King, and the people have deferred to it entirely.\"[29]During the Fronde, the anti-Mazarin crowds of Paris enjoyed listening to Mazarinades, popular songs with verses mocking the Cardinal. Dozens were written and published, accusing him of virtually all possible faults and crimes. Mazarin had a sense of humor, and when the Fronde was finished, he had the best Mazarinades collected and performed in a concert at his palace.The rebellion lasted for three years. It took its popular name, Fronde, from the children's slings (frondes) which were used by the mobs in the Paris streets to hurl stones. It combined the anger of the Parisians against the new taxes with the resentment of the nobility against the reduction of their ancient privileges. It was led over time by an odd assortment of allies; Gaston d'Orleans, the brother of Louis XIII; Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé a brilliant general but poor politician, and the Cardinal Paul de Gondi, a consummate intriguer. Each of them had different goals, but all agreed that Mazarin should fall.[30]When the Fronde began, the French Army, commanded by the Prince de Condé was far from Paris, fighting the Austrians. Mazarin quickly sent an envoy to the Emperor in Vienna, calling for a truce and peace conference. The Peace of Westphalia, ending the war, was signed 24 October 1648. Despite the peace, disturbances continued in the streets of Paris. During the night of January 6, 1649, Mazarin secretly took the young Louis XIV, Anne of Austria and the court to the safety of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, just west of Paris. Mazarin then set to work intriguing to divide the different factions of the Fronde. His goal was to separate the members of the Parlement and the more radical Parisian street demonstrators, who were united only by their dislike of Mazarin and Anne of Austria.[31]As soon as the war was concluded, he brought Condé and his army back to Paris and placed the city under blockade. He then persuaded the Parlement that they had more to fear from an uprising of the Parisiens than they did from him. On 14 March 1649 Mazarin accepted many of the reforms demanded by the Parlement. In return, the Parlement supporters laid down their weapons and allowed Anne of Austria, the young Louis XIV and Mazarin to return to Paris.[32]","title":"Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9.PNG"},{"link_name":"Prince de Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_de_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jean François Paul de Gondi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Paul_de_Gondi"},{"link_name":"Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Conti"},{"link_name":"Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_II_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_duc_de_Longueville"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195960%E2%80%9361-34"},{"link_name":"Brühl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl_(Rhineland)"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195960%E2%80%9361-34"},{"link_name":"Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_de_Bourbon,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude,_Duke_of_Chevreuse#Marriage_and_issue"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195975-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Combat_de_deux_cavaliers_lors_de_la_Fronde,_faubourg_Saint-Antoine,_sous_les_murs_de_la_Bastille.jpg"},{"link_name":"Prince de Conde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_de_Conde"},{"link_name":"Anne of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Jean François Paul de Gondi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Paul_de_Gondi"},{"link_name":"Turenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turenne"},{"link_name":"the Grande Mademoiselle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_Louise_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_Duchess_of_Montpensier"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195975-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatton197224-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourbon-Busset195976-37"}],"sub_title":"The Fronde of the Princes","text":"Louis the Prince de Condé, leader of the second FrondeThe Parlement accepted Mazarin and his government, but the Fronde was still not finished. Many frondeurs were unhappy with the compromise reached in 1649. Once in Paris, Condé made endless demands on Anne of Austria until she finally angrily dismissed him. One of the other leaders of the Fronde, Jean François Paul de Gondi, soon persuaded Condé to join him in bringing down both Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Mazarin had an excellent network of agents, and immediately learned of the plot. On 18 January 1650 Mazarin had Condé, Condé's brother, Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti and his brother-in-law, Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville arrested.[32]The agreements of 1649 had brought peace to Paris, but the unrest of the Fronde continued in other parts of France. Opponents of Mazarin disrupted tax collection and administration. As the rebellion grew, Mazarin observed that the rebels were only united in opposition to him. He decided it was wisest to resign his position and leave France while he could. He had Condé freed from prison, and, after a long journey to different cities, settled in Brühl near Cologne, as the guest of the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne.[32]From Germany, he sent daily instructions to Anne of Austria and to his agents in France. The strategy was to sow distrust among the different factions of the Fronde. Mazarin's instructions were carried out meticulously by Anne of Austria. His intrigues succeeded in preventing the proposed marriage between one of the leading Frondeurs, the Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti with Princess Charlotte-Marie of Lorraine, Mademoiselle de Chevreuse, another of his principal enemies in Paris. He was greatly aided by the political ineptitude of Condé, who offended many of his natural allies. Mazarin urged Anne of Austria to bring him back to Paris as soon as possible, \"to correct the greatest attack ever made against the royal authority\".[33]Battle between the Fronde forces of the Prince de Conde and the army loyal to Anne of Austria and MazarinOnce back in Paris, Mazarin soon made an alliance with his old enemy, Cardinal Jean François Paul de Gondi. Condé departed to Bordeaux to gather reinforcements. He raised an army of Spanish and French soldiers, and marched on Paris, arriving on 2 July. The soldiers loyal to the Queen, commanded by Turenne, were waiting, and trapped Condé's army against the walls of Paris. An ally of Condé, the Grande Mademoiselle, ordered the gates of the city opened to rescue Condé's army. The battle was witnessed from the hills of Charonne by the young Louis XIV.[33][34]As soon as Condé's soldiers entered Paris, he demanded an immediate purge of Mazarin's supporters. Riots broke out around the Bastille, and were suppressed with great difficulty. The Presidents of the Parlement, now allies of Mazarin, demanded that the violence be stopped and that Condé take his army out of Paris. Reluctantly, Condé left the city, going to the Spanish Netherlands, pursued by Turenne.Louis XIV, now of age to claim his throne, re-entered Paris in October 1652, accompanied by his mother and by Turenne. Mazarin had to wait longer to make his return, which was carefully orchestrated with his help. The Parlement de Paris was first transferred by Anne of Austria from Paris to Pontoise, to see how many members would accept her authority. A majority appeared at the meeting. Following the prepared plan, the Parlement respectfully asked that Mazarin be dismissed, and Anne of Austria agreed. Mazarin, knowing this was the plan, accepted this decision, and waited a respectful time in exile. He made his return to Paris in February 1653. He was welcomed with a triumphal banquet at the Hotel de Ville, where crowds earlier had demanded his downfall.[35]","title":"Discontent – The Fronde (1648–53)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_Nicolas_Fouquet_par_Charles_Le_Brun.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Fouquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet"},{"link_name":"Superintendent of Finances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintendent_of_Finances"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990434-38"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Fouquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990439-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990434-38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colbert1666.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Colbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert"},{"link_name":"Livre tournois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livre_tournois"},{"link_name":"Florentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Florence"},{"link_name":"Florin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990439%E2%80%93443-40"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Colbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert"},{"link_name":"Fouquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990478-41"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990439-39"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoubert1990439-39"}],"text":"Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of FinancesFinding money was a primary preoccupation for Mazarin throughout his entire time as first minister. His new taxes on Parisians and the nobility had provoked the first Fronde, but the end of the Fronde did not resolve the problem. The government had borrowed huge amounts to finance the campaigns against the first Fronde and against Condé, and also had to pay for the continual travels of the Regent and the young King, and the elaborate festivities, parades, and cavalcades that accompanied their travel and every major event. The royal budget for 1653 was about 109 million livres, which amounted to eight hundred tons of silver or sixty tons of gold. Expenditures were the greatest between 1656 and 1659. Twenty-seven agreements were made with bankers, who loaned the government 98 million livres to supplement the money collected through ordinary taxes.[36]Following the death of his first finance minister, La Vieuville, on 2 February 1653, Mazarin chose a new minister, Nicolas Fouquet. At the age of twenty-five, Fouquet had inherited a very large fortune after the death of his young first wife, and an even greater fortune when he married the second time, to Marie-Madeleine de Castille, whose family was one of the wealthiest in Europe. Fouquet began as a master of receipts at age twenty, then an intendant to the army, then Procuror-General for the Parlement of Paris at the age of thirty-five.[37]Through his family connections, Fouquet had amassed a fortune of three to four million livres. One of the reasons for Fouquet's rapid rise was his willingness to lend very large sums to Mazarin for his various projects. In November 1657 Mazarin needed 11.8 million livres to pay the Army of the North. Fouquet, drawing upon his wealthy relatives, was able to provide the money. In 1659 he provided another loan of five million livres.[36]Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the enemy and successor of FouquetOne effect of the enormous amount of money in the market during the period of the Regency of Anne of Austria and Mazarin was a decline in the value of the Livre tournois, the French royal unit of account, lost twenty percent of its value against the gold Florentine Florin coin. However, without the money lent by Fouquet and other aristocratic financiers, Louis XIV could never have accomplished his early military and diplomatic successes.[38]The great rival of Fouquet was Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was also recommended to Louis XIV and brought into the government by Mazarin. Soon after he became an assistant to Mazarin, he wrote a mémoire to Mazarin, claiming that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also accused Fouquet of using royal funds for his own enrichment. Mazarin did not defend Fouquet; shortly before his own death, he agreed that Fouquet had to go. Shortly after Mazarin's death, Fouquet was accused by Colbert of misuse of state funds, his property was confiscated, and he was put into prison until his death, with Colbert eventually taking his place.The personal fortune of Mazarin at the time of his death was immense, amounting to 35 million livres, not counting the sums he left to his nieces. It exceeded the second-greatest personal fortune of the century, that of Richelieu, worth some 20 million livres. About one third of the personal fortune of Mazarin came from some twenty-one abbeys around France, each of which paid him an annual share of their revenue.[39] Unlike members of the nobility, he did not have any large estates; his only real estate was the palace in Paris which he purchased in 1649, and added several surrounding houses. It was valued at 1.2 million livres. Thirty-seven percent of his fortune was in easily transportable jewels and cash. Within the ebony cabinets of his rooms at the Louvre his heirs found 450 pearls of high quality, plus quantities of gold chains and crosses, and rings with precious stones, altogether adding another 400,000 livres.[37] He left to his family jewels worth an estimated 2.5 million livres, and gave a collection of diamonds worth 50,000 livres to the new Queen, and a 14-carat diamond called The Rose of England, valued at 73,000 livres, to the Queen Mother. The most valuable legacies of all, including a set of eighteen diamonds known as the \"Mazarins\", worth two million livres, were given to the young Louis XIV.[37]","title":"Financing the Kingdom – Fouquet and Colbert"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Nanteuil,_Cardinal_Jules_Mazarin_Seated_Within_the_Gallery_of_his_Palace,_1659.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baldassare_Castiglione,_by_Raffaello_Sanzio,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg"},{"link_name":"Raphael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Set_design_Act5_of_Androm%C3%A8de_by_P_Corneille_1650_-_Gallica_(adjusted).jpg"},{"link_name":"Andromède","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androm%C3%A8de"},{"link_name":"Petit-Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petit-Bourbon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boiserie_sculptee_aux_armes_de_Mazarin_Bibliotheque_Mazarine_Paris.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bibliothèque Mazarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Mazarine"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201892-42"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Painting_and_Sculpture"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201892-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Poussin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poussin"},{"link_name":"Rubens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubens"},{"link_name":"Corregio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corregio"},{"link_name":"Van Dyck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Dyck"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_of_Baldassare_Castiglione"},{"link_name":"Raphael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael"},{"link_name":"Charles I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColombier1959113-45"},{"link_name":"hôtels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_particulier"},{"link_name":"Rue de Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rue_de_Richelieu"},{"link_name":"Palais Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_Royal"},{"link_name":"François Mansart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mansart"},{"link_name":"Hôtel Tubeuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Tubeuf"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Francesco Romanelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Francesco_Romanelli"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Bibliothèque nationale de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre_Palace"},{"link_name":"Château de Vincennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201892-42"},{"link_name":"Louis XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII"},{"link_name":"Catherine de Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de_Medici"},{"link_name":"Marie de Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_de_Medici"},{"link_name":"Leonora Baroni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonora_Baroni"},{"link_name":"Atto Melani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atto_Melani"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Torelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Torelli"},{"link_name":"La finta pazza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_finta_pazza"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Orfeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orfeo_(Rossi)"},{"link_name":"Luigi Rossi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Rossi"},{"link_name":"ballet de cour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet_de_cour"},{"link_name":"Molière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Fouquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Fouquet"},{"link_name":"Vaux-le-Vicomte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaux-le-Vicomte"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatton197218-51"},{"link_name":"Collège des Quatre-Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_des_Quatre-Nations"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoncet201892%E2%80%9393-52"}],"text":"Mazarin seated within the Gallery of his Palace (1659)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPortrait of Baldassare Castiglione, by Raphael, purchased by Mazarin from Richelieu\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTorelli's set design for Act 5 of Pierre Corneille's Andromède as performed at the Petit-Bourbon in 1650\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCarved coat of arms of Mazarin on a bookcase in the Bibliothèque Mazarine in ParisMazarin was second only to Louis XIV as a patron of the arts in France in the 17th century.[40] In 1648 he founded the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture.[41] After his death in 1661, the inventory of his art collection at the Mazarin Palace recorded 858 paintings, 128 statues, 185 busts, plus 150 carpets, 514 pieces of jewelry and fine silver, and 317 precious stones, not counting the famous Mazarin diamonds, which he left to Louis XIV.[40][42] His collection included works by most of the major French and Italian artists of his time and before, going back to the Renaissance. His acquisitions included works by Poussin, Rubens, Corregio, Van Dyck, Titian, and many others, as well as the famous Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael, which had belonged to Charles I of England, and had been bought by Richelieu. Just before his death, he visited his gallery for the last time with his deputy Brienne, and told him: \"Ah, my poor friend, I must leave all this. Farewell, dear paintings, which cost me so much and which I so much loved.\" Many of the paintings he owned are now in the Louvre.[43]The Palais Mazarin (Mazarin Palace) was created by Mazarin beginning in 1643, soon after he became first minister, when he rented four adjacent hôtels on the north side of the Rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs between the Rue Vivienne to the east and the Rue de Richelieu on the west and across from the Palais Royal, which was the King's residence. He commissioned François Mansart to add a garden wing with two superimposed galleries running north from the west end of the easternmost building, the Hôtel Tubeuf, where he could display his art. Between 1645 and 1647 he commissioned the Italian painter Giovanni Francesco Romanelli to create scenes from the works of Ovid on the ceiling of the upper gallery (although much modified, now known as the Galerie Mazarine[44]). In 1721, the Palais Mazarin became the site of the King's Library (Bibliothèque du Roi), now the Richelieu site of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.[45] Mazarin spent little time in his Palace; he lived most of the time in the Palais Royal, when Louis XIV was in residence there, or in the Louvre. Near the end of his life he resided in the Château de Vincennes, where he decorated a suite of rooms. He also had the moats of the chateau turned into a kind of zoo, with lions, tigers, bears and other exotic animals, for the amusement of the young King.[40]Mazarin also played an important role in bringing Italian music to Paris. Before Mazarin, Italian opera was very little known or appreciated in Paris. Louis XIII, Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici had all brought Italian musicians to Paris, but Mazarin did it more systematically and on a much larger scale. After his arrival as a minister in 1643, he invited the famous soprano Leonora Baroni and the castrato Atto Melani. Melani doubled as a diplomat; Mazarin sent him on several secret missions to other courts in Europe.\n[46]Due to Mazarin's efforts, seven Italian operas were performed in Paris between 1645 and 1662. In 1645 Mazarin brought to Paris the famous scenery designer Giacomo Torelli, who staged Sacrati's opera La finta pazza.[47] In 1647, for Carnaval, he staged a lavish production of the premiere of Orfeo by Luigi Rossi. Later on Torelli became involved more in the ballet de cour than in opera, reflecting the passion of the king for dancing. Torelli's career in France came to a definitive end in 1661, when he worked on sets for Molière's Les fâcheux, presented by Nicholas Fouquet as part of his grand fête at Vaux-le-Vicomte in honor of the King, the overly ostentatious display which ultimately led to Fouquet's imprisonment.[48]Mazarin was also a famous collector of books.[49] In 1646, he brought to Paris his collection of nine thousand volumes, which he installed in his residence. It was the second-largest library in Paris, second only to the library of the King. However, when Mazarin was forced to leave Paris during the Fronde, his library was seized by the Fronde leaders, and was dispersed. He then began a second library with what was left of the first. The library grew to over 25,000 volumes and was open to all scholars after 1643. It is recognized as the first true public library in France. In his will, he gave his library to the Collège des Quatre-Nations which he had founded in 1661. The original bookcases of his library were transferred to the reading room of the College of Quatre-Nations when it was built.[50]","title":"Patron of the arts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marriage_of_Louis_XIV_with_Marie-Therese_of_Austria.jpg"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959256%E2%80%93258-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959260-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959260-54"}],"text":"The wedding of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa. Mazarin is at their right.From the eighth birthday of the young Louis XIV, Mazarin took the title \"Superintendent of the Royal Education\" and managed every aspect of the young King's studies. All of the King's activities were governed and scheduled by Mazarin; his time of rising, his prayers, his physical exercise (paume fencing, and dance) followed by a morning lesson in politics with Mazarin himself. In the afternoons he was charged to write an essay each day for Mazarin on what he had learned. The education he gave Louis was purely practical, not theoretical. Among other topics, he instructed the King in the fine art of dissimulation, or lying, when needed, and always, when making an agreement, to leave a way out.[51]Beginning in 1659, as the King reached the age of twenty-one, and Mazarin approached the end of his life, he wrote a series of guidelines in political affairs for the King. When the King set off on his journey to Spain to be married, Mazarin wrote to him: \"Remember, I ask you, what I have had the honor to tell you, when you asked me the way to take to become a great King....it is necessary to begin by making the greatest efforts to not be dominated by any passion....because, otherwise, if any misfortune arrives, regardless of what good will you have, you will not be able to do what has to be done.\"[52]Despite Mazarin's instructions, Louis XIV continued to correspond with Mazarin's niece Marie, with the tacit collusion of his mother. Mazarin immediately adopted a stricter tone: \"God established Kings...for watching over the well-being, safety and peace of their subjects; and not to sacrifice this well-being and safety for their personal passions...you must remember your responsibilities to God for your actions and for your safety, and to the world for the support of your glory and your reputation.\" Mazarin also threatened to depart France with his family if the King did not agree to stop communicating with Marie. In response, Louis wrote a new letter to his mother, promising that henceforth he would forget Marie and concentrate exclusively on \"the great occupation of King\". (Grand metier du Roi)[52]","title":"Educator of Louis XIV"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"League of the Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_the_Rhine"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Austrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292-55"},{"link_name":"Turenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turenne"},{"link_name":"Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Dunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Dunes_(1658)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292-55"},{"link_name":"Luis de Haro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_de_Haro"},{"link_name":"Faisans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisans"},{"link_name":"Hendaye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendaye"},{"link_name":"Fuenterrabía","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuenterrab%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Bidassoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidassoa"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBluche199086-56"},{"link_name":"Treaty of the Pyrenees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees"},{"link_name":"Artois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artois"},{"link_name":"Cerdanya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerdanya"},{"link_name":"Roussillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roussillon"},{"link_name":"Maria Theresa of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Theresa_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Saint-Jean-de-Luz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Jean-de-Luz"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292-55"},{"link_name":"Westphalian principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westphalian_sovereignty"},{"link_name":"international law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_law"}],"text":"The last years of Mazarin's life, between 1658 and his death in 1661, were marked by a series of major diplomatic victories, including the marriage of Louis XIV. In 1658, after long and intense preparation, Mazarin unveiled the League of the Rhine, a new group of fifty small German principalities which were now linked by a treaty with France. They promised not to allow enemy forces pass through them to invade France. This treaty weakened both the old Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs, This gave a new measure of security to France's eastern border.[53] In the same month, Marshal Turenne decisively defeated the army of Condé at the Battle of the Dunes in Flanders. This marked the end of the threats to France from the north, from the Spanish Netherlands.[53]Negotiation of a draft peace treaty between France and Spain took place between February and June 1659, but many critical details remained unresolved. Mazarin and Spain's Dom Luis de Haro personally took charge of the negotiations on 13 August. Their conferences, which continued for three months, were held on the French-Spanish border on the island of Faisans, midway between French Hendaye and Spanish Fuenterrabía, in the river Bidassoa.[54] The resulting Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on 7 November 1659 and added Artois, Cerdanya, and Roussillon as new provinces of France. It also provided for an even more important diplomatic event carefully arranged by Mazarin, the marriage of Louis XIV with Maria Theresa of Spain, the French celebration of which followed in June 1660 in nearby Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The couple made a triumphant entry into Paris on 26 August 1660. This marriage and accompanying agreements ended, at least for a time, the long and costly wars between the Austrians and France.[53]Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day.","title":"Final military and diplomatic accomplishments (1658–1661)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cardinal_mazarin_tomb.jpg"},{"link_name":"Institut de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_France"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Collège des Quatre-Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_des_Quatre-Nations"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Westphalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia"},{"link_name":"Institut de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_France"},{"link_name":"Academie Française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academie_Fran%C3%A7aise"}],"text":"Tomb of Mazarin in the Institut de FranceIn his last months, Mazarin resided mainly in the Louvre Palace. A large fire broke out in the Gallery of Apollo, the main picture gallery of the Louvre, and destroyed many pictures, greatly upsetting Mazarin. It was the beginning of his decline. When his doctor informed him that his end was near, Mazarin asked, \"How long?\" The Doctor replied \"two months.\" Mazarin responded, \"That's enough.\"[55]Mazarin had already prepared several wills. Knowing that his enemies at court were telling Louis XIV that he was taking money that belonged rightfully to the King, his first will, which he made public, cleverly left all of his fortune to Louis XIV. Mazarin probably calculated that the King would be too embarrassed to take all of his mentor's and chief Minister's wealth. The King waited for three days, then refused to accept it. Mazarin had also prepared a different will, which left a large sum for the establishment of the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which he had founded for students from the four new provinces which he had added to the territory of France by the Treaty of Westphalia. The college, now the Institut de France, was eventually built directly across the Seine from the Louvre, where it is visible from the Palace. Mazarin asked that his remains be interred there, where they rest today in a marble monument beneath the dome. The college is home to the five French academies, including the Academie Française.","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laura_Mancini_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Laura Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Mancini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anna_Maria_Martonozzi,_Princess_of_Conti_by_an_unknown_artist_(Palace_of_Versailles).jpg"},{"link_name":"Anne Marie Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_Martinozzi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Olympia_Mancini_by_Mignard.png"},{"link_name":"Olympia Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia_Mancini,_Countess_of_Soissons"},{"link_name":"Pierre Mignard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Mignard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laura_Martinozzi_duchessa_Modena.jpg"},{"link_name":"Laura Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Martinozzi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marie_Mancini_(1639-1715).png"},{"link_name":"Marie Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Mancini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HortenseManciniGodfreyKneller.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hortense Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortense_Mancini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ryttarportr%C3%A4tt_p%C3%A5_Madame_La_Duchesse_De_Bouillon,_1670-tal_-_Skoklosters_slott_-_100374.tif"},{"link_name":"Marie Anne Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Anne_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Girolama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolama_Mazzarini"},{"link_name":"Laura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Margherita_Mazzarini"},{"link_name":"Mazarinettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazarinettes"},{"link_name":"Laura Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Henry IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Olympia Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Marie Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV"},{"link_name":"Prince Eugene of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Eugene_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Eugene of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo_Onofrio_Colonna,_8th_Prince_of_Paliano"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColombier1959130%E2%80%93143-58"},{"link_name":"Hortense Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortense_Mancini"},{"link_name":"a nephew of Cardinal Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Charles_de_La_Porte_de_La_Meilleraye"},{"link_name":"Charles II of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Marie Anne Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Anne_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Duke of Bouillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godefroy_Maurice_de_La_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Duke_of_Bouillon"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColombier1959130%E2%80%93143-58"},{"link_name":"Anne Marie Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_Martinozzi"},{"link_name":"Prince de Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_de_Bourbon,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Laura Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Martinozzi"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IV d'Este","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IV_d%27Este"},{"link_name":"Duke of Modena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Ferrara_and_of_Modena"},{"link_name":"Mary of Modena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_of_Modena"},{"link_name":"James II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_II_of_England"}],"text":"Laura Mancini, Duchess of Mercœur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAnne Marie Martinozzi, Princess of Conti\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOlympia Mancini, by Pierre Mignard\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLaura Martinozzi, Duchess of Modena\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMarie Mancini, whom Louis XIV wished to marry\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHortense Mancini, Duchess Mazarin.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMarie Anne Mancini, who became Duchess of Bouillon.Mazarin did not have children, but he did have seven nieces: five from the Mancini family (daughters of his sister Girolama) and two from the Martinozzi family (daughters of his sister Laura). The nieces all moved to Paris, and Mazarin devoted care to arranging marriages for them, always with wealthy and aristocratic families. The nieces were known for their beauty, wit and ambition, and became known as the Mazarinettes.Laura Mancini was the eldest of the five famous Mancini sisters. She married Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, grandson of King Henry IV, and was the mother of the great general the Duke of Vendôme. Both Olympia Mancini and Marie Mancini had romantic relationships with the young Louis XIV. He wished to marry Marie, but was prevented by his mother and by Mazarin, who had greater plans to marry Louis to a princess of Spain. In 1657 Olympia was married to Prince Eugene of Savoy, and became the mother of Eugene of Savoy, a famous general for the Austrians. Marie became the wife of the Italian nobleman Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, of the same family that had employed Mazarin's father as an intendant.[56] Hortense Mancini was married shortly before Mazarin's death to a nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, who thereafter took the title Duke Mazarin. After fleeing from her abusive marriage, Hortense became for a time the mistress of King Charles II of England. Marie Anne Mancini married the Duke of Bouillon soon after the death of Mazarin.[56]As for the two Martinozzi sisters, Anne Marie Martinozzi married the Prince de Conti in 1654. Her sister Laura Martinozzi married Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena, and was the mother of Mary of Modena, who became Queen Consort of England as the wife of King James II.","title":"The Mazarinettes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexandre Dumas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas,_p%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Twenty Years After","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_Years_After"},{"link_name":"Le Vicomte de Bragelonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Vicomte_de_Bragelonne"},{"link_name":"Letitia Elizabeth Landon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon"},{"link_name":"Marie Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Mancini"},{"link_name":"Rafael Sabatini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Sabatini"},{"link_name":"1634: The Galileo Affair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1634:_The_Galileo_Affair"},{"link_name":"Eric Flint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Flint"},{"link_name":"Andrew Dennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Dennis"},{"link_name":"1636: The Cardinal Virtues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1636:_The_Cardinal_Virtues"},{"link_name":"Walter H. Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_H._Hunt"},{"link_name":"Sherlock Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes"},{"link_name":"Arthur Conan Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle"},{"link_name":"The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventure_of_the_Mazarin_Stone"},{"link_name":"Young Blades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Blades"},{"link_name":"Michael Ironside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Ironside"},{"link_name":"Gérard Depardieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Depardieu"},{"link_name":"La Femme Musketeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Femme_Musketeer"},{"link_name":"Umberto Eco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_Eco"},{"link_name":"The Island of the Day Before","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Island_of_the_Day_Before"},{"link_name":"death watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigil"},{"link_name":"Vincent DePaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_DePaul"},{"link_name":"The Flashing Blade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flashing_Blade"},{"link_name":"Giani Esposito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giani_Esposito"},{"link_name":"Edward Rutherfurd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Rutherfurd"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_(novel)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Marie Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Mancini"}],"text":"Mazarin is a major character in Alexandre Dumas' novels Twenty Years After and Le Vicomte de Bragelonne. In them, Mazarin is portrayed as greedy and devious, as well as the Queen's lover.\nMazarin plays a significant part in Letitia Elizabeth Landon's historical novel, Francesca Carrara. He acts as uncle to his niece, Marie Mancini and her fictional sister, Henriette, both of whom have important roles.\nCardinal Mazarin is an important supporting character in Rafael Sabatini's novel The Suitors of Yvonne. His plans set the main plot of the book in progress. He is portrayed fairly accurately as being ambitious and ruthless, but very protective of his family.\nMazarin is a character of some importance in 1634: The Galileo Affair by Eric Flint and Andrew Dennis, and also in 1636: The Cardinal Virtues by Eric Flint and Walter H. Hunt.\nA diamond called the \"Mazarin stone\" is searched for in a 1921 Sherlock Holmes short story by Arthur Conan Doyle, \"The Adventure of the Mazarin Stone\".\nMazarin is a major character in the 2005 series Young Blades, portrayed by Michael Ironside.\nMazarin (played by Gérard Depardieu) serves as the mastermind antagonist in the Hallmark movie La Femme Musketeer. Personality- and ambition-wise, he is nearly identical to Cardinal Richelieu.\nUmberto Eco's novel The Island of the Day Before takes place just after the transition from Richelieu's rule to Mazarin's. Its protagonist witnesses the death watch for Richelieu and is subsequently forced by Mazarin to undertake a bizarre mission to the other side of the world.\nMazarin plays a central role in the play \"Vincent in Heaven\", which tells the story of St. Vincent DePaul.\nMazarin is a character in the French TV series of the 1960s, Le Chevalier Tempête, shown in the UK as The Flashing Blade. He was played by the Belgian actor Giani Esposito.\nMazarin is claimed to be the actual biological father of Louis XIV in Edward Rutherfurd's novel, Paris (2013).[57]\nMazarin is the antagonist of the novel Enchantress of Paris (2015) by Marci Jefferson. Mazarin uses the wiles of his niece, Marie Mancini, in an attempt to secure his power over the king.","title":"In fiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"/ˈmæzərɪn/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"/ˈmæzəræ̃/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"/ˌmæzəˈræ̃/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[ʒyl 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1959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMongr%C3%A9dien1959"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292_55-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292_55-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMongr%C3%A9dien1959292_55-2"},{"link_name":"Mongrédien 1959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMongr%C3%A9dien1959"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBluche199086_56-0"},{"link_name":"Bluche 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBluche1990"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"Jean d'Ormesson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_d%27Ormesson"},{"link_name":"Ormesson 1959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFOrmesson1959"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColombier1959130%E2%80%93143_58-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColombier1959130%E2%80%93143_58-1"},{"link_name":"Colombier 1959","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFColombier1959"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-59"},{"link_name":"Paris (novel)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Ballantine Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballantine_Books"}],"text":"Notes^ Pronunciation: (/ˈmæzərɪn/,[1] also UK: /ˈmæzəræ̃/,[2] US: /ˌmæzəˈræ̃/,[3][4] French: [ʒyl mazaʁɛ̃]\n\n^ Italian: [ˈdʒuːljo raiˈmondo maddzaˈriːno]Citations^ \"Mazarin\". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.\n\n^ \"Mazarin, Jules\". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.[dead link]\n\n^ \"Mazarin\". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 July 2019.\n\n^ \"Mazarin\". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 29 July 2019.\n\n^ For \"Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini\", see Dethan 1991, p. 979. For \"Giulio Mazzarino\", see Poncet 2018, p. 24. For the surname \"Mazarini\", see Dethan 1959, p. 9; Dethan 1977, p. 11; Treasure 1995, p. 404. Some sources give his surname as \"Mazzarini\", for example, Buelow 2004, p. 158 Archived 2016-05-28 at the Wayback Machine or Viaggio del Cardinale Mazzarini a St Jean de Luz l'anno 1659 Archived 2021-06-27 at the Wayback Machine; others, as \"Mazarino\" (Dizionario italiano multimediale e multilingue d'Ortografia e di Pronunzia Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine or Il cardinale Mazarino Archived 2021-06-27 at the Wayback Machine).\n\n^ Poncet 2018, p. 24.\n\n^ a b c d Dethan 1959, p. 10.\n\n^ \"English: Bufalini Family 1491 to 1782\" (PDF). 1965.\n\n^ Parlett 1991, pp. 88/89.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, p. 11.\n\n^ Poncet 2018, p. 32.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, p. 13.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, p. 14.\n\n^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 16.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, p. 22.\n\n^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 38.\n\n^ a b Dethan 1959, p. 24.\n\n^ Poncet 2018, p. 118.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, pp. 42–43.\n\n^ a b c Dethan 1959, p. 45.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, pp. 45–49.\n\n^ Dethan 1959, pp. 47–49.\n\n^ a b c Dethan 1959, pp. 50–51.\n\n^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 53.\n\n^ O'Connor 1978, pp. 5–9.\n\n^ Jones, Colin (1994). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-43294-8.\n\n^ This section draws upon the chapter \"Le vaincu de la Fronde deviant monarque absolu\" by Jacques de Bourbon-Busset in Mazarin, edited by Georges Mongrédien (Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 53–81).\n\n^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 54.\n\n^ a b Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 56.\n\n^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 56–58.\n\n^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 59–60.\n\n^ a b c Bourbon-Busset 1959, pp. 60–61.\n\n^ a b Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 75.\n\n^ Hatton 1972, p. 24.\n\n^ Bourbon-Busset 1959, p. 76.\n\n^ a b Goubert 1990, p. 434.\n\n^ a b c Goubert 1990, p. 439.\n\n^ Goubert 1990, pp. 439–443.\n\n^ Goubert 1990, p. 478.\n\n^ a b c Poncet 2018, p. 92.\n\n^ Georges Dethan, \"Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal\" in The New Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed., Chicago, 1991) vol. 7, p. 979.\n\n^ Cosnac, Les richesses du palais Mazarin (1884) Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine.\n\n^ Colombier 1959, p. 113.\n\n^ Thackray, Anne (1996). \"Mazarin family (1) Cardinal Jules Mazarin [Giulio Mazarini]\", vol. 20, pp. 895–896 Archived 2018-12-29 at the Wayback Machine, in The Dictionary of Art (34 vols.), edited by Jane Turner. New York: Grove. ISBN 978-1884446009.\n\n^ Braham, Allan; Smith, Peter (1973). François Mansart, p. 71. London: A. Zwemmer. ISBN 978-0302022511; Ayers, Andrew (2004). The Architecture of Paris, p. 58. Stuttgart; London: Edition Axel Menges. ISBN 978-3930698967; Sauval, Henri (1724). Histoire et recherches des antiquite's de la ville de Paris, vol. 2, pp. 172–180 Archived 2022-06-01 at the Wayback Machine. Paris: Charles Moette; Jacques Chardon.\n\n^ Banham, Martin (1995). The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre, 2nd ed., Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521434379.\n\n^ James R. Anthony (1992), \"Mazarin, Cardinal Jules Mazzarini, Giulio Raimondo Archived 2018-12-28 at the Wayback Machine\", Grove Music Online.\n\n^ Aronson, Arnold; Roy, Donald (1995). \"Torelli, Giacomo\", pp. 1116–1117 in The Cambridge Guide to the Theatre, 2nd ed., edited by Martin Banham. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521434379.\n\n^ Hatton 1972, p. 18.\n\n^ Poncet 2018, pp. 92–93.\n\n^ Mongrédien 1959, pp. 256–258.\n\n^ a b Mongrédien 1959, p. 260.\n\n^ a b c Mongrédien 1959, p. 292.\n\n^ Bluche 1990, p. 86.\n\n^ This section draws mainly upon \"Chapter VI: Le vieille homme et le jeune Roi\" by Jean d'Ormesson in Mazarin (Ormesson 1959, pp. 201–225).\n\n^ a b Colombier 1959, pp. 130–143.\n\n^ Paris (novel), pp. 458–460 and p. 493, Ballantine Books Trade Paperback Edition (2014)","title":"Notes and citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0531151129","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0531151129"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-253-34365-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34365-9"},{"link_name":"Bourbon-Busset, Jacques de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bourbon-Busset"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"742625187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"742625187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"742625187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0500870044","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0500870044"},{"link_name":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85229-529-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-529-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2-213-01650-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-01650-X"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"742625187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8203-0436-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-0436-6"},{"link_name":"Ormesson, Jean d'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_d%27Ormesson"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"742625187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-282905-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-282905-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"979-10-210-3105-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-10-210-3105-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-014573","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-014573"}],"text":"Bluche, François (1990). Louis XIV. New York: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0531151129.\nBuelow, George J. (2004). A history of baroque music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34365-9.\nBourbon-Busset, Jacques de (1959). \"Chapitre II: Le vaincu de la Fronde devient monarque absolu\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 53–81. OCLC 742625187.\nColombier, Pierre du (1959). \"Chapitre IV: Le Premier ministre se fait l'ambassadeur de l'art italien\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 113–151. OCLC 742625187.\nDethan, Georges (1959). \"Chapitre I: Le jeune Monsignore à la conquête de Richelieu\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 7–51. OCLC 742625187.\nDethan, Georges (1977). The Young Mazarin. Translated by Baron, Stanley. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500870044.\nDethan, Georges (1991). \"Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal\". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. pp. 979–980. ISBN 0-85229-529-4.\nGoubert, Pierre (1990). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2-213-01650-X.\nMongrédien, Georges (1959). \"Chapitre VIII: Le rideau s'est levé sur le Grand Siècle\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 255–292. OCLC 742625187.\nO'Connor, John T. (1978). Negotiator Out of Season: Career of Wilhelm Egon Von Furstenberg, 1629–1704. Athens: U of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-0436-6.\nOrmesson, Jean d' (1959). \"Chapitre VI: Le vieil homme et le jeune Roi\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 201–225. OCLC 742625187.\nParlett, David (1991). A History of Card Games. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282905-X.\nPoncet, Olivier (2018). Mazarin l'Italien (in French). Paris: Tallandier. ISBN 979-10-210-3105-0.\nTreasure, Geoffrey (1995). Mazarin: The Crisis of Absolutism in France. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-014573.","title":"Books cited in text"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Biography portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography"},{"link_name":"Hassall, Arthur. Mazarin (1903)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mazarinm00hassrich"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/cu31924082186317#page/n10/mode/1up"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/franceundermaza00perkgoog#page/n11/mode/1up"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV and His World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/louisxivhisworld00hatt_0"}],"text":"Biography portalBonney, R. \"The Paradox of Mazarin.\" History Today 32. (Feb 1982): 18–24.\nBonney, Richard. \"Cardinal Mazarin and the great nobility during the Fronde.\" English Historical Review 96.381 (1981): 818–833.\nBonney, Richard. Society And Government In France Under Richelieu And Mazarin 1624–61 (Springer, 1988).\nEkberg, Carl J. \"Abel Servien, Cardinal Mazarin, and the Formulation of French Foreign Policy, 1653–1659.\" International History Review 3.3 (1981): 317–329.\nHaffemayer, Stéphane. \"Mazarin, Information and Communication During the Fronde (1648–1653).\" Media History 22.3-4 (2016): 386–400.\nHassall, Arthur. Mazarin (1903)\nPerkins, James Breck (1886). France Under Mazarin (2 volumes). New York: Putnam. Vols. 1 & 2 at Internet Archive.\nSonnino, Paul. Mazarin's Quest: The Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde (Harvard UP, 2008). 307 pp\nWilkinson, Richard. \"Cardinal Mazarin\" History Today (April 1996) 46#4 pp 39–45.\nHatton, Ragnhild Marie (1972). Louis XIV and His World. New York: Putnam.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Mazarin carrying the peace agreement to the armies at Casale, crying \"Peace! Peace!\" (18th century engraving)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Italian_-_Cardinal_Mazarin_Riding_To_Villafranca_with_the_Treaty_of_Peace_-_Walters_371161.jpg/250px-Italian_-_Cardinal_Mazarin_Riding_To_Villafranca_with_the_Treaty_of_Peace_-_Walters_371161.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mazarin as a papal envoy in Paris (1632)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Jules_Mazarin_in_1632.jpg/200px-Jules_Mazarin_in_1632.jpg"},{"image_text":"Portrait of Cardinal Jules Mazarin by Simon Vouet (before 1649, private collection)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Simon_vouet_portrait_du_cardinal_jules_mazarin.jpg/220px-Simon_vouet_portrait_du_cardinal_jules_mazarin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anne of Austria with her children Louis XIV of France and Philippe, Duke of Orléans (unknown artist)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Anne_of_Austria_%28Queen_mother%29_with_her_two_sons_Louis_XIV_of_France_and_Philippe%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_%28unknown_artist%29.jpg/220px-Anne_of_Austria_%28Queen_mother%29_with_her_two_sons_Louis_XIV_of_France_and_Philippe%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_%28unknown_artist%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"An anti-Mazarin cartoon from the Fronde (about 1650). The caption reads, \"Despite Mazarin, the frondeurs assure the safety of the state.\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Mazarinade.jpg/250px-Mazarinade.jpg"},{"image_text":"Louis the Prince de Condé, leader of the second Fronde","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Louis%2C_Grand_Cond%C3%A9.PNG/250px-Louis%2C_Grand_Cond%C3%A9.PNG"},{"image_text":"Battle between the Fronde forces of the Prince de Conde and the army loyal to Anne of Austria and Mazarin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Combat_de_deux_cavaliers_lors_de_la_Fronde%2C_faubourg_Saint-Antoine%2C_sous_les_murs_de_la_Bastille.jpg/250px-Combat_de_deux_cavaliers_lors_de_la_Fronde%2C_faubourg_Saint-Antoine%2C_sous_les_murs_de_la_Bastille.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Portrait_Nicolas_Fouquet_par_Charles_Le_Brun.jpg/200px-Portrait_Nicolas_Fouquet_par_Charles_Le_Brun.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the enemy and successor of Fouquet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Colbert1666.jpg/220px-Colbert1666.jpg"},{"image_text":"The wedding of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa. Mazarin is at their right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Marriage_of_Louis_XIV_with_Marie-Therese_of_Austria.jpg/170px-Marriage_of_Louis_XIV_with_Marie-Therese_of_Austria.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tomb of Mazarin in the Institut de France","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Cardinal_mazarin_tomb.jpg/200px-Cardinal_mazarin_tomb.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Mazarin\". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 29 July 2019. Retrieved 29 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mazarin","url_text":"\"Mazarin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Collins English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190729142200/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/mazarin","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Mazarin, Jules\". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lexico.com/definition/Mazarin,+Jules","url_text":"\"Mazarin, Jules\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexico","url_text":"Lexico"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"\"Mazarin\". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Mazarin","url_text":"\"Mazarin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language","url_text":"The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language"}]},{"reference":"\"Mazarin\". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 29 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Mazarin","url_text":"\"Mazarin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merriam-Webster","url_text":"Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"\"English: Bufalini Family 1491 to 1782\" (PDF). 1965.","urls":[{"url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:San_Giustino,_Family_Bufalini_1491_-_1782.pdf","url_text":"\"English: Bufalini Family 1491 to 1782\""}]},{"reference":"Jones, Colin (1994). The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-43294-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00jone_0","url_text":"The Cambridge Illustrated History of France"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cambridgeillustr00jone_0/page/196","url_text":"196"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43294-8","url_text":"978-0-521-43294-8"}]},{"reference":"Bluche, François (1990). Louis XIV. New York: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0531151129.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0531151129","url_text":"978-0531151129"}]},{"reference":"Buelow, George J. (2004). A history of baroque music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34365-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34365-9","url_text":"978-0-253-34365-9"}]},{"reference":"Bourbon-Busset, Jacques de (1959). \"Chapitre II: Le vaincu de la Fronde devient monarque absolu\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 53–81. OCLC 742625187.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Bourbon-Busset","url_text":"Bourbon-Busset, Jacques de"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187","url_text":"742625187"}]},{"reference":"Colombier, Pierre du (1959). \"Chapitre IV: Le Premier ministre se fait l'ambassadeur de l'art italien\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 113–151. OCLC 742625187.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187","url_text":"742625187"}]},{"reference":"Dethan, Georges (1959). \"Chapitre I: Le jeune Monsignore à la conquête de Richelieu\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 7–51. OCLC 742625187.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187","url_text":"742625187"}]},{"reference":"Dethan, Georges (1977). The Young Mazarin. Translated by Baron, Stanley. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500870044.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0500870044","url_text":"978-0500870044"}]},{"reference":"Dethan, Georges (1991). \"Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal\". The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. pp. 979–980. ISBN 0-85229-529-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"The New Encyclopædia Britannica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-529-4","url_text":"0-85229-529-4"}]},{"reference":"Goubert, Pierre (1990). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Fayard. ISBN 2-213-01650-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-01650-X","url_text":"2-213-01650-X"}]},{"reference":"Mongrédien, Georges (1959). \"Chapitre VIII: Le rideau s'est levé sur le Grand Siècle\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 255–292. OCLC 742625187.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187","url_text":"742625187"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John T. (1978). Negotiator Out of Season: Career of Wilhelm Egon Von Furstenberg, 1629–1704. Athens: U of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-0436-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-0436-6","url_text":"978-0-8203-0436-6"}]},{"reference":"Ormesson, Jean d' (1959). \"Chapitre VI: Le vieil homme et le jeune Roi\". In Mongrédien, Georges (ed.). Mazarin (in French). Paris: Hachette. pp. 201–225. OCLC 742625187.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_d%27Ormesson","url_text":"Ormesson, Jean d'"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/742625187","url_text":"742625187"}]},{"reference":"Parlett, David (1991). A History of Card Games. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282905-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-282905-X","url_text":"0-19-282905-X"}]},{"reference":"Poncet, Olivier (2018). Mazarin l'Italien (in French). Paris: Tallandier. ISBN 979-10-210-3105-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-10-210-3105-0","url_text":"979-10-210-3105-0"}]},{"reference":"Treasure, Geoffrey (1995). Mazarin: The Crisis of Absolutism in France. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-014573.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-014573","url_text":"0-415-014573"}]},{"reference":"Hatton, Ragnhild Marie (1972). Louis XIV and His World. New York: Putnam.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/louisxivhisworld00hatt_0","url_text":"Louis XIV and His World"}]},{"reference":"Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). \"Jules Mazarin\" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_barrel
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Gun barrel
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["1 History","2 Construction","2.1 Fluting","2.2 Composite barrels","3 Mounting","4 Components","4.1 Chamber","4.2 Bore","4.3 Muzzle","5 See also","6 References","7 Bibliography"]
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Firearm component which guides the projectile during acceleration
For other uses, see Gun barrel (disambiguation).
The Tsar Cannon of 1586 with its huge bore and a barrel exterior which is perceived like a stack of storage barrels
A gun barrel is a crucial part of gun-type weapons such as small firearms, artillery pieces, and air guns. It is the straight shooting tube, usually made of rigid high-strength metal, through which a contained rapid expansion of high-pressure gas(es) is used to propel a projectile out of the front end (muzzle) at a high velocity. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, and the diameter of the bore is called its caliber, usually measured in inches or millimetres.
The first firearms were made at a time when metallurgy was not advanced enough to cast tubes capable of withstanding the explosive forces of early cannons, so the pipe (often built from staves of metal) needed to be braced periodically along its length for structural reinforcement, producing an appearance somewhat reminiscent of storage barrels being stacked together, hence the English name.
History
A female worker boring out the barrel of a Lee-Enfield rifle during WWI
Gun barrels are usually made of some type of metal or metal alloy. However, during the late Tang dynasty, Chinese inventors discovered gunpowder, and used bamboo, which has a strong, naturally tubular stalk and is cheaper to obtain and process, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons such as fire lances. The Chinese were also the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, and used the technology to make the earliest infantry firearms — the hand cannons. Early European guns were made of wrought iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings and then welded into a hollow cylinder. Bronze and brass were favoured by gunsmiths, largely because of their ease of casting and their resistance to the corrosive effects of the combustion of gunpowder or salt water when used on naval vessels.
Early firearms were muzzleloaders, with the gunpowder and then the shot loaded from the front end (muzzle) of the barrel, and were capable of only a low rate of fire due to the cumbersome loading process. The later-invented breech-loading designs provided a higher rate of fire, but early breechloaders lacked an effective way of sealing the escaping gases that leaked from the back end (breech) of the barrel, reducing the available muzzle velocity. During the 19th century, effective breechblocks were invented that sealed a breechloader against the escape of propellant gases.
Early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. This was because manufacturing defects such as air bubbles trapped in the metal were common at that time, and played key factors in many gun explosions; these defects made the barrel too weak to withstand the pressures of firing, causing it to fail and fragment explosively.
Construction
The barrel of a 240 mm howitzer in use in 1944
A gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out. If the barrel material cannot cope with the pressure within the bore, the barrel itself might suffer catastrophic failure and explode, which will not only destroy the gun but also present a life-threatening danger to people nearby. Modern small arms barrels are made of carbon steel or stainless steel materials known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength.
Fluting
Main article: Fluting (firearms)
A German Army G22 with fluted barrel
Fluting is the removal of material from a cylindrical surface, usually creating rounded grooves, for the purpose of reducing weight. This is most often done to the exterior surface of a rifle barrel, though it may also be applied to the cylinder of a revolver or the bolt of a bolt-action rifle. Most flutings on rifle barrels and revolver cylinders are straight, though helical flutings can be seen on rifle bolts and occasionally also rifle barrels.
While the main purpose of fluting is just to reduce weight and improve portability, when adequately done it can retain the structural strength and rigidity and increase the overall specific strength. Fluting will also increase the surface-to-volume ratio and make the barrel more efficient to cool after firing, though the reduced material mass also means the barrel will heat up easily during firing.
Composite barrels
A composite barrel is a firearm barrel that has been shaved down to be thinner and an exterior sleeve slipped over and fused to it that improves rigidity, weight and cooling. Most common form of composite barrel are those with carbon fiber sleeves, but there are proprietary examples such as the Teludyne Tech Straitjacket. They are seldom used outside sports and competition shooting.
Mounting
A barrel can be fixed to the receiver using action threads or rivets.
Components
Chamber
Main article: Chamber (firearms)
A cartridge being chambered into a Springfield M1903.
Illustration of the various sections of a typical rifle chamber. The back end is to the left, and the front is to the right. Body (purple), shoulder (pink) and neck (green).
The chamber is the cavity at the back end of a breech-loading gun's barrel where the cartridge is inserted in position ready to be fired. In most firearms (rifles, shotguns, machine guns and pistols), the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, often made by simply reaming the rear bore of a barrel blank, with a single chamber within a single barrel. In revolvers, the chamber is a component of the gun's cylinder and completely separate from the barrel, with a single cylinder having multiple chambers that are rotated in turns into alignment with the barrel in anticipation of being fired.
Structurally, the chamber consists of the body, shoulder and neck, the contour of which closely correspond to the casing shape of the cartridge it is designed to hold. The rear opening of the chamber is the breech of the whole barrel, which is sealed tight from behind by the bolt, making the front direction the path of least resistance during firing. When the cartridge's primer is struck by the firing pin, the propellant is ignited and deflagrates, generating high-pressure gas expansion within the cartridge case. However, the chamber (closed from behind by the bolt) restrains the cartridge case (or shell for shotguns) from moving, allowing the bullet (or shot/slug in shotguns) to separate cleanly from the casing and be propelled forward along the barrel to exit out of the front (muzzle) end as a flying projectile.
Chambering a gun is the process of loading a cartridge into the gun's chamber, either manually as in single loading, or via operating the weapon's own action as in pump action, lever action, bolt action or self-loading actions. In the case of an air gun, a pellet (or slug) itself has no casing to be retained and will be entirely inserted into the chamber (often called "seating" or "loading" the pellet, rather than "chambering" it) before a mechanically pressurized gas is released behind the pellet and propels it forward, meaning that an air gun's chamber is functionally equivalent to the freebore portion of a firearm barrel.
In the context of firearms design, manufacturing and modification, the word "chambering" has a different meaning, and refers to fitting a weapon's chamber specifically to fire a particular caliber or model of cartridge.
Bore
See also: Internal ballistics, Rifling, and Freebore
Smoothbore Conventional riflingA = land diameter, B = groove diameter Polygonal rifling
Closeup of barrel throat area. The chamber is to the left, and the muzzle is to the right. The freebore (cyan) and leade (dark grey) transition into rifled bore (pale grey), and the comparison between freebore diameter vs. rifling groove and land diameter.
The bore is the hollow internal lumen of the barrel, and takes up a vast majority portion of the barrel length. It is the part of the barrel where the projectile (bullet, shot, or slug) is located prior to firing and where it gains speed and kinetic energy during the firing process. The projectile's status of motion while travelling down the bore is referred to as its internal ballistics.
Most modern firearms (except muskets, shotguns, most tank guns, and some artillery pieces) and air guns (except some BB guns) have helical grooves called riflings machined into the bore wall. When shooting, a rifled bore imparts spin to the projectile about its longitudinal axis, which gyroscopically stabilizes the projectile's flight attitude and trajectory after its exit from the barrel (i.e. the external ballistics). Any gun without riflings in the bore is called a smoothbore gun.
When a firearm cartridge is chambered, its casing occupies the chamber but its bullet actually protrudes beyond the chamber into the posterior end of the bore. Even in a rifled bore, this short rear section is without rifling, and allows the bullet an initial "run-up" to build up momentum before encountering riflings during shooting. The most posterior part of this unrifled section is called a freebore, and is usually cylindrical. The portion of the unrifled bore immediately front of the freebore, called the leade, starts to taper slightly and guides the bullet towards the area where the riflingless bore transitions into fully rifled bore. Together they form the throat region, where the riflings impactfully "bite" into the moving bullet during shooting. The throat is subjected to the greatest thermomechanical stress and therefore suffers wear the fastest. Throat erosion is often the main determining factor of a gun's barrel life.
Muzzle
See also: Transitional ballistics
The inside of a Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore tank gun (seen from the muzzle) of a Leopard 2A4
Muzzle of a SIG 550 rifle, equipped with a birdcage-type flash suppressor
Various types of shotgun chokes
Muzzle blast modulated by an A2-style flash suppressor
The muzzle is the front end of a barrel from which the projectile will exit. Precise machining of the muzzle is crucial to accuracy, because it is the last point of contact between the barrel and the projectile. If inconsistent gaps exist between the muzzle and the projectile, escaping propellant gases may spread unevenly and deflect the projectile from its intended path (see transitional ballistics). The muzzle can also be threaded on the outside to allow the attachment of different accessory devices.
In rifled barrels, the contour of a muzzle is designed to keep the rifling safe from damage by intruding foreign objects, so the front ends of the rifling grooves are commonly protected behind a recessed crown, which also serves to modulate the even expansion of the propellant gases. The crown itself is often recessed from the outside rim of the muzzle to avoid accidental damage from collision with the surrounding environment.
In smooth bore barrels firing multiple sub-projectiles (such as shotgun shot), the bore at the muzzle end might have a tapered constriction called choke to shape the scatter pattern for better range and accuracy. Chokes are implemented as either interchangeable screw-in chokes for particular applications, or as fixed permanent chokes integral to the barrel.
During firing, a bright flash of light known as a muzzle flash is often seen at the muzzle. This flash is produced by both superheated propellant gases radiating energy during expansion (primary flash), and the incompletely combusted propellant residues reacting vigorously with the fresh supply of ambient air upon escaping the barrel (secondary flash). The size of the flash depends on factors such as barrel length (shorter barrels have less time for complete combustion, hence more unburnt powder), the type (fast- vs. slow-burning) and amount of propellant (higher total amount means likely more unburnt residues) loaded in the cartridge. Flash suppressors or muzzle shrouds can be attached to the muzzle of the weapon to either diminish or conceal the flash.
The rapid expansion of propellant gases at the muzzle during firing also produce a powerful shockwave known as a muzzle blast. The audible component of this blast, also known as a muzzle report, is the loud "bang" sound of gunfire that can easily exceed 140 decibels and cause permanent hearing loss to the shooter and bystanders. The non-audible component of the blast is an infrasonic overpressure wave that can cause damage to nearby fragile objects. Accessory devices such as muzzle brakes and muzzle boosters can be used to redirect muzzle blast in order to counter the recoil-induced muzzle rise or to assist the gas operation of the gun, and suppressors (and even muzzle shrouds) can be used to reduce the blast noise intensity felt by nearby personnel.
Barrel componentsChamberBoreMuzzle
See also
Production steps in the cold-hammer forging process to produce the barrels for a double-barrelled shotgun
Bore evacuator
Bore snake
Cap gun
Caplock mechanism
Minié ball
Muzzleloader
Polygonal rifling
Slug barrel
Tubes and primers for ammunition
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gun barrels.
^ A History of Warfare - Keegan, John, Vintage 1993.
^ Judith Herbst (2005). The History of Weapons. Lerner Publications. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8225-3805-9.
^ Lavery, Brian (1987). "The Shape of Guns". The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600-1815. Naval Institute Press. pp. 88–90. ISBN 978-0-87021-009-9.
^ Goddard, Jolyon (2010). Concise History of Science & Invention: An Illustrated Time Line. National Geographic. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4262-0544-6.
^ James, Rodney (15 December 2010). The ABCs Of Reloading: The Definitive Guide for Novice to Expert. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4402-1787-6.
^ Moller, George D. (15 November 2011). American Military Shoulder Arms, Volume III: Flintlock Alterations and Muzzleloading Percussion Shoulder Arms, 1840-1865. UNM Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-0-8263-5002-2.
^ Kinard, Jeff (2007). Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact. ABC-CLIO. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-85109-556-8.
^ Weir, William (2005). 50 Weapons That Changed Warfare. Career Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-56414-756-1.
^ Payne, Craig M. (2006). Principles of Naval Weapon Systems. Naval Institute Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-1-59114-658-2.
^ https://patents.google.com/patent/US2901814A/en
^ a b Quertermous & Quertermous, p. 429 f.
Bibliography
Quertermous, Russell C.; Quertermous, Steven C. (1981). Modern Guns (Revised 3rd ed.). Paducah, Kentucky: Collector Books. ISBN 0-89145-146-3.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gun barrel (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_barrel_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moscow_July_2011-10a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tsar Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_Cannon"},{"link_name":"barrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel"},{"link_name":"gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun"},{"link_name":"weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon"},{"link_name":"small","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_arms"},{"link_name":"firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"},{"link_name":"artillery pieces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery_piece"},{"link_name":"air guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_gun"},{"link_name":"shooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"projectile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile"},{"link_name":"muzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"diameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter"},{"link_name":"caliber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliber"},{"link_name":"inches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inches"},{"link_name":"millimetres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetres"},{"link_name":"metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy"},{"link_name":"cannons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon"},{"link_name":"barrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"For other uses, see Gun barrel (disambiguation).The Tsar Cannon of 1586 with its huge bore and a barrel exterior which is perceived like a stack of storage barrelsA gun barrel is a crucial part of gun-type weapons such as small firearms, artillery pieces, and air guns. It is the straight shooting tube, usually made of rigid high-strength metal, through which a contained rapid expansion of high-pressure gas(es) is used to propel a projectile out of the front end (muzzle) at a high velocity. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, and the diameter of the bore is called its caliber, usually measured in inches or millimetres.The first firearms were made at a time when metallurgy was not advanced enough to cast tubes capable of withstanding the explosive forces of early cannons, so the pipe (often built from staves of metal) needed to be braced periodically along its length for structural reinforcement, producing an appearance somewhat reminiscent of storage barrels being stacked together, hence the English name.[1]","title":"Gun barrel"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Employment_of_Women_in_Britain,_1914-1918_Q110352.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lee-Enfield rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee-Enfield_rifle"},{"link_name":"WWI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWI"},{"link_name":"metal alloy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder"},{"link_name":"bamboo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo"},{"link_name":"fire lances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_lance"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.com-2"},{"link_name":"cast-iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast-iron"},{"link_name":"hand cannons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_cannon"},{"link_name":"wrought iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lavery1987-3"},{"link_name":"Bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze"},{"link_name":"brass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass"},{"link_name":"gunsmiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunsmith"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goddard2010-4"},{"link_name":"firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"},{"link_name":"muzzleloaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzleloaders"},{"link_name":"gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder"},{"link_name":"shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_shot"},{"link_name":"rate of fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_fire"},{"link_name":"breech-loading designs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-loading_weapon"},{"link_name":"muzzle velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_velocity"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-James2010-5"},{"link_name":"breechblocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breechblock"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moller2011-6"},{"link_name":"caliber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliber"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kinard2007-7"}],"text":"A female worker boring out the barrel of a Lee-Enfield rifle during WWIGun barrels are usually made of some type of metal or metal alloy. However, during the late Tang dynasty, Chinese inventors discovered gunpowder, and used bamboo, which has a strong, naturally tubular stalk and is cheaper to obtain and process, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons such as fire lances.[2] The Chinese were also the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, and used the technology to make the earliest infantry firearms — the hand cannons. Early European guns were made of wrought iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings and then welded into a hollow cylinder.[3] Bronze and brass were favoured by gunsmiths, largely because of their ease of casting and their resistance to the corrosive effects of the combustion of gunpowder or salt water when used on naval vessels.[4]Early firearms were muzzleloaders, with the gunpowder and then the shot loaded from the front end (muzzle) of the barrel, and were capable of only a low rate of fire due to the cumbersome loading process. The later-invented breech-loading designs provided a higher rate of fire, but early breechloaders lacked an effective way of sealing the escaping gases that leaked from the back end (breech) of the barrel, reducing the available muzzle velocity.[5] During the 19th century, effective breechblocks were invented that sealed a breechloader against the escape of propellant gases.[6]Early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. This was because manufacturing defects such as air bubbles trapped in the metal were common at that time, and played key factors in many gun explosions; these defects made the barrel too weak to withstand the pressures of firing, causing it to fail and fragment explosively.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:240mm_howitzer.jpg"},{"link_name":"240 mm howitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/240_mm_howitzer_M1"},{"link_name":"propellants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant"},{"link_name":"muzzle velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_velocity"},{"link_name":"catastrophic failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_failure"},{"link_name":"small arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_arms"},{"link_name":"carbon steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel"},{"link_name":"stainless steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weir2005-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Payne2006-9"}],"text":"The barrel of a 240 mm howitzer in use in 1944A gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out. If the barrel material cannot cope with the pressure within the bore, the barrel itself might suffer catastrophic failure and explode, which will not only destroy the gun but also present a life-threatening danger to people nearby. Modern small arms barrels are made of carbon steel or stainless steel materials known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength.[8][9]","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G22_ohne_Schalldaempfer.jpg"},{"link_name":"German Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army"},{"link_name":"G22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accuracy_International_AWM"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"revolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver"},{"link_name":"bolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"bolt-action rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt-action_rifle"},{"link_name":"structural strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_materials"},{"link_name":"rigidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffness"},{"link_name":"specific strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_strength"},{"link_name":"surface-to-volume ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-volume_ratio"}],"sub_title":"Fluting","text":"A German Army G22 with fluted barrelFluting is the removal of material from a cylindrical surface, usually creating rounded grooves, for the purpose of reducing weight. This is most often done to the exterior surface of a rifle barrel, though it may also be applied to the cylinder of a revolver or the bolt of a bolt-action rifle. Most flutings on rifle barrels and revolver cylinders are straight, though helical flutings can be seen on rifle bolts and occasionally also rifle barrels.While the main purpose of fluting is just to reduce weight and improve portability, when adequately done it can retain the structural strength and rigidity and increase the overall specific strength. Fluting will also increase the surface-to-volume ratio and make the barrel more efficient to cool after firing, though the reduced material mass also means the barrel will heat up easily during firing.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbon fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiber"},{"link_name":"sports and competition shooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_sports"}],"sub_title":"Composite barrels","text":"A composite barrel is a firearm barrel that has been shaved down to be thinner and an exterior sleeve slipped over and fused to it that improves rigidity, weight and cooling. Most common form of composite barrel are those with carbon fiber sleeves, but there are proprietary examples such as the Teludyne Tech Straitjacket. They are seldom used outside sports and competition shooting.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"action threads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_threads"}],"text":"A barrel can be fixed to the receiver using action threads or rivets.","title":"Mounting"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USMC-120801-M-VG714-002.jpg"},{"link_name":"Springfield M1903","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield_M1903"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChamberIllustrationUpdate.png"},{"link_name":"breech-loading gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breech-loading_gun"},{"link_name":"cartridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle"},{"link_name":"shotguns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun"},{"link_name":"machine guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_gun"},{"link_name":"pistols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol"},{"link_name":"reaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaming"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"revolvers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"bolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"path of least resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_of_least_resistance"},{"link_name":"primer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primer_(firearm)"},{"link_name":"firing pin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firing_pin"},{"link_name":"propellant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant"},{"link_name":"deflagrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflagrate"},{"link_name":"shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun_shell"},{"link_name":"bullet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet"},{"link_name":"shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_(pellet)"},{"link_name":"slug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun_slug"},{"link_name":"projectile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile"},{"link_name":"single loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_shot"},{"link_name":"action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"pump action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump_action"},{"link_name":"lever action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lever_action"},{"link_name":"bolt action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt_action"},{"link_name":"self-loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-loading"},{"link_name":"air gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_gun"},{"link_name":"caliber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliber"}],"sub_title":"Chamber","text":"A cartridge being chambered into a Springfield M1903.Illustration of the various sections of a typical rifle chamber. The back end is to the left, and the front is to the right. Body (purple), shoulder (pink) and neck (green).The chamber is the cavity at the back end of a breech-loading gun's barrel where the cartridge is inserted in position ready to be fired. In most firearms (rifles, shotguns, machine guns and pistols), the chamber is an integral part of the barrel, often made by simply reaming the rear bore of a barrel blank, with a single chamber within a single barrel.[10] In revolvers, the chamber is a component of the gun's cylinder and completely separate from the barrel, with a single cylinder having multiple chambers that are rotated in turns into alignment with the barrel in anticipation of being fired.Structurally, the chamber consists of the body, shoulder and neck, the contour of which closely correspond to the casing shape of the cartridge it is designed to hold. The rear opening of the chamber is the breech of the whole barrel, which is sealed tight from behind by the bolt, making the front direction the path of least resistance during firing. When the cartridge's primer is struck by the firing pin, the propellant is ignited and deflagrates, generating high-pressure gas expansion within the cartridge case. However, the chamber (closed from behind by the bolt) restrains the cartridge case (or shell for shotguns) from moving, allowing the bullet (or shot/slug in shotguns) to separate cleanly from the casing and be propelled forward along the barrel to exit out of the front (muzzle) end as a flying projectile.Chambering a gun is the process of loading a cartridge into the gun's chamber, either manually as in single loading, or via operating the weapon's own action as in pump action, lever action, bolt action or self-loading actions. In the case of an air gun, a pellet (or slug) itself has no casing to be retained and will be entirely inserted into the chamber (often called \"seating\" or \"loading\" the pellet, rather than \"chambering\" it) before a mechanically pressurized gas is released behind the pellet and propels it forward, meaning that an air gun's chamber is functionally equivalent to the freebore portion of a firearm barrel.In the context of firearms design, manufacturing and modification, the word \"chambering\" has a different meaning, and refers to fitting a weapon's chamber specifically to fire a particular caliber or model of cartridge.","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internal ballistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_ballistics"},{"link_name":"Rifling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifling"},{"link_name":"Freebore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freebore"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gun_barrels_cross_sectional_drawing1.svg"},{"link_name":"Smoothbore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothbore"},{"link_name":"Conventional rifling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifling"},{"link_name":"Polygonal rifling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal_rifling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChamberIllustrationCloseup.png"},{"link_name":"lumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed"},{"link_name":"kinetic energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy"},{"link_name":"motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)"},{"link_name":"internal ballistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_ballistics"},{"link_name":"muskets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musket"},{"link_name":"tank guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_gun"},{"link_name":"artillery pieces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery_piece"},{"link_name":"BB guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BB_gun"},{"link_name":"gyroscopically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscopic"},{"link_name":"flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile_motion"},{"link_name":"attitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"trajectory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajectory"},{"link_name":"external ballistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_ballistics"},{"link_name":"smoothbore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothbore"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"taper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/taper"},{"link_name":"stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"wear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wear"}],"sub_title":"Bore","text":"See also: Internal ballistics, Rifling, and FreeboreSmoothbore Conventional riflingA = land diameter, B = groove diameter Polygonal riflingCloseup of barrel throat area. The chamber is to the left, and the muzzle is to the right. The freebore (cyan) and leade (dark grey) transition into rifled bore (pale grey), and the comparison between freebore diameter vs. rifling groove and land diameter.The bore is the hollow internal lumen of the barrel, and takes up a vast majority portion of the barrel length. It is the part of the barrel where the projectile (bullet, shot, or slug) is located prior to firing and where it gains speed and kinetic energy during the firing process. The projectile's status of motion while travelling down the bore is referred to as its internal ballistics.Most modern firearms (except muskets, shotguns, most tank guns, and some artillery pieces) and air guns (except some BB guns) have helical grooves called riflings machined into the bore wall. When shooting, a rifled bore imparts spin to the projectile about its longitudinal axis, which gyroscopically stabilizes the projectile's flight attitude and trajectory after its exit from the barrel (i.e. the external ballistics). Any gun without riflings in the bore is called a smoothbore gun.When a firearm cartridge is chambered, its casing occupies the chamber but its bullet actually protrudes beyond the chamber into the posterior end of the bore. Even in a rifled bore, this short rear section is without rifling, and allows the bullet an initial \"run-up\" to build up momentum before encountering riflings during shooting. The most posterior part of this unrifled section is called a freebore, and is usually cylindrical. The portion of the unrifled bore immediately front of the freebore, called the leade, starts to taper slightly and guides the bullet towards the area where the riflingless bore transitions into fully rifled bore. Together they form the throat region, where the riflings impactfully \"bite\" into the moving bullet during shooting. The throat is subjected to the greatest thermomechanical stress and therefore suffers wear the fastest. Throat erosion is often the main determining factor of a gun's barrel life.","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transitional ballistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_ballistics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rheinmetall_120_mm_gun-inside-muzzle_view_PNr%C2%B00109.JPG"},{"link_name":"Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore tank gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinmetall_120_mm_gun"},{"link_name":"Leopard 2A4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard_2#Leopard_2A4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caroline-canon-p1000522.jpg"},{"link_name":"SIG 550","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIG_550"},{"link_name":"flash suppressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_suppressor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shotgun-Chokes-Basic.png"},{"link_name":"shotgun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun"},{"link_name":"chokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(firearms)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AR15_flash_suppressor.JPG"},{"link_name":"Muzzle blast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_blast"},{"link_name":"flash suppressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_suppressor"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-q&q-11"},{"link_name":"machining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machining"},{"link_name":"transitional ballistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_ballistics"},{"link_name":"threaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threading_(manufacturing)"},{"link_name":"rifled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifling"},{"link_name":"smooth bore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_bore"},{"link_name":"choke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"muzzle flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_flash"},{"link_name":"propellant residues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunshot_residue"},{"link_name":"Flash suppressors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_suppressor"},{"link_name":"muzzle shrouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_shroud"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-q&q-11"},{"link_name":"shockwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockwave"},{"link_name":"muzzle blast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_blast"},{"link_name":"decibels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel"},{"link_name":"hearing loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise-induced_hearing_loss"},{"link_name":"infrasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrasonic"},{"link_name":"overpressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpressure"},{"link_name":"muzzle brakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_brake"},{"link_name":"muzzle boosters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_booster"},{"link_name":"recoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recoil"},{"link_name":"muzzle rise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzle_rise"},{"link_name":"gas operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_operation"},{"link_name":"suppressors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suppressor"},{"link_name":"noise intensity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_intensity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barrel_component_chamber_from_Dirty_Barrel.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barrel_component_bore_from_Kanonenlauf.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barrel_component_muzzle_from_Marines_train.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Muzzle","text":"See also: Transitional ballisticsThe inside of a Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore tank gun (seen from the muzzle) of a Leopard 2A4Muzzle of a SIG 550 rifle, equipped with a birdcage-type flash suppressorVarious types of shotgun chokesMuzzle blast modulated by an A2-style flash suppressorThe muzzle is the front end of a barrel from which the projectile will exit.[11] Precise machining of the muzzle is crucial to accuracy, because it is the last point of contact between the barrel and the projectile. If inconsistent gaps exist between the muzzle and the projectile, escaping propellant gases may spread unevenly and deflect the projectile from its intended path (see transitional ballistics). The muzzle can also be threaded on the outside to allow the attachment of different accessory devices.In rifled barrels, the contour of a muzzle is designed to keep the rifling safe from damage by intruding foreign objects, so the front ends of the rifling grooves are commonly protected behind a recessed crown, which also serves to modulate the even expansion of the propellant gases. The crown itself is often recessed from the outside rim of the muzzle to avoid accidental damage from collision with the surrounding environment.In smooth bore barrels firing multiple sub-projectiles (such as shotgun shot), the bore at the muzzle end might have a tapered constriction called choke to shape the scatter pattern for better range and accuracy. Chokes are implemented as either interchangeable screw-in chokes for particular applications, or as fixed permanent chokes integral to the barrel.During firing, a bright flash of light known as a muzzle flash is often seen at the muzzle. This flash is produced by both superheated propellant gases radiating energy during expansion (primary flash), and the incompletely combusted propellant residues reacting vigorously with the fresh supply of ambient air upon escaping the barrel (secondary flash). The size of the flash depends on factors such as barrel length (shorter barrels have less time for complete combustion, hence more unburnt powder), the type (fast- vs. slow-burning) and amount of propellant (higher total amount means likely more unburnt residues) loaded in the cartridge. Flash suppressors or muzzle shrouds can be attached to the muzzle of the weapon to either diminish or conceal the flash.[11]The rapid expansion of propellant gases at the muzzle during firing also produce a powerful shockwave known as a muzzle blast. The audible component of this blast, also known as a muzzle report, is the loud \"bang\" sound of gunfire that can easily exceed 140 decibels and cause permanent hearing loss to the shooter and bystanders. The non-audible component of the blast is an infrasonic overpressure wave that can cause damage to nearby fragile objects. Accessory devices such as muzzle brakes and muzzle boosters can be used to redirect muzzle blast in order to counter the recoil-induced muzzle rise or to assist the gas operation of the gun, and suppressors (and even muzzle shrouds) can be used to reduce the blast noise intensity felt by nearby personnel.Barrel componentsChamberBoreMuzzle","title":"Components"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89145-146-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89145-146-3"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Firearms"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Firearms"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Firearms"},{"link_name":"Firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firearms"},{"link_name":"glossary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_firearms_terms"},{"link_name":"topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Firearms"},{"link_name":"Firearm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"},{"link_name":"lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Lists_of_firearms"},{"link_name":"Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_firearm"},{"link_name":"Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_safety"},{"link_name":"War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War"},{"link_name":"Weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon"},{"link_name":"Types 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strip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_strip"},{"link_name":"Fouling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouling"},{"link_name":"Malfunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm_malfunction"},{"link_name":"Cooking off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_off"},{"link_name":"Hang fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_fire"},{"link_name":"Squib load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squib_load"},{"link_name":"Ricochet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricochet"},{"link_name":"Fire forming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_forming"},{"link_name":"Obturation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obturation"},{"link_name":"Primer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primer_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"Gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpowder"},{"link_name":"Percussion 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cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snap_cap"},{"link_name":"Flechette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flechette"},{"link_name":"Gas check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_check"},{"link_name":"Overpressure ammunition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpressure_ammunition"},{"link_name":"PCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer-cased_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Sabot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabot_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"Wadding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadding"},{"link_name":"Bullets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet"},{"link_name":"Armour piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armor-piercing_bullet"},{"link_name":"Cast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_bullet"},{"link_name":"Expanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanding_bullet"},{"link_name":"Full metal jacket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_metal_jacket_(ammunition)"},{"link_name":"Frangible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frangible_bullet"},{"link_name":"Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_bullet"},{"link_name":"Incendiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incendiary_ammunition"},{"link_name":"High explosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-explosive_incendiary"},{"link_name":"HEIAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-explosive_incendiary/armor-piercing_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Projectile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile"},{"link_name":"Raufoss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raufoss_Mk_211"},{"link_name":"Round shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_shot"},{"link_name":"SLAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saboted_light_armor_penetrator"},{"link_name":"Soft point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-point_bullet"},{"link_name":"Supercavitating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercavitating_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Total metal jacket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_metal_jacket"},{"link_name":"Tracer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracer_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Hollow base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow-base_bullet"},{"link_name":"Hollow point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow-point_bullet"},{"link_name":"Minié","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_ball"},{"link_name":"Meplat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meplat"},{"link_name":"Plastic tipped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic-tipped_bullet"},{"link_name":"ABCBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour-piercing,_capped,_ballistic_capped_shell"},{"link_name":"Snake shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_shot"},{"link_name":"Spitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_(bullet)"},{"link_name":"VLD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very-low-drag_bullet"},{"link_name":"Cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"Blank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blank_(cartridge)"},{"link_name":"Caseless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caseless_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Centrefire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centerfire_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Handloading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handloading"},{"link_name":"Rifle cartridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Fully powered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_powered_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Intermediate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_cartridge"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rifle_cartridges"},{"link_name":"Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Pinfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinfire_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Wildcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcat_cartridge"},{"link_name":"Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_cultures"},{"link_name":"safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_safety"},{"link_name":"industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm_industry"},{"link_name":"laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation"},{"link_name":"Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_cultures"},{"link_name":"Celebratory gunfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebratory_gunfire"},{"link_name":"Civilian gun ownership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_ownership"},{"link_name":"Household ownership rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percent_of_households_with_guns_by_country"},{"link_name":"Exhibition shooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhibition_shooting"},{"link_name":"Gun cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_cultures"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_culture_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Gun shows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_shows_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"State firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_firearms"},{"link_name":"Hunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting"},{"link_name":"Jungle style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_style_(firearm_magazines)"},{"link_name":"Pistol duelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol_duelling"},{"link_name":"Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_gun_politics_articles"},{"link_name":"Shooting sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_sports"},{"link_name":"Civilian Marksmanship Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_Marksmanship_Program"},{"link_name":"Gun violence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_violence"},{"link_name":"safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_safety"},{"link_name":"in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_violence_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Assassinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_assassinations_by_firearm"},{"link_name":"Deaths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_firearm-related_death_rate"},{"link_name":"Forensics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_firearm_examination"},{"link_name":"Gunfighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfighter"},{"link_name":"Gun safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_safety"},{"link_name":"Firearm industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm_industry"},{"link_name":"3D printed firearm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printed_firearm"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_3D_printed_weapons_and_parts"},{"link_name":"Firearm brands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firearm_brands"},{"link_name":"Firearms by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Firearms_by_country"},{"link_name":"Gun shops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_shop"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Firearm_commerce"},{"link_name":"Gunsmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunsmith"},{"link_name":"Improvised firearm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_firearm"},{"link_name":"Most-produced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most-produced_firearms"},{"link_name":"Privately made","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privately_made_firearm"},{"link_name":"Small arms trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_arms_trade"},{"link_name":"Arms control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_control"},{"link_name":"Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_control"},{"link_name":"Gun control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_control"},{"link_name":"Disarmament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disarmament"},{"link_name":"Campaign Against Arms Trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_Against_Arms_Trade"},{"link_name":"Featureless rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Featureless_rifles"},{"link_name":"Gun laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation"},{"link_name":"Air travel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_travel_with_firearms_and_ammunition"},{"link_name":"Assault weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_weapons"},{"link_name":"Concealed carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concealed_carry"},{"link_name":"in the U.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concealed_carry_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearms_license"},{"link_name":"High-capacity magazine ban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-capacity_magazine_ban"},{"link_name":"Right to bear arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms"},{"link_name":"Small Arms & Light Weapons (SALW)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Arms_and_Light_Weapons"},{"link_name":"Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"by U.S. state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_laws_in_the_United_States_by_state"},{"link_name":"Legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_weapons_legislation_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Federal Assault Weapons Ban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Assault_Weapons_Ban"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q487192#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555877505171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85089160"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph387200&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Quertermous, Russell C.; Quertermous, Steven C. (1981). Modern Guns (Revised 3rd ed.). Paducah, Kentucky: Collector Books. ISBN 0-89145-146-3.vteFirearms (list, glossary, and topics)\nFirearm\nlists\nGun\nHistory\nSafety\nWar\nWeapon\nTypes of firearms\nBreechloader versus muzzleloader\nCombination\nElephant\nFlare gun\nLine thrower\nLong gun\nCarbine\nMusket\nTakedown\nMultiple-barrel (list)\nNeedler\nNet gun\nRiot gun\nRotary\nSingle-shot\nSmoothbore\nSpring-gun\nUnderwater firearm\nHandguns\nCane gun\nDerringer\nDuelling\nPistol\nlist\nMachine\nPepper-box\nPocket\nRevolver\nlist\nSemi-automatic pistol\nlist\nPistol caliber\nPersonal defence weapon\nSubmachine gun\nStarting\nRifles (list)\nAnti-materiel\nAnti-tank\nAssault\nlist\nAutomatic\nBattle\nlist\nCarbine\nlist\nDouble\nHunting\nBuffalo\nElephant\nExpress\nPunt\nVarmint\nMarksman\nRifling\nPolygonal\nRepeating\nSniper\nlist\nMachine guns\nGeneral purpose\nLight\nMedium\nHeavy\nSAW\nShotguns (list)\nAutomatic shotgun\nCoach gun\nCombat shotgun\nDouble-barreled\nPump action\nRiot\nSawed-off\nAmmunition\n20-gauge shotgun\nBreaching round\nDragon's breath\nShotgun shell\n.410 bore\nShot\nSlug\nHistoric or famous\nAK-47\nAR-15\nM16\nAntique firearms\nGatling gun\nWinchester rifle\nM1 Garand\nMauser rifles\nTommy Gun\nMP 40\nUzi\nColt Peacemaker\nM1911\nGlock\nMechanics and componentsComponents\nBarrel\nFeed ramp\nSlug\nThreads\nTrunnion\nBayonet\nBelt\nBlank-firing adapter\nBreechblock\nBreechface\nBolt\nRotating\nTelescoping\nFlapper\nRoller\nTilting\nBump stock\nChamber\nCocking handle\nCylinder\nExtractor\nFiring pin\nFlash suppressor\nFluting\nForward assist\nFreebore\nForearm\nForegrip\nHammer\nHalf-cock\nLinear\nStriker\nLock\nFlintlock\nWheellock\nMagazine\nBottom metal\nClip\nDrum\nHigh-capacity\nSpeedloader\nStripper clip\nMuzzle brake\nMuzzle shroud\nPistol grip\nPistol slide\nRail system\nReceiver\nRecoil pad\nRim\nSafety\nSear\nAuto sear\nShroud\nSilencer\nSqueeze bore\nChoke\nStock\nSynchronization gear\nTapering\nTrigger\nguard\nSights\nDiopter\nFinderscope\nGlobe\nHolographic\nIron\nLaser\nReticle\nReflex\nRed dot\nMagnifier\nScope mount\nTang\nTelescopic\nNight vision\nThermal\nZeroing\nActions\nBlowback\nBlow-forward\nBolt\nBoxlock\nBreechloading\nBreak\nOpen bolt\nClosed bolt\nElectronic\nGas-operated\nLever\nMuzzleloading\nOut-of-battery\nPump\nPush/Controlled feed\nRecoil-operated\nRepeating\nRevolver\nSelf-loading\nSingle-shot\nSlamfire\nPhysics\nBallistics\nBallistic coefficient\nExternal\nTerminal\nTransitional\nPhysics of firearms\nRangefinding/keeping\nMathematics\nStadiametric\nMetrics\nAccurizing\nBore axis\nCaliber\nCircular error probable\nEffective range\nGauge\nGun chronograph\nGun harmonisation\nHeadspace\nLength of pull\nLock time\nMatch grade\nMean time between failures\nMinute of Angle (MOA)\nMuzzle\nEnergy\nRise\nVelocity\nPenetration\nPower factor\nPrecision-guided\nRate of fire\nRecoil\nGroup\nStock measurements\nStopping power\nHandgun effectiveness\nTwist rate\nShooting and ammunitionGunshot\nDry fire\nFiring (Shooting)\nGunshot\nFirefight\nMaintenance\nField strip\nFouling\nMalfunction\nCooking off\nHang fire\nSquib load\nRicochet\nIgnition\nFire forming\nObturation\nPrimer\nGunpowder\nPercussion cap\nRimfire\nTubes and Primers\nPropellant\nBall propellant\nCordite\nImproved Military Rifle\nRamrod\nSmokeless powder\nAmmunition\nCannelure\nDummy round\nSnap cap\nFlechette\nGas check\nOverpressure ammunition\nPCA\nSabot\nWadding\nBullets\nArmour piercing\nCast\nExpanding\nFull metal jacket\nFrangible\nGreen\nIncendiary\nHigh explosive\nHEIAP\nProjectile\nRaufoss\nRound shot\nSLAP\nSoft point\nSupercavitating\nTotal metal jacket\nTracer\nHollow base\nHollow point\nMinié\nMeplat\nPlastic tipped\nABCBC\nSnake shot\nSpitzer\nVLD\nCartridges\nBlank\nCaseless\nCentrefire\nHandloading\nRifle cartridge\nFully powered\nIntermediate\nlist\nPaper\nPinfire\nWildcat\nSociety, safety, industry, and lawsSociety\nCelebratory gunfire\nCivilian gun ownership\nHousehold ownership rates\nExhibition shooting\nGun cultures\nUnited States\nGun shows\nState firearms\nHunting\nJungle style\nPistol duelling\nPolitics\nShooting sports\nCivilian Marksmanship Program\nGun violenceand safety\nin the United States\nAssassinations\nDeaths\nForensics\nGunfighter\nGun safety\nFirearm industry\n3D printed firearm\nlist\nFirearm brands\nFirearms by country\nGun shops\nlist\nGunsmith\nImprovised firearm\nMost-produced\nPrivately made\nSmall arms trade\nArms control\nArms and Gun control\nDisarmament\nCampaign Against Arms Trade\nFeatureless rifles\nGun laws\nAir travel\nAssault weapons\nConcealed carry\nin the U.S.\nLicense\nHigh-capacity magazine ban\nRight to bear arms\nSmall Arms & Light Weapons (SALW)\nUnited States Gun\nLaws (by U.S. state)\nLegislation\nPolitics\nFederal Assault Weapons BanAuthority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Tsar Cannon of 1586 with its huge bore and a barrel exterior which is perceived like a stack of storage barrels","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Moscow_July_2011-10a.jpg/300px-Moscow_July_2011-10a.jpg"},{"image_text":"A female worker boring out the barrel of a Lee-Enfield rifle during WWI","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/The_Employment_of_Women_in_Britain%2C_1914-1918_Q110352.jpg/220px-The_Employment_of_Women_in_Britain%2C_1914-1918_Q110352.jpg"},{"image_text":"The barrel of a 240 mm howitzer in use in 1944","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/240mm_howitzer.jpg/220px-240mm_howitzer.jpg"},{"image_text":"A German Army G22 with fluted barrel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/G22_ohne_Schalldaempfer.jpg/220px-G22_ohne_Schalldaempfer.jpg"},{"image_text":"A cartridge being chambered into a Springfield M1903.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/USMC-120801-M-VG714-002.jpg/220px-USMC-120801-M-VG714-002.jpg"},{"image_text":"Illustration of the various sections of a typical rifle chamber. The back end is to the left, and the front is to the right. Body (purple), shoulder (pink) and neck (green).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/ChamberIllustrationUpdate.png/220px-ChamberIllustrationUpdate.png"},{"image_text":" Smoothbore Conventional riflingA = land diameter, B = groove diameter Polygonal rifling","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gun_barrels_cross_sectional_drawing1.svg/300px-Gun_barrels_cross_sectional_drawing1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Closeup of barrel throat area. The chamber is to the left, and the muzzle is to the right. The freebore (cyan) and leade (dark grey) transition into rifled bore (pale grey), and the comparison between freebore diameter vs. rifling groove and land diameter.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/ChamberIllustrationCloseup.png/300px-ChamberIllustrationCloseup.png"},{"image_text":"The inside of a Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore tank gun (seen from the muzzle) of a Leopard 2A4","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Rheinmetall_120_mm_gun-inside-muzzle_view_PNr%C2%B00109.JPG/220px-Rheinmetall_120_mm_gun-inside-muzzle_view_PNr%C2%B00109.JPG"},{"image_text":"Muzzle of a SIG 550 rifle, equipped with a birdcage-type flash suppressor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Caroline-canon-p1000522.jpg/220px-Caroline-canon-p1000522.jpg"},{"image_text":"Various types of shotgun chokes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Shotgun-Chokes-Basic.png/220px-Shotgun-Chokes-Basic.png"},{"image_text":"Muzzle blast modulated by an A2-style flash suppressor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/AR15_flash_suppressor.JPG/220px-AR15_flash_suppressor.JPG"},{"image_text":"Production steps in the cold-hammer forging process to produce the barrels for a double-barrelled shotgun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Laufherstellung.jpg/220px-Laufherstellung.jpg"}]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laufherstellung.jpg"},{"title":"Bore evacuator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bore_evacuator"},{"title":"Bore snake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bore_snake"},{"title":"Cap gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_gun"},{"title":"Caplock mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caplock_mechanism"},{"title":"Minié ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini%C3%A9_ball"},{"title":"Muzzleloader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzzleloader"},{"title":"Polygonal rifling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal_rifling"},{"title":"Slug barrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slug_barrel"},{"title":"Tubes and primers for ammunition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubes_and_primers_for_ammunition"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitanaura
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Kitanaura
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["1 History","2 Archaeological investigations","3 The City","4 References"]
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Coordinates: 36°38′51″N 30°21′59″E / 36.64750°N 30.36639°E / 36.64750; 30.36639Ancient city in Lycia
KitanauraΚιτάναυραShown within TurkeyLocationSaraycık, Antalya Province, TurkeyRegionLyciaCoordinates36°38′51″N 30°21′59″E / 36.64750°N 30.36639°E / 36.64750; 30.36639TypeSettlement
Cities of ancient Lycia. Red dots: mountain peaks, white dots: ancient cities
Kitanaura (Ancient Greek: Κιτάναυρα) (or Kithanaura) was an ancient city in Lycia. Its ruins are located near Saraycık, a small village in the Kumluca district of Antalya Province, Turkey.
History
The history of the city is largely unknown because it was not mentioned by any ancient author. Only the ruins of the city give some information. The earliest phase of the city's walls dates to the Hellenistic period, with the last phase dating to the Byzantine period.
Because of the five churches which have been identified the city likely became more important with the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity.
Archaeological investigations
T. A. B. Spratt visited the site for two days in 1842 to copy inscriptions and drew a plan. He could not find any remains which indicated the name of the city, but he suspected that it was Marmara or Apollonia. Marmara has now been found, and Apollonia was eventually discovered far away in western Lycia.
A 1998 study of coins in the Antalya Museum led to the identification of the name of Kitanaura. The name of the city also appeared on a Roman milestone, the Miliarium Lyciae which was excavated at Patara in 1993. The inscriptions on the milestone give place names and distances during the 1st century AD. They mention Kitanaura lay at a distance of 17–18 km from Idebessos. This made it possible to pinpoint the location of the city.
Kitanaura was surveyed in detail by a team from Akdeniz University led by Nevzat Çevik in 2004–2005 and 2006–2007.
The City
The acropolis of Kitanaura was located on a hill extending in an east–west direction and surrounded by remains of structures to its south and west. The western and northern sides of the acropolis are covered by sheer rock cliffs, a less steeper rock slope is on southern side. Walls for the protection of the acropolis extended from the southwestern side to the eastern and northern side of the acropolis. They were 1.30 m thick and have been preserved to a height of 5 to 6 m at a few places.
Remains of a basilica are found in the southwestern corner of the acropolis. Another large basilica stood in the centre. A bath-gymnasium complex is the best remaining building. It lies at the foot of the southwestern entrance to the acropolis and consisted of a palaestra and six other sections. The quality of the construction and the size of the baths is striking for a medium-sized city in a relatively remote place in Lycia. With a size of 700 m2 the building is over twice the size of the central baths of Patara (315 m2) and the southern baths of Xanthos (295 m2), two of the largest cities in Lycia. The sizes of baths were influenced by both the population of a city and the number of occasional visitors from outside the city. The location of the baths at a crossroads of routes used by travellers suggests the baths served many temporary visitors.
The remains of a wall of huge irregular cut blocks that leads to the bath from the hill on the west side of the forest way is likely to belong to the aqueduct.
A road which runs from the south of the acropolis and then turns north, passing the acropolis to west, is flanked by necropoleis on both sides. A heroon is found south of the acropolis.
References
^ NİHAL TÜNER (2002). "LYKIA 'NIN YERLEŞIM COÖRAFYASINDA YENI LOKALİZASYONLAR". Li̇kya İncelemeleri̇ I (in Turkish). Istanbul: 70.
^ a b c d e Çevik, Nevzat (2008). "Northeast Lycia. The New Evidence - The Results from the past ten years from the Bey Mountains Surface Surveys". Adalya. 11: 189–233.
^ Spratt, T. A. B.; Forbes, Edward (1847). Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cibyratis. Vol. 1. London: John van Voorst. pp. 174–176, 202–205.
^ Kızgut, İsa; Pimouguet-Pédarros, Isabella; Bulut, Süleyman; Özdilek, Banu; Çevik, Nevzat (2008). "Surveys in the Beydağları in 2007: Kitanaura" (PDF). Yüzey Araştirma Raporlari. 6: 100–104. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-12. Retrieved 2013-05-20.
^ Tıbıkoğlu, H. Onur; Akalin, Emrah (2007). "An unknown bath-gymnasium at Kithanaura". In Aygün, Çiğdem Özkan (ed.). SOMA 2007: Proceedings of the XI Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Istanbul Technical University, 24–29 April 2007. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. pp. 374–379. ISBN 978-1-4073-0382-6.
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Lupadium
Lygos
Lysimachia
Madytus
Mantineion
Marpessos
Miletopolis
Mocasura
Mochadion
Modra
Morzapena
Mossynea
Moukaporis
Myrileion
Narco
Nassete
Nausikleia
Nausimachion
Neandreia
Neapolis on the Bosphorus
Neapolis on the Thracian Chersonese
Neonteichos
Nerola
Nicomedia
Oka
Ontoraita
Ophryneion
Orestias
Orni
Ostreodes
Pactya
Paeon
Paesus
Palodes
Panion
Pantichium
Parabolos
Parium
Paulines
Pegae in Mysia
Pegae in Thrace
Pege
Pentephyle
Percote
Pericharaxis
Perinthus
Petrozetoi
Pharmakia
Phidalia Petra
Phiela
Philia
Phosphorus
Pionia
Pitheci Portus
Placia
Ploketta
Poemanenum
Poleatikon
Polychron
Polymedium
Potamoi
Potamonion
Praenetus
Pratomysia
Prepa
Priapus
Prindea
Proconnesus
Proochthoi
Prusa
Psarela
Psyllium
Pyrrhias Cyon
Pytheion
Rhebas
Rhegion
Rhesion
Rhoiteion
Rouphinianai
Salmydessus
Sangarus
Scamandria
Scamandrus
Scepsis
Scylace
Scylla
Selymbria
Semystra
Serrion Teichos
Sestos
Sigeion
Sirkanos
Smintheion
Soka
Strobilos
Sykai
Syllanta
Tarpodizo
Tarsus in Bithynia
Tattaios
Tenba
Terbos
Tesderamoska
Tetrakomia
Tipaso
Tragasai
Thynias
Traron
Tricomia in Bithynia
Troy (Hisarlik)
Tyrodiza
Tzurulum
Urisio
Utsurgae
Zeleia
Mediterranean
Acalissus
Acarassus
Adada
Adrasus
Aegae
Agrae
Alalakh
Amelas
Anabura in Pisidia
Anazarbus
Anchiale
Andeda
Andriaca
Anemurium
Ano Kotradis
Antigonia
Antioch on the Orontes
Antioch of Pisidia
Antiochia Lamotis
Antioch on the Cragus
Antioch on the Pyramis
Antiphellus
Aperlae
Aphrodisias of Cilicia
Apollonia in Lycia
Arabissus
Araxa
Ariassus
Arima
Arnabanda
Arneae
Arsada
Arsinoe
Artanada
Arycanda
Aspendos
Augai
Augusta
Aulae
Aunesis
Bab al-Hawa Border Crossing
Balbura
Baris
Bindaios
Bubon
Cabassus
Cadrema
Cadyanda
Callimache
Calynda
Carallia
Carmylessus
Casae
Castabala
Ceretapa
Cestrus
Charadrus
Choma
Cibyra Mikra
Claudiopolis
Colybrassus
Comama
Comana in Cappadocia
Comba
Conana
Coracesium
Corycium Antrum
Corycus (Kızkalesi)
Corydala
Cremna
Cretopolis
Crya
Cyaneae
Cyrrhus
Daedala
Dalisandus in Isauria
Dalisandus in Pamphylia
Damasei
Dias
Diocaesarea
Domuztepe
Elaiussa Sebaste
Elbessos
Emirzeli
Epiphania
Erymna
Etenna
Eudocia (Lycia)
Eudocias (Pamphylia)
Flaviopolis
Gagae
Gözlükule
Hacilar
Hadrianopolis in Pisidia
Halae
Hamaxia
Hierapolis
Hippucome
Holmi
Hyia
Idebessos
Idyros
Iotape
Irenopolis
Isaura Nea
Isaura Palaea
Isba
Isinda in Lycia
Isinda in Pisidia
Issus
Istlada
Juliosebaste
Kalanthia
Kalelibelen
Kandyba
Kanytelis
Karakabaklı
Karatepe
Karkabo
Kastellon
Keraia
Kibyra
Kiphisos
Kirkota
Kitanaura
Kodroula
Kolbasa
Korasion
Korma
Kynosarion
Laertes
Lagbe
Lamos
Lebessus
Legeita
Limnae in Pamphylia
Limnae in Pisidia
Limyra
Lissa
Lycae
Lyrbe
Lysinia
Magarsa
Magastara
Magydus
Mallus
Malus in Pisidia
Mampsoukrenai
Mamure Castle
Manava
Mandane
Marciana
Marmara (Mnara)
Mastaura
Meloë
Melanippe
Meriana
Mezgitkale
Moatra
Mopsucrene
Mopsuestia
Morka
Moron Hydor
Moumoustra
Mylae
Mylios
Myra
Myriandus
Nagidos
Nauloi
Neapolis in Pisidia
Nephelis
Nisa
Octapolis
Olba
Olbasa
Olbia
Olympus
Öküzlü
Onobara
Orokenda
Otanada
Ouerbe
Padyandus
Palaeopolis
Panemotichus
Panhormus
Pargais
Parlais
Patara
Pednelissus
Perga
Perminounda
Phaselis
Phellus
Philadelphia in Cilicia
Philaea
Phoenicus
Phoenix in Lycia
Pisarissos
Pisurgia
Placoma
Platanus
Podalia
Pogla
Prostanna
Pseudokorasion
Ptolemais
Rhodiapolis
Rhoscopus
Rhosus
Rygmanoi
Sabandus
Sagalassos
Sandalium
Saraganda
Sebeda
Seleucia in Pamphylia
Seleucia Pieria
Seleucia Sidera
Selge
Selinus
Seroiata
Serraepolis
Sia
Sibidounda
Sibyla
Side
Siderus
Sidyma
Sillyon
Simena
Sinda
Siricae
Soli
Solyma
Sozopolis
Sura
Syca
Syedra
Takina
Tapureli
Tardequeia
Tarsus
Teimiussa
Tell Judaidah
Tell Tayinat
Telmessos
Telmessos (Caria)
Tenedos
Termessos
Tetrapyrgia in Cappadocia
Tetrapyrgia in Pamphylia
Titiopolis
Tityassus
Tlos
Toriaeum
Tragalassus
Trebendae
Trebenna
Trysa
Tyberissus
Tyinda
Tymandus
Tynada
Typallia
Xanthos
Yanıkhan
Yumuktepe
Zenopolis in Isauria
Zenopolis in Lycia
Zephyrium on the Calycadnus
SoutheasternAnatolia
Amida
Antioch in the Taurus
Antioch in Mesopotamia (Constantia)
Apamea on the Euphrates
Carcathiocerta
Carchemish
Çayönü
Dabanas
Dara
Doliche
Edessa
Göbekli Tepe
Hallan Çemi Tepesi
Harran
Khashshum
Kussara
Matiate
Nevalı Çori
Nicopolis in Cilicia
Nisibis
Sakçagözü
Sam'al
Samosata
Sareisa
Seleucia at the Zeugma
Sitai
Sultantepe
Tille
Tushhan
Urima
Urshu
Zeugma
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lycia-turkey-ancient.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Lycia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycia"},{"link_name":"Kumluca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumluca"},{"link_name":"Antalya Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antalya_Province"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"}],"text":"Ancient city in LyciaCities of ancient Lycia. Red dots: mountain peaks, white dots: ancient citiesKitanaura (Ancient Greek: Κιτάναυρα)[1] (or Kithanaura) was an ancient city in Lycia. Its ruins are located near Saraycık, a small village in the Kumluca district of Antalya Province, Turkey.","title":"Kitanaura"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hellenistic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Late Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cevi-2"}],"text":"The history of the city is largely unknown because it was not mentioned by any ancient author. Only the ruins of the city give some information. The earliest phase of the city's walls dates to the Hellenistic period, with the last phase dating to the Byzantine period.Because of the five churches which have been identified the city likely became more important with the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T. A. B. Spratt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Abel_Brimage_Spratt"},{"link_name":"Marmara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmara_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"Apollonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonia_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spra-3"},{"link_name":"Marmara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmara_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"Apollonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonia_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"Antalya Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antalya_Museum"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"milestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milestone"},{"link_name":"Miliarium Lyciae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliarium_Lyciae"},{"link_name":"Patara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patara_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"Idebessos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idebessos"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cevi-2"},{"link_name":"Akdeniz University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akdeniz_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kizg-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cevi-2"}],"text":"T. A. B. Spratt visited the site for two days in 1842 to copy inscriptions and drew a plan. He could not find any remains which indicated the name of the city, but he suspected that it was Marmara or Apollonia.[3] Marmara has now been found, and Apollonia was eventually discovered far away in western Lycia.A 1998 study of coins in the Antalya Museum led to the identification of the name of Kitanaura. The name of the city also appeared on a Roman milestone, the Miliarium Lyciae which was excavated at Patara in 1993. The inscriptions on the milestone give place names and distances during the 1st century AD. They mention Kitanaura lay at a distance of 17–18 km from Idebessos. This made it possible to pinpoint the location of the city.[2]Kitanaura was surveyed in detail by a team from Akdeniz University led by Nevzat Çevik in 2004–2005[4] and 2006–2007.[2]","title":"Archaeological investigations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acropolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cevi-2"},{"link_name":"basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica"},{"link_name":"bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermae"},{"link_name":"gymnasium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)"},{"link_name":"palaestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaestra"},{"link_name":"Patara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patara_(Lycia)"},{"link_name":"Xanthos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthos"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tibi-5"},{"link_name":"necropoleis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necropolis"},{"link_name":"heroon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cevi-2"}],"text":"The acropolis of Kitanaura was located on a hill extending in an east–west direction and surrounded by remains of structures to its south and west. The western and northern sides of the acropolis are covered by sheer rock cliffs, a less steeper rock slope is on southern side. Walls for the protection of the acropolis extended from the southwestern side to the eastern and northern side of the acropolis. They were 1.30 m thick and have been preserved to a height of 5 to 6 m at a few places.[2]Remains of a basilica are found in the southwestern corner of the acropolis. Another large basilica stood in the centre. A bath-gymnasium complex is the best remaining building. It lies at the foot of the southwestern entrance to the acropolis and consisted of a palaestra and six other sections. The quality of the construction and the size of the baths is striking for a medium-sized city in a relatively remote place in Lycia. With a size of 700 m2 the building is over twice the size of the central baths of Patara (315 m2) and the southern baths of Xanthos (295 m2), two of the largest cities in Lycia. The sizes of baths were influenced by both the population of a city and the number of occasional visitors from outside the city. The location of the baths at a crossroads of routes used by travellers suggests the baths served many temporary visitors.[5]The remains of a wall of huge irregular cut blocks that leads to the bath from the hill on the west side of the forest way is likely to belong to the aqueduct.A road which runs from the south of the acropolis and then turns north, passing the acropolis to west, is flanked by necropoleis on both sides. A heroon is found south of the acropolis.[2]","title":"The City"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Cities of ancient Lycia. Red dots: mountain peaks, white dots: ancient cities","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lycia-turkey-ancient.jpg/300px-Lycia-turkey-ancient.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"NİHAL TÜNER (2002). \"LYKIA 'NIN YERLEŞIM COÖRAFYASINDA YENI LOKALİZASYONLAR\". Li̇kya İncelemeleri̇ I (in Turkish). Istanbul: 70.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Çevik, Nevzat (2008). \"Northeast Lycia. The New Evidence - The Results from the past ten years from the Bey Mountains Surface Surveys\". Adalya. 11: 189–233.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/2486719","url_text":"\"Northeast Lycia. The New Evidence - The Results from the past ten years from the Bey Mountains Surface Surveys\""}]},{"reference":"Spratt, T. A. B.; Forbes, Edward (1847). Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cibyratis. Vol. 1. London: John van Voorst. pp. 174–176, 202–205.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Forbes","url_text":"Forbes, Edward"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BN8DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA174","url_text":"Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cibyratis"}]},{"reference":"Kızgut, İsa; Pimouguet-Pédarros, Isabella; Bulut, Süleyman; Özdilek, Banu; Çevik, Nevzat (2008). \"Surveys in the Beydağları in 2007: Kitanaura\" (PDF). Yüzey Araştirma Raporlari. 6: 100–104. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-07-12. Retrieved 2013-05-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200712080445/http://www.akmedanmed.com/pdf/2008_20.pdf","url_text":"\"Surveys in the Beydağları in 2007: Kitanaura\""},{"url":"http://www.akmedanmed.com/pdf/2008_20.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tıbıkoğlu, H. Onur; Akalin, Emrah (2007). \"An unknown bath-gymnasium at Kithanaura\". In Aygün, Çiğdem Özkan (ed.). SOMA 2007: Proceedings of the XI Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Istanbul Technical University, 24–29 April 2007. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. pp. 374–379. ISBN 978-1-4073-0382-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/650466","url_text":"\"An unknown bath-gymnasium at Kithanaura\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0382-6","url_text":"978-1-4073-0382-6"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kitanaura¶ms=36_38_51_N_30_21_59_E_type:landmark","external_links_name":"36°38′51″N 30°21′59″E / 36.64750°N 30.36639°E / 36.64750; 30.36639"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kitanaura¶ms=36_38_51_N_30_21_59_E_type:landmark","external_links_name":"36°38′51″N 30°21′59″E / 36.64750°N 30.36639°E / 36.64750; 30.36639"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/2486719","external_links_name":"\"Northeast Lycia. The New Evidence - The Results from the past ten years from the Bey Mountains Surface Surveys\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BN8DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA174","external_links_name":"Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cibyratis"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200712080445/http://www.akmedanmed.com/pdf/2008_20.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Surveys in the Beydağları in 2007: Kitanaura\""},{"Link":"http://www.akmedanmed.com/pdf/2008_20.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/650466","external_links_name":"\"An unknown bath-gymnasium at Kithanaura\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decathlon
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Decathlon
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["1 Historical background","2 Format","2.1 Men's decathlon","2.2 Women's decathlon","2.3 One hour","2.4 Masters athletics","3 Points system","3.1 Benchmarks","4 Records","4.1 Decathlon bests","5 All-time top 25 men","5.1 Notes","6 All-time top performances women ≥ 8,000 pts","6.1 Notes","7 Competitions","7.1 Olympic medalists","7.2 World Championships medalists","7.3 Continental competitions","7.4 Other","8 Season's bests","9 National records","10 Under-20 records","10.1 Decathlon under-20 bests","11 Other multiple event contests","12 See also","13 Explanatory notes","14 References","15 External links"]
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Athletic track and field competition consisting of ten events
This article is about the track and field event. For other uses, see Decathlon (disambiguation).
AthleticsDecathlonDecathlon combines four runs, three jumps, and three throws.World recordsMen Kevin Mayer 9126 pts (2018)Olympic recordsMen Damian Warner 9018 pts (2021)World Championship recordsMen Ashton Eaton 9045 pts (2015)
The decathlon is a combined event in athletics consisting of 10 track and field events. The word "decathlon" was formed, in analogy to the word "pentathlon", from Greek δέκα (déka, meaning "ten") and ἄθλος (áthlos, or ἄθλον, áthlon, meaning "contest" or "prize"). Events are held over two consecutive days and the winners are determined by the combined performance in all. Performance is judged on a points system in each event, not by the position achieved. The decathlon is contested mainly by male athletes, while female athletes typically compete in the heptathlon.
Traditionally, the title of "World's Greatest Athlete" has been given to the person who wins the decathlon. This began when Gustav V of Sweden told Jim Thorpe, "Sir, you are the world's greatest athlete" after Thorpe won the decathlon at the Stockholm Olympics in 1912.
The event is similar to the pentathlon held at the ancient Greek Olympics, and also similar to a competition called an "all-around", which was contested at the United States amateur championships in 1884. Another all-around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics. The modern decathlon first appeared at the 1912 Games.
In modern athletics, the 10 events are: 100 metres, 400 metres, 1500 metres, 110 metre hurdles, long jump, high jump, pole vault, discus throw, javelin throw, and shotput. The current official decathlon world record holder is French athlete Kevin Mayer, who scored a total of 9,126 points at the 2018 Décastar in France.
Historical background
The decathlon developed from the ancient pentathlon competitions held at the ancient Greek Olympics. Pentathlons involved five disciplines – long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, sprint and a wrestling match. Introduced in Olympia during 708 BC, this competition was extremely popular for many centuries.
A ten-event competition known as the "all-around" or "all-round" championship, similar to the modern decathlon, was first contested at the United States amateur championships in 1884 and reached a consistent form by 1890. While an all-around event was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, whether it was an official Olympic event has been disputed.
The modern decathlon first appeared in the Olympic athletics program at the 1912 Games in Stockholm.
Format
Men's decathlon
The vast majority of international and top-level men's decathlons are divided into a two-day competition, with the track and field events held in the order below. Traditionally, all decathletes who finish the event, rather than just the winner or medal-winning athletes, do a round of honour together after the competition. The current world record holder is Kevin Mayer from France with 9126 points which he set on September 16, 2018, in Talence, France.
Day 1
100 metres
Long jump
Shot put
High jump
400 metres
Day 2
110 metres hurdles
Discus throw
Pole vault
Javelin throw
1500 metres
Women's decathlon
At major championships, the women's equivalent of the decathlon is the seven-event heptathlon; before 1981 it was the five-event pentathlon. However, in 2001, the IAAF (now World Athletics) approved scoring tables for a women's decathlon; the current world record holder is Austra Skujytė of Lithuania, with 8,358. Women's disciplines differ from men's in the same way as for standalone events: the shot, discus, and javelin weigh less, and the sprint hurdles use lower hurdles over 100 m rather than 110 m. The points tables used are the same as for the heptathlon in the shared events. The schedule of events differs from the men's decathlon, with the field events switched between day one and day two; this is to avoid scheduling conflicts when men's and women's decathlon competitions take place simultaneously.
Day 1
100 metres
Discus throw
Pole vault
Javelin throw
400 metres
Day 2
100 metres hurdles
Long jump
Shot put
High jump
1500 metres
One hour
The one-hour decathlon is a special type of decathlon in which the athletes have to start the last of ten events (1500 m) within sixty minutes of the start of the first event. The world record holder is Czech decathlete Robert Změlík, who achieved 7,897 points at a meeting in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, in 1992.
Masters athletics
In Masters athletics, performance scores are age graded before being applied to the standard scoring table. This way, marks that would be competitive within an age division can get rated, even if those marks would not appear on the scale designed for younger age groups. Additionally, like women, the age divisions use different implement weights and lower hurdles. Based on this system, German Rolf Geese in the M60 division and American Robert Hewitt in the M80 divisions have set their respective world records over 8,000 points. Using the same scale, Nadine O'Connor scored 10,234 points in the W65 division, the highest decathlon score ever recorded.
Points system
Event
A
B
C
100 m
25.4347
18
1.81
Long jump
0.14354
220
1.4
Shot put
51.39
1.5
1.05
High jump
0.8465
75
1.42
400 m
1.53775
82
1.81
110 m hurdles
5.74352
28.5
1.92
Discus throw
12.91
4
1.1
Pole vault
0.2797
100
1.35
Javelin throw
10.14
7
1.08
1500 m
0.03768
480
1.85
Main article: Decathlon scoring tables
The 2001 IAAF points tables use the following formulae:
Points = INT(A(B — P)C) for track events (faster time produces a higher score)
Points = INT(A(P — B)C) for field events (greater distance or height produces a higher score)
A, B and C are parameters that vary by discipline, as shown in the table on the right, while P is the performance by the athlete, measured in seconds (running), metres (throwing), or centimetres (jumping).
The decathlon tables should not be confused with the scoring tables compiled by Bojidar Spiriev, to allow comparison of the relative quality of performances by athletes in different events. On those tables, for example, a decathlon score of 9,006 points equates to 1,265 "comparison points", the same number as a triple jump of 18 m.
Benchmarks
Split evenly between the events, the following table shows the benchmark levels needed to earn 1,000, 900, 800, and 700 points in each sport.
Event
1,000 pts
900 pts
800 pts
700 pts
Unit
100 m
10.395
10.827
11.278
11.756
Seconds
Long jump
7.76
7.36
6.94
6.51
Metres
Shot put
18.40
16.79
15.16
13.53
Metres
High jump
2.20
2.10
1.99
1.88
Metres
400 m
46.17
48.19
50.32
52.58
Seconds
110 m hurdles
13.80
14.59
15.419
16.29
Seconds
Discus throw
56.17
51.4
46.59
41.72
Metres
Pole vault
5.28
4.96
4.63
4.29
Metres
Javelin throw
77.19
70.67
64.09
57.45
Metres
1500 m
3:53.79
4:07.42
4:21.77
4:36.96
Minutes:Seconds
Records
Further information: Decathlon world record progression
The official decathlon world record holder is Kevin Mayer of France, with a score of 9,126 points set during the 2018 Décastar in Talence, France, which was ratified by World Athletics.
100m (wind)
Long jump (wind)
Shot put
High jump
400m
110H (wind)
Discus
Pole vault
Javelin
1500m
10.55 (+0.3 m/s)
7.80 m (+1.2 m/s)
16.00 m
2.05 m
48.42
13.75 (-1.1 m/s)
50.54 m
5.45 m
71.90 m
4:36.11
The previous record from Ashton Eaton (9,045 points):
100m (wind)
Long jump (wind)
Shot put
High jump
400m
110H (wind)
Discus
Pole vault
Javelin
1500m
10.23 (-0.4 m/s)
7.88 m (+0.0 m/s)
14.52 m
2.01 m
45.00 WDB
13.69 (-0.2 m/s)
43.34 m
5.20 m
63.63 m
4:17.52
Record
Score
Athlete
Season
World
9,126
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
2018
Continental records
Africa
8,521
Larbi Bourrada (ALG)
2016
Asia
8,725
Dmitriy Karpov (KAZ)
2004
Europe
9,126
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
2018
North, Central America and Caribbean
9,045
Ashton Eaton (USA)
2015
Oceania
8,649
Ashley Moloney (AUS)
2021
South America
8,393
Carlos Chinin (BRA)
2013
Decathlon bests
The total decathlon score for all world records in the respective events would be 12,629. The total decathlon score for all the best performances achieved during decathlons is 10,630. The Difference column shows the difference in points between the decathlon points that the individual current world record would be awarded and the points awarded to the current decathlon record for that event. The relative differences in points are much higher in throwing events than in running and jumping events.
Decathlon bests are only recognized when an athlete completes the ten-event competition with a score of over 7,000 points.
World records (WR) compared to decathlon bests (DB)
Event
Type
Athlete
Record
Score
Difference
Date
Place
Ref
100 m
WR
Usain Bolt (JAM)
9.58 s
1,202
136
16 August 2009
Berlin
DB
Damian Warner (CAN)
10.12 s
1,066
25 May 2019
Götzis
4 August 2021
Tokyo
Long jump
WR
Mike Powell (USA)
8.95 m
1,312
134
30 August 1991
Tokyo
DB
Simon Ehammer (SUI)
8.45 m
1,178
28 May 2022
Götzis
Shot put
WR
Ryan Crouser (USA)
23.56 m
1,323
275
27 May 2023
Los Angeles
DB
Edy Hubacher (SUI)
19.17 m
1,048
5 October 1969
Bern
High jump
WR
Javier Sotomayor (CUB)
2.45 m
1,244
173
27 July 1993
Salamanca
DB
Derek Drouin (CAN)
2.28 m
1,071
7 April 2017
Santa Barbara
400 m
WR
Wayde van Niekerk (RSA)
43.03 s
1,164
104
14 August 2016
Rio de Janeiro
DB
Ashton Eaton (USA)
45.00 s
1,060
28 August 2015
Beijing
110 m hurdles
WR
Aries Merritt (USA)
12.80 s
1,135
76
7 September 2012
Brussels
DB
Damian Warner (CAN)
13.36 s
1,059
30 May 2021
Götzis
Discus throw
WR
Mykolas Alekna (LTU)
74.35 m
1,389
357
14 April 2024
Ramona
DB
Leo Neugebauer (DEU)
57.70 m
1,032
6 June 2024
Eugene
Pole vault
WR
Armand Duplantis (SWE)
6.24 m
1,311
159
20 April 2024
Xiamen
DB
Tim Lobinger (GER)
5.76 m
1,152
16 September 1999
Leverkusen
Javelin throw
WR
Jan Železný (CZE)
98.48 m
1,331
291
25 May 1996
Jena
DB
Peter Blank (GER)
79.80 m
1,040
19 July 1992
Emmelshausen
1500 m
WR
Hicham El Guerrouj (MAR)
3:26.00 min:s
1,218
255
14 July 1998
Rome
DB
Robert Baker (USA)
3:58.7h min:s
963
3 April 1980
Austin
Total
World records
12,629
1,960
Decathlon bests
10,669
All-time top 25 men
Correct as of June 2024.
Rank
Score
Athlete
Date
Place
Ref
1
9,126
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
15–16 September 2018
Talence
( 10.55/+0.3 - 7.80/+1.2 - 16.00 - 2.05 - 48.42 / 13.75/-1.1 - 50.54 - 5.45 - 71.90 - 4:36.11 )
2
9,045
Ashton Eaton (USA)
28–29 August 2015
Beijing
( 10.23/-0.4 - 7.88/0.0 - 14.52 - 2.01 - 45.00 / 13.69/-0.2 - 43.34 - 5.20 - 63.63 - 4:17.52 )
3
9,026
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
26–27 May 2001
Götzis
( 10.64/0.0 - 8.11/+1.9 - 15.33 - 2.12 - 47.79 / 13.92/-0.2 - 47.92 - 4.80 - 70.16 - 4:21.98 )
4
9,018
Damian Warner (CAN)
4–5 August 2021
Tokyo
( 10.12/+0.2 - 8.24/+0.2 - 14.80 - 2.02 - 47.48 / 13.46/-1.0 - 48.67 - 4.90 - 63.44 - 4:31.08 )
5
8,994
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
3–4 July 1999
Prague
( 10.54/-0.1 - 7.90/+1.1 - 16.78 - 2.04 - 48.08 / 13.73/0.0 - 48.33 - 4.90 - 72.32 - 4:37.20 )
6
8,961
Leo Neugebauer (GER)
5–6 June 2024
Eugene
( 10.64/+0.1 - 7.86/+0.9 - 17.46 - 2.07 - 48.03 / 14.36/0.0 - 57.70 - 5.21 - 56.64 - 4:44.61 )
7
8,909
Pierce LePage (CAN)
25–26 August 2023
Budapest
( 10.45/-0.3 - 7.59/+0.2 - 15.81 - 2.08 - 47.21 / 13.77/+0.2 - 50.98 - 5.20 - 60.90 - 4:39.88 )
8
8,891
Dan O'Brien (USA)
4–5 September 1992
Talence
( 10.43/+2.1 - 8.08/+1.8 - 16.69 - 2.07 - 48.51 / 13.98/-0.5 - 48.56 - 5.00 - 62.58 - 4:42.10 )
9
8,867
Garrett Scantling (USA)
6–7 May 2022
Fayetteville
( 10.61/-0.3 - 7.68/+2.4 - 16.27 - 2.04 - 47.08 / 14.10/+3.1 - 55.06 - 5.21 - 57.45 - 4:48.00 )
10
8,832
Bryan Clay (USA)
29–30 June 2008
Eugene
( 10.39/-0.4 - 7.39/-1.6 - 15.17 - 2.08 - 48.41 / 13.75/+1.9 - 52.74 - 5.00 - 70.55 - 4:50.97 )
11
8,815
Erki Nool (EST)
6–7 August 2001
Edmonton
( 10.60/+1.5 - 7.63/+2.0 - 14.90 - 2.03 - 46.23 / 14.40/0.0 - 43.40 - 5.40 - 67.01 - 4:29.58 )
12
8,811
Daley Thompson (GBR)
27–28 August 1986
Stuttgart
( 10.26/+2.0 - 7.72/+1.0 - 15.73 - 2.00 - 47.02 / 14.04/-0.3 - 43.38 - 5.10 - 62.78 - 4:26.16 )
13
8,790
Trey Hardee (USA)
19–20 August 2009
Berlin
( 10.45/+0.2 - 7.83/+1.9 - 15.33 - 1.99 - 48.13 / 13.86/+0.3 - 48.08 - 5.20 - 68.00 - 4:48.91 )
14
8,784
Tom Pappas (USA)
21–22 June 2003
Palo Alto
( 10.78/+0.2 - 7.96/+1.4 - 16.28 - 2.17 - 48.22 / 14.13/+1.7 - 45.84 - 5.20 - 60.77 - 4:48.12 )
15
8,764
Johannes Erm (EST)
10–11 June 2024
Rome
( 10.60/+0.4 - 7.91/+0.2 - 14.99 - 1.99 - 46.81 / 14.30/-0.5 - 44.56 - 5.20 - 62.71 - 4:24.95 )
16
8,756
Lindon Victor (GRN)
25–26 August 2023
Budapest
( 10.60/+0.1 - 7.55/+1.0 - 15.94 - 2.02 - 48.05 / 14.47/+0.2 - 54.97 - 4.80 - 68.05 - 4:39.67 )
17
8,735
Eduard Hämäläinen (BLR)
28–29 May 1994
Götzis
( 10.50/+2.1 - 7.26/+1.0 - 16.05 - 2.11 - 47.63 / 13.82/-3.0 - 49.70 - 4.90 - 60.32 - 4:35.09 )
18
8,732
Ayden Owens-Delerme (PUR)
17–18 April 2024
Walnut
( 10.31/+1.9 - 7.77/+2.6 - 16.26 - 1.98 - 47.23 / 13.73/+0.9 - 46.00 - 5.10 - 59.28 - 4:45.59 )
19
8,730
Jürgen Hingsen (FRG)
27–28 August 1986
Stuttgart
( 10.87/+2.5 - 7.89/+2.8 - 16.46 - 2.12 - 48.79 / 14.52/-0.3 - 48.42 - 4.60 - 64.38 - 4:21.61 )
20
8,725
Dmitriy Karpov (KAZ)
23–24 August 2004
Athens
( 10.50/+2.2 - 7.81/-0.9 - 15.93 - 2.09 - 46.81 / 13.97/+1.5 - 51.65 - 4.60 - 55.54 - 4:38.11 )
21
8,720
Kyle Garland (USA)
6–7 May 2022
Fayetteville
( 10.63/+0.9 - 7.86/+1.0 - 16.44 - 2.16 - 49.04 / 13.71/+1.0 - 46.16 - 4.85 - 59.63 - 4:43.21 )
22
8,706
Frank Busemann (GER)
31 July – 1 August 1996
Atlanta
( 10.60/ - 8.07/+0.8 - 13.60 - 2.04 - 48.34 / 13.47/+0.3 - 45.04 - 4.80 - 66.86 - 4:31.41 )
23
8,705
Dave Johnson (USA)
23–24 April 1992
Azusa
( 10.96/+0.4 - 7.52/+4.5 - 14.61 - 2.04 - 48.19 / 14.17/+0.3 - 49.88 - 5.28 - 66.96 - 4:29.38 )
24
8,694
Chris Huffins (USA)
19–20 June 1998
New Orleans
( 10.31/+3.5 - 7.76/+2.5 - 15.43 - 2.18 - 49.02 / 14.02/+1.0 - 53.22 - 4.60 - 61.59 - 4:59.43 )
25
8,691
Niklas Kaul (GER)
2–3 October 2019
Doha
( 11.27/+0.3 - 7.19/+0.6 - 15.10 - 2.02 - 48.48 / 14.64/+0.7 - 49.20 - 5.00 - 79.05 - 4:15.70 )
Notes
Below is a list of other scores equal or superior to 8750 pts:
Ashton Eaton also scored 9039 (2012), 8893 (2016), 8809 (2013) and 8750 (2016).
Damian Warner also scored 8995 (2021), 8804 (2023), 8797 (2022) and 8795 (2018).
Tomáš Dvořák also scored 8902 (2001), 8900 (2000) and 8837 (1997).
Roman Šebrle also scored 8893 (2004), 8807 (2003), 8800 (2002) and 8757 (2000).
Leo Neugebauer also scored 8836 (2023).
Kevin Mayer also scored 8834 (2016), 8816 (2022) and 8768 (2017).
Dan O'Brien also scored 8824 (1996), 8812 (1991) and 8755 (1998).
Bryan Clay also scored 8791 (2008).
Tom Pappas also scored 8750 (2003).
All-time top performances women ≥ 8,000 pts
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Correct as of September 2023.
Rank
Score
Athlete
Date
Place
Ref
1
8,358
Austra Skujytė (LTU)
14–15 April 2005
Columbia
2
8,246
Jordan Gray (USA)
21–22 August 2021
San Mateo
3
8,150
Marie Collonvillé (FRA)
25–26 September 2004
Talence
Notes
Below is a list of other scores equal or superior to 8000 pts:
Austra Skujytė also scored 8091 pts (2006).
Competitions
Olympic medalists
Main article: Combined events at the Olympics
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
edit
1912 Stockholmdetails
Jim Thorpe United States
Hugo Wieslander SwedenCharles Lomberg Sweden
Gösta Holmér Sweden
1920 Antwerpdetails
Helge Løvland Norway
Brutus Hamilton United States
Bertil Ohlson Sweden
1924 Parisdetails
Harold Osborn United States
Emerson Norton United States
Aleksander Klumberg Estonia
1928 Amsterdamdetails
Paavo Yrjölä Finland
Akilles Järvinen Finland
Ken Doherty United States
1932 Los Angelesdetails
Jim Bausch United States
Akilles Järvinen Finland
Wolrad Eberle Germany
1936 Berlindetails
Glenn Morris United States
Bob Clark United States
Jack Parker United States
1948 Londondetails
Bob Mathias United States
Ignace Heinrich France
Floyd Simmons United States
1952 Helsinkidetails
Bob Mathias United States
Milt Campbell United States
Floyd Simmons United States
1956 Melbournedetails
Milt Campbell United States
Rafer Johnson United States
Vasili Kuznetsov Soviet Union
1960 Romedetails
Rafer Johnson United States
Yang Chuan-kwang Formosa
Vasili Kuznetsov Soviet Union
1964 Tokyodetails
Willi Holdorf United Team of Germany
Rein Aun Soviet Union
Hans-Joachim Walde United Team of Germany
1968 Mexico Citydetails
Bill Toomey United States
Hans-Joachim Walde West Germany
Kurt Bendlin West Germany
1972 Munichdetails
Mykola Avilov Soviet Union
Leonid Lytvynenko Soviet Union
Ryszard Katus Poland
1976 Montrealdetails
Bruce Jenner United States
Guido Kratschmer West Germany
Mykola Avilov Soviet Union
1980 Moscowdetails
Daley Thompson Great Britain
Yuriy Kutsenko Soviet Union
Sergei Zhelanov Soviet Union
1984 Los Angelesdetails
Daley Thompson Great Britain
Jürgen Hingsen West Germany
Siegfried Wentz West Germany
1988 Seouldetails
Christian Schenk East Germany
Torsten Voss East Germany
Dave Steen Canada
1992 Barcelonadetails
Robert Změlík Czechoslovakia
Antonio Peñalver Spain
Dave Johnson United States
1996 Atlantadetails
Dan O'Brien United States
Frank Busemann Germany
Tomáš Dvořák Czech Republic
2000 Sydneydetails
Erki Nool Estonia
Roman Šebrle Czech Republic
Chris Huffins United States
2004 Athensdetails
Roman Šebrle Czech Republic
Bryan Clay United States
Dmitriy Karpov Kazakhstan
2008 Beijingdetails
Bryan Clay United States
Andrei Krauchanka Belarus
Leonel Suárez Cuba
2012 Londondetails
Ashton Eaton United States
Trey Hardee United States
Leonel Suárez Cuba
2016 Rio De Janeirodetails
Ashton Eaton United States
Kevin Mayer France
Damian Warner Canada
2020 Tokyodetails
Damian Warner Canada
Kevin Mayer France
Ashley Moloney Australia
2024 Parisdetails
World Championships medalists
Championships
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1983 Helsinkidetails
Daley Thompson (GBR)
Jürgen Hingsen (FRG)
Siegfried Wentz (FRG)
1987 Romedetails
Torsten Voss (GDR)
Siegfried Wentz (FRG)
Pavel Tarnavetskiy (URS)
1991 Tokyodetails
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Mike Smith (CAN)
Christian Schenk (GER)
1993 Stuttgartdetails
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Eduard Hämäläinen (BLR)
Paul Meier (GER)
1995 Gothenburgdetails
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Eduard Hämäläinen (BLR)
Mike Smith (CAN)
1997 Athensdetails
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Eduard Hämäläinen (FIN)
Frank Busemann (GER)
1999 Sevilledetails
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Dean Macey (GBR)
Chris Huffins (USA)
2001 Edmontondetails
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Erki Nool (EST)
Dean Macey (GBR)
2003 Saint-Denisdetails
Tom Pappas (USA)
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Dmitriy Karpov (KAZ)
2005 Helsinkidetails
Bryan Clay (USA)
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Attila Zsivoczky (HUN)
2007 Osakadetails
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Maurice Smith (JAM)
Dmitriy Karpov (KAZ)
2009 Berlindetails
Trey Hardee (USA)
Leonel Suárez (CUB)
Aleksandr Pogorelov (RUS)
2011 Daegudetails
Trey Hardee (USA)
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Leonel Suárez (CUB)
2013 Moscowdetails
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Michael Schrader (GER)
Damian Warner (CAN)
2015 Beijingdetails
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Damian Warner (CAN)
Rico Freimuth (GER)
2017 Londondetails
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
Rico Freimuth (GER)
Kai Kazmirek (GER)
2019 Dohadetails
Niklas Kaul (GER)
Maicel Uibo (EST)
Damian Warner (CAN)
2022 Eugenedetails
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
Pierce LePage (CAN)
Zach Ziemek (USA)
2023 Budapestdetails
Pierce LePage (CAN)
Damian Warner (CAN)
Lindon Victor (GRN)
Continental competitions
African Combined Events Championships
European Cup Combined Events
Oceania Combined Events Championships
Pan American Combined Events Cup
Other
IAAF Combined Events Challenge
Multistars
Hypo-Meeting
TNT - Fortuna Meeting
Erdgas Mehrkampf-Meeting
Décastar
Season's bests
Year
Score
Athlete
Place
1960
8,683
Rafer Johnson (USA)
Eugene
1961
8,709
Philip Mulkey (USA)
Memphis
1962
8,248
Chuan-Kwang Yang (ROC)
Tulare
1963
8,089
Chuan-Kwang Yang (ROC)
Walnut
1964
7,950
Manfred Bock (FRG)
Liestal
1965
7,883
Mykhaylo Storozhenko (URS)
Kyiv
1966
8,234
Bill Toomey (USA)
Salina
1967
8,319
Kurt Bendlin (FRG)
Heidelberg
1968
8,222 A
Bill Toomey (USA)
Echo Summit
1969
8,417
Bill Toomey (USA)
Los Angeles
1970
8,130
Rüdiger Demmig (GDR)
Erfurt
1971
8,244
Kurt Bendlin (FRG)
Bonn
1972
8,466
Mykola Avilov (URS)
Munich
1973
8,163
Lennart Hedmark (SWE)
Bonn
1974
8,229
Ryszard Skowronek (POL)
Montreal
1975
8,429
Bruce Jenner (USA)
Eugene
1976
8,634
Bruce Jenner (USA)
Montreal
1977
8,400
Aleksandr Grebenyuk (URS)
Riga
1978
8,493
Guido Kratschmer (FRG)
Bernhausen
1979
8,476
Guido Kratschmer (FRG)
Krefeld
1980
8,667
Guido Kratschmer (FRG)
Bernhausen
1981
8,334
Rainer Pottel (GDR)
Birmingham
1982
8,774
Daley Thompson (GBR)
Athens
1983
8,825
Jürgen Hingsen (FRG)
Bernhausen
1984
8,847
Daley Thompson (GBR)
Los Angeles
1985
8,559
Torsten Voss (GDR)
Dresden
1986
8,811
Daley Thompson (GBR)
Stuttgart
1987
8,680
Torsten Voss (GDR)
Rome
1988
8,512
Christian Plaziat (FRA)
Talence
1989
8,549
Dave Johnson (USA)
Houston
1990
8,574
Christian Plaziat (FRA)
Split
1991
8,812
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Tokyo
1992
8,891
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Talence
1993
8,817
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Stuttgart
1994
8,735
Eduard Hämäläinen (BLR)
Götzis
1995
8,695
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Gothenburg
1996
8,824
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Atlanta
1997
8,837
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Athens
1998
8,755
Dan O'Brien (USA)
Uniondale
1999
8,994
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Prague
2000
8,900
Tomáš Dvořák (CZE)
Götzis
2001
9,026
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Götzis
2002
8,800
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Götzis
2003
8,807
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Götzis
2004
8,893
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Athens
2005
8,732
Bryan Clay (USA)
Helsinki
2006
8,677
Bryan Clay (USA)
Götzis
2007
8,697
Roman Šebrle (CZE)
Kladno
2008
8,832
Bryan Clay (USA)
Eugene
2009
8,790
Trey Hardee (USA)
Berlin
2010
8,483
Bryan Clay (USA)
Götzis
2011
8,729
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Eugene
2012
9,039
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Eugene
2013
8,809
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Moscow
2014
8,616
Andrei Krauchanka (BLR)
Zürich
2015
9,045
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Beijing
2016
8,893
Ashton Eaton (USA)
Rio de Janeiro
2017
8,768
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
London
2018
9,126
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
Talence
2019
8,711
Damian Warner (CAN)
Götzis
2020
8,552
Kevin Mayer (FRA)
Saint-Paul
2021
9,018
Damian Warner (CAN)
Tokyo
2022
8,867
Garrett Scantling (USA)
Fayetteville
2023
8,909
Pierce LePage (CAN)
Budapest
National records
Updated 18 June 2024.
Equal or superior to 8,000 pts:
Score
Nation
Athlete
Date
Place
9,126
France
Kevin Mayer
15–16 September 2018
Talence
9,045
United States
Ashton Eaton
28–29 August 2015
Beijing
9,026
Czech Republic
Roman Šebrle
26–27 April 2001
Götzis
9,018
Canada
Damian Warner
4–5 August 2021
Tokyo
8,961
Germany
Leo Neugebauer
5–6 June 2024
Eugene
8,847
Great Britain
Daley Thompson
8–9 August 1984
Los Angeles
8,815
Estonia
Erki Nool
6–7 August 2001
Edmonton
8,756
Grenada
Lindon Victor
25–26 August 2023
Budapest
8,735
Belarus
Eduard Hämäläinen
28–29 May 1994
Götzis
8,732
Puerto Rico
Ayden Owens-Delerme
17–18 April 2024
Walnut
8,730
Finland
Eduard Hämäläinen
5–6 August 1997
Athens
8,725
Kazakhstan
Dmitriy Karpov
23–24 August 2004
Athens
8,709
Ukraine
Aleksandr Apaychev
2–3 June 1984
Neubrandenburg
8,698
Russia
Grigoriy Degtyaryev
21–22 June 1984
Kyiv
8,654
Cuba
Leonel Suárez
3–4 July 2009
Havana
8,649
Australia
Ashley Moloney
4–5 August 2021
Tokyo
8,644
Jamaica
Maurice Smith
31 August – 1 September 2007
Osaka
8,635
Norway
Sander Skotheim
10–11 June 2024
Rome
8,573
Iceland
Jón Arnar Magnússon
30–31 May 1998
Götzis
8,566
Poland
Sebastian Chmara
16–17 May 1998
Murcia
8,554
Hungary
Attila Zsivoczky
3–4 June 2000
Götzis
8,539
Netherlands
Eelco Sintnicolaas
27–28 May 2017
Götzis
8,526
Spain
Francisco Javier Benet
16–17 May 1998
Murcia
8,521
Algeria
Larbi Bouraada
17–18 August 2016
Rio de Janeiro
8,519
Belgium
Hans Van Alphen
26–27 May 2012
Götzis
8,468
Switzerland
Simon Ehammer
15–16 August 2022
Munich
8,445
Uzbekistan
Ramil Ganiyev
5–6 August 1997
Athens
8,437
Lithuania
Rišardas Malachovskis
1–2 July 1988
Minsk
8,406
Sweden
Nicklas Wiberg
19–20 August 2009
Berlin
8,398
South Africa
Willem Coertzen
30–31 May 2015
Götzis
8,393
Brazil
Carlos Chinin
7–8 June 2013
São Paulo
8,359
New Zealand
Simon Poelman
21–22 March 1987
Christchurch
8,320
Austria
Gernot Kellermayr
29–30 May 1993
Götzis
8,312
Latvia
Edgars Eriņš
26–27 May 2011
Valmiera
8,308
Japan
Keisuke Ushiro
31 May – 1 June 2014
Nagano
8,291 A
Argentina
Tito Steiner
22–23 June 1983
Provo
8,290
China
Qi Haifeng
28–29 May 2005
Götzis
8,288
Moldova
Valeriy Kachanov
20–21 June 1980
Moscow
8,275
Serbia
Mihail Dudaš
10–11 August 2013
Moscow
8,235
Italy
Dario Dester
10–11 June 2024
Rome
8,213
Portugal
Mário Aníbal
30 June – 1 July 2001
Kaunas
8,206
Republic of China
Yang Chuan-Kwang
27–28 April 1963
Walnut
8,199
Bulgaria
Atanas Andonov
20–21 June 1981
Sofia
8,182
Bahamas
Kendrick Thompson
27–28 May 2023
Götzis
8,069
Greece
Prodromos Korkizoglou
1–2 July 2000
Ibach
8,065
Chile
Gonzalo Barroilhet
19–20 April 2012
Charlottesville
8,048
Venezuela
Geormi Jaramillo
4–5 May 2018
Barquisimeto
8,023
Tunisia
Hamdi Dhouibi
9–10 August 2005
Helsinki
8,010 h
Chinese Taipei
Yang Chuan-kwang
27–28 April 1963
Walnut
8,004
Ecuador
Andy Preciado
30–31 May 2021
Guayaquil
Under-20 records
The world decathlon under-20 record is held by Niklas Kaul, of Germany, who scored 8,435 points at the European U20 Championships in Grosseto, Italy, from 22 to 23 July 2017.
100m (wind)
Long jump (wind)
Shot put
High jump
400m
110H (wind)
Discus
Pole vault
Javelin
1500m
11.48 (-1.3 m/s)
7.20 m (+1.6 m/s)
15.37 m
2.05 m
48.42
14.55 (-0.2 m/s)
48.49 m
4.70 m
68.05 m
4:15.52
The world decathlon under-20 record using senior implements is held by Torsten Voss, of East Germany, who scored 8,397 points in Erfurt, East Germany, from 6–7 July 1982. This was the last record to be ratified because it is no longer a World Athletics under-20 record event.
Key:
NWI = No Wind Indication
100m (wind)
Long jump (wind)
Shot put
High jump
400m
110H (wind)
Discus
Pole vault
Javelin
1500m
10.76 (NWI)
7.66 m (NWI)
14.41 m
2.09 m
48.37
14.37 (NWI)
41.66 m
4.80 m
62.90 m
4:34.04
Key:
+ = Senior implements
* = 6-kg shot, 1.067-m hurdles, 1.75-kg discus
A = Altitude (over 1,000 m)
U20 Record
Score
Athlete
Year
World
8,397+
Torsten Voss (GDR)
1982
8,435
Niklas Kaul (GER)
2017
Area U20 records
Africa
7,548+
Hamdi Dhouibi (TUN)
2011
7,791
Fredriech Pretorius (RSA)
2014
Asia
8,041+
Qi Haifeng (CHN)
2002
Europe
8,397+
Torsten Voss (GDR)
1982
8,435
Niklas Kaul (GER)
2017
North, Central America and Caribbean
8,257+
Yordani García (CUB)
2007
Oceania
8,103+
Ashley Moloney (AUS)
2019
8,190
Ashley Moloney (AUS)
2018
South America
7,422+
Pedro Ferreira da Silva Filho (BRA)
1985
7,641*
Andrés Byron Silva (URU)
2005
7,762 A
Felipe Vinicius dos Santos (BRA)
2013
Decathlon under-20 bests
(Within a completed decathlon scoring more than 7,000 points)
Event
Specification
Result (Wind)
Score
Athlete
Nation
Date
Meet
Place
Age
Ref
100 m
10.31 (+3.5 m/s)
1,020
Roko Farkaš
Croatia
9 August 2023
European U20 Championships
Jerusalem
18 years, 179 days
Long jump
7.83 m (+0.4 m/s)
1,017
Simon Ehammer
Switzerland
21 September 2019
Swiss Combined Events Championships
Hochdorf
19 years, 226 days
Shot put
6 kg
17.81 m
963
José San Pastor
Spain
1 May 2021
Campionato España Combinadas de Federaciones Autonómicas
Valladolid
19 years, 86 days
7.26 kg
15.83 m
841
Rob Muzzio
United States
27 April 1983
Penn Relays
Philadelphia
18 years, 306 days
High jump
2.18 m
973
Igor Drobyshevskiy
Soviet Union
25 May 1985
Simferopol
18 years, 220 days
400 m
46.75
971
Ashley Moloney
Australia
25 June 2019
Oceania Championships
Townsville
19 years, 104 days
First-day score
U20 implements
4,381
Jente Hauttekeete
Belgium
20 August 2021
World U20 Championships
Nairobi
19 years, 159 days
Senior implements
4,436
Ashley Moloney
Australia
25 May 2019
Hypomeeting
Götzis
19 years, 73 days
110 m hurdles
0.991 m
13.57 (-0.1 m/s)
1,031
Simon Ehammer
Switzerland
20 July 2019
European U20 Championships
Borås
19 years, 163 days
1.067 m
13.77 (+1.3 m/s)
1,004
Ladji Doucouré
France
10 June 2001
Meeting International d'Arles
Arles
18 years, 74 days
Discus throw
1.75 kg
54.75 m
970
Aleksey Sysoyev
Russia
29 May 2004
Russian Junior Combined Events Cup
Krasnodar
19 years, 82 days
Jan Doležal
Czech Republic
19 July 2015
European Junior Championships
Eskilstuna
19 years, 43 days
2 kg
51.86 m
909
Aleksandr Agafonov
Soviet Union
12 June 1980
Gomel
19 years, 36 days
Pole vault
5.50 m
1,067
Lawrence Johnson
United States
8 April 1993
Sea Ray Relays
Knoxville
19 years, 7 days
Lawrence Johnson
United States
14 May 1993
SEC Outdoor Track and Field Championships
Knoxville
18 years, 336 days
Baptiste Thiery
France
19 September 2020
French Youth Combined Events Championships
Aubagne
19 years, 82 days
Javelin throw
71.59 m
914
Niklas Kaul
Germany
20 July 2016
World U20 Championships
Bydgoszcz
18 years, 160 days
Old model
76.52 m
989
Aleksandr Apaychev
Soviet Union
1 June 1980
Potsdam
19 years, 26 days
1500 m
4:04.1
923
Dietmar Jentsch
East Germany
16 June 1979
Erfurt
19 years, 98 days
Second-day score
U20 implements
4,265
Niklas Kaul
Germany
23 July 2017
European U20 Championships
Grosseto
19 years, 162 days
Senior implements
3,995
Qi Haifeng
China
22 November 2001
Chinese National Games
Guangzhou
18 years, 107 days
Other multiple event contests
Aquathlon
Biathlon
Chess-boxing
CrossFit Games
Duathlon
Heptathlon
Icosathlon or double decathlon
Modern pentathlon
Nordic combined
Octathlon
Omnium
Quadrathlon
Triathlon
See also
Sport of athletics portal
Explanatory notes
^ Jenner is now known as Caitlyn due to gender transition in 2015.
References
"IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events" (PDF). IAAF. April 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 10, 2008. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
^ "Decathlon". Encarta. 2008. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
^ Flatter, Ron. "Thorpe preceded Deion, Bo". espn.com. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
^ a b Waldo E. Sweet, Erich Segal (1987). Sport and recreation in ancient Greece. Oxford University Press. (p37). Retrieved on 7 May 2011.
^ a b "USA Outdoor Track & Field Champions: Men's All-Around". USA Track & Field. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
^ a b Zarnowski, Frank (2005). All-around Men: Heroes of a Forgotten Sport. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5423-9.
^ a b "Athletics at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Games: Men's All-Around Championship". Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
^ a b "Athletics at the 1912 Stockholm Summer Games: Men's Decathlon". Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
^ IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events, p. 9.
^ "Records of Austra Skujytė". World Athletics. Retrieved March 28, 2022.
^ IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events, p. 10.
^ "Sebrle set for 100 minute Decathlon". June 20, 2003.
^ Stone, Ken. "Masters track athlete of the decade?". Masters-athlete.com. Archived from the original on March 5, 2010. Retrieved February 7, 2010.
^ "Masterstrack.com Results detail O'Connor's historic 10,234-point decathlon » masterstrack.com". Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
^ a b IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events, p. 24.
^ IAAF Scoring Tables of Athletics – Outdoor – 2008 Edition Archived 6 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine p. 154.
^ van Kuijen, Hans (12 September 2013). Eaton and Melnychenko lead Talence fields, Lavillenie to make Decathlon debut – IAAF Combined Events Challenge. IAAF. Retrieved on 12 September 2013.
^ Gabriella Pieraccini (May 25, 2019). "Johnson-Thompson and Warner reinforce dominance with overnight leads in Götzis". IAAF. Retrieved May 28, 2019.
^ "Decathlon – 100m Results Summary" (PDF). olympics.com. August 4, 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2021. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
^ "8,45 Meter: Ehammers unglaublicher Rekordsatz im Weitsprung" (in German). SRF. May 28, 2022. Retrieved May 28, 2022.
^ "Crouser retains shot put title at worlds after nearly staying home due to blood clots". AP News. August 19, 2023. Retrieved August 21, 2023.
^ "2017 Sam Adams Combined Events Invitational – Men's High Jump Results". phototiming.com. April 7, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
^ "Men's 400m Results" (PDF). Rio 2016 official website. 14 August 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
^ "Decathlon – 400 m Results". IAAF. August 28, 2015. Archived from the original on August 31, 2015. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
^ Jess Whittington; Jon Mulkeen (May 30, 2021). "Warner makes history in Götzis with sixth victory and 8995 score". World Athletics. Retrieved June 24, 2021.
^ "Lithuania's Mykolas Alekna breaks discus throw record that stood since 1986". Associated Press. April 15, 2024.
^ a b "Decathlon Result". flashresults.ncaa.com. June 6, 2024. Retrieved June 6, 2024.
^ "FLASH: Duplantis breaks world pole vault record with 6.24m in Xiamen". World Athletics. April 20, 2024. Retrieved April 20, 2024.
^ a b Decathlon – men – senior – outdoor. IAAF. Retrieved on 25 January 2014.
^ Quentin Guillon (September 16, 2018). "Mayer breaks decathlon world record in Talence with 9126". IAAF. Retrieved September 21, 2018.
^ "Men's Decathlon Results" (PDF). olympics.com. August 5, 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2021. Retrieved August 25, 2021.
^ a b "Men's Decathlon Results" (PDF). World Athletics. August 26, 2023. Retrieved August 29, 2023.
^ a b "Decathlon Results". flashresults.com. May 7, 2022. Retrieved May 15, 2022.
^ Broadbent, Chris (June 12, 2024). "Historic golds for Austria and Estonia at Roma 2024". European Athletics. Retrieved June 12, 2024.
^ "Decathlon Results" (PDF). IAAF. October 3, 2019. Retrieved October 4, 2019.
^ a b "Women's Decathlon World Record Progression". World Athletics. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
^ Erik Boal (August 23, 2023). "JORDAN GRAY ACHIEVES NO. 2 ALL-TIME SCORE WITH 8,246 POINTS AT WOMEN'S DECATHLON ASSOCIATION CHAMPIONSHIPS". runnerspace.com. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
^ Buzz Bissinger (June 1, 2015). "Introducing Caitlyn Jenner". Vanity Fair. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
^ "Decathlon U20 100 Men Results" (PDF). European Athletics. European Athletic Association. August 9, 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2023.
^ "Results - 2019 Swiss & 59. Hochdorfer All-around Championships" (PDF). Swiss Athletics. September 23, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2023.
^ a b "43rd Annual National Junior Decathlon Championships" (PDF). DECA, The Decathlon Association. Frank Zarnowski. June 19, 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 23, 2020.
^ Yoshiaki Oikawa (October 3, 2023). "All-Time Decathlon individual event lists" (PDF). DecaAmerica. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2024.
^ "Oceania Athletics Championships – Day 1 Track Results" (PDF). Oceania Athletics Association. June 26, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 26, 2019.
^ "Decathlon U20 Final Results" (PDF). World Athletics. August 22, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 21, 2021.
^ "Hypomeeting #45 - Results - Decathlon" (PDF). Hypomeeting Götzis. May 27, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 31, 2023.
^ "European Athletics U20 Championships Borås 2019 Results Book" (PDF). European Athletics. European Athletic Association. July 22, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2022.
^ "Season Top Lists - Senior Ourdoor 2001 - Decathlon Men". World Athletics. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024.
^ "Decathlon Junior 2004 Junior". IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations. December 31, 2014. Archived from the original on November 1, 2005.
^ "European Athletics Junior Championships 2015 Results" (PDF). Czech Athletic Association. European Athletic Association. July 20, 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2023.
^ Alexander Gereev (June 12, 2019). "Russian Combined Events Championships Statistics Handbook" (PDF). Internet Archive.
^ Yoshiaki Oikawa (October 3, 2023). "All-Time Decathlon individual event lists" (PDF). DecaAmerica. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2024.
^ Frank Zarnowski (June 19, 2015). "(Media Guide/Handbook) 43rd Annual National Junior Decathlon Championships" (PDF). DECA, The Decathlon Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 23, 2020.
^ "French Youth Combined Events Championships – Decathlon Results". French Athletics Association. September 22, 2020. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023.
^ "Decathlon Results" (PDF). IAAF. July 20, 2016. Retrieved July 20, 2016.
^ Yoshiaki Oikawa (October 3, 2023). "All-Time Decathlon individual event lists" (PDF). DecaAmerica. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2024.
^ "European Athletics U20 Championships - Decathlon Junior - Final Results" (PDF). European Athletics. European Athletic Association. September 22, 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 7, 2017.
^ Mirko Jalava (November 22, 2001). "Three Asian records fall at Chinese National Games". World Athletics. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Decathlon.
IAAF decathlon homepage
IAAF list of decathlon records in XML
Team Decathlon website
Decathlon splits of Olympic, World and European medalists
A downloadable Excel spreadsheet of multi-event scoring and age grading is available from the creator, Stefan Waltermann
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For other uses, see Decathlon (disambiguation).The decathlon is a combined event in athletics consisting of 10 track and field events. The word \"decathlon\" was formed, in analogy to the word \"pentathlon\", from Greek δέκα (déka, meaning \"ten\") and ἄθλος (áthlos, or ἄθλον, áthlon, meaning \"contest\" or \"prize\"). Events are held over two consecutive days and the winners are determined by the combined performance in all. Performance is judged on a points system in each event, not by the position achieved.[1] The decathlon is contested mainly by male athletes, while female athletes typically compete in the heptathlon.Traditionally, the title of \"World's Greatest Athlete\" has been given to the person who wins the decathlon. This began when Gustav V of Sweden told Jim Thorpe, \"Sir, you are the world's greatest athlete\" after Thorpe won the decathlon at the Stockholm Olympics in 1912.[2]The event is similar to the pentathlon held at the ancient Greek Olympics,[3] and also similar to a competition called an \"all-around\", which was contested at the United States amateur championships in 1884.[4][5] Another all-around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics.[6] The modern decathlon first appeared at the 1912 Games.[7]In modern athletics, the 10 events are: 100 metres, 400 metres, 1500 metres, 110 metre hurdles, long jump, high jump, pole vault, discus throw, javelin throw, and shotput. The current official decathlon world record holder is French athlete Kevin Mayer, who scored a total of 9,126 points at the 2018 Décastar in France.","title":"Decathlon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pentathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentathlon"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"long jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_jump"},{"link_name":"discus throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discus_throw"},{"link_name":"javelin throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javelin_throw"},{"link_name":"sprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_(running)"},{"link_name":"wrestling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sweet-3"},{"link_name":"United States amateur championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Outdoor_Track_and_Field_Championships"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usatf-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zarnowski-5"},{"link_name":"1904 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1904_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_all-around"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1904O-6"},{"link_name":"Olympic athletics program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"1912 Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_at_the_1912_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_decathlon"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1912O-7"}],"text":"The decathlon developed from the ancient pentathlon competitions held at the ancient Greek Olympics. Pentathlons involved five disciplines – long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, sprint and a wrestling match.[3] Introduced in Olympia during 708 BC, this competition was extremely popular for many centuries.A ten-event competition known as the \"all-around\" or \"all-round\" championship, similar to the modern decathlon, was first contested at the United States amateur championships in 1884 and reached a consistent form by 1890.[4][5] While an all-around event was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics, whether it was an official Olympic event has been disputed.[6]The modern decathlon first appeared in the Olympic athletics program at the 1912 Games in Stockholm.[7]","title":"Historical background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Format"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"track and field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_and_field"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Kevin Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Mayer"},{"link_name":"Talence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talence"},{"link_name":"100 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_metres"},{"link_name":"Long jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_jump"},{"link_name":"Shot put","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_put"},{"link_name":"High jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_jump"},{"link_name":"400 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/400_metres"},{"link_name":"110 metres hurdles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/110_metres_hurdles"},{"link_name":"Discus throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discus_throw"},{"link_name":"Pole vault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_vault"},{"link_name":"Javelin throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javelin_throw"},{"link_name":"1500 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1500_metres"}],"sub_title":"Men's decathlon","text":"The vast majority of international and top-level men's decathlons are divided into a two-day competition, with the track and field events held in the order below. Traditionally, all decathletes who finish the event, rather than just the winner or medal-winning athletes, do a round of honour together after the competition.[citation needed] The current world record holder is Kevin Mayer from France with 9126 points which he set on September 16, 2018, in Talence, France.Day 1\n100 metres\nLong jump\nShot put\nHigh jump\n400 metres\n\n\nDay 2\n110 metres hurdles\nDiscus throw\nPole vault\nJavelin throw\n1500 metres","title":"Format"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heptathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptathlon"},{"link_name":"pentathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentathlon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"World Athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Athletics"},{"link_name":"Austra Skujytė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austra_Skujyt%C4%97"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"100 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_metres"},{"link_name":"Discus throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discus_throw"},{"link_name":"Pole vault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_vault"},{"link_name":"Javelin throw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javelin_throw"},{"link_name":"400 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/400_metres"},{"link_name":"100 metres hurdles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_metres_hurdles"},{"link_name":"Long jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_jump"},{"link_name":"Shot put","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_put"},{"link_name":"High jump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_jump"},{"link_name":"1500 metres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1500_metres"}],"sub_title":"Women's decathlon","text":"At major championships, the women's equivalent of the decathlon is the seven-event heptathlon; before 1981 it was the five-event pentathlon.[8] However, in 2001, the IAAF (now World Athletics) approved scoring tables for a women's decathlon; the current world record holder is Austra Skujytė of Lithuania, with 8,358.[9] Women's disciplines differ from men's in the same way as for standalone events: the shot, discus, and javelin weigh less, and the sprint hurdles use lower hurdles over 100 m rather than 110 m. The points tables used are the same as for the heptathlon in the shared events. The schedule of events differs from the men's decathlon, with the field events switched between day one and day two; this is to avoid scheduling conflicts when men's and women's decathlon competitions take place simultaneously.[10]Day 1\n100 metres\nDiscus throw\nPole vault\nJavelin throw\n400 metres\n\n\nDay 2\n100 metres hurdles\nLong jump\nShot put\nHigh jump\n1500 metres","title":"Format"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Robert Změlík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Zm%C4%9Bl%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"Ostrava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrava"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"One hour","text":"The one-hour decathlon is a special type of decathlon in which the athletes have to start the last of ten events (1500 m) within sixty minutes of the start of the first event. The world record holder is Czech decathlete Robert Změlík, who achieved 7,897 points at a meeting in Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, in 1992.[11]","title":"Format"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Masters athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masters_athletics"},{"link_name":"age graded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masters_athletics#Age-graded_tables"},{"link_name":"world records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_masters_athletics#Decathlon"},{"link_name":"Nadine O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadine_O%27Connor"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Masters athletics","text":"In Masters athletics, performance scores are age graded before being applied to the standard scoring table. This way, marks that would be competitive within an age division can get rated, even if those marks would not appear on the scale designed for younger age groups. Additionally, like women, the age divisions use different implement weights and lower hurdles. Based on this system, German Rolf Geese in the M60 division and American Robert Hewitt in the M80 divisions have set their respective world records over 8,000 points. Using the same scale, Nadine O'Connor scored 10,234 points in the W65 division, the highest decathlon score ever recorded.[12][13]","title":"Format"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iaafst24-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iaafst24-14"},{"link_name":"Bojidar Spiriev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojidar_Spiriev"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The 2001 IAAF points tables use the following formulae:[14]Points = INT(A(B — P)C) for track events (faster time produces a higher score)\nPoints = INT(A(P — B)C) for field events (greater distance or height produces a higher score)A, B and C are parameters that vary by discipline, as shown in the table on the right, while P is the performance by the athlete, measured in seconds (running), metres (throwing), or centimetres (jumping).[14]The decathlon tables should not be confused with the scoring tables compiled by Bojidar Spiriev, to allow comparison of the relative quality of performances by athletes in different events. On those tables, for example, a decathlon score of 9,006 points equates to 1,265 \"comparison points\", the same number as a triple jump of 18 m.[15]","title":"Points system"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Benchmarks","text":"Split evenly between the events, the following table shows the benchmark levels needed to earn 1,000, 900, 800, and 700 points in each sport.","title":"Points system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Decathlon world record progression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decathlon_world_record_progression"},{"link_name":"decathlon world record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decathlon_world_record_progression"},{"link_name":"Kevin Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Mayer"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Décastar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9castar"},{"link_name":"Talence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talence"},{"link_name":"World Athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Athletics"}],"text":"Further information: Decathlon world record progressionThe official decathlon world record holder is Kevin Mayer of France, with a score of 9,126 points set during the 2018 Décastar in Talence, France, which was ratified by World Athletics.The previous record from Ashton Eaton (9,045 points):","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"world records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_athletics"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Decathlon bests","text":"The total decathlon score for all world records in the respective events would be 12,629. The total decathlon score for all the best performances achieved during decathlons is 10,630. The Difference column shows the difference in points between the decathlon points that the individual current world record would be awarded and the points awarded to the current decathlon record for that event. The relative differences in points are much higher in throwing events than in running and jumping events.Decathlon bests are only recognized when an athlete completes the ten-event competition with a score of over 7,000 points.[16]","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AlltimeM-28"}],"text":"Correct as of June 2024.[28]","title":"All-time top 25 men"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ashton Eaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashton_Eaton"},{"link_name":"Damian Warner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damian_Warner"},{"link_name":"Tomáš Dvořák","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k"},{"link_name":"Roman Šebrle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_%C5%A0ebrle"},{"link_name":"Leo Neugebauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Neugebauer"},{"link_name":"Kevin Mayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Mayer"},{"link_name":"Dan O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"Bryan Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Clay"},{"link_name":"Tom Pappas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Pappas"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"Below is a list of other scores equal or superior to 8750 pts:Ashton Eaton also scored 9039 (2012), 8893 (2016), 8809 (2013) and 8750 (2016).\nDamian Warner also scored 8995 (2021), 8804 (2023), 8797 (2022) and 8795 (2018).\nTomáš Dvořák also scored 8902 (2001), 8900 (2000) and 8837 (1997).\nRoman Šebrle also scored 8893 (2004), 8807 (2003), 8800 (2002) and 8757 (2000).\nLeo Neugebauer also scored 8836 (2023).\nKevin Mayer also scored 8834 (2016), 8816 (2022) and 8768 (2017).\nDan O'Brien also scored 8824 (1996), 8812 (1991) and 8755 (1998).\nBryan Clay also scored 8791 (2008).\nTom Pappas also scored 8750 (2003).","title":"All-time top 25 men"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Correct as of September 2023.[citation needed]","title":"All-time top performances women ≥ 8,000 pts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Austra Skujytė","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austra_Skujyt%C4%97"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"Below is a list of other scores equal or superior to 8000 pts:Austra Skujytė also scored 8091 pts (2006).","title":"All-time top performances women ≥ 8,000 pts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Competitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Olympic medalists","title":"Competitions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"World Championships medalists","title":"Competitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African Combined Events Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Combined_Events_Championships"},{"link_name":"European Cup Combined Events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Cup_Combined_Events"},{"link_name":"Oceania Combined Events Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania_Combined_Events_Championships"},{"link_name":"Pan American Combined Events Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_American_Combined_Events_Cup"}],"sub_title":"Continental competitions","text":"African Combined Events Championships\nEuropean Cup Combined Events\nOceania Combined Events Championships\nPan American Combined Events Cup","title":"Competitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IAAF Combined Events Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAAF_Combined_Events_Challenge"},{"link_name":"Multistars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistars"},{"link_name":"Hypo-Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypo-Meeting"},{"link_name":"TNT - Fortuna Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_-_Fortuna_Meeting"},{"link_name":"Erdgas Mehrkampf-Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehrkampf-Meeting_Ratingen"},{"link_name":"Décastar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9castar"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"IAAF Combined Events Challenge\nMultistars\nHypo-Meeting\nTNT - Fortuna Meeting\nErdgas Mehrkampf-Meeting\nDécastar","title":"Competitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"[citation needed]","title":"Season's bests"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AlltimeM-28"}],"text":"Updated 18 June 2024.[28]Equal or superior to 8,000 pts:","title":"National records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Niklas Kaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas_Kaul"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"European U20 Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_European_Athletics_U20_Championships"},{"link_name":"Grosseto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grosseto"},{"link_name":"Torsten Voss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsten_Voss"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"Erfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erfurt"}],"text":"The world decathlon under-20 record is held by Niklas Kaul, of Germany, who scored 8,435 points at the European U20 Championships in Grosseto, Italy, from 22 to 23 July 2017.The world decathlon under-20 record using senior implements is held by Torsten Voss, of East Germany, who scored 8,397 points in Erfurt, East Germany, from 6–7 July 1982. This was the last record to be ratified because it is no longer a World Athletics under-20 record event.Key:\n\nNWI = No Wind IndicationKey:\n\n+ = Senior implements\n\n* = 6-kg shot, 1.067-m hurdles, 1.75-kg discus\n\nA = Altitude (over 1,000 m)","title":"Under-20 records"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Decathlon under-20 bests","text":"(Within a completed decathlon scoring more than 7,000 points)","title":"Under-20 records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aquathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquathlon"},{"link_name":"Biathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biathlon"},{"link_name":"Chess-boxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess-boxing"},{"link_name":"CrossFit Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrossFit_Games"},{"link_name":"Duathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duathlon"},{"link_name":"Heptathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptathlon"},{"link_name":"Icosathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosathlon"},{"link_name":"Modern pentathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_pentathlon"},{"link_name":"Nordic combined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_combined"},{"link_name":"Octathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octathlon"},{"link_name":"Omnium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnium"},{"link_name":"Quadrathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrathlon"},{"link_name":"Triathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triathlon"}],"text":"Aquathlon\nBiathlon\nChess-boxing\nCrossFit Games\nDuathlon\nHeptathlon\nIcosathlon or double decathlon\nModern pentathlon\nNordic combined\nOctathlon\nOmnium\nQuadrathlon\nTriathlon","title":"Other multiple event contests"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-a_38-0"},{"link_name":"gender transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_transition"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"^ Jenner is now known as Caitlyn due to gender transition in 2015.[37]","title":"Explanatory notes"}]
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[{"title":"Sport of athletics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Sport_of_athletics"}]
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[{"reference":"\"IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events\" (PDF). IAAF. April 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 10, 2008. Retrieved May 9, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080910115455/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Competitions/TechnicalArea/ScoringTables_CE_744.pdf","url_text":"\"IAAF Scoring Tables for Combined Events\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAAF","url_text":"IAAF"},{"url":"http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Competitions/TechnicalArea/ScoringTables_CE_744.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Decathlon\". Encarta. 2008. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133048/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574361/Decathlon.html","url_text":"\"Decathlon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encarta","url_text":"Encarta"},{"url":"https://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574361/decathlon.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Flatter, Ron. \"Thorpe preceded Deion, Bo\". espn.com. Retrieved December 11, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016499.html","url_text":"\"Thorpe preceded Deion, Bo\""}]},{"reference":"\"USA Outdoor Track & Field Champions: Men's All-Around\". USA Track & Field. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215711/http://www.usatf.org/statistics/USA-Champions/USAOutdoorTF/men/AllAround.aspx","url_text":"\"USA Outdoor Track & Field Champions: Men's All-Around\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Track_%26_Field","url_text":"USA Track & Field"},{"url":"http://www.usatf.org/statistics/USA-Champions/USAOutdoorTF/men/AllAround.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zarnowski, Frank (2005). All-around Men: Heroes of a Forgotten Sport. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5423-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eXOBPt_Gi44C","url_text":"All-around Men: Heroes of a Forgotten Sport"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarecrow_Press","url_text":"Scarecrow Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5423-9","url_text":"978-0-8108-5423-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Athletics at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Games: Men's All-Around Championship\". Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200417171728/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1904/ATH/mens-all-around-championship.html","url_text":"\"Athletics at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Games: Men's All-Around Championship\""},{"url":"https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1904/ATH/mens-all-around-championship.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Athletics at the 1912 Stockholm Summer Games: Men's Decathlon\". Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200417175504/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1912/ATH/mens-decathlon.html","url_text":"\"Athletics at the 1912 Stockholm Summer Games: Men's Decathlon\""},{"url":"https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/1912/ATH/mens-decathlon.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Records of Austra Skujytė\". World Athletics. Retrieved March 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/lithuania/austra-skujyte-14290383","url_text":"\"Records of Austra Skujytė\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Athletics","url_text":"World Athletics"}]},{"reference":"\"Sebrle set for 100 minute Decathlon\". June 20, 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldathletics.org/news/news/sebrle-set-for-100-minute-decathlon-1","url_text":"\"Sebrle set for 100 minute Decathlon\""}]},{"reference":"Stone, Ken. \"Masters track athlete of the decade?\". Masters-athlete.com. Archived from the original on March 5, 2010. Retrieved February 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100305174730/http://www.masters-athlete.com/public/844.cfm","url_text":"\"Masters track athlete of the decade?\""},{"url":"http://www.masters-athlete.com/public/844.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Masterstrack.com Results detail O'Connor's historic 10,234-point decathlon » masterstrack.com\". Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 21 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141129043131/http://masterstrack.com/2009/08/445/","url_text":"\"Masterstrack.com Results detail O'Connor's historic 10,234-point decathlon » masterstrack.com\""},{"url":"http://masterstrack.com/2009/08/445/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gabriella Pieraccini (May 25, 2019). \"Johnson-Thompson and Warner reinforce dominance with overnight leads in Götzis\". IAAF. Retrieved May 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iaaf.org/news/report/hypomeeting-gotzis-2019-warner-johnson-thomps2","url_text":"\"Johnson-Thompson and Warner reinforce dominance with overnight leads in Götzis\""}]},{"reference":"\"Decathlon – 100m Results Summary\" (PDF). olympics.com. August 4, 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravia_Magna
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Great Moravia
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["1 Name","1.1 Great Moravia","1.2 Etymology","2 Territory","2.1 Traditional view","2.2 Further theories","3 History","3.1 Origins (before c. 800)","3.2 Development of Moravia (c. 800–846)","3.3 Fights for independence (846–870)","3.4 Svatopluk's reign (870–894)","3.5 Decline and fall (894–before 907)","4 State and society","4.1 Sources","4.2 Settlement structure","4.3 Monarchs","4.4 Administration","4.5 Warfare","4.6 Aristocracy","4.7 Population","5 Economy","6 Culture","6.1 Sacral architecture","6.2 Religion","6.3 Literature","6.4 Arts","7 Legacy","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Bibliography","11.1 Primary sources","11.2 Secondary sources","12 External links"]
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9th-century Slavic state
Great MoraviaVelká Morava (Velkomoravská říše) (Czech)Veľká Morava (Veľkomoravská ríša) (Slovak)Regnum Marauorum/Marahensium (Latin)Terra Marauorum/Marahensium (Latin)833–c. 907Great Moravia in the late 9th centuryCapitalVeligradCommon languagesOld SlavicOld Church SlavonicLatin (religious)Religion Slavic ChristianityLatin ChristianitySlavic paganismGovernmentMonarchy (principality)kъnendzь or vladyka • c. 820/830 Mojmír I (first)• 846 Rastislav• 870 Svatopluk I• 894 Mojmír II (last)
History • Established 833• Decline and fall c. 907
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Samo's Empire
Principality of Nitra (disputed)
Vistulans
White Croatia
Duchy of Bohemia
Principality of Hungary
Civitas Schinesghe
Lutici
East Francia
Great Moravia (Latin: Regnum Marahensium; Greek: Μεγάλη Μοραβία, Meghálī Moravía; Czech: Velká Morava ; Slovak: Veľká Morava ; Polish: Wielkie Morawy, German: Großmähren), or simply Moravia, was the first major state that was predominantly West Slavic to emerge in the area of Central Europe, possibly including territories which are today part of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Ukraine and Slovenia. The formations preceding it in these territories were the Samo's tribal union (631 - 658) and the Pannonian Avar state (567 – after 822).
Its core territory is the region now called Moravia in the eastern part of the Czech Republic alongside the Morava River, which gave its name to the kingdom. The kingdom saw the rise of the first ever Slavic literary culture in the Old Church Slavonic language as well as the expansion of Christianity, first via missionaries from East Francia, and later after the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863 and the creation of the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet dedicated to a Slavic language. Glagolitic was subsequently replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet created in the First Bulgarian Empire.
Although the borders of this empire cannot be exactly determined, Moravia reached its largest territorial extent under prince Svatopluk I (Slovak: Svätopluk), who ruled from 870 to 894. Separatism and internal conflicts emerging after Svatopluk's death contributed to the fall of Great Moravia, which was overrun by the Hungarians, who then included the territory of present-day Slovakia in their domains. The exact date of Moravia's collapse is unknown, but it occurred between 902 and 907.
Moravia experienced significant cultural development under King Rastislav, with the arrival in 863 of the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. After his request for missionaries had been refused in Rome, Rastislav asked the Byzantine emperor to send a "teacher" (učiteľ) to introduce literacy and a legal system (pravьda) to Great Moravia. The request was granted. The missionary brothers Cyril and Methodius introduced a system of writing (the Glagolitic alphabet) and Slavonic liturgy, the latter eventually formally approved by Pope Adrian II. The Glagolitic script was probably invented by Cyril himself and the language he used for his translations of religious texts and his original literary creation was based on the Eastern South Slavic dialect he and his brother Methodius knew from their native Thessaloniki. Old Church Slavonic, therefore, differed somewhat from the local Slavic dialect of Great Moravia which was the ancestral idiom to the later dialects spoken in Moravia and western Slovakia. Later, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius were expelled from Great Moravia by King Svatopluk I, who re-orientated the Empire to Western Christianity.
Name
Great Moravian sword from Blatnica, unearthed in the 19th century, originally interpreted as a burial equipment from a "ducal" mound
Great Moravia
The meaning of the name of Great Moravia has been subject to debate. The designation "Great Moravia"—Megale Moravia (Μεγάλη Μοραβία) in Greek—stems from the work De Administrando Imperio written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos around 950. The emperor only used the adjective megale in connection with the polity when referring to events that occurred after its fall, implying that it should rather be translated as "old" instead of "great". According to a third theory, the megale adjective refers to a territory located beyond the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Finally, the historian Lubomír E. Havlík writes that Byzantine scholars used this adjective when referring to homelands of nomadic peoples, as demonstrated by the term "Great Bulgaria".
is Belgrade, in which is the tower of the holy and great Constantine, the emperor; then, again, at the running back of the river, is the renowned Sirmium by name, a journey of two days from Belgrade; and beyond lies great Moravia, the unbaptized, which the have blotted out, but over which in former days used to rule. Such are the landmarks and names along the Danube river .— Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio
The work of Porphyrogenitos is the only nearly contemporaneous source using the adjective "great" in connection with Moravia. Other documents from the 9th and 10th centuries never used the term in this context. Instead they mention the polity as "Moravian realm" or "realm of Moravians" (regnum Marahensium, terra Marahensium, regnum Marahavorum, regnum Marauorum, terra Marauorum or regnum Margorum in Latin, and Moravьska oblastь in Old Church Slavonic), simply "Moravia" (Marawa, Marauia, and Maraha in Latin, Morava, Marava, or Murava in Old Church Slavonic, and M.ŕawa.t in Arabic), also regnum Sclavorum (realm of Slavs) or alternate regnum Rastizi (realm of Rastislav) or regnum Zuentibaldi (realm of Svatopluk).
Etymology
"Morava" is the Czech and Slovak name for both the river and the country, presumably the river name being primary and giving name to the surrounding country. The ending -ava, as in many other Czech and Slovak rivers, is most often regarded as Slavicization of the originally Germanic -ahwa (= modern German "Au" or "-a"), cognate to Latin aqua. Some scholars again link it, via Celtic -ab, to Indo-European PIE *apa/*opa ("water, sea"). The root mor- might be also connected with other Indo-European words with the meaning of water, lake or sea (sea: Slavic more, Latin mare, Welsh môr, German Meer; humidity: English and German Moor, Slavic mokr-). Compare also other river names like Mur in Austria and another Morava in Serbia, etc.).
Territory
The core of Great Moravia
After the fall of Great Moravia, the central territory of Great Moravia was gradually divided into the newly ascending Kingdom of Bohemia and Hungarian Kingdom. The frontier was originally settled on the Morava river. However, from the 12th century, the Czech kings managed to gain more and more of the region on the eastern bank, eventually gaining the whole stretch of the eastern territory from Uherské Hradiště down to Strážnice along the White Carpathians. The original core territory of Great Moravia, nowadays forming the eastern part of Moravia and situated between the White Carpathians and the Chřiby mountains, has retained its non-Czech identity in its designation "Slovácko" which shows common origins with the name of the neighbouring Slovakia—a token of a past shared identity in Great Moravian times. This core region of Great Moravia along the river has retained a unique culture with a rich folklore tradition: the above-mentioned Slovácko stretches, to the south (where the Morava river forms the Czech-Slovak frontier), into two regions—the Záluží region on the Morava's western (Czech) bank and Záhorie on its eastern (Slovak) bank. Záhorie also boasts the only surviving building from Great Moravian times, the chapel at Kopčany just across the Morava from the archaeological site of Mikulčice (these two important Great Moravian places are now connected by a bridge). The core of Great Moravia was extended, according to annals, in the early 830s, when Mojmir I of Moravia conquered the neighbouring principality of Nitra (present-day western Slovakia). The former principality of Nitra was used as what is termed in Slovak údelné kniežatsvo, or the territory given to and ruled by the successor to the throne, traditionally the ruling kъnendzь (Prince)'s sister's son.
Principalities and lands within Great Moravia
Nevertheless, the extent, and even the very location of Great Moravia (historiographical terms, as its original formal name is unknown) are a subject of debate. Rival theories place its centre south of the Danube (the Morava in Serbia) or on the Great Hungarian Plain. The exact date when the Moravian state was founded is also disputed, but it probably occurred in the early 830s under Prince Mojmír I (r. 820s/830s–846), the first known ruler of the united Moravia. Mojmír and his successor, Rastislav ("Rostislav" in Czech), who ruled from 846 to 870, initially acknowledged the suzerainty of the Carolingian monarchs, but the Moravian fight for independence caused a series of armed conflicts with East Francia from the 840s.
Traditional view
According to most historians, the core territories of Moravia were located in the valley of the river Morava, today in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia. Archaeological findings of large early medieval fortresses and the significant cluster of settlements growing around them suggest that an important centre of power emerged in this region in the 9th century. Early sources (Alfred the Great's contemporaneous translation of Orosius's History of the World, which mentioned Moravia's neighbours, and the description of the travel of Cyril and Methodius from Moravia to Venice through Pannonia in the Life of Cyril) also substantiate the traditional view.
These Maroara have to the west of them the Thyringas and some Behemas and half the Begware, and south them on the other side of the Danube river is the land Carendre extending south as far as the mountains called the Alps. ... To the east of the land Carendre, beyond the uninhabited district, is the land of the Pulgare, and east of that is the land of Greeks. To the east of the land of Maroara is the land of the Vistula, and east of that are those Datia who were formerly Goths.— King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius
The borders of Moravia cannot exactly be determined because of the lack of accurate contemporaneous sources. For instance, the monks writing the Annals of Fulda in the 9th century obviously had limited knowledge of the geography of distant regions of Central Europe. Furthermore, Moravian monarchs adopted an expansionist policy in the 830s, thus the borders of their realm often changed.
Moravia reached the peak of its territorial expansion under Svatopluk I (r. 870–894). Lesser Poland, Pannonia and other regions were forced to accept, at least formally and often only for a short period, his suzerainty. On the other hand, the existence of the archaeologically attested shared cultural zones between Moravia, Lesser Poland and Silesia do not prove that the northern boundaries of Moravia were located over these territories. According to archaeologist Béla Miklós Szőke, the comitatus of Mosaburg in Pannonia was never part of Moravia. Neither archaeological finds nor written sources substantiate the traditional view of the permanent annexation of huge territories in his reign. Other scholars warn that it's a mistake to draw the boundaries of core territories because Moravia did not reach that development level.
Further theories
Main article: Alternative theories of the location of Great Moravia
In 1784, Slovak historian Juraj Sklenár disputed the traditional view on the location of Moravia and placed its core region in the region of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia), stating that it spread from that location to the north to present-day Slovakia, Moravia and Bohemia. Similarly, in the 1820s, Friedrich Blumenerger placed Great Moravia to the south on the borders of Pannonia and Moesia. Their views remained isolated until the 1970s, when Imre Boba again published a theory that Moravia's core territory must have been located around Sirmium, near the river Great Morava. Péter Püspöki-Nagy proposed the existence of two Moravias: a "Great" Moravia at the southern Morava river in present-day Serbia, and another Moravia on the northern Morava river in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia. A similar theory was also published by Toru Senga. In the 1990s, the southern thesis was further developed by Charles Bowlus, who wrote that Moravia emerged in the region of the "confluences of the Drava, Sava, Drina, Tisza and southern Morava rivers with the Danube". Bowlus emphasized that the orientation of the Frankish marcher organization was focused on the south-east territories, which also supports Great Moravia's southern position. Martin Eggers suggested the original location of Moravia was centered around modern Banat at the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Mureș, with further expansions extending to the territories in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.
History
Part of a series on the
History of the Czech lands
Early history
Únětice culture
Boii (Gauls, Celts)
Marcomanni (Germanic peoples)
Migration Period (West Slavs)
Samo's Empire
Middle Ages
Great Moravia
Duchy of Bohemia
Bohemian Crown (Holy Roman Empire)
Czech lands in the High Middle Ages
Bohemian Reformation
Hussite Wars
Early modern period
Habsburg monarchy
Czech lands 1526–1648
Thirty Years' War
Austrian Empire
Czech lands 1648–1867
Austria-Hungary
Czech lands 1867–1918
World War I
Czechoslovakia
First Czechoslovak Republic
German Occupation
World War II
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
Soviet Occupation
Velvet Revolution
Czech and Slovak Federative Republic
Czech Republic
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Part of a series on the
History of Slovakia
Early history
Roman era
Lombard state
Avar Khaganate
Medieval Slavic states
Samo's Empire
Principality of Nitra
Great Moravia
Lower Pannonia
Principality of Hungary(895 – 1000)
Principality of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary(1000 – 1526)
High Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
Domain of Máté Csák
Domain of Amade Aba
Ottoman Empire(16th–17th century)
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom
Ottoman Hungary
Uyvar Eyalet
Budin Eyalet
Eğri Eyalet
Principality of Transylvania
Principality of Imre Thököly
Habsburg monarchy(1526–1918)
Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
1848–49 Slovak Uprising
Military District of Preßburg
Military District of Kaschau
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
Czechoslovakia(1918–1993)Treaty of Trianon1920 Slovaks in Czechoslovakia 1918–1938 Slovak Soviet Republic 1919 Slovakia during World War II 1939–1945 Slovak Republic 1939–1945 Slovak National Uprising 1944 Slovaks in Czechoslovakia 1948–1989 Slovak Socialist Republic 1969–1990 Velvet Revolution 1989 Post-revolution Czechoslovakia 1989–1992 Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 1993
Contemporary Slovakia Slovak Republic 1993–present
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Origins (before c. 800)
The earliest possible reference to Slavic tribes living in the valley of the northern Morava river was made by the Byzantine historian Procopius. He wrote of a group of Germanic Heruli who "passed through the territory of all of the Sclavenes" while moving towards Denmark in 512. Archaeological sites have yielded hand-made ceramics, and closely analogous objects in southern Poland and western Ukraine appeared at the confluence of the northern Morava River and the Middle Danube, dated to around 550.
Large territories in the Pannonian Basin were conquered after 568 by the nomadic Avars who had arrived from the Eurasian Steppes. The Slavs were forced to pay tribute to the Avars and to participate in their raids against the Byzantine Empire, the Franks and the Lombards. Even though the Avar settlement area stabilized on the Danube river in the early period of the khaganate (southern border of present-day Slovakia), a smaller (southernmost) part came under their direct military control after the fall of Samo's empire. In the late period of the khaganate, the Avars had already inclined to a more settled lifestyle and their co-existence with the local Slavs can be already characterized as some kind of cultural symbiosis.
In the 7th and 8th centuries, the development of the local Slavs accelerated. The first Slavic fortified settlements were built in present-day Moravia as early as the last decades of the 7th century. From the end of the 7th century, it is possible to register the rise of a new social elite in Moravia, Slovakia and Bohemia—the warrior horsemen. The social organization of the local Slavs continued to grow during the 8th century, which can be documented by further building and development of fortified settlements. In Moravia, they unambiguously concentrate around the river Morava. In Slovakia, the oldest Slavic fortified settlements are documented for the last decades of the 8th century. They were exclusively in areas which were not under direct Avar influence, but probably not built only as protection against them, because some of them are also found in northern territories (Orava, Spiš). Variation in pottery implies the existence of at least three tribes inhabiting the wider region of the northern Morava river in the early 9th century. Settlement complexes from the period were unearthed, for instance, near modern Bratislava, Brno and Olomouc. Fortresses erected at Bratislava, Rajhrad, Staré Město and other places around 800 evidence the development of local centres of power in the same regions.
Charlemagne launched a series of military expeditions against the Avars in the last decade of the 8th century which caused the collapse of the Avar Khaganate. The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that Avars who "could not stay in their previous dwelling places on account of the attacks of the Slavs" approached Charlemagne in Aachen in 805 and asked to be allowed to settle in the lowlands along the river Rába.
Following the collapse of the Avar Khaganate, swords and other elements of Frankish military equipment became popular in territories to the north of the Middle Danube. A new archaeological horizon—the so-called "Blatnica-Mikulčice horizon"—emerged in the valley of the northern Morava river and its wider region in the same period. This horizon of metalwork represents a synthesis of "Late Avar" and Carolingian art. One of its signature items is a sword found in a grave in Blatnica in Slovakia, which is dated to the period between 825 and 850. According to the archaeologist Florin Curta, the sword was produced by a Frankish artisan from the Carolingian Empire. On the other hand, Ján Dekan writes that it represents how Moravian craftsmen selected "elements from the ornamental content of Carolingian art which suited their aesthetic needs and traditions".
Development of Moravia (c. 800–846)
See also: Principality of Nitra
Jewelry from a princely burial site at Kolín, c. 850–900 AD
Spherical gombiki from the Mikulčice Archaeological Park
Moravia, the first Western Slavic polity, arose through the unification of the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube. However, its formation is scarcely described by contemporaneous sources. The archaeologist Barford writes that the first report of the emerging Moravian state was recorded in 811. In the autumn of this year, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, Avar rulers and the duces or "leaders of the Slavs who live along the Danube" visited the court of Emperor Louis the Pious (r. 814–840) in Aachen. The earliest certain reference to Moravians or Maravani is dated to 822 when the emperor "received embassies and presents from all the East Slavs, that is, Obodrites, Sorbs, Wilzi, Bohemians, Moravians and Praedenecenti, and from the Avars living in Pannonia" at an assembly held at Frankfurt.
Map of Moravia within East Francia in 814
The late-9th-century Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum ("The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians") makes the first reference to a Moravian ruler. Carantanians (ancestors of present-day Slovenians) were the first Slavic people to accept Christianity from the West. They were mostly Christianized by Irish missionaries sent by the Archdiocese of Salzburg, among them Modestus, known as the "Apostle of Carantanians". This process was later described in the Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, which states that Mojmír, "duke of the Moravians", expelled "one Pribina" across the Danube. Pribina fled to Ratpot who administered the March of Pannonia from around 833. Whether Pribina had up to that time been an independent ruler or one of Mojmir's officials is a matter of scholarly discussion. For instance, Urbańczyk writes that Mojmir and Pribina were two of the many Moravian princes in the early 9th century, while according to Havlík, Třeštík and Vlasto, Pribina was Mojmír's lieutenant in Nitra. Historians who identify Pribina as the ruler of an autonomous state, the Principality of Nitra—for instance, Bartl, Kirschbaum and Urbańczyk—add that "Great Moravia" emerged through the enforced integration of his principality into Moravia under Mojmír.
A map presenting the theory of the co-existence of two principalities (Moravia and Nitra) before the 830s
The 9th-century Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube—which lists the peoples along the borders of East Francia in a north-to-south order—mentions that the Moravians or Marharii had 11 fortresses or civitates. The document locates the Marhari between the Bohemians and the Bulgars, and also makes mention of the Merehani and their 30 fortresses. According to Havlík, who writes that Conversion is a consolidated version of notes made by several authors in different years, the Moravians are twice mentioned in the text: first as Marhari, and next as Merehani. He says, that the reference to the Marhari and their 11 fortresses was made between 817 and 843, and the note of the Merehani shows the actual state under Svatopluk I. In contrast with Havlík, Steinhübel together with Třeštík and Vlasto identify the Merehani with the inhabitants of the Principality of Nitra. A third view is presented by Püspöki-Nagy and Senga, who write that the reference to the Merehanii—who obviously inhabited the southern regions of the Great Hungarian Plains to the north of the Danube, but south of the territories dominated by the Bulgars—and their 30 fortresses shows the existence of another Moravia in Central Europe.
Among the Bohemians are 15 fortresses. The have 11 fortresses. The region of the Bulgars is immense. That numerous people has five fortresses, since their great multitude does not require fortresses. The people called have 30 fortresses.— Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube
According to a 13th-century source, the History of the Bishops of Passau and the Dukes of Bavaria, Bishop Reginhar of Passau (r. 818–838) baptized "all of the Moravians" in 831. There is no other information on the circumstances of this mass conversion. Vlasto writes that Mojmír had by that time been converted to Christianity; according to Petr Sommer and other historians, he was also baptized on this occasion. All the same, the Life of Methodius narrates that Christian missionaries had by the 860s arrived in Moravia "from among the Italians, Greeks and Germans" who taught them "in various ways". The Life of Constantine adds that missionaries from East Francia did not forbid "the offering of sacrifices according to the ancient customs", which shows that pagan rites were continued for decades even after 831.
According to the Annals of Fulda, around August 15, 846, Louis the German, King of East Francia (r. 843–876) launched a campaign "against the Moravian Slavs, who were planning to defect". The exact circumstances of his expedition are unclear. For instance, Vlasto writes that the Frankish monarch took advantage of the internal strife which followed Mojmír's death, while according to Kirschbaum, Mojmír was captured and dethroned during the campaign. However, it is without doubt that Louis the German appointed Mojmír's nephew, Rastislav, as the new duke of Moravia during this campaign.
Fights for independence (846–870)
Rastislav (r. 846–870), who initially accepted the suzerainty of Louis the German, consolidated his position within Moravia and expanded the frontiers of his realm. For instance, according to Kirschbaum, he annexed the region of the Slanské Hills in the eastern parts of present-day Slovakia. Barford even writes that the development of the state mentioned as "Great Moravia" by Constantine Porphyrogenitus commenced in Rastislav's reign.
Modern depiction of Rastislav as an Orthodox saint
He turned against East Francia and supported the rebellion of Radbod, the deposed prefect of the March of Pannonia, against Louis the German in 853. The Frankish monarch retaliated by invading Moravia in 855. According to the Annals of Fulda, the Moravians were "defended by strong fortifications", and the Franks withdrew without defeating them, though the combats lasted until a peace treaty was worked out in 859. The truce is regarded as a stalemate and shows the growing strength of Rastislav's realm. Conflicts between Moravia and East Francia continued for years. For instance, Rastislav supported Louis the German's son, Carloman, in his rebellion against his father in 861. The first record of a raid by the Magyars in Central Europe seems to have been connected to these events. According to the Annals of St. Bertin, "enemies called Hungarians" ravaged Louis the German's kingdom in 862, which suggests that they supported Carloman.
Rastislav wanted to weaken influence of Frankish priests in his realm, who served the interests of East Francia. He first sent envoys to Pope Nicholas I in 861 and asked him to send missionaries to Moravia who mastered the Slavic language. Having received no answer from Rome, Rastislav turned to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III with the same request. By establishing relations with Constantinople, he also desired to counter an anti-Moravian alliance recently concluded between the Franks and Bulgarians. Upon his request, the emperor sent two brothers, Constantine and Methodius—the future Saints Cyril and Methodius—who spoke the Slavic dialect of the region of Thessaloniki to Moravia in 863. Constantine's Life narrates that he developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into Old Church Slavonic around that time.
Louis the German crossed the Danube and again invaded Moravia in August 864. He besieged Rastislav "in a certain city, which in the language of that people is called Dowina", according to the Annals of Fulda. Although the Franks could not take the fortress, Rastislav agreed to accept Louis the German's suzerainty. However, he continued to support the Frankish monarch's opponents. For instance, Louis the German deprived one Count Werner "of his public offices", because the count was suspected to have conspired with Rastislav against the king.
Constantine and Methodius in Rome
The Byzantine brothers, Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius, visited Rome in 867. At the end of the year, Pope Hadrian II (r. 867–872) sanctioned their translations of liturgical texts and ordained six of their disciples as priests. The pope informed three prominent Slavic rulers—Rastislav, his nephew, Svatopluk and Kocel, who administered Lower Pannonia—of his approval of the use of the vernacular in the liturgy in a letter of 869. In 869 Methodius was sent by the pope to Rastislav, Svatopluk and Kocel, but Methodius visited only Kocel, who sent him back to the pope. Hadrian then consecrated Methodius as archbishop with the title of Metropolitan of Sirmium to "the seat of Saint Andronicus", i.e., the see of Sirmium. At the beginning of the 9th century, many Carantanians (Alpine Slavs), ancestors of present-day Slovenians, settled in the Lower Pannonian region, also known as the Balaton Principality, which was referred to in Latin sources as Carantanorum regio, or "The Land of the Carantanians". The name Carantanians (Quarantani) was in use until the 13th century. Kocel's decision to support Methodius represented a complete break with his father's pro-Frankish policy. Svatopluk had by that time been administering what had been the Principality of Nitra, under his uncle Rastislav's suzerainty, but contemporaneous documents do not reveal the exact location of Svatopluk's successorial territory. Frankish troops invaded both Rastislav's and Svatopluk's realms in August 869. According to the Annals of Fulda, the Franks destroyed many forts, defeated Moravian troops and seized loot. However, they could not take Rastislav's main fortress and withdrew.
ordered the Bavarians to assist Carloman, who wished to fight against , the nephew of . He himself kept the Franks and Alemans with him to fight against . When it was already time to set out he fell ill, and was compelled to leave the leadership of the army to Charles his youngest son and commend the outcome to God. Charles, when he came with the army with which he had been entrusted to huge fortification, quite unlike any built in olden times, with God's help burnt with fire all the walled fortifications of the region, seized and carried off the treasures which had been hidden in the woods or buried in the fields, and killed or put to fight all who came against him. Carloman also laid waste the territory of , nephew, with fire and war. When the whole region had been laid waste the brothers Charles and Carloman came together and congratulated each other on the victories bestowed by heaven.— Annals of Fulda
Svatopluk's reign (870–894)
Statue of Svatopluk I on Bratislava Castle, Slovakia
Svatopluk allied himself with the Franks and helped them seize Rastislav in 870. Carloman annexed Rastislav's realm and appointed two Frankish lords, William and Engelschalk, to administer it. Frankish soldiers arrested Archbishop Methodius on his way from Rome to Moravia at the end of the year. Svatopluk, who continued to administer his own realm after his uncle's fall, was accused of treachery and arrested by Carloman on Louis the German's orders in 871. The Moravians rose up in open rebellion against the two Frankish governors and elected a kinsman of Svatopluk, Slavomír, duke. Svatopluk returned to Moravia, took over command of the insurgents, and drove the Franks from Moravia. According to the Czech historian Dušan Třeštík, the rebellion of 871 led to the formation of the first Slavic state.
Louis the German sent his armies against Moravia in 872. The imperial troops plundered the countryside, but could not take the "extremely well-fortified stronghold" where Svatopluk took refuge. The Moravian ruler even succeeded in mustering an army which defeated a number of imperial troops, forcing the Franks to withdraw from Moravia. Svatopluk soon initiated negotiations with Louis the German, which ended with a peace treaty concluded at Forchheim in May 874. According to the Annals of Fulda, at Forchheim Svatopluk's envoy promised that Svatopluk "would remain faithful" to Louis the German "all the days of his life", and the Moravian ruler was also obliged to pay a yearly tribute to East Francia.
In the meantime, Archbishop Methodius, who had been released upon the demand of Pope John VIII (r. 872–882) in 873, returned to Moravia. Methodius's Life narrates that "Prince Svatopluk and all the Moravians" decided to entrust "to him all the churches and clergy in all the towns" in Moravia upon his arrival. In Moravia, Methodius continued the work of translation started in his brother's life. For instance, he translated "all the Scriptures in full, save Maccabees", according to his Life. However, Frankish priests in Moravia opposed the Slavic liturgy and even accused Methodius of heresy. Although the Holy See never denied Methodius's orthodoxy, in 880 the Pope appointed his main opponent, Wiching, as bishop of Nitra upon the request of Svatopluk, who himself preferred the Latin rite.
The papal bull Scire vos volumus of 879 addressed to Svatopluk
A letter written around 900 by Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg (r. 873–907) and his suffragan bishops mentions that the pope sent Wiching to "a newly baptized people" whom Svatopluk "had defeated in war and converted from paganism to Christianity". Other sources also prove that Svatopluk significantly expanded the borders of his realm. For instance, according to the Life of Methodius, Moravia "began to expand much more into all lands and to defeat its enemies successfully" in the period beginning around 874. The same source writes of a "very powerful pagan prince settled on the Vistula" in present-day Poland who persecuted the Christians in his country, but was attacked and seized by Svatopluk.
Upon Methodius's request, in June 880 Pope John issued the bull Industriae tuae for Svatopluk whom he addressed as "glorious count" (gloriosus comes). In the bull, the pope refers to Svatopluk as "the only son" (unicus fillius) of the Holy See, thus applying a title which had up to that time been only used in papal correspondence with emperors and candidates for imperial rank. The pope explicitly granted the protection of the Holy See to the Moravian monarch, his officials and subjects. Furthermore, the bull also confirmed Methodius's position as the head of the church in Moravia with jurisdiction over all clergymen, including the Frankish priests, in Svatopluk's realm and Old Church Slavonic was recognized as the fourth liturgical language together with Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
The longer version of the Annals of Salzburg makes mention of a raid by the Magyars and the Kabars in East Francia in 881. According to Gyula Kristó and other historians, Svatopluk initiated this raid, because his relations with Arnulf—the son of Carloman, King of East Francia (r. 876–881), who administered the March of Pannonia—became tense. Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly accused the Moravians of hiring "a large number of Hungarians" and sending them against East Francia at an unspecified date.
Icon of St Gorazd, a disciple of St Cyril and Method of Moravian origin, who was the designated successor of archbishop Method
During the "Wilhelminer War"—a civil war between two factions of local noblemen in the March of Pannonia which lasted from 882 and 884—Svatopluk "collected troops from all the Slav lands" and invaded Pannonia. According to the Bavarian version of the Annals of Fulda, the Moravians' invasion "led to Pannonia's being laid waste" to the east of the river Rába. However, Regino of Prüm states that it was Arnulf of Carinthia who maintained control over Pannonia in 884. Svatopluk had a meeting with Emperor Charles the Fat (r. 881–888) at Tulln an der Donau in Bavaria in 884. At the meeting, "dux" Svatopluk became the emperor's vassal and "swore fidelity to him", promising that he would never attack the emperor's realm.
Archbishop Methodius died on April 6, 885. Led by Bishop Wiching of Nitra, Methodius's opponents took advantage of his death and persuaded Pope Stephen V (r. 885–891) to restrict the use of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy in the bull Quia te zelo. Bishop Wiching even convinced Svatopluk to expel all Methodius's disciples from Moravia in 886, thus marring the promising literary and cultural boom of Central European Slavs—the Slovaks took nearly a thousand years to develop a new literary language of their own.
Pope Stephen addressed the Quia te zelo bull to Zventopolco regi Sclavorum ("Svatopluk, King of the Slavs"), suggesting that Svatopluk had by the end of 885 been crowned king. Likewise, Frankish annals occasionally referred to Svatopluk as king in connection with events occurring in this period. The Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea—a late-12th-century source with questionable reliability—narrates that one "Sventopelk" was crowned king "on the field of Dalma" in the presence of a papal legate.
Moravia reached its maximum territorial extent in the last years of Svatopluk's reign. According to Regino of Prüm, King Arnulf of East Francia "gave the command of the Bohemians to King Zwentibald of the Moravian Slavs" in 890. Bartl and other Slovak historians write that Svatopluk "probably" also annexed Silesia and Lusatia in the early 890s. According to the Annals of Fulda, King Arnulf proposed a meeting to Svatopluk in 892, "but the latter in his usual fashion refused to come to the king and betrayed his fidelity and all the things which he had promised before". In response, Arnulf invaded Moravia in 892, but could not defeat Svatopluk, although Magyar horsemen also supported the Eastern Frankish monarch.
Decline and fall (894–before 907)
See also: Hungarian invasions of Europe
Svatopluk I with three twigs and his three sons—Mojmír II, Svatopluk II and Predslav
Svatopluk—"a man most prudent among his people and very cunning by nature", according to Regino of Prüm—died in the summer of 894. He was succeeded by his son, Mojmir II, but his empire shortly disintegrated, because the tribes subjugated to Svatopluk's rule by force started to get rid of Moravian supremacy. For instance, the Bohemian dukes (based in the Prague region) accepted King Arnulf's suzerainty in June 895, and Mojmír II attempted to restore his supremacy over them without success in the next two years. On the other hand, he succeeded in restoring the Church organization in Moravia by persuading Pope John IX (r. 898–900) to send his legates to Moravia in 898. The legates in short order installed an archbishop and "three bishops as his suffragans" in Moravia.
Conflicts emerging between Mojmír II and his younger brother, Svatopluk II, gave King Arnulf a pretext to send his troops to Moravia in 898 and 899. The Annals of Fulda writes that the "boy" Svatopluk II was rescued by Bavarian forces "from the dungeon of the city in which he was held with his men" in 899. According to Bartl, who wrote that Svatopluk II had inherited the "Principality of Nitra" from his father, the Bavarians also destroyed the fortress at Nitra on this occasion.
According to most nearly contemporaneous sources, the Hungarians played a prominent role in the fall of Moravia. For instance, Regino of Prüm writes that Svatopluk I's "sons held his kingdom for a short and unhappy time, because the Hungarians utterly destroyed everything in it". The Hungarians started their conquest of the Carpathian Basin after their defeat in the westernmost territories of the Pontic steppes around 895 by a coalition of the Bulgars and Pechenegs. Only a late source, the 16th-century Johannes Aventinus, writes that the Hungarians had by that time controlled wide regions to east of the rivers Hron and Danube in the Carpathian Basin.
Map of Europe in 900, showing Great Moravia and its neighbors
A letter of Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans evidences that around 900 the Moravians and the Bavarians accused each other of having formed alliances, even by taking oaths "by the means of a dog and a wolf and through other abominable and pagan customs", with the Hungarians. According to Liudprand of Cremona, the Hungarians already "claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians, which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might" at the coronation of Arnulf's son, Louis the Child, in 900. The Annals of Grado adds that a large Hungarian army "attacked and invaded" the Moravians in 900. Facing the threat of further Hungarian attacks, Mojmír II concluded a peace treaty with Louis the Child in 901.
Due to the lack of documentary evidence, the year in which Moravia ceased to exist cannot be determined with certainty. Róna-Tas writes that the Hungarians occupied Moravia in 902, Victor Spinei says that this happened in 903 or 904, while according to Spiesz, the Moravian state ceased to exist in 907. The Raffelstetten Customs Regulations, which was issued in the years 903–906, still refers to the "markets of the Moravians", suggesting that Moravia still existed at that time. It is without doubt that no Moravian forces fought in the battle at Brezalauspurc, where the Hungarians routed a large Bavarian force in 907.
The Moravian land, according to the prophecy of the holy archbishop Methodius, was promptly punished by God for their lawlessness and heresy, for the banishment of the orthodox fathers, and for the torments inflicted on the latter by the heretics with whom they acquiesced. In a few years the Magyars came, a people of Peonia, sacked their land and devastated it. But were not captured by the Magyars for they fled to the Bulgarians. However, the land remained desolate under the rule of the Magyars.— First Legend of Saint Naum
State and society
Sources
Written sources from the 9th century contain almost no information on the internal affairs of Moravia. Only two legal texts—the Nomocanon and the Court Law for the People—have been preserved. The former is a translation of a collection of Byzantine ecclesiastical law; the latter is based on the 8th-century Byzantine law code known as Ecloga. Both were completed by Methodius shortly before his death in 885.
In addition to the study of early medieval chronicles and charters, archaeological research contributed to the understanding of the Moravian state and society. The Moravian centres at Mikulčice, Pohansko and Staré Město were thoroughly excavated in the 1950s and 1960s. However, as Macháček writes, "the acquired huge amounts of finds and data still have to be properly processed".
Settlement structure
Reconstruction of a Great Moravian gatehouse and ramparts in Thunau am Kamp, Austria
The nuclei of the Great Moravian settlement structure were well-defended fortified settlements built by the local Slavs both on elevated positions and lowland areas like marshes and river islands. Most Great Moravian castles were rather large hill forts, fortified by wooden palisades, stone walls and in some cases, moats. The typical Great Moravian ramparts combined an outer drystone wall with an internal timber structure filled with earth.The fortifications usually formed several contiguous enclosures, with the elite buildings concentrated in the centre and crafts in the outer enclosures. Most buildings were made of timber, but ecclesiastical buildings and residential dwellings were made of stone. In many cases, prehistoric fortifications were also integrated. The Great Moravian towns, especially in Moravia, but also in the lowlands of Slovakia, were frequently far from the place where the stone was mined and material was transported dozens of kilometres.
The Great Moravian settlements can be divided into four main categories. The most important were localities with central functions like Mikulčice-Valy, Staré Město – Uherské Hradiště and Nitra, where several castles and settlements formed a huge fortified (pre-)urban agglomeration. Along with the main centres, the system of fortified settlements included fortified regional administrative hubs, forts whose primary function was defence, and refuge forts which were not inhabited permanently but were used in the case of danger. The largest forts were usually protected by a chain of smaller forts. Smaller forts were also built to protect trade routes and to provide shelter for peasants in case of attack. The existence of noble courts like in Ducové and in other places is also documented. Their form was probably inspired by Carolingian estates called curtis.
In 9th-century Mikulčice, the central fortified area, or Acropolis, was set on an island in the Morava and surrounded by a stone-faced rampart that enclosed an area of six hectares (extensive extramural settlement of 200 hectares stood unfortified). Although the location of the Great Moravian capital, "Veligrad", has not been identified, Mikulčice with its palace and 12 churches is the most widely accepted candidate. An important settlement was a large agglomeration in Pohansko near Břeclav. Nitra, the centre of the eastern part of the Empire, was ruled autonomously by the heir of the dynasty as an appanage. Nitra consisted of several large fortified settlements with various functions and approximately twenty specialized craftsmen's villages, making it a real metropolis of its time. Crafts included a production of luxury goods, such as jewelry and glass. The agglomeration was surrounded by a number of smaller forts.
Foundations of a pre-Romanesque rotunda at the Great Moravian court in Ducové
Bratislava Castle had a stone two-story palace and a spacious three-nave basilica, built in the mid-9th century. Excavations of the cemetery situated by the basilica uncovered examples of Great Moravian jewelry, similar in style and quality to that from Mikulčice. The castle's name was first recorded in 907, during the fall of Great Moravia, as Brezalauspurc. This name literally means either "Predslav's Castle" after a son of Svatopluk I who is mentioned in the Cividale del Friuli, or "Braslav's Castle" after Braslav of Pannonia, who was a count appointed by King Arnulf (Arnulf of Carantania) of East Francia. The agglomeration of several fortified settlements was unearthed in Slovak Bojná, discovering important artifacts related to Christianization of the territory. Numerous castles were built on the hills around the valleys of the Váh and the river Nitra, and also in other areas (e.g., Detva, Zeplín, Čingov), but were not built in south-eastern Slovakia.
The sturdy Devín Castle, in vicinity of Bratislava, guarded Great Moravia against attacks from the West. Although some authors claim that it was built only later as a stronghold of the Kings of Hungary, excavations have unearthed an older Slavic fortified settlement founded in the 8th century. During the Great Moravian period, Devín Castle was a seat of a local lord, whose retainers were buried around a stone Christian church. These two castles were reinforced by smaller fortifications in Devínska Nová Ves, Svätý Jur and elsewhere. Another example is the fortress at Thunau am Kamp near Gars am Kamp, overlooking the river Kamp in Lower Austria. The defences here re-utilised banked defences of the Bronze Age and were only slightly smaller (fifty acres) than the area of the contemporary Frankish Emperor's capital of Regensburg.
The number of forts discovered exceeds the number recorded in the sources (11 centres of Moravians and 30 centres of "other Moravians" or Merehanos; opinions differ as to how to interpret the reference to Merehanos). Though the only castles which are mentioned by name in written texts are Nitrawa (828; identified with Nitra), Dowina (864; sometimes identified with Devín Castle) and perhaps Brezalauspurc (907; sometimes identified with Bratislava Castle), some sources claim that Uzhhorod in Ukraine (903) was also a Moravian fortress. Devín Castle is sometimes identified with a "fortress of Prince Rastislav" mentioned in the Annales Fuldenses.
Monarchs
Svatopluk I disguised as a monk in the court of Arnulf, King of East Francia (from the 14th-century Chronicle of Dalimil)
Moravia was ruled by monarchs from a "wider kinship" known as the House of Mojmir. The throne rarely passed from father to son. Actually, Svatopluk I was the only ruler who was succeeded by his son. Rastislav ascended the throne through the East Frankish monarch's intervention, and Slavomir was elected as duke when the Franks captured Svatopluk in 871. The latter case reveals the strong claim of the Mojmir dynasty to the throne, because Slavomir was an ordained priest at the time of his election. The Moravian monarchs were regularly styled as ducis ("dukes"), occasionally as regis ("kings") or maliks ("kings") in 9th-century documents. Tombs within a church have only been discovered at Mikulčice, implying that royals had an exclusive right to be buried in such a prestigious place.
Administration
The Annals of Fulda never refers to the Moravian monarchs as rulers of a state, but as heads of a people—dux Maravorum ("duke of the Moravians"). Accordingly, Macháček writes that "Great Moravia was not primarily organized on a territorial basis , but more likely on the foundation of real or fictitious kinship bonds within the tribal structure". On the other hand, Havlík says that Moravia was divided into counties each headed by "rich, honourable and well-born noblemen" whom he styles as zhupans; he even adds that the number of counties increased from 11 to 30 by the second half of the 9th century. Štefan adds that the existence of scattered groups of farmer warriors, which is suggested by archaeological research, implies the existence of administrative territorial units, because without such a system the monarchs could not organize their campaigns.
Svatopluk incorporated a number of Slavic tribes (including the Bohemians and Vistulans) into his empire. The subjugated tribes were administered by vassal princes or governors, but they preserved their autonomy, which contributed to the quick disintegration of Svatopluk's Moravia after his death.
According to Bartl, Kirschbaum, Štefan, and other historians, Great Moravia had two centres. According to Havlík the terms "Moravian lands" (Moravьskskyję strany), "Upper Moravias" (vyšnьnii Moravě, vyšnьneję Moravy) and "Moravian realms" (regna Marahensium, regna Marauorum) which were used in 9th-century documents refer to the dualistic organisation of the Moravian state, consisting of the "Realm of Rastislav" (regnum Rastizi) and the "Realm of Svatopluk" (regnum Zwentibaldi). He and other historians identify the former with modern Moravia in the Czech Republic, and the latter with the Principality of Nitra in present-day Slovakia. However, this view is not universally accepted: Svatopluk's realm has also been identified with the wider region of Staré Město, or with the lands between the Danube and the Tisza or east of the Tisza.
Warfare
The known sources contain records about 65 events related to warfare and Great Moravia. The most detailed are the Frankish sources during Svatopluk's reign. The structure of the Great Moravian army was based mainly on an early feudal conception of military service, performed primarily by the ruling elites.
The core of the Great Moravian army was a princely retinue comprising professional warriors, who were responsible for collecting tribute and punishing wrongdoers (družina). The družina consisted of members of the aristocracy ("older retinue") and members of the princely military groups ("younger retinue"). Some of its members formed a permanent armed guard for the prince, while the rest were garrisoned at forts or at other strategic points. The družina was probably relatively loyal and provided stable support for the prince since there is no known record of any dissatisfaction with it or of any uprising. The permanent part of the army had an expressly cavalry character. The Great Moravian heavy cavalry emulated the contemporary Frankish predecessors of knights, with the expensive equipment that only the highest social strata could afford (a contemporary Arab traveller, Ahmad ibn Fadlan, reported that Svatopluk I had plenty of cavalry horses). The overall size of the družina is estimated by Ruttkay at 3,000–5,000 men. In the case of larger mobilisations, cavalry was reinforced by additional smaller units recruited from the retinues of local magnates and from traditional communities (občina). The second element of the army (pohotovosť) consisted of lower classes of free citizens who were not, in most cases, professional warriors. However, thanks to their large numbers and knowledge of the prevalent types of weapons they represented a serious military force. They played a decisive role mainly in the defence of Great Moravian territory; their participation in wars of expansion was less common. The army was led by the prince or, in his absence, by a commander-in-chief called a voivode. The maximum size of the army is estimated at 20,000–30,000 men. In case of external aggression, ordinary people participated in defence and diversion actions. An important element of the defence of Great Moravia was a system of strong fortifications, which were difficult to besiege with the then prevailing forms of military organization. For example, a Frankish chronicler wrote with awe about the size of Rastislav's fortress ("firmissimum, ut feritur, vallum").
The typical weapon of a West Slavic foot soldier was an axe of a specific shape, called a bradatica. Spears were universally used by both infantry and cavalry. The weapons associated with a nomadic (Avar) culture, like sabres, reflexion bows and specific types of spears are missing. On the other hand, a military equipment became more influenced by western types and new types of weapons like double-edged swords (rare before the 9th century) became popular. Archers, unlike the previous period, were already a part of the infantry.
Aristocracy
The existence of a local aristocracy is well documented: contemporaneous sources refer to "leading men" (optimates or primates), and nobiles viri or principes. However, these documents do not reveal the basis of the Moravian chiefs' power. Richly furnished graves—with the exception of the one at Blatnica, which is "an old and disputable find", according to Štefan—have only been unearthed in Mikulčice and other large fortifications controlled by the monarchs. Štefan writes that the concentration of prestige goods in the towns shows that "immediate contact with the sovereign, who certainly travelled between the centres, was apparently the best winning strategy for the top elite". On the other hand, the optimates had an important role in the government: the monarchs did not make important decisions without discussing them in a council formed by the Moravian "dukes".
Population
Map showing the distribution of Slavic tribes between the 7th–9th centuries AD
Great Moravia was inhabited by the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group. The West Slavs have their origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had largely left this area during the migration period, while the West Slavs "assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations" in the area.
Moravians had strong cultural ties to their western neighbors, the Franks, with certain objects proving Carolingian influence. The archaeological evidence demonstrates that the 9th-century material culture found in modern Moravia was very much in the Frankish sphere and showed minor Byzantine influence.
Carolingian influence affected all spheres of life in Great Moravia. After the Carolingian Empire was divided, the Ottonian dynasty took over and continued and cultivated Carolingian traditions. It is not accidental
that the newly created medieval West-Slavonic states borrow from Carolingian tradition via the Ottonian Empire.
Most of the population was formed by freemen, who were obliged to pay an annual tax. Slavery and feudal dependency are also recorded.
The analysis of early medieval cemeteries in Moravia shows that 40 percent of men and 60 percent of women died before reaching the age of 40. More than 40 percent of the graves contained the remains of children aged one to twelve. However, the cemeteries also document rich nutrition and advanced health care. For instance, a third of the examined skeletons had no caries or lost teeth, and bone fractures healed without dislocation.
Economy
The large 9th-century fortresses unearthed at Mikulčice and other places were located in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Morava and Danube. Two important trade routes crossed this region in this period, the Danube and the ancient Amber Road, implying that these settlements, all lying on rivers, were important centres of commerce. Finds of tools, raw materials and semi-manufactured goods show that quarters inhabited by craftsmen also existed in these settlements. The large fortresses were surrounded by a number of small villages where the locals were engaged in agriculture. They cultivated wheat, barley, millet and other cereals, and farmed cattle, pigs, sheep and horse. Their animals were relatively small: for instance, their horses were not larger than modern Przewalski horses.
The existence of a general exchange medium in Moravia has not been proven: there is no sign of local coinage and foreign coins are scarce. According to Bialeková and other archaeologists, the axe-shaped ingots (grivnas) unearthed in great number in fortresses served as "premonetary currencies". This theory has not universally been accepted, because these objects have also been interpreted as "intermediate products intended for further treatment". According to Macháček, the lack of coins meant that Moravian monarchs could not "effectively collect taxes, customs and fines", which weakened their international position.
Iron metallurgy and smithing were the most important branches of local industry. An example of highly developed tool production are asymmetrical plowshares. There is no sign of silver, gold, copper or lead mines in Moravia, but jewellery and weapons were produced locally. Accordingly, their prime material was acquired as loot or gift or brought to Moravia by merchants. Archaeological research also evidences the import of prestige goods, including silk, brocade and glass vessels. According to Štefan and Macháček, the Moravians primarily provided slaves, acquired as prisoners of war during their raids in the neighbouring regions, in exchange for these luxury goods. For instance, Archbishop Thietmar of Salzburg accused the Moravians of "bringing noble men and honest women into slavery" during their campaigns in Pannonia. Slave trading is also well documented: the First Legend of Naum narrates that many of Methodius's disciples "were sold for money to the Jews" after 885, and the Raffelstetten Customs Regulations makes mention of slaves delivered from Moravia to the west.
Culture
Sacral architecture
Church of St. Margaret of Antioch in Kopčany, Slovakia, one of remaining buildings for which the Great Moravian origin is considered
The views on Great Moravian sacral architecture changed dramatically during the second half of the 20th century. At first, researchers assumed it to be limited to simple wooden churches like those known from the German environment in dating from the 7th to 8th centuries. These wooden churches were suitable for initial missionary activities due to the easy availability of materials, quick construction and no need for consecration. This opinion was refined in 1949 after excavations in Staré Město. From the 1960s, stone churches have also been excavated in Slovakia. As of 2014, more than 25 sacral buildings have been safely identified in the core territory of Great Moravia (Moravia and Western Slovakia). The remains of the first uncovered churches were only "negatives" (ditches filled with secondary material after removal of original foundations), but later research also uncovered remains of buildings with original foundations. Especially after the discovery of Great Moravian graves near the church in Kopčany, the potential Great Moravian origin of several still-standing churches in Slovakia (viz., Kopčany, Nitrianska Blatnica, Kostoľany pod Tribečom) was once more an open question. The exact dating is a goal of ongoing research based on radiocarbon analysis and dendrochronology.
Great Moravian sacral architecture is represented by a rich variety of types, from three-nave basilicas (Mikulčice III, Bratislava), triconcha (Devín), simple rotunda without apses (Mikulčice VII), two-apse rotunda (Mikulčice VI), tetraconchic rotunda (Mikulčice IX) and a whole group of one-nave churches and rotundas with one apse. The largest number of churches has been found in south-eastern Moravia. Mikulčice, with twelve churches, clearly dominates among all other localities with the first stone churches built around 800 (a potential thirteenth church is Kopčany, on the Slovak side of the border). The three-nave basilica from Mikulčice, which has interior dimensions of 35 m by 9 m and a separate baptistery, is the largest sacral building found to date. The high concentration of churches in Mikululčice exceeded the needs of the local population, and so are believed to be proprietary churches (Eigenkirchen), known also in Francia. Large churches were also important ecclesiastical centres. The current dating of several churches precedes the Byzantine mission. The churches were decorated mostly by frescoes, but usage of secco is also documented. The authors were probably foreign artists from Francia and northern Italy (the latter indicated by, for example, the chemical composition of paintings in Bratislava and Devín).
Great Moravian sacral architecture was probably influenced by Frankish, Dalmatian-Istrian, Byzantine and classical architecture, which also indicated complex missionary activities. Two open-air museums, in Modrá near Uherské Hradiště and in Ducové, are devoted to Great Moravian architecture.
Religion
Main articles: Slavic mythology, History of Christianity in Slovakia, and Christianization of Moravia
Stone foundations of a church in Valy u Mikulčic, Czech Republic
Exhibition Among the tribes and the state. Room with the Early medieval princely burial from Kolín (Starý Kolín), 850–900 AD
Like other Slavs, the Great Moravian Slavs originally practised a polytheistic religion with an ancestor cult. Several cult places used prior to the Christianization of Moravia have been found in Moravia (Mikulčice and Pohansko). However, we do not know what these objects, such as a ring ditch with a fire, a horse sacrifice, or human limbs ritually buried in a cemetery, meant to Great Moravians. An alleged cult object in Mikulčice was reportedly used until the evangelization of the Moravian elite in the mid-9th century and idols in Pohansko were raised on the site of a demolished church during the pagan backlash in the 10th century. The only Slavic pagan shrine found in modern Slovakia is an object in Most pri Bratislave dedicated probably to the god of war and thunder Perun. The shrine was abandoned in the mid-9th century and never restored.
The spread of Christianity had several stages and it is still an open research question. In older publications, the first organized missions were attributed mainly to Hiberno-Scottish missionaries, but modern works are more sceptical about their direct influence. The territory of Great Moravia was originally evangelized by missionaries coming from the Frankish Empire or Byzantine enclaves in Italy and Dalmatia from the early 8th century and sporadically earlier. Traces of an Aquileia-Dalmatic mission are found in Great Moravian architecture and language. Northern Italian influence is assumed also for golden plaques with Christian motifs from Bojná (probably from a portable altar), which belong to the most important Christian artefacts dated prior to the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. Especially after the defeat of the Avars at the end of the 8th century, Frankish missionaries became the most important part of organized missions. The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs known from written sources was built in 828 by Pribina in Nitra and consecrated by Bishop Adalram of Salzburg. Most of the territory was Christianized until the mid-9th century. Despite the formal endorsement by the elites, Great Moravian Christianity was described as containing many pagan elements as late as 852. Grave goods, such as food, could be found even in church graveyards. The Church organization in Great Moravia was supervised by the Bavarian clergy until the arrival of the Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863.
In 880, the pope ordained a Swabian monk, Wiching, as bishop of the newly established see of Nitra ("sancta ecclesia Nitriensis"). Some experts (e.g., Szőke Béla Miklós) say that the location of the seat of 9th century diocese is different from present-day Nitra.
Literature
An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the mission in Great Moravia (Baščanska ploča from Croatia). The inscribed stone slab records Croatian king Zvonimir's donation of a piece of land to a Benedictine abbey in the time of abbot Drzhiha.
The impact of the mission of Cyril and Methodius extended beyond the religious and political spheres. Old Church Slavonic became the fourth liturgical language of the Christian world. However, after Methodius's death (885) all his followers were expelled from Great Moravia; accordingly, the use of Slavic liturgy in Great Moravia lasted only about 22 years. Its late form remains the liturgical language of the Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian and Polish Orthodox Churches. Cyril also invented the Glagolitic alphabet, suitable for Slavic languages, and first translated the Bible into a Slavic language, along with Methodius, who later completed the project.
Methodius wrote the first Slavic legal code, combining local customary law with advanced Byzantine law. Similarly, the Great Moravian criminal law code was not merely a translation from Latin, but also punished a number of offenses originally tolerated by pre-Christian Slavic mores, yet prohibited by Christianity (mostly related to sexual conduct). The canon law was simply adopted from Byzantine sources.
There are not many literary works that can be unambiguously identified as originally written in Great Moravia. One of them is Proglas, a cultivated poem in which Cyril defends the Slavic liturgy. Vita Cyrilli (attributed to Clement of Ohrid) and Vita Methodii (probably written by Methodius's successor Gorazd) are biographies with valuable information about Great Moravia under Rastislav and Svatopluk I.
The brothers also founded an academy, initially led by Methodius, which produced hundreds of Slavic clerics. A well-educated class was essential for administration of all early-feudal states and Great Moravia was no exception. Vita Methodii mentions that the bishop of Nitra served as Svatopluk I's chancellor, and even Prince Koceľ of the Balaton Principality was said to have mastered the Glagolitic script. The location of the Great Moravian academy has not been identified, but possible sites include Mikulčice (where some styli have been found in an ecclesiastical building), Devín Castle (with a building identified as a probable school) and Nitra (with its Episcopal basilica and monastery). When Methodius's disciples were expelled from Great Moravia by Svatopluk I in 885, they disseminated their knowledge (including the Glagolitic script) to other Slavic countries, such as Bulgaria, Croatia and Bohemia. The Cyrillic script was created in Bulgaria in the Preslav Literary School, which became the standard alphabet the Bulgarian Empire and later in the Kievan Rus' (modern day Russia, Ukraine and Belarus). The Great Moravian cultural heritage was further developed in Bulgarian seminaries, paving the way for the Christianization of Kievan Rus'.
The Cyrillo-Methodian cultural mission had significant impact on most Slavic languages and stood at the beginning of the modern Cyrillic alphabet, created in the 9th century AD in Bulgaria by Bulgarian disciples of Cyril and Methodius (Naum of Preslav, Clement of Ohrid and others).
Arts
A silver cross from Mikulčice
In the first half of the 9th century, Great Moravian craftsmen were inspired by contemporary Carolingian art. In the second half of the 9th century, Great Moravian jewelry was influenced by Byzantine, Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic styles. However, in the words of Czech archaeologist Josef Poulík, "these new forms and techniques were not copied passively, but were transformed in the local idiom, establishing in this way the roots of the distinctive Great Moravian jewellery style." Typical Great Moravian jewelry included silver and golden earrings decorated by fine granular filigree, as well as silver and gilded bronze buttons covered by foliate ornaments.
Legacy
Great Moravian centres (e.g., Bratislava (Pozsony, Pressburg), Nitra (Nyitra), Tekov (Bars) and Zemplín (Zemplén)) retained their functions after the fall of Great Moravia, although the identification of Bratislava, Tekov and Zemplín as Great Moravian castles are not generally accepted. Several sources suggest that Hungarian rulers followed the contemporary German or Bulgar patents when they established the new administrative system in their kingdom, or they introduced a new system.
Social differentiation in Great Moravia reached the state of early feudalism, creating the social basis for development of later medieval states in the region. The question what happened to Great Moravian noble families after 907 is still under debate. On the one hand, recent research indicates that a significant part of the local aristocracy remained more or less undisturbed by the fall of Great Moravia and their descendants became nobles in the newly formed Kingdom of Hungary. The most prominent example are the powerful families of Hunt and Pázmán. On the other hand, both Anonymous and Simon of Kéza, two chroniclers of the early history of Hungary, recorded that the prominent noble families of the kingdom descended either from leaders of the Magyar tribes or from immigrants, and they did not connect any of them to Great Moravia. For example, the ancestors of the clan Hunt-Pázmán (Hont-Pázmány), whose Great Moravian origin has been advanced by Slovak scholars, were reported by Simon of Kéza to have arrived from the Duchy of Swabia in the late 10th century.
The territories mentioned as "Tercia pars regni" (lit., "one-third part of the Kingdom of Hungary") in the medieval sources are referred to as the "Duchy" in Hungarian scholarly works and as the "Principality of Nitra" in Slovak academic sources. These territories were ruled autonomously by members of the Árpád dynasty residing in Bihar (today Biharea in Romania) or in Nitra—a practice reminiscent of the Great Moravian appanage system, but also similar to that of some other dynasties in the Early Middle Ages (e.g., the Ruriks in the Kievan Rus'). The existence of an autonomous political unit centered around Nitra is often considered by Slovak scholars an example of political continuity from the Great Moravian period.
Great Moravia also became a prominent theme of the Czech and Slovak romantic nationalism of the 19th century. The Byzantine double-cross thought to have been brought by Cyril and Methodius is currently part of the symbol of Slovakia and the Constitution of Slovakia refers to Great Moravia in its preamble. Interest about that period rose as a result of the national revival in the 19th century. Great Moravian history has been regarded as a cultural root of several Slavic nations in Central Europe and it was employed in attempts to create a single Czechoslovak identity in the 20th century.
Although the source cited above and other sources mention that Great Moravia disappeared without trace and that its inhabitants left for the Bulgars, with Croats and Magyars following their victories, archaeological research and toponyms suggest the continuity of Slavic population in the valleys of the rivers of the Inner Western Carpathians. Moreover, there are sporadic references to Great Moravia from later years: in 924/925, both Folkuin in his Gesta abb. Lobiensium and Ruotger in Archiepiscopi Coloniensis Vita Brunonis mention Great Moravia. In 942, Magyar warriors captured during their raid in al-Andalus said that Moravia is the northern neighbour of their people. The fate of the northern and western parts of former Central Europe in the 10th century is thus largely unclear.
The eastern part of the Great Moravian core territory (present-day Slovakia) fell under domination of the Hungarian Árpád dynasty. The north-west borders of the Principality of Hungary became a mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land. This was the Hungarian gyepűelve, and it can be considered as a march that effectively lasted until the mid-13th century. The rest remained under the rule of the local Slavic aristocracy and was gradually integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in a process finished in the 14th century. In 1000 or 1001, all of present-day Slovakia was taken over by Poland under Bolesław I, and much of this territory became part of the Kingdom of Hungary by 1031.
See also
History of Moravia
History of Slovakia
History of the Czech lands
Slavs in Lower Pannonia
Notes
^ King, Ruler, in the international context also translated as Prince or Duke.
^ On a 9th-century gilt belt extender found in tomb number 240, located in Mikulčice-Valy. The gravure appears clumsy, but it is the only known image of a Great Moravian flag.
^ The occurrence of the biritual cemeteries from the middle and late Avar period is limited to the line Devín-Nitra-Levice-Želovce-Košice-Šebastovce, but no proof of a permanent presence of the Avars was found north of this line (~7200 km2 with 180 known localities). The archaeological research in Slovakia does not suggest that the border of the khaganate sat on the Carpathians.
^ Mikulčice 50 km, Staré Město 20 km. The remains of the prestigious building on the castle hill in Nitra contained luxury limestone from Austria.
^ The existence of the alleged circular pagan shrine in Mikulčice was questioned in 2012. (Mazuch 2012)
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Štefan, Ivo (2011). "Great Moravia, Statehood and Archaeology: The "Decline and Fall" of One Early Medieval Polity". In Macháček, Jiří; Ungerman, Šimon (eds.). Frühgeschichtliche Zentralorte in Mitteleuropa. Bonn: Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt. pp. 333–354. ISBN 978-3-7749-3730-7. Retrieved 2013-08-27.
Štefanovičová, Tatiana (1989). Osudy starých Slovanov . Osveta.
Štefanovičová, Tatiana (2000). "K niektorým mýtom o počiatkch našich národných dejín" (PDF) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.
Senga, Toru (1982). "La situation géographique de la Grande-Moravie et les Hongrois conquérants" . Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (in French). 30 (4). ISSN 0021-4019.
Škvarna, Dušan; Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Wauconda: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 9780865164444.
Szőke, Béla Miklós (2007). "New findings of the excavations in Mosaburg/Zalavar (Western Hungary)". In Henning, Joachim (ed.). Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The heirs of the Roman West. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 411–428. ISBN 978-3-110-18356-6.
Tóth, Sándor László (1998). Levediától a Kárpát-medencéig ("From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 978-963-482-175-5.
Třeštík, Dušan (2010). Vznik Velké Moravy. Moravané, Čechové a štřední Evropa v letech 791–871 . Nakladatelství lidové noviny. ISBN 978-80-7422-049-4.
Turčan, Valdimír (2003). "Prvá staroslovanská svätyňa na Slovensku" . Historia - Revue O Dejnách Spoločnosti (in Slovak) (3). ISSN 1335-8316. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
Urbańczyk, Przemysław (2005). "Early State Formation in East Central Europe". In Curta, Florin (ed.). East Central & Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages. The University of Michigan Press. pp. 139–151. ISBN 978-0-472-11498-6.
Vlasto, Alexis P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521074599.
Wieczorek, Alfried and Hans-Martin Hinz (Hrsg.) (2000). Europas Mitte um 1000, Stuttgart. ISBN 3-8062-1545-6 or ISBN 3-8062-1544-8
Wolfram, Herwig (1995). "Historické pramene a poloha (Veľkej) Moravy" . Historický časopis (in Slovak). 43 (1). ISSN 0018-2575.
Zábojník, Jozef (2009). Slovensko a avarský kaganát (in Slovak). Bratislava: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Komenského. ISBN 978-80-89236-62-6.
External links
Media related to Great Moravia at Wikimedia Commons
Great Moravian reenactment and experimental archeology, articles, timeline, primary sources, original findings Archived 2010-02-06 at the Wayback Machine (in Czech)
Articles about Great Moravia and text of many primary sources (in Czech)
ZÁBORSKÝ, J. Dejiny Veľkej Moravy a počiatky Uhorska. Turč. sv. Martin : Matica slovenská, 1929. 16 p. – available at ULB's Digital Library
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈvɛlkaː ˈmorava]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Czech"},{"link_name":"Slovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language"},{"link_name":"[ˈvɛʎkaː ˈmɔrava]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Slovak"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus19951-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001108%E2%80%93112-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006124%E2%80%93133-5"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)"},{"link_name":"West Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavs"},{"link_name":"Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrul%C3%A1k201291-6"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Samo's tribal union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samo%27s_Empire"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Avar state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars"},{"link_name":"Morava River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morava_(river)"},{"link_name":"Old Church Slavonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"East Francia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia"},{"link_name":"Saints Cyril and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"Glagolitic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"First Bulgarian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I"},{"link_name":"Slovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language"},{"link_name":"Hungarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians"},{"link_name":"Rastislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Byzantine emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor"},{"link_name":"Pope Adrian II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Adrian_II"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Eastern South Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_South_Slavic"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I"}],"text":"Great Moravia (Latin: Regnum Marahensium; Greek: Μεγάλη Μοραβία, Meghálī Moravía; Czech: Velká Morava [ˈvɛlkaː ˈmorava]; Slovak: Veľká Morava [ˈvɛʎkaː ˈmɔrava]; Polish: Wielkie Morawy, German: Großmähren), or simply Moravia,[1][2][3] was the first major state that was predominantly West Slavic to emerge in the area of Central Europe,[4] possibly including territories which are today part of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, Ukraine and Slovenia. The formations preceding it in these territories were the Samo's tribal union (631 - 658) and the Pannonian Avar state (567 – after 822).Its core territory is the region now called Moravia in the eastern part of the Czech Republic alongside the Morava River, which gave its name to the kingdom. The kingdom saw the rise of the first ever Slavic literary culture in the Old Church Slavonic language as well as the expansion of Christianity, first via missionaries from East Francia, and later after the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863 and the creation of the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet dedicated to a Slavic language. Glagolitic was subsequently replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet created in the First Bulgarian Empire.Although the borders of this empire cannot be exactly determined, Moravia reached its largest territorial extent under prince Svatopluk I (Slovak: Svätopluk), who ruled from 870 to 894. Separatism and internal conflicts emerging after Svatopluk's death contributed to the fall of Great Moravia, which was overrun by the Hungarians, who then included the territory of present-day Slovakia in their domains. The exact date of Moravia's collapse is unknown, but it occurred between 902 and 907.Moravia experienced significant cultural development under King Rastislav, with the arrival in 863 of the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. After his request for missionaries had been refused in Rome, Rastislav asked the Byzantine emperor to send a \"teacher\" (učiteľ) to introduce literacy and a legal system (pravьda) to Great Moravia. The request was granted. The missionary brothers Cyril and Methodius introduced a system of writing (the Glagolitic alphabet) and Slavonic liturgy, the latter eventually formally approved by Pope Adrian II.[5] The Glagolitic script was probably invented by Cyril himself and the language he used for his translations of religious texts and his original literary creation was based on the Eastern South Slavic dialect he and his brother Methodius knew from their native Thessaloniki. Old Church Slavonic, therefore, differed somewhat from the local Slavic dialect of Great Moravia which was the ancestral idiom to the later dialects spoken in Moravia and western Slovakia. Later, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius were expelled from Great Moravia by King Svatopluk I, who re-orientated the Empire to Western Christianity.","title":"Great Moravia"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blatnica.jpg"},{"link_name":"Blatnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blatnica,_Slovakia"}],"text":"Great Moravian sword from Blatnica, unearthed in the 19th century, originally interpreted as a burial equipment from a \"ducal\" mound","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers2010293-8"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"De Administrando Imperio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio"},{"link_name":"Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitos"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995=10-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova2002237-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006138-14"},{"link_name":"Great Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004227-15"},{"link_name":"Belgrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade"},{"link_name":"holy and great Constantine, the emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Sirmium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirmium"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Constantine Porphyrogenitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_Porphyrogenitus"},{"link_name":"De Administrando Imperio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004227-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009312-17"},{"link_name":"Old Church Slavonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013354-355-18"}],"sub_title":"Great Moravia","text":"The meaning of the name of Great Moravia has been subject to debate.[6] The designation \"Great Moravia\"—Megale Moravia (Μεγάλη Μοραβία) in Greek[7]—stems from the work De Administrando Imperio written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos around 950.[8][9] The emperor only used the adjective megale in connection with the polity when referring to events that occurred after its fall, implying that it should rather be translated as \"old\" instead of \"great\".[10] According to a third theory, the megale adjective refers to a territory located beyond the borders of the Byzantine Empire.[11][12] Finally, the historian Lubomír E. Havlík writes that Byzantine scholars used this adjective when referring to homelands of nomadic peoples, as demonstrated by the term \"Great Bulgaria\".[13][There] is Belgrade, in which is the tower of the holy and great Constantine, the emperor; then, again, at the running back of the river, is the renowned Sirmium by name, a journey of two days from Belgrade; and beyond lies great Moravia, the unbaptized, which the [Hungarians] have blotted out, but over which in former days [Svatopluk] used to rule. Such are the landmarks and names along the Danube river [...].— Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio[14]The work of Porphyrogenitos is the only nearly contemporaneous source using the adjective \"great\" in connection with Moravia.[13] Other documents from the 9th and 10th centuries never used the term in this context.[15] Instead they mention the polity as \"Moravian realm\" or \"realm of Moravians\" (regnum Marahensium, terra Marahensium, regnum Marahavorum, regnum Marauorum, terra Marauorum or regnum Margorum in Latin, and Moravьska oblastь in Old Church Slavonic), simply \"Moravia\" (Marawa, Marauia, and Maraha in Latin, Morava, Marava, or Murava in Old Church Slavonic, and M.ŕawa.t in Arabic),[16] also regnum Sclavorum (realm of Slavs) or alternate regnum Rastizi (realm of Rastislav) or regnum Zuentibaldi (realm of Svatopluk).","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zj%C4%8D-19"},{"link_name":"Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages"},{"link_name":"Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Morava"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"\"Morava\" is the Czech and Slovak name for both the river and the country, presumably the river name being primary and giving name to the surrounding country. The ending -ava, as in many other Czech and Slovak rivers, is most often regarded as Slavicization of the originally Germanic -ahwa (= modern German \"Au\" or \"-a\"), cognate to Latin aqua. Some scholars again link it, via Celtic -ab, to Indo-European PIE *apa/*opa (\"water, sea\").[17] The root mor- might be also connected with other Indo-European words with the meaning of water, lake or sea (sea: Slavic more, Latin mare, Welsh môr, German Meer; humidity: English and German Moor, Slavic mokr-). Compare also other river names like Mur in Austria and another Morava in Serbia, etc.).","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Core_of_moravia_en.png"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Kopčany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"Mikulčice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C4%8Dice"},{"link_name":"Mojmir I of Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojmir_I_of_Moravia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Moravia-eng.png"},{"link_name":"historiographical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographical"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers2010293-8"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2010402-20"},{"link_name":"Rastislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"suzerainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty"},{"link_name":"Carolingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian"},{"link_name":"East Francia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia"}],"text":"The core of Great MoraviaAfter the fall of Great Moravia, the central territory of Great Moravia was gradually divided into the newly ascending Kingdom of Bohemia and Hungarian Kingdom. The frontier was originally settled on the Morava river. However, from the 12th century, the Czech kings managed to gain more and more of the region on the eastern bank, eventually gaining the whole stretch of the eastern territory from Uherské Hradiště down to Strážnice along the White Carpathians. The original core territory of Great Moravia, nowadays forming the eastern part of Moravia and situated between the White Carpathians and the Chřiby mountains, has retained its non-Czech identity in its designation \"Slovácko\" which shows common origins with the name of the neighbouring Slovakia—a token of a past shared identity in Great Moravian times. This core region of Great Moravia along the river has retained a unique culture with a rich folklore tradition: the above-mentioned Slovácko stretches, to the south (where the Morava river forms the Czech-Slovak frontier), into two regions—the Záluží region on the Morava's western (Czech) bank and Záhorie on its eastern (Slovak) bank. Záhorie also boasts the only surviving building from Great Moravian times, the chapel at Kopčany just across the Morava from the archaeological site of Mikulčice (these two important Great Moravian places are now connected by a bridge). The core of Great Moravia was extended, according to annals, in the early 830s, when Mojmir I of Moravia conquered the neighbouring principality of Nitra (present-day western Slovakia). The former principality of Nitra was used as what is termed in Slovak údelné kniežatsvo, or the territory given to and ruled by the successor to the throne, traditionally the ruling kъnendzь (Prince)'s sister's son.Principalities and lands within Great MoraviaNevertheless, the extent, and even the very location of Great Moravia (historiographical terms, as its original formal name is unknown) are a subject of debate.[6] Rival theories place its centre south of the Danube (the Morava in Serbia) or on the Great Hungarian Plain.[18] The exact date when the Moravian state was founded is also disputed, but it probably occurred in the early 830s under Prince Mojmír I (r. 820s/830s–846), the first known ruler of the united Moravia. Mojmír and his successor, Rastislav (\"Rostislav\" in Czech), who ruled from 846 to 870, initially acknowledged the suzerainty of the Carolingian monarchs, but the Moravian fight for independence caused a series of armed conflicts with East Francia from the 840s.","title":"Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morava_(river)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek2009261-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006126%E2%80%93128-22"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006130-23"},{"link_name":"Alfred the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Orosius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orosius"},{"link_name":"Cyril and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBetti2013144%E2%80%93145-24"},{"link_name":"King Alfred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Orosius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orosius"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBetti2013145-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200535-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201211-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006128-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109%E2%80%93110-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001110-31"},{"link_name":"Lesser Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_Poland"},{"link_name":"Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201211-28"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978160-32"},{"link_name":"Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesia"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerendUrbanczykWiszewski201389-33"},{"link_name":"comitatus of Mosaburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Slavs#Principality"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESz%C5%91ke2007412-34"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001110-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerendUrbanczykWiszewski201359-35"}],"sub_title":"Traditional view","text":"According to most historians, the core territories of Moravia were located in the valley of the river Morava, today in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.[19][20] Archaeological findings of large early medieval fortresses and the significant cluster of settlements growing around them suggest that an important centre of power emerged in this region in the 9th century.[8][21] Early sources (Alfred the Great's contemporaneous translation of Orosius's History of the World, which mentioned Moravia's neighbours, and the description of the travel of Cyril and Methodius from Moravia to Venice through Pannonia in the Life of Cyril) also substantiate the traditional view.[22]These Maroara have to the west of them the Thyringas and some Behemas and half the Begware, and south them on the other side of the Danube river is the land Carendre extending south as far as the mountains called the Alps. ... To the east of the land Carendre, beyond the uninhabited district, is the land of the Pulgare, and east of that is the land of Greeks. To the east of the land of Maroara is the land of the Vistula, and east of that are those Datia who were formerly Goths.— King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius[23][24]The borders of Moravia cannot exactly be determined because of the lack of accurate contemporaneous sources.[25][26] For instance, the monks writing the Annals of Fulda in the 9th century obviously had limited knowledge of the geography of distant regions of Central Europe.[27] Furthermore, Moravian monarchs adopted an expansionist policy in the 830s, thus the borders of their realm often changed.[28]Moravia reached the peak of its territorial expansion under Svatopluk I (r. 870–894).[29] Lesser Poland, Pannonia and other regions were forced to accept, at least formally and often only for a short period, his suzerainty.[26][30] On the other hand, the existence of the archaeologically attested shared cultural zones between Moravia, Lesser Poland and Silesia do not prove that the northern boundaries of Moravia were located over these territories.[31] According to archaeologist Béla Miklós Szőke, the comitatus of Mosaburg in Pannonia was never part of Moravia.[32] Neither archaeological finds nor written sources substantiate the traditional view of the permanent annexation of huge territories in his reign.[29] Other scholars warn that it's a mistake to draw the boundaries of core territories because Moravia did not reach that development level.[33]","title":"Territory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Juraj Sklenár","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juraj_Sklen%C3%A1r"},{"link_name":"Sirmium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirmium"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina2000156-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina2000157-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina2000157-37"},{"link_name":"Great Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Morava"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009312%E2%80%93313-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek2009261-262-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006126,_128%E2%80%93129-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%BCsp%C3%B6ki-Nagy197860%E2%80%9382-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenga1983307%E2%80%93345-42"},{"link_name":"Drava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drava"},{"link_name":"Sava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sava"},{"link_name":"Drina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drina"},{"link_name":"Tisza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisza"},{"link_name":"Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Morava"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199532-43"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers2010293-8"},{"link_name":"Banat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banat"},{"link_name":"Mureș","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mure%C8%99_(river)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009313-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek2009262-45"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"}],"sub_title":"Further theories","text":"In 1784, Slovak historian Juraj Sklenár disputed the traditional view on the location of Moravia and placed its core region in the region of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia), stating that it spread from that location to the north to present-day Slovakia, Moravia and Bohemia.[34] Similarly, in the 1820s, Friedrich Blumenerger placed Great Moravia to the south on the borders of Pannonia and Moesia.[35] Their views remained isolated until the 1970s,[35] when Imre Boba again published a theory that Moravia's core territory must have been located around Sirmium, near the river Great Morava.[36][37][38] Péter Püspöki-Nagy proposed the existence of two Moravias: a \"Great\" Moravia at the southern Morava river in present-day Serbia, and another Moravia on the northern Morava river in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.[39] A similar theory was also published by Toru Senga.[40] In the 1990s, the southern thesis was further developed by Charles Bowlus, who wrote that Moravia emerged in the region of the \"confluences of the Drava, Sava, Drina, Tisza and southern Morava rivers with the Danube\".[41] Bowlus emphasized that the orientation of the Frankish marcher organization was focused on the south-east territories, which also supports Great Moravia's southern position.[6] Martin Eggers suggested the original location of Moravia was centered around modern Banat at the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Mureș,[42][43] with further expansions extending to the territories in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia.","title":"Territory"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Procopius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200218-46"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Heruli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heruli"},{"link_name":"Sclavenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclavenes"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford200153,_291-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200617-48"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Middle Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Danube"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford200153,_63%E2%80%9364-49"},{"link_name":"Pannonian Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Basin"},{"link_name":"Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)"},{"link_name":"Eurasian Steppes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200218-46"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006xii,_62%E2%80%9363-50"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks"},{"link_name":"Lombards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200218-46"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZ%C3%A1bojn%C3%ADk2009Odler201260Galu%C5%A1ka199121-51"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C4%8Caplovi%C4%8D199869%E2%80%9373,_134-53"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay200245-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200219-55"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalu%C5%A1ka199121-56"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEM%C4%9B%C5%99%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD2002246-57"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEM%C4%9B%C5%99%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD2002564-58"},{"link_name":"Orava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orava_(region)"},{"link_name":"Spiš","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spi%C5%A1"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001108-59"},{"link_name":"Bratislava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava"},{"link_name":"Brno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brno"},{"link_name":"Olomouc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olomouc"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001108-59"},{"link_name":"Rajhrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajhrad"},{"link_name":"Staré Město","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A9_M%C4%9Bsto_(Uhersk%C3%A9_Hradi%C5%A1t%C4%9B_District)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006130-23"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"Avar Khaganate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avar_Khaganate"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200218-46"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200520-60"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200619-61"},{"link_name":"Royal Frankish Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Frankish_Annals"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Aachen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen"},{"link_name":"Rába","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1ba"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200619-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199557-63"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006130-23"},{"link_name":"Blatnica-Mikulčice horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blatnica-Mikul%C4%8Dice_horizon"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001108%E2%80%93109-64"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"Blatnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blatnica,_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006130-23"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200620-65"},{"link_name":"Florin Curta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florin_Curta"},{"link_name":"Carolingian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006130-23"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDekan198110-66"}],"sub_title":"Origins (before c. 800)","text":"The earliest possible reference to Slavic tribes living in the valley of the northern Morava river was made by the Byzantine historian Procopius.[44] He wrote of a group of Germanic Heruli who \"passed through the territory of all of the Sclavenes\" while moving towards Denmark in 512.[45] Archaeological sites have yielded hand-made ceramics,[46] and closely analogous objects in southern Poland and western Ukraine appeared at the confluence of the northern Morava River and the Middle Danube, dated to around 550.[47]Large territories in the Pannonian Basin were conquered after 568 by the nomadic Avars who had arrived from the Eurasian Steppes.[44][48] The Slavs were forced to pay tribute to the Avars and to participate in their raids against the Byzantine Empire, the Franks and the Lombards.[44] Even though the Avar settlement area stabilized on the Danube river in the early period of the khaganate (southern border of present-day Slovakia), a smaller (southernmost) part came under their direct military control after the fall of Samo's empire.[49][c] In the late period of the khaganate, the Avars had already inclined to a more settled lifestyle and their co-existence with the local Slavs can be already characterized as some kind of cultural symbiosis.[50][51][52][53]In the 7th and 8th centuries, the development of the local Slavs accelerated. The first Slavic fortified settlements were built in present-day Moravia as early as the last decades of the 7th century.[54] From the end of the 7th century, it is possible to register the rise of a new social elite in Moravia, Slovakia and Bohemia—the warrior horsemen.[55] The social organization of the local Slavs continued to grow during the 8th century, which can be documented by further building and development of fortified settlements. In Moravia, they unambiguously concentrate around the river Morava. In Slovakia, the oldest Slavic fortified settlements are documented for the last decades of the 8th century. They were exclusively in areas which were not under direct Avar influence, but probably not built only as protection against them, because some of them are also found in northern territories (Orava, Spiš). Variation in pottery implies the existence of at least three tribes inhabiting the wider region of the northern Morava river in the early 9th century.[56] Settlement complexes from the period were unearthed, for instance, near modern Bratislava, Brno and Olomouc.[56] Fortresses erected at Bratislava, Rajhrad, Staré Město and other places around 800[21] evidence the development of local centres of power in the same regions.[8]Charlemagne launched a series of military expeditions against the Avars in the last decade of the 8th century which caused the collapse of the Avar Khaganate.[44][57][58] The Royal Frankish Annals narrates that Avars who \"could not stay in their previous dwelling places on account of the attacks of the Slavs\"[59] approached Charlemagne in Aachen in 805 and asked to be allowed to settle in the lowlands along the river Rába.[58][60]Following the collapse of the Avar Khaganate, swords and other elements of Frankish military equipment became popular in territories to the north of the Middle Danube.[21] A new archaeological horizon—the so-called \"Blatnica-Mikulčice horizon\"—emerged in the valley of the northern Morava river and its wider region in the same period.[61] This horizon of metalwork represents a synthesis of \"Late Avar\" and Carolingian art.[8] One of its signature items is a sword found in a grave in Blatnica in Slovakia,[21] which is dated to the period between 825 and 850.[62] According to the archaeologist Florin Curta, the sword was produced by a Frankish artisan from the Carolingian Empire.[21] On the other hand, Ján Dekan writes that it represents how Moravian craftsmen selected \"elements from the ornamental content of Carolingian art which suited their aesthetic needs and traditions\".[63]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Principality of Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Nitra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jewellery_from_the_Princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn,_850-900_AD,_187594.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kolín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C3%ADn"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mikul%C4%8Dice_Archaeopark_05.JPG"},{"link_name":"Western Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavs"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngi1997360-67"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978159-68"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Louis the Pious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pious"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199560%E2%80%9361-70"},{"link_name":"Obodrites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obodrites"},{"link_name":"Sorbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbs"},{"link_name":"Wilzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilzi"},{"link_name":"Bohemians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978160-32"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013229-72"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197024,_326%E2%80%93327-73"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009314%E2%80%93315-74"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Central_Europe_in_Carolingian_times.jpg"},{"link_name":"East Francia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Francia"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic2006310-75"},{"link_name":"Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversio_Bagoariorum_et_Carantanorum"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978160-32"},{"link_name":"Carantanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carantanians"},{"link_name":"Slovenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenians"},{"link_name":"Modestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modestus_(Apostle_of_Carantania)"},{"link_name":"Mojmír","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojm%C3%ADr_I"},{"link_name":"Pribina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pribina"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009106%E2%80%93107-76"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006133%E2%80%93134-77"},{"link_name":"March of Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus2009101,_104-78"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrba%C5%84czyk2005145-79"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013103-80"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTET%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk2010131-81"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197024-82"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"Principality of Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Nitra"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200218-46"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200525-83"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUrba%C5%84czyk2005145-79"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitra_moravia_833.png"},{"link_name":"Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Geographer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199511-84"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006135%E2%80%93136-85"},{"link_name":"Marhari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravians_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Merehani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merehani"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199511-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013109-86"},{"link_name":"Steinhübel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Steinh%C3%BCbel"},{"link_name":"Třeštík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_T%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteinh%C3%BCbel2011b54-87"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTET%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk2010132%E2%80%9335-88"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197020-89"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199511-84"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%BCsp%C3%B6ki-Nagy197815-90"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenga1983318-91"},{"link_name":"Bulgars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgars"},{"link_name":"Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Geographer"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006136-92"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995159-94"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197024-82"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommerT%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk%C5%BDemli%C4%8DkaOpa%C4%8Di%C4%872007221-95"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommerT%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk%C5%BDemli%C4%8DkaOpa%C4%8Di%C4%872007221-95"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197024-82"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommerT%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk%C5%BDemli%C4%8DkaOpa%C4%8Di%C4%872007221-95"},{"link_name":"Italians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"Germans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans"},{"link_name":"in various ways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism#History"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978161-97"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommerT%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk%C5%BDemli%C4%8DkaOpa%C4%8Di%C4%872007221-95"},{"link_name":"Louis the German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_German"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006140-100"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197025-101"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200526-102"},{"link_name":"Rastislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006140-100"}],"sub_title":"Development of Moravia (c. 800–846)","text":"See also: Principality of NitraJewelry from a princely burial site at Kolín, c. 850–900 ADSpherical gombiki from the Mikulčice Archaeological ParkMoravia, the first Western Slavic polity, arose through the unification of the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube.[64] However, its formation is scarcely described by contemporaneous sources.[65] The archaeologist Barford writes that the first report of the emerging Moravian state was recorded in 811.[8] In the autumn of this year, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, Avar rulers and the duces or \"leaders of the Slavs who live along the Danube\"[66] visited the court of Emperor Louis the Pious (r. 814–840) in Aachen.[67] The earliest certain reference to Moravians or Maravani is dated to 822 when the emperor \"received embassies and presents from all the East Slavs, that is, Obodrites, Sorbs, Wilzi, Bohemians, Moravians and Praedenecenti, and from the Avars living in Pannonia\"[68] at an assembly held at Frankfurt.[30][69][70][71]Map of Moravia within East Francia in 814The late-9th-century[72] Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum (\"The Conversion of the Bavarians and the Carantanians\") makes the first reference to a Moravian ruler.[30] Carantanians (ancestors of present-day Slovenians) were the first Slavic people to accept Christianity from the West. They were mostly Christianized by Irish missionaries sent by the Archdiocese of Salzburg, among them Modestus, known as the \"Apostle of Carantanians\". This process was later described in the Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, which states that Mojmír, \"duke of the Moravians\", expelled \"one Pribina\" across the Danube.[73][74] Pribina fled to Ratpot who administered the March of Pannonia from around 833.[75] Whether Pribina had up to that time been an independent ruler or one of Mojmir's officials is a matter of scholarly discussion. For instance, Urbańczyk writes that Mojmir and Pribina were two of the many Moravian princes in the early 9th century,[76] while according to Havlík,[77] Třeštík[78] and Vlasto,[79] Pribina was Mojmír's lieutenant in Nitra. Historians who identify Pribina as the ruler of an autonomous state, the Principality of Nitra—for instance, Bartl,[44] Kirschbaum[80] and Urbańczyk[76]—add that \"Great Moravia\" emerged through the enforced integration of his principality into Moravia under Mojmír.A map presenting the theory of the co-existence of two principalities (Moravia and Nitra) before the 830sThe 9th-century Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube—which lists the peoples along the borders of East Francia in a north-to-south order—mentions that the Moravians or Marharii[8][81] had 11 fortresses or civitates.[82] The document locates the Marhari between the Bohemians and the Bulgars, and also makes mention of the Merehani and their 30 fortresses.[81] According to Havlík, who writes that Conversion is a consolidated version of notes made by several authors in different years, the Moravians are twice mentioned in the text: first as Marhari, and next as Merehani. He says, that the reference to the Marhari and their 11 fortresses was made between 817 and 843, and the note of the Merehani shows the actual state under Svatopluk I.[83] In contrast with Havlík, Steinhübel together with Třeštík and Vlasto identify the Merehani with the inhabitants of the Principality of Nitra.[84][85][86] A third view is presented by Püspöki-Nagy and Senga, who write that the reference to the Merehanii—who obviously inhabited the southern regions of the Great Hungarian Plains to the north of the Danube, but south of the territories dominated by the Bulgars—and their 30 fortresses shows the existence of another Moravia in Central Europe.[81][87][88]Among the Bohemians are 15 fortresses. The [Marharii] have 11 fortresses. The region of the Bulgars is immense. That numerous people has five fortresses, since their great multitude does not require fortresses. The people called [Merehanii] have 30 fortresses.— Catalogue of Fortresses and Regions to the North of the Danube[89]According to a 13th-century source, the History of the Bishops of Passau and the Dukes of Bavaria,[90] Bishop Reginhar of Passau (r. 818–838) baptized \"all of the Moravians\"[91] in 831.[79][92] There is no other information on the circumstances of this mass conversion.[92] Vlasto[79] writes that Mojmír had by that time been converted to Christianity; according to Petr Sommer and other historians, he was also baptized on this occasion.[92] All the same, the Life of Methodius narrates that Christian missionaries had by the 860s arrived in Moravia \"from among the Italians, Greeks and Germans\" who taught them \"in various ways\".[93][94] The Life of Constantine adds that missionaries from East Francia did not forbid \"the offering of sacrifices according to the ancient customs\",[95] which shows that pagan rites were continued for decades even after 831.[92]According to the Annals of Fulda, around August 15, 846, Louis the German, King of East Francia (r. 843–876) launched a campaign \"against the Moravian Slavs, who were planning to defect\".[96][97] The exact circumstances of his expedition are unclear. For instance, Vlasto writes that the Frankish monarch took advantage of the internal strife which followed Mojmír's death,[98] while according to Kirschbaum, Mojmír was captured and dethroned during the campaign.[99] However, it is without doubt that Louis the German appointed Mojmír's nephew, Rastislav, as the new duke of Moravia during this campaign.[97]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200620-65"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"link_name":"Slanské Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slansk%C3%A9_Hills"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200527-103"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001109-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prince_Rastislav.JPG"},{"link_name":"Rastislav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastislav_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Radbod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radbod_(prefect)"},{"link_name":"March of Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200527-103"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006242-104"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200620-21-105"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200219%E2%80%9320-107"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001115-108"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahoney201125-109"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Budd-110"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"Carloman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carloman_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995126-112"},{"link_name":"Magyars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magyars"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996133-113"},{"link_name":"Annals of St. Bertin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_St._Bertin"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996133-113"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEObolensky199444-115"},{"link_name":"Pope Nicholas I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_I"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Michael III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_III"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEObolensky199444-115"},{"link_name":"Constantine and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200527-103"},{"link_name":"first Slavic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_script"},{"link_name":"Gospel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel"},{"link_name":"Old Church Slavonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197037-39-116"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200530-117"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995140-118"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995140-118"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995155-121"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995155-121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:San_clemente_fresco.jpg"},{"link_name":"Constantine and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"Pope Hadrian II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Hadrian_II"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197055%E2%80%9356-123"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Kocel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocel"},{"link_name":"Lower Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Slavs#Principality"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197066-124"},{"link_name":"Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Methodius_of_Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"Sirmium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirmium"},{"link_name":"Saint Andronicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andronicus_of_Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197067-126"},{"link_name":"Carantanians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carantanians"},{"link_name":"Slovenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenians"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Land_Between_2013-127"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Land_Between_2013-127"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006284-128"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995161-129"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995161-129"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200220-111"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995161-129"},{"link_name":"Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Fat"},{"link_name":"Annals of Fulda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Fulda"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"}],"sub_title":"Fights for independence (846–870)","text":"Rastislav (r. 846–870), who initially accepted the suzerainty of Louis the German, consolidated his position within Moravia[62] and expanded the frontiers of his realm.[8] For instance, according to Kirschbaum, he annexed the region of the Slanské Hills in the eastern parts of present-day Slovakia.[100] Barford even writes that the development of the state mentioned as \"Great Moravia\" by Constantine Porphyrogenitus commenced in Rastislav's reign.[8]Modern depiction of Rastislav as an Orthodox saintHe turned against East Francia and supported the rebellion of Radbod, the deposed prefect of the March of Pannonia, against Louis the German in 853.[100][101] The Frankish monarch retaliated by invading Moravia in 855.[102] According to the Annals of Fulda, the Moravians were \"defended by strong fortifications\",[103] and the Franks withdrew without defeating them,[104][105] though the combats lasted until a peace treaty was worked out in 859.[106] The truce is regarded as a stalemate and shows the growing strength of Rastislav's realm.[107] Conflicts between Moravia and East Francia continued for years.[108] For instance, Rastislav supported Louis the German's son, Carloman, in his rebellion against his father in 861.[109] The first record of a raid by the Magyars in Central Europe seems to have been connected to these events.[110] According to the Annals of St. Bertin, \"enemies called Hungarians\"[111] ravaged Louis the German's kingdom in 862, which suggests that they supported Carloman.[110]Rastislav wanted to weaken influence of Frankish priests in his realm, who served the interests of East Francia.[112] He first sent envoys to Pope Nicholas I in 861 and asked him to send missionaries to Moravia who mastered the Slavic language.[108] Having received no answer from Rome, Rastislav turned to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III with the same request.[108] By establishing relations with Constantinople, he also desired to counter an anti-Moravian alliance recently concluded between the Franks and Bulgarians.[112] Upon his request, the emperor sent two brothers, Constantine and Methodius—the future Saints Cyril and Methodius—who spoke the Slavic dialect of the region of Thessaloniki to Moravia in 863.[100] Constantine's Life narrates that he developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into Old Church Slavonic around that time.[113][114]Louis the German crossed the Danube and again invaded Moravia in August 864.[108][115] He besieged Rastislav \"in a certain city, which in the language of that people is called Dowina\",[116] according to the Annals of Fulda.[115] Although the Franks could not take the fortress, Rastislav agreed to accept Louis the German's suzerainty.[117] However, he continued to support the Frankish monarch's opponents.[118] For instance, Louis the German deprived one Count Werner \"of his public offices\",[119] because the count was suspected to have conspired with Rastislav against the king.[118]Constantine and Methodius in RomeThe Byzantine brothers, Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius, visited Rome in 867.[108] At the end of the year, Pope Hadrian II (r. 867–872) sanctioned their translations of liturgical texts and ordained six of their disciples as priests.[108][120] The pope informed three prominent Slavic rulers—Rastislav, his nephew, Svatopluk and Kocel, who administered Lower Pannonia—of his approval of the use of the vernacular in the liturgy in a letter of 869.[121] In 869 Methodius was sent by the pope to Rastislav, Svatopluk and Kocel, but Methodius visited only Kocel, who sent him back to the pope. Hadrian then consecrated Methodius as archbishop with the title of Metropolitan of Sirmium to \"the seat of Saint Andronicus\",[122] i.e., the see of Sirmium.[123] At the beginning of the 9th century, many Carantanians (Alpine Slavs), ancestors of present-day Slovenians, settled in the Lower Pannonian region,[124] also known as the Balaton Principality, which was referred to in Latin sources as Carantanorum regio, or \"The Land of the Carantanians\". The name Carantanians (Quarantani) was in use until the 13th century. Kocel's decision to support Methodius represented a complete break with his father's pro-Frankish policy.[124] Svatopluk had by that time been administering what had been the Principality of Nitra, under his uncle Rastislav's suzerainty, but contemporaneous documents do not reveal the exact location of Svatopluk's successorial territory.[125] Frankish troops invaded both Rastislav's and Svatopluk's realms in August 869.[108][126] According to the Annals of Fulda, the Franks destroyed many forts, defeated Moravian troops and seized loot.[126] However, they could not take Rastislav's main fortress and withdrew.[108][126][Louis the German] ordered the Bavarians to assist Carloman, who wished to fight against [Svatopluk], the nephew of [Rastislav]. He himself kept the Franks and Alemans with him to fight against [Rastislav]. When it was already time to set out he fell ill, and was compelled to leave the leadership of the army to Charles his youngest son and commend the outcome to God. Charles, when he came with the army with which he had been entrusted to [Rastislav's] huge fortification, quite unlike any built in olden times, with God's help burnt with fire all the walled fortifications of the region, seized and carried off the treasures which had been hidden in the woods or buried in the fields, and killed or put to fight all who came against him. Carloman also laid waste the territory of [Svatopluk], [Rastislav's] nephew, with fire and war. When the whole region had been laid waste the brothers Charles and Carloman came together and congratulated each other on the victories bestowed by heaven.— Annals of Fulda[127]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bratislava_Profesionalita_maestra_Kulicha.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bratislava Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava_Castle"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200531-131"},{"link_name":"William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_(marcha_orientalis)"},{"link_name":"Engelschalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelschalk_I"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200531-131"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"Slavomír","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavom%C3%ADr_of_Moravia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"Dušan Třeštík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_T%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"citation 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needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Wiching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiching"},{"link_name":"bishop of Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Nitra"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Letter_svatopluk.jpg"},{"link_name":"papal bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull"},{"link_name":"Theotmar of Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietmar_I,_Archbishop_of_Salzburg"},{"link_name":"suffragan bishops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragan_bishop"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995194,_337-141"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200624-142"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Methodius_ch10_p119-137"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006129%E2%80%93130-144"},{"link_name":"bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_bull"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200221-132"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995192,_194-145"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"liturgical language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cyrilmetod-146"},{"link_name":"Annals of Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Salzburg"},{"link_name":"Kabars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabar"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996150,_175-147"},{"link_name":"Gyula Kristó","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyula_Krist%C3%B3"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996150-148"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995238-149"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995238,_338-150"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gorazd_from_Slivnica_Monastery.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Gorazd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St_Gorazd&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wilhelminer War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelminer_War"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995208%E2%80%93216-152"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fulda_y884_p110-153"},{"link_name":"Rába","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1ba"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995212-154"},{"link_name":"Regino of Prüm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regino_of_Pr%C3%BCm"},{"link_name":"Arnulf of Carinthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacLean2003135-155"},{"link_name":"Charles the Fat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Fat"},{"link_name":"Tulln an der Donau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulln_an_der_Donau"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fulda_y884_p110-153"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200624-142"},{"link_name":"Pope Stephen V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Stephen_V"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004234-157"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197081-158"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978161-97"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197081-158"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995189-159"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197081-158"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta200614-160"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995189-159"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"Regino of Prüm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regino_of_Pr%C3%BCm"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995222-162"},{"link_name":"Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesia"},{"link_name":"Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusatia"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996175-164"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996175-164"}],"sub_title":"Svatopluk's reign (870–894)","text":"Statue of Svatopluk I on Bratislava Castle, SlovakiaSvatopluk allied himself with the Franks and helped them seize Rastislav in 870.[128] Carloman annexed Rastislav's realm and appointed two Frankish lords, William and Engelschalk, to administer it.[129] Frankish soldiers arrested Archbishop Methodius on his way from Rome to Moravia at the end of the year.[128][129] Svatopluk, who continued to administer his own realm after his uncle's fall, was accused of treachery and arrested by Carloman on Louis the German's orders in 871.[129][130] The Moravians rose up in open rebellion against the two Frankish governors and elected a kinsman of Svatopluk, Slavomír, duke.[117][129][130] Svatopluk returned to Moravia, took over command of the insurgents, and drove the Franks from Moravia.[117] According to the Czech historian Dušan Třeštík, the rebellion of 871 led to the formation of the first Slavic state.[citation needed]Louis the German sent his armies against Moravia in 872.[131] The imperial troops plundered the countryside, but could not take the \"extremely well-fortified stronghold\" where Svatopluk took refuge.[131] The Moravian ruler even succeeded in mustering an army which defeated a number of imperial troops, forcing the Franks to withdraw from Moravia.[129][131] Svatopluk soon initiated negotiations with Louis the German, which ended with a peace treaty concluded at Forchheim in May 874.[129] According to the Annals of Fulda, at Forchheim Svatopluk's envoy promised that Svatopluk \"would remain faithful\" to Louis the German \"all the days of his life\",[132] and the Moravian ruler was also obliged to pay a yearly tribute to East Francia.[129][133]In the meantime, Archbishop Methodius, who had been released upon the demand of Pope John VIII (r. 872–882) in 873, returned to Moravia.[130] Methodius's Life narrates that \"Prince Svatopluk and all the Moravians\" decided to entrust \"to him all the churches and clergy in all the towns\"[134] in Moravia upon his arrival.[135] In Moravia, Methodius continued the work of translation started in his brother's life.[136][137] For instance, he translated \"all the Scriptures in full, save Maccabees\",[134] according to his Life.[136][137] However, Frankish priests in Moravia opposed the Slavic liturgy and even accused Methodius of heresy.[citation needed] Although the Holy See never denied Methodius's orthodoxy, in 880 the Pope appointed his main opponent, Wiching, as bishop of Nitra upon the request of Svatopluk, who himself preferred the Latin rite.[129]The papal bull Scire vos volumus of 879 addressed to SvatoplukA letter written around 900 by Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg (r. 873–907) and his suffragan bishops mentions that the pope sent Wiching to \"a newly baptized people\" whom Svatopluk \"had defeated in war and converted from paganism to Christianity\".[138] Other sources also prove that Svatopluk significantly expanded the borders of his realm.[139] For instance, according to the Life of Methodius, Moravia \"began to expand much more into all lands and to defeat its enemies successfully\"[134] in the period beginning around 874.[130] The same source writes of a \"very powerful pagan prince settled on the Vistula\"[140] in present-day Poland who persecuted the Christians in his country, but was attacked and seized by Svatopluk.[141]Upon Methodius's request, in June 880 Pope John issued the bull Industriae tuae for Svatopluk[129] whom he addressed as \"glorious count\" (gloriosus comes).[142] In the bull, the pope refers to Svatopluk as \"the only son\" (unicus fillius) of the Holy See, thus applying a title which had up to that time been only used in papal correspondence with emperors and candidates for imperial rank.[9][130] The pope explicitly granted the protection of the Holy See to the Moravian monarch, his officials and subjects.[130] Furthermore, the bull also confirmed Methodius's position as the head of the church in Moravia with jurisdiction over all clergymen, including the Frankish priests, in Svatopluk's realm[117][130] and Old Church Slavonic was recognized as the fourth liturgical language together with Latin, Greek and Hebrew.[143]The longer version of the Annals of Salzburg makes mention of a raid by the Magyars and the Kabars in East Francia in 881.[144] According to Gyula Kristó[145] and other historians,[146] Svatopluk initiated this raid, because his relations with Arnulf—the son of Carloman, King of East Francia (r. 876–881), who administered the March of Pannonia—became tense.[117] Archbishop Theotmar of Salzburg clearly accused the Moravians of hiring \"a large number of Hungarians\" and sending them against East Francia at an unspecified date.[147]Icon of St Gorazd, a disciple of St Cyril and Method of Moravian origin, who was the designated successor of archbishop MethodDuring the \"Wilhelminer War\"—a civil war between two factions of local noblemen in the March of Pannonia which lasted from 882 and 884—Svatopluk \"collected troops from all the Slav lands\"[148] and invaded Pannonia.[9][149] According to the Bavarian version of the Annals of Fulda, the Moravians' invasion \"led to Pannonia's being laid waste\"[150] to the east of the river Rába.[9][151] However, Regino of Prüm states that it was Arnulf of Carinthia who maintained control over Pannonia in 884.[152] Svatopluk had a meeting with Emperor Charles the Fat (r. 881–888) at Tulln an der Donau in Bavaria in 884.[153] At the meeting, \"dux\" Svatopluk became the emperor's vassal and \"swore fidelity to him\",[150] promising that he would never attack the emperor's realm.[153]Archbishop Methodius died on April 6, 885.[139] Led by Bishop Wiching of Nitra, Methodius's opponents took advantage of his death and persuaded Pope Stephen V (r. 885–891) to restrict the use of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy in the bull Quia te zelo.[153][154][155] Bishop Wiching even convinced Svatopluk to expel all Methodius's disciples from Moravia in 886,[94][153] thus marring the promising literary and cultural boom of Central European Slavs—the Slovaks took nearly a thousand years to develop a new literary language of their own.Pope Stephen addressed the Quia te zelo bull to Zventopolco regi Sclavorum (\"Svatopluk, King of the Slavs\"), suggesting that Svatopluk had by the end of 885 been crowned king.[155][156] Likewise, Frankish annals occasionally referred to Svatopluk as king in connection with events occurring in this period.[155] The Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea—a late-12th-century source with questionable reliability[157]—narrates that one \"Sventopelk\" was crowned king \"on the field of Dalma\" in the presence of a papal legate.[156]Moravia reached its maximum territorial extent in the last years of Svatopluk's reign.[153] According to Regino of Prüm, King Arnulf of East Francia \"gave the command of the Bohemians to King Zwentibald of the Moravian Slavs\"[158] in 890.[159] Bartl and other Slovak historians write that Svatopluk \"probably\" also annexed Silesia and Lusatia in the early 890s.[153] According to the Annals of Fulda, King Arnulf proposed a meeting to Svatopluk in 892, \"but the latter in his usual fashion refused to come to the king and betrayed his fidelity and all the things which he had promised before\".[160][161] In response, Arnulf invaded Moravia in 892, but could not defeat Svatopluk, although Magyar horsemen also supported the Eastern Frankish monarch.[117][161]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hungarian invasions of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Svatopluk_I.jpg"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I"},{"link_name":"Mojmír II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojm%C3%ADr_II"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_II"},{"link_name":"Predslav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predslav"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pr%C3%BCm_y894_p218-165"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"Mojmir II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojmir_II"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200625-166"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197083-167"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200530-117"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200222-156"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001253-168"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200534-169"},{"link_name":"Pope John IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_IX"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200223-170"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995337-171"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESommerT%C5%99e%C5%A1t%C3%ADk%C5%BDemli%C4%8DkaOpa%C4%8Di%C4%872007324-172"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_II"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200625-166"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200534-169"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200223-170"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995243-174"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova200223-170"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011344-175"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pr%C3%BCm_y894_p218-165"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011344-175"},{"link_name":"their conquest of the Carpathian Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_conquest_of_the_Carpathian_Basin"},{"link_name":"Pontic steppes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_steppes"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006''xviii'',_178%E2%80%93179-176"},{"link_name":"Johannes Aventinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Aventinus"},{"link_name":"Hron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hron"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996175%E2%80%93176-177"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_in_900_AD.png"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995338-178"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996178,_198-179"},{"link_name":"Liudprand of Cremona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liudprand_of_Cremona"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"Louis the Child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Child"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrist%C3%B31996a200-181"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995246-182"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200534-169"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995250-183"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinei200369-184"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTER%C3%B3na-Tas1999338-185"},{"link_name":"Victor Spinei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Spinei"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpinei200369-184"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200625-166"},{"link_name":"Raffelstetten Customs Regulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffelstetten_Customs_Regulations"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013297-186"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011344-175"},{"link_name":"battle at Brezalauspurc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pressburg"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011344-175"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetkov2008106%E2%80%93107-187"}],"sub_title":"Decline and fall (894–before 907)","text":"See also: Hungarian invasions of EuropeSvatopluk I with three twigs and his three sons—Mojmír II, Svatopluk II and PredslavSvatopluk—\"a man most prudent among his people and very cunning by nature\",[162] according to Regino of Prüm—died in the summer of 894.[153] He was succeeded by his son, Mojmir II,[163][164] but his empire shortly disintegrated, because the tribes subjugated to Svatopluk's rule by force started to get rid of Moravian supremacy.[114] For instance, the Bohemian dukes (based in the Prague region) accepted King Arnulf's suzerainty in June 895, and Mojmír II attempted to restore his supremacy over them without success in the next two years.[153][165][166] On the other hand, he succeeded in restoring the Church organization in Moravia by persuading Pope John IX (r. 898–900) to send his legates to Moravia in 898.[167] The legates in short order installed an archbishop and \"three bishops as his suffragans\"[168] in Moravia.[169]Conflicts emerging between Mojmír II and his younger brother, Svatopluk II, gave King Arnulf a pretext to send his troops to Moravia in 898 and 899.[163][166][167] The Annals of Fulda writes that the \"boy\" Svatopluk II was rescued by Bavarian forces \"from the dungeon of the city in which he was held with his men\" [170] in 899.[171] According to Bartl, who wrote that Svatopluk II had inherited the \"Principality of Nitra\" from his father, the Bavarians also destroyed the fortress at Nitra on this occasion.[167]According to most nearly contemporaneous sources, the Hungarians played a prominent role in the fall of Moravia.[172] For instance, Regino of Prüm writes that Svatopluk I's \"sons held his kingdom for a short and unhappy time, because the Hungarians utterly destroyed everything in it\".[162][172] The Hungarians started their conquest of the Carpathian Basin after their defeat in the westernmost territories of the Pontic steppes around 895 by a coalition of the Bulgars and Pechenegs.[173] Only a late source, the 16th-century Johannes Aventinus, writes that the Hungarians had by that time controlled wide regions to east of the rivers Hron and Danube in the Carpathian Basin.[174]Map of Europe in 900, showing Great Moravia and its neighborsA letter of Theotmar of Salzburg and his suffragans evidences that around 900 the Moravians and the Bavarians accused each other of having formed alliances, even by taking oaths \"by the means of a dog and a wolf and through other abominable and pagan customs\",[175] with the Hungarians.[176] According to Liudprand of Cremona, the Hungarians already \"claimed for themselves the nation of the Moravians, which King Arnulf had subdued with the aid of their might\"[177] at the coronation of Arnulf's son, Louis the Child, in 900.[178] The Annals of Grado adds that a large Hungarian army \"attacked and invaded\" the Moravians in 900.[179] Facing the threat of further Hungarian attacks, Mojmír II concluded a peace treaty with Louis the Child in 901.[166][180]Due to the lack of documentary evidence, the year in which Moravia ceased to exist cannot be determined with certainty.[181] Róna-Tas[182] writes that the Hungarians occupied Moravia in 902, Victor Spinei[181] says that this happened in 903 or 904, while according to Spiesz, the Moravian state ceased to exist in 907.[163] The Raffelstetten Customs Regulations, which was issued in the years 903–906,[183] still refers to the \"markets of the Moravians\", suggesting that Moravia still existed at that time.[172] It is without doubt that no Moravian forces fought in the battle at Brezalauspurc, where the Hungarians routed a large Bavarian force in 907.[172]The Moravian land, according to the prophecy of the holy archbishop Methodius, was promptly punished by God for their lawlessness and heresy, for the banishment of the orthodox fathers, and for the torments inflicted on the latter by the heretics with whom they acquiesced. In a few years the Magyars came, a people of Peonia, sacked their land and devastated it. But [Methodius's disciples] were not captured by the Magyars for they fled to the Bulgarians. However, the land remained desolate under the rule of the Magyars.— First Legend of Saint Naum[184]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"Nomocanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomocanon"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011333-11"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006126-139"},{"link_name":"ecclesiastical law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_law"},{"link_name":"Ecloga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecloga"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006126-139"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto197078-140"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006126-139"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek20127-188"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek20127-188"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek20127-188"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"Written sources from the 9th century contain almost no information on the internal affairs of Moravia.[9] Only two legal texts—the Nomocanon and the Court Law for the People—have been preserved.[9][136] The former is a translation of a collection of Byzantine ecclesiastical law; the latter is based on the 8th-century Byzantine law code known as Ecloga.[136][137] Both were completed by Methodius shortly before his death in 885.[136]In addition to the study of early medieval chronicles and charters, archaeological research contributed to the understanding of the Moravian state and society.[185] The Moravian centres at Mikulčice, Pohansko and Staré Město were thoroughly excavated in the 1950s and 1960s.[185] However, as Macháček writes, \"the acquired huge amounts of finds and data still have to be properly processed\".[185]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thunau_am_Kamp_Reconstructed_Slavic_gatehouse_03.JPG"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"hill forts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_fort"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001-189"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001-189"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalu%C5%A1ka199156-190"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"Mikulčice-Valy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C4%8Dice-Valy"},{"link_name":"Staré Město – Uherské Hradiště","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A9_M%C4%9Bsto_(Uhersk%C3%A9_Hradi%C5%A1t%C4%9B_District)"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"Ducové","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducov%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Carolingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_architecture"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1198996,_100-192"},{"link_name":"Morava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morava_(river)"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006245-193"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalu%C5%A1ka199172-194"},{"link_name":"Mikulčice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C4%8Dice"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bm-195"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-poulik-196"},{"link_name":"Břeclav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%99eclav"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"appanage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appanage"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-caplovic-197"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina199715%E2%80%9323-198"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kostolec.JPG"},{"link_name":"pre-Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture"},{"link_name":"rotunda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotunda_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Ducové","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducov%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Bratislava Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava_Castle"},{"link_name":"three-nave basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moravian_Basilica_in_Bratislava"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1198989-90-199"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krist%C3%B3-200"},{"link_name":"Predslav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predslav"},{"link_name":"Cividale del Friuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cividale_del_Friuli"},{"link_name":"Braslav of Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braslav_of_Pannonia"},{"link_name":"Arnulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krist%C3%B3-200"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013301-201"},{"link_name":"Bojná","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojn%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"Váh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1h"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra_(river)"},{"link_name":"Detva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detva"},{"link_name":"Zeplín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zepl%C3%ADn_Castle&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Čingov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%8Cingov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Devín Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C3%ADn_Castle"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1198992-202"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archontologia-204"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1198992-202"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1198992-202"},{"link_name":"Devínska Nová Ves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C3%ADnska_Nov%C3%A1_Ves"},{"link_name":"Svätý Jur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C3%A4t%C3%BD_Jur"},{"link_name":"Gars am Kamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gars_am_Kamp"},{"link_name":"Kamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamp_(river)"},{"link_name":"Lower Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Austria"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Regensburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regensburg"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006122-205"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"Devín Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C3%ADn_Castle"},{"link_name":"Brezalauspurc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pressburg#Location"},{"link_name":"Bratislava Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava_Castle"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-converse-206"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medievalsources-208"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spiez-209"},{"link_name":"Uzhhorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzhhorod"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Annales Fuldenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_Fuldenses"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-caplovic-197"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"}],"sub_title":"Settlement structure","text":"Reconstruction of a Great Moravian gatehouse and ramparts in Thunau am Kamp, AustriaThe nuclei of the Great Moravian settlement structure were well-defended fortified settlements built by the local Slavs both on elevated positions and lowland areas like marshes and river islands. Most Great Moravian castles were rather large hill forts, fortified by wooden palisades, stone walls and in some cases, moats. The typical Great Moravian ramparts combined an outer drystone wall with an internal timber structure filled with earth.[186]The fortifications usually formed several contiguous enclosures, with the elite buildings concentrated in the centre and crafts in the outer enclosures.[186] Most buildings were made of timber, but ecclesiastical buildings and residential dwellings were made of stone. In many cases, prehistoric fortifications were also integrated. The Great Moravian towns, especially in Moravia, but also in the lowlands of Slovakia, were frequently far from the place where the stone was mined and material was transported dozens of kilometres.[187][d]The Great Moravian settlements can be divided into four main categories. The most important were localities with central functions like Mikulčice-Valy, Staré Město – Uherské Hradiště and Nitra, where several castles and settlements formed a huge fortified (pre-)urban agglomeration. Along with the main centres, the system of fortified settlements included fortified regional administrative hubs, forts whose primary function was defence, and refuge forts which were not inhabited permanently but were used in the case of danger. The largest forts were usually protected by a chain of smaller forts. Smaller forts were also built to protect trade routes and to provide shelter for peasants in case of attack. The existence of noble courts like in Ducové and in other places is also documented. Their form was probably inspired by Carolingian estates called curtis.[188]In 9th-century Mikulčice, the central fortified area, or Acropolis, was set on an island in the Morava and surrounded by a stone-faced rampart that enclosed an area of six hectares[189] (extensive extramural settlement of 200 hectares stood unfortified).[190] Although the location of the Great Moravian capital, \"Veligrad\", has not been identified, Mikulčice with its palace and 12 churches is the most widely accepted candidate.[191][192] An important settlement was a large agglomeration in Pohansko near Břeclav. Nitra, the centre of the eastern part of the Empire, was ruled autonomously by the heir of the dynasty as an appanage.[193][194] Nitra consisted of several large fortified settlements with various functions and approximately twenty specialized craftsmen's villages, making it a real metropolis of its time. Crafts included a production of luxury goods, such as jewelry and glass. The agglomeration was surrounded by a number of smaller forts.Foundations of a pre-Romanesque rotunda at the Great Moravian court in DucovéBratislava Castle had a stone two-story palace and a spacious three-nave basilica, built in the mid-9th century. Excavations of the cemetery situated by the basilica uncovered examples of Great Moravian jewelry, similar in style and quality to that from Mikulčice.[195] The castle's name was first recorded in 907, during the fall of Great Moravia, as Brezalauspurc.[196] This name literally means either \"Predslav's Castle\" after a son of Svatopluk I who is mentioned in the Cividale del Friuli, or \"Braslav's Castle\" after Braslav of Pannonia, who was a count appointed by King Arnulf (Arnulf of Carantania) of East Francia.[196][197] The agglomeration of several fortified settlements was unearthed in Slovak Bojná, discovering important artifacts related to Christianization of the territory. Numerous castles were built on the hills around the valleys of the Váh and the river Nitra, and also in other areas (e.g., Detva, Zeplín, Čingov), but were not built in south-eastern Slovakia.[citation needed]The sturdy Devín Castle, in vicinity of Bratislava, guarded Great Moravia against attacks from the West.[198] Although some authors claim that it was built only later as a stronghold of the Kings of Hungary,[199][200] excavations have unearthed an older Slavic fortified settlement founded in the 8th century.[198] During the Great Moravian period, Devín Castle was a seat of a local lord, whose retainers were buried around a stone Christian church.[198] These two castles were reinforced by smaller fortifications in Devínska Nová Ves, Svätý Jur and elsewhere. Another example is the fortress at Thunau am Kamp near Gars am Kamp, overlooking the river Kamp in Lower Austria. The defences here re-utilised banked defences of the Bronze Age and were only slightly smaller (fifty acres) than the area of the contemporary Frankish Emperor's capital of Regensburg.[201]The number of forts discovered exceeds the number recorded in the sources (11 centres of Moravians and 30 centres of \"other Moravians\" or Merehanos; opinions differ as to how to interpret the reference to Merehanos). Though the only castles which are mentioned by name in written texts are Nitrawa (828; identified with Nitra), Dowina (864; sometimes identified with Devín Castle) and perhaps Brezalauspurc (907; sometimes identified with Bratislava Castle),[202][203][204][205] some sources claim that Uzhhorod in Ukraine (903) was also a Moravian fortress. Devín Castle is sometimes identified with a \"fortress of Prince Rastislav\" mentioned in the Annales Fuldenses.[193][206]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dvur.jpg"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I"},{"link_name":"Arnulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia"},{"link_name":"Chronicle of Dalimil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle_of_Dalimil"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"House of Mojmir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Mojmir"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004233-212"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201211-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201211-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201211-28"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"ducis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dux"},{"link_name":"regis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex_(title)"},{"link_name":"maliks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011335-213"}],"sub_title":"Monarchs","text":"Svatopluk I disguised as a monk in the court of Arnulf, King of East Francia (from the 14th-century Chronicle of Dalimil)Moravia was ruled by monarchs from a \"wider kinship\"[207] known as the House of Mojmir.[208] The throne rarely passed from father to son.[26] Actually, Svatopluk I was the only ruler who was succeeded by his son.[26] Rastislav ascended the throne through the East Frankish monarch's intervention,[26] and Slavomir was elected as duke when the Franks captured Svatopluk in 871.[207] The latter case reveals the strong claim of the Mojmir dynasty to the throne, because Slavomir was an ordained priest at the time of his election.[207] The Moravian monarchs were regularly styled as ducis (\"dukes\"), occasionally as regis (\"kings\") or maliks (\"kings\") in 9th-century documents.[207] Tombs within a church have only been discovered at Mikulčice, implying that royals had an exclusive right to be buried in such a prestigious place.[209]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212-214"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212-214"},{"link_name":"zhupans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDupa"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004233-212"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011339-215"},{"link_name":"Vistulans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistulans"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004232-133"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0kvarnaBartl%C4%8Ci%C4%8DajKoh%C3%BAtova2002237-13"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200529-120"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpieszCaplovic200620-65"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina199715-216"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravia"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2013354-355-18"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006284-128"},{"link_name":"Tisza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tisza"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenga1983321-217"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEP%C3%BCsp%C3%B6ki-Nagy19789-218"}],"sub_title":"Administration","text":"The Annals of Fulda never refers to the Moravian monarchs as rulers of a state, but as heads of a people—dux Maravorum (\"duke of the Moravians\").[210] Accordingly, Macháček writes that \"Great Moravia was not primarily organized on a territorial basis [...], but more likely on the foundation of real or fictitious kinship bonds within the tribal structure\".[210] On the other hand, Havlík says that Moravia was divided into counties each headed by \"rich, honourable and well-born noblemen\" whom he styles as zhupans; he even adds that the number of counties increased from 11 to 30 by the second half of the 9th century.[208] Štefan adds that the existence of scattered groups of farmer warriors, which is suggested by archaeological research, implies the existence of administrative territorial units, because without such a system the monarchs could not organize their campaigns.[211]Svatopluk incorporated a number of Slavic tribes (including the Bohemians and Vistulans) into his empire.[130][117] The subjugated tribes were administered by vassal princes or governors,[130] but they preserved their autonomy, which contributed to the quick disintegration of Svatopluk's Moravia after his death.[117]\nAccording to Bartl,[11] Kirschbaum,[117] Štefan,[207] and other historians,[62][212] Great Moravia had two centres. According to Havlík the terms \"Moravian lands\" (Moravьskskyję strany), \"Upper Moravias\" (vyšnьnii Moravě, vyšnьneję Moravy) and \"Moravian realms\" (regna Marahensium, regna Marauorum) which were used in 9th-century documents refer to the dualistic organisation of the Moravian state, consisting of the \"Realm of Rastislav\" (regnum Rastizi) and the \"Realm of Svatopluk\" (regnum Zwentibaldi). He and other historians[207] identify the former with modern Moravia in the Czech Republic, and the latter with the Principality of Nitra in present-day Slovakia.[16] However, this view is not universally accepted: Svatopluk's realm has also been identified with the wider region of Staré Město,[125] or with the lands between the Danube and the Tisza[213] or east of the Tisza.[214]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997177-219"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997177-219"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001-189"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997177-219"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997181-220"},{"link_name":"knights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight"},{"link_name":"social strata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stratification"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dvorakova-221"},{"link_name":"Ahmad ibn Fadlan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan"},{"link_name":"Svatopluk I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svatopluk_I"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dvorakova-221"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997181-220"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997181-220"},{"link_name":"voivode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voivode"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centreandperiphery-222"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997181-220"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldberg2006245-193"},{"link_name":"sabres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre"},{"link_name":"reflexion bows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_shape"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuttkay1997184-223"}],"sub_title":"Warfare","text":"The known sources contain records about 65 events related to warfare and Great Moravia.[215] The most detailed are the Frankish sources during Svatopluk's reign.[215] The structure of the Great Moravian army was based mainly on an early feudal conception of military service, performed primarily by the ruling elites.The core of the Great Moravian army was a princely retinue comprising professional warriors, who were responsible for collecting tribute and punishing wrongdoers (družina).[186] The družina consisted of members of the aristocracy (\"older retinue\") and members of the princely military groups (\"younger retinue\").[215] Some of its members formed a permanent armed guard for the prince, while the rest were garrisoned at forts or at other strategic points. The družina was probably relatively loyal and provided stable support for the prince since there is no known record of any dissatisfaction with it or of any uprising. The permanent part of the army had an expressly cavalry character.[216] The Great Moravian heavy cavalry emulated the contemporary Frankish predecessors of knights, with the expensive equipment that only the highest social strata could afford[217] (a contemporary Arab traveller, Ahmad ibn Fadlan, reported that Svatopluk I had plenty of cavalry horses[217]). The overall size of the družina is estimated by Ruttkay at 3,000–5,000 men.[216] In the case of larger mobilisations, cavalry was reinforced by additional smaller units recruited from the retinues of local magnates and from traditional communities (občina). The second element of the army (pohotovosť) consisted of lower classes of free citizens who were not, in most cases, professional warriors. However, thanks to their large numbers and knowledge of the prevalent types of weapons they represented a serious military force. They played a decisive role mainly in the defence of Great Moravian territory; their participation in wars of expansion was less common.[216] The army was led by the prince or, in his absence, by a commander-in-chief called a voivode.[218] The maximum size of the army is estimated at 20,000–30,000 men.[216] In case of external aggression, ordinary people participated in defence and diversion actions. An important element of the defence of Great Moravia was a system of strong fortifications, which were difficult to besiege with the then prevailing forms of military organization. For example, a Frankish chronicler wrote with awe about the size of Rastislav's fortress (\"firmissimum, ut feritur, vallum\").[189]The typical weapon of a West Slavic foot soldier was an axe of a specific shape, called a bradatica. Spears were universally used by both infantry and cavalry. The weapons associated with a nomadic (Avar) culture, like sabres, reflexion bows and specific types of spears are missing. On the other hand, a military equipment became more influenced by western types and new types of weapons like double-edged swords (rare before the 9th century) became popular. Archers, unlike the previous period, were already a part of the infantry.[219]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995140,_248-225"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011334-211"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011335-213"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201213-226"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011335-213"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHavl%C3%ADk2004233-212"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212-214"}],"sub_title":"Aristocracy","text":"The existence of a local aristocracy is well documented: contemporaneous sources refer to \"leading men\"[220] (optimates or primates),[221] and nobiles viri or principes.[207] However, these documents do not reveal the basis of the Moravian chiefs' power.[207] Richly furnished graves—with the exception of the one at Blatnica, which is \"an old and disputable find\",[209] according to Štefan—have only been unearthed in Mikulčice and other large fortifications controlled by the monarchs.[222] Štefan writes that the concentration of prestige goods in the towns shows that \"immediate contact with the sovereign, who certainly travelled between the centres, was apparently the best winning strategy for the top elite\".[209] On the other hand, the optimates had an important role in the government: the monarchs did not make important decisions without discussing them in a council formed by the Moravian \"dukes\".[208][210]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg"},{"link_name":"Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavs"},{"link_name":"West Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Slavs"},{"link_name":"East Germanic tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanic_tribes"},{"link_name":"migration period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_period"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"},{"link_name":"Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historical_Dictionary_of_the_Czech_State-228"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks"},{"link_name":"Carolingian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google-229"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerendUrbanczykWiszewski201358-230"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus199516-231"},{"link_name":"Ottonian dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centreandperiphery-222"},{"link_name":"Slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery"},{"link_name":"feudal dependency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfdom"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centreandperiphery-222"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dvornik-233"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001114-234"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001114-234"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001115-108"},{"link_name":"caries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caries"},{"link_name":"bone fractures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001115-108"}],"sub_title":"Population","text":"Map showing the distribution of Slavic tribes between the 7th–9th centuries ADGreat Moravia was inhabited by the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group. The West Slavs have their origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had largely left this area during the migration period,[223] while the West Slavs \"assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations\" in the area.[224]Moravians had strong cultural ties to their western neighbors, the Franks, with certain objects proving Carolingian influence. The archaeological evidence demonstrates that the 9th-century material culture found in modern Moravia was very much in the Frankish sphere and showed minor Byzantine influence.[225][226][227]Carolingian influence affected all spheres of life in Great Moravia. After the Carolingian Empire was divided, the Ottonian dynasty took over and continued and cultivated Carolingian traditions. It is not accidental\nthat the newly created medieval West-Slavonic states borrow from Carolingian tradition via the Ottonian Empire.[228]Most of the population was formed by freemen, who were obliged to pay an annual tax.[218] Slavery and feudal dependency are also recorded.[218][229]The analysis of early medieval cemeteries in Moravia shows that 40 percent of men and 60 percent of women died before reaching the age of 40.[230] More than 40 percent of the graves contained the remains of children aged one to twelve.[230] However, the cemeteries also document rich nutrition and advanced health care.[105] For instance, a third of the examined skeletons had no caries or lost teeth, and bone fractures healed without dislocation.[105]","title":"State and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"Amber Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_Road"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek2009252-236"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001185-237"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011340-238"},{"link_name":"wheat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat"},{"link_name":"barley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"cereals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001155,_157-239"},{"link_name":"Przewalski horses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przewalski_horse"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001157-240"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001182-241"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212,_15-242"},{"link_name":"grivnas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzywna_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011343-243"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212-214"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978161-97"},{"link_name":"plowshares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plowshare"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoul%C3%ADk1978161-97"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201215-244"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMach%C3%A1%C4%8Dek201212-214"},{"link_name":"slaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlus1995338-178"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetkov2008106-245"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefan2011342-235"}],"text":"The large 9th-century fortresses unearthed at Mikulčice and other places were located in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Morava and Danube.[231] Two important trade routes crossed this region in this period, the Danube and the ancient Amber Road, implying that these settlements, all lying on rivers, were important centres of commerce.[231] Finds of tools, raw materials and semi-manufactured goods[232] show that quarters inhabited by craftsmen also existed in these settlements.[233] The large fortresses were surrounded by a number of small villages where the locals were engaged in agriculture.[234] They cultivated wheat, barley, millet and other cereals, and farmed cattle, pigs, sheep and horse.[235] Their animals were relatively small: for instance, their horses were not larger than modern Przewalski horses.[236]The existence of a general exchange medium in Moravia has not been proven:[231] there is no sign of local coinage[237] and foreign coins are scarce.[238] According to Bialeková and other archaeologists, the axe-shaped ingots (grivnas) unearthed in great number in fortresses served as \"premonetary currencies\". This theory has not universally been accepted, because these objects have also been interpreted as \"intermediate products intended for further treatment\".[239] According to Macháček, the lack of coins meant that Moravian monarchs could not \"effectively collect taxes, customs and fines\", which weakened their international position.[210]Iron metallurgy and smithing were the most important branches of local industry.[94] An example of highly developed tool production are asymmetrical plowshares.[94] There is no sign of silver, gold, copper or lead mines in Moravia, but jewellery and weapons were produced locally.[231] Accordingly, their prime material was acquired as loot or gift or brought to Moravia by merchants.[240] Archaeological research also evidences the import of prestige goods, including silk, brocade and glass vessels.[231] According to Štefan[231] and Macháček,[210] the Moravians primarily provided slaves, acquired as prisoners of war during their raids in the neighbouring regions, in exchange for these luxury goods. For instance, Archbishop Thietmar of Salzburg accused the Moravians of \"bringing noble men and honest women into slavery\"[175] during their campaigns in Pannonia.[231] Slave trading is also well documented: the First Legend of Naum narrates that many of Methodius's disciples \"were sold for money to the Jews\"[241] after 885, and the Raffelstetten Customs Regulations makes mention of slaves delivered from Moravia to the west.[231]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kopcany_st._margaret_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Church of St. Margaret of Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St._Margaret_of_Antioch,_Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"Kopčany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a40-246"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a40-246"},{"link_name":"Staré Město","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%C3%A9_M%C4%9Bsto_(Uhersk%C3%A9_Hradi%C5%A1t%C4%9B_District)"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014b8-247"},{"link_name":"Kopčany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"Kopčany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"Nitrianska Blatnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrianska_Blatnica"},{"link_name":"Kostoľany pod Tribečom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosto%C4%BEany_pod_Tribe%C4%8Dom"},{"link_name":"dendrochronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a61-248"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-poulik-196"},{"link_name":"Kopčany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kop%C4%8Dany"},{"link_name":"basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica"},{"link_name":"baptistery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptistery"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bm-195"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a61-248"},{"link_name":"secco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco-secco"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a44-249"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a44-249"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A11989119-250"},{"link_name":"Uherské Hradiště","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhersk%C3%A9_Hradi%C5%A1t%C4%9B"}],"sub_title":"Sacral architecture","text":"Church of St. Margaret of Antioch in Kopčany, Slovakia, one of remaining buildings for which the Great Moravian origin is consideredThe views on Great Moravian sacral architecture changed dramatically during the second half of the 20th century. At first, researchers assumed it to be limited to simple wooden churches like those known from the German environment in dating from the 7th to 8th centuries.[242] These wooden churches were suitable for initial missionary activities due to the easy availability of materials, quick construction and no need for consecration.[242] This opinion was refined in 1949 after excavations in Staré Město. From the 1960s, stone churches have also been excavated in Slovakia. As of 2014, more than 25 sacral buildings have been safely identified in the core territory of Great Moravia (Moravia and Western Slovakia).[243] The remains of the first uncovered churches were only \"negatives\" (ditches filled with secondary material after removal of original foundations), but later research also uncovered remains of buildings with original foundations. Especially after the discovery of Great Moravian graves near the church in Kopčany, the potential Great Moravian origin of several still-standing churches in Slovakia (viz., Kopčany, Nitrianska Blatnica, Kostoľany pod Tribečom) was once more an open question. The exact dating is a goal of ongoing research based on radiocarbon analysis and dendrochronology.[244]Great Moravian sacral architecture is represented by a rich variety of types, from three-nave basilicas (Mikulčice III, Bratislava), triconcha (Devín), simple rotunda without apses (Mikulčice VII), two-apse rotunda (Mikulčice VI), tetraconchic rotunda (Mikulčice IX) and a whole group of one-nave churches and rotundas with one apse. The largest number of churches has been found in south-eastern Moravia. Mikulčice, with twelve churches, clearly dominates among all other localities with the first stone churches built around 800[192] (a potential thirteenth church is Kopčany, on the Slovak side of the border). The three-nave basilica from Mikulčice, which has interior dimensions of 35 m by 9 m and a separate baptistery, is the largest sacral building found to date.[191][206] The high concentration of churches in Mikululčice exceeded the needs of the local population, and so are believed to be proprietary churches (Eigenkirchen), known also in Francia.[244] Large churches were also important ecclesiastical centres. The current dating of several churches precedes the Byzantine mission. The churches were decorated mostly by frescoes, but usage of secco is also documented.[245] The authors were probably foreign artists from Francia and northern Italy[245] (the latter indicated by, for example, the chemical composition of paintings in Bratislava and Devín[246]).Great Moravian sacral architecture was probably influenced by Frankish, Dalmatian-Istrian, Byzantine and classical architecture, which also indicated complex missionary activities. Two open-air museums, in Modrá near Uherské Hradiště and in Ducové, are devoted to Great Moravian architecture.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mikul%C4%8Dice-Valy_4.JPG"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_medieval_princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn,_850-900_AD,_187612.jpg"},{"link_name":"Christianization of Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Pohansko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%99eclav#Pohansko"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berend-251"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berend-251"},{"link_name":"Most pri Bratislave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_pri_Bratislave"},{"link_name":"Perun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perun"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETur%C4%8Dan2003-253"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Hiberno-Scottish missionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a23-254"},{"link_name":"Dalmatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatia"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-methodii-255"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a23-254"},{"link_name":"Bojná","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojn%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a24-256"},{"link_name":"Saints Cyril and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avar_Khaganate"},{"link_name":"Pribina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pribina"},{"link_name":"Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salzburg"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotek2014a23-254"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarford2001-189"},{"link_name":"Grave goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_goods"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"Saints Cyril and Methodius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schaff-257"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200532-258"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHossz%C3%BA2012317-259"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"Stone foundations of a church in Valy u Mikulčic, Czech RepublicExhibition Among the tribes and the state. Room with the Early medieval princely burial from Kolín (Starý Kolín), 850–900 ADLike other Slavs, the Great Moravian Slavs originally practised a polytheistic religion with an ancestor cult. Several cult places used prior to the Christianization of Moravia have been found in Moravia (Mikulčice and Pohansko). However, we do not know what these objects, such as a ring ditch with a fire, a horse sacrifice, or human limbs ritually buried in a cemetery, meant to Great Moravians.[247] An alleged[e] cult object in Mikulčice was reportedly used until the evangelization of the Moravian elite in the mid-9th century and idols in Pohansko were raised on the site of a demolished church during the pagan backlash in the 10th century.[247] The only Slavic pagan shrine found in modern Slovakia is an object in Most pri Bratislave dedicated probably to the god of war and thunder Perun. The shrine was abandoned in the mid-9th century and never restored.[248]The spread of Christianity had several stages and it is still an open research question. In older publications, the first organized missions were attributed mainly to Hiberno-Scottish missionaries, but modern works are more sceptical about their direct influence.[249] The territory of Great Moravia was originally evangelized by missionaries coming from the Frankish Empire or Byzantine enclaves in Italy and Dalmatia from the early 8th century and sporadically earlier.[206][250] Traces of an Aquileia-Dalmatic mission are found in Great Moravian architecture and language.[249] Northern Italian influence is assumed also for golden plaques with Christian motifs from Bojná[251] (probably from a portable altar), which belong to the most important Christian artefacts dated prior to the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. Especially after the defeat of the Avars at the end of the 8th century, Frankish missionaries became the most important part of organized missions. The first Christian church of the Western and Eastern Slavs known from written sources was built in 828 by Pribina in Nitra and consecrated by Bishop Adalram of Salzburg. Most of the territory was Christianized until the mid-9th century.[249] Despite the formal endorsement by the elites, Great Moravian Christianity was described as containing many pagan elements as late as 852.[186] Grave goods, such as food, could be found even in church graveyards.[206] The Church organization in Great Moravia was supervised by the Bavarian clergy until the arrival of the Byzantine missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863.[252]In 880, the pope ordained a Swabian monk, Wiching, as bishop of the newly established see of Nitra (\"sancta ecclesia Nitriensis\").[253] Some experts (e.g., Szőke Béla Miklós) say that the location of the seat of 9th century diocese is different from present-day Nitra.[254]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bascanska_ploca.jpg"},{"link_name":"Baščanska ploča","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%A1ka_tablet"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"inscribed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inscription"},{"link_name":"Zvonimir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_Zvonimir_of_Croatia"},{"link_name":"Benedictine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictine"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-260"},{"link_name":"Old Church Slavonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-261"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy_in_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Glagolitic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"customary law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custom_(law)"},{"link_name":"Byzantine law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"canon law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law"},{"link_name":"Proglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proglas"},{"link_name":"Clement of Ohrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Ohrid"},{"link_name":"Koceľ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koce%C4%BE"},{"link_name":"Balaton Principality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaton_Principality"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-methodii-255"},{"link_name":"styli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylus"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script"},{"link_name":"Preslav Literary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preslav_Literary_School"},{"link_name":"Kievan Rus'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27"},{"link_name":"Christianization of Kievan Rus'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27"},{"link_name":"at the beginning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Naum of Preslav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Naum"},{"link_name":"Clement of Ohrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Ohrid"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurta2006221%E2%80%93222-263"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"}],"sub_title":"Literature","text":"An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the mission in Great Moravia (Baščanska ploča from Croatia). The inscribed stone slab records Croatian king Zvonimir's donation of a piece of land to a Benedictine abbey in the time of abbot Drzhiha.[255]The impact of the mission of Cyril and Methodius extended beyond the religious and political spheres. Old Church Slavonic became the fourth liturgical language of the Christian world. However, after Methodius's death (885) all his followers were expelled from Great Moravia; accordingly, the use of Slavic liturgy in Great Moravia lasted only about 22 years.[256] Its late form remains the liturgical language of the Ukrainian, Russian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian and Polish Orthodox Churches. Cyril also invented the Glagolitic alphabet, suitable for Slavic languages, and first translated the Bible into a Slavic language, along with Methodius, who later completed the project.Methodius wrote the first Slavic legal code, combining local customary law with advanced Byzantine law. Similarly, the Great Moravian criminal law code was not merely a translation from Latin, but also punished a number of offenses originally tolerated by pre-Christian Slavic mores, yet prohibited by Christianity (mostly related to sexual conduct).[257] The canon law was simply adopted from Byzantine sources.There are not many literary works that can be unambiguously identified as originally written in Great Moravia. One of them is Proglas, a cultivated poem in which Cyril defends the Slavic liturgy. Vita Cyrilli (attributed to Clement of Ohrid) and Vita Methodii (probably written by Methodius's successor Gorazd) are biographies with valuable information about Great Moravia under Rastislav and Svatopluk I.The brothers also founded an academy, initially led by Methodius, which produced hundreds of Slavic clerics. A well-educated class was essential for administration of all early-feudal states and Great Moravia was no exception. Vita Methodii mentions that the bishop of Nitra served as Svatopluk I's chancellor, and even Prince Koceľ of the Balaton Principality was said to have mastered the Glagolitic script.[250] The location of the Great Moravian academy has not been identified, but possible sites include Mikulčice (where some styli have been found in an ecclesiastical building), Devín Castle (with a building identified as a probable school) and Nitra (with its Episcopal basilica and monastery). When Methodius's disciples were expelled from Great Moravia by Svatopluk I in 885, they disseminated their knowledge (including the Glagolitic script) to other Slavic countries, such as Bulgaria, Croatia and Bohemia. The Cyrillic script was created in Bulgaria in the Preslav Literary School, which became the standard alphabet the Bulgarian Empire and later in the Kievan Rus' (modern day Russia, Ukraine and Belarus). The Great Moravian cultural heritage was further developed in Bulgarian seminaries, paving the way for the Christianization of Kievan Rus'.The Cyrillo-Methodian cultural mission had significant impact on most Slavic languages and stood at the beginning of the modern Cyrillic alphabet, created in the 9th century AD in Bulgaria by Bulgarian disciples of Cyril and Methodius (Naum of Preslav, Clement of Ohrid and others).[258][259][260]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:K%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%BE_z_Mikul%C4%8Dic.png"},{"link_name":"Mikulčice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikul%C4%8Dice"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worldarcheology-210"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bm-195"}],"sub_title":"Arts","text":"A silver cross from MikulčiceIn the first half of the 9th century, Great Moravian craftsmen were inspired by contemporary Carolingian art.[206] In the second half of the 9th century, Great Moravian jewelry was influenced by Byzantine, Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic styles.[206] However, in the words of Czech archaeologist Josef Poulík, \"these new forms and techniques were not copied passively, but were transformed in the local idiom, establishing in this way the roots of the distinctive Great Moravian jewellery style.\"[206] Typical Great Moravian jewelry included silver and golden earrings decorated by fine granular filigree, as well as silver and gilded bronze buttons covered by foliate ornaments.[191]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tekov (Bars)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekov"},{"link_name":"Zemplín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zempl%C3%ADn_(region)"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-266"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krist%C3%B3_1988_21-100-267"},{"link_name":"feudalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kucera-268"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dvorakova-221"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centreandperiphery-222"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lukacka-269"},{"link_name":"Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunt_family"},{"link_name":"Pázmán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1zm%C3%A1ny_family"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lukacka-269"},{"link_name":"Anonymous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesta_Hungarorum"},{"link_name":"Simon of Kéza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_of_K%C3%A9za"},{"link_name":"Hunt-Pázmán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hont-P%C3%A1zm%C3%A1ny"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lukacka-269"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Swabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Swabia"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-F%C3%BCgedi-271"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sources-272"},{"link_name":"Tercia pars regni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tercia_pars_regni"},{"link_name":"Principality of Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Nitra"},{"link_name":"Árpád dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"Ruriks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_Dynasty"},{"link_name":"Kievan Rus'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Heller-274"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-steinhubel-275"},{"link_name":"romantic nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_nationalism"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum2005130-276"},{"link_name":"symbol of Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Constitution of Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"national revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_nationalism"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"toponyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponym"},{"link_name":"Inner Western Carpathians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Krist%C3%B3_1996_131-132,_141-277"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kniezsa_2000_p26-278"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dmgh-279"},{"link_name":"their raid in al-Andalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_raid_in_Spain_(942)"},{"link_name":"Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"Árpád dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rp%C3%A1d_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slovensko-280"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lukacka-269"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarsina199715%E2%80%9323-198"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slovensko-280"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pastor-281"},{"link_name":"Bolesław I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_the_Brave"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slovensko-280"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirschbaum200558-282"}],"text":"Great Moravian centres (e.g., Bratislava (Pozsony, Pressburg), Nitra (Nyitra), Tekov (Bars) and Zemplín (Zemplén)) retained their functions after the fall of Great Moravia, although the identification of Bratislava, Tekov and Zemplín as Great Moravian castles are not generally accepted.[261][clarification needed] Several sources suggest that Hungarian rulers followed the contemporary German or Bulgar patents when they established the new administrative system in their kingdom, or they introduced a new system.[262]Social differentiation in Great Moravia reached the state of early feudalism, creating the social basis for development of later medieval states in the region.[263] The question what happened to Great Moravian noble families after 907 is still under debate. On the one hand, recent research indicates that a significant part of the local aristocracy remained more or less undisturbed by the fall of Great Moravia and their descendants became nobles in the newly formed Kingdom of Hungary.[217][218][264] The most prominent example are the powerful families of Hunt and Pázmán.[264] On the other hand, both Anonymous and Simon of Kéza, two chroniclers of the early history of Hungary, recorded that the prominent noble families of the kingdom descended either from leaders of the Magyar tribes or from immigrants, and they did not connect any of them to Great Moravia. For example, the ancestors of the clan Hunt-Pázmán (Hont-Pázmány), whose Great Moravian origin has been advanced by Slovak scholars,[264] were reported by Simon of Kéza to have arrived from the Duchy of Swabia in the late 10th century.[265][266][267]The territories mentioned as \"Tercia pars regni\" (lit., \"one-third part of the Kingdom of Hungary\") in the medieval sources are referred to as the \"Duchy\" in Hungarian scholarly works and as the \"Principality of Nitra\" in Slovak academic sources. These territories were ruled autonomously by members of the Árpád dynasty residing in Bihar (today Biharea in Romania) or in Nitra—a practice reminiscent of the Great Moravian appanage system, but also similar to that of some other dynasties in the Early Middle Ages (e.g., the Ruriks in the Kievan Rus').[268][269] The existence of an autonomous political unit centered around Nitra is often considered by Slovak scholars an example of political continuity from the Great Moravian period.[270]Great Moravia also became a prominent theme of the Czech and Slovak romantic nationalism of the 19th century.[271] The Byzantine double-cross thought to have been brought by Cyril and Methodius is currently part of the symbol of Slovakia and the Constitution of Slovakia refers to Great Moravia in its preamble. Interest about that period rose as a result of the national revival in the 19th century. Great Moravian history has been regarded as a cultural root of several Slavic nations in Central Europe and it was employed in attempts to create a single Czechoslovak identity in the 20th century.Although the source cited above and other sources mention that Great Moravia disappeared without trace and that its inhabitants left for the Bulgars, with Croats and Magyars following their victories, archaeological research and toponyms suggest the continuity of Slavic population in the valleys of the rivers of the Inner Western Carpathians.[272][273] Moreover, there are sporadic references to Great Moravia from later years: in 924/925, both Folkuin in his Gesta abb. Lobiensium and Ruotger in Archiepiscopi Coloniensis Vita Brunonis[274] mention Great Moravia. In 942, Magyar warriors captured during their raid in al-Andalus said that Moravia is the northern neighbour of their people. The fate of the northern and western parts of former Central Europe in the 10th century is thus largely unclear.The eastern part of the Great Moravian core territory (present-day Slovakia) fell under domination of the Hungarian Árpád dynasty. The north-west borders of the Principality of Hungary became a mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land. This was the Hungarian gyepűelve, and it can be considered as a march that effectively lasted until the mid-13th century.[275] The rest remained under the rule of the local Slavic aristocracy[264] and was gradually[194] integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in a process finished in the 14th century.[275][276] In 1000 or 1001, all of present-day Slovakia was taken over by Poland under Bolesław I, and much of this territory became part of the Kingdom of Hungary by 1031.[275][277]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince"},{"link_name":"Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"Devín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Nitra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitra"},{"link_name":"Levice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levice"},{"link_name":"Želovce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDelovce"},{"link_name":"Košice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice"},{"link_name":"Šebastovce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ebastovce"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-191"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-252"},{"link_name":"Mazuch 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMazuch2012"}],"text":"^ King, Ruler, in the international context also translated as Prince or Duke.\n\n^ On a 9th-century gilt belt extender found in tomb number 240, located in Mikulčice-Valy. The gravure appears clumsy, but it is the only known image of a Great Moravian flag.\n\n^ The occurrence of the biritual cemeteries from the middle and late Avar period is limited to the line Devín-Nitra-Levice-Želovce-Košice-Šebastovce, but no proof of a permanent presence of the Avars was found north of this line (~7200 km2 with 180 known localities). The archaeological research in Slovakia does not suggest that the border of the khaganate sat on the Carpathians.\n\n^ Mikulčice 50 km, Staré Město 20 km. The remains of the prestigious building on the castle hill in Nitra contained luxury limestone from Austria.\n\n^ The existence of the alleged circular pagan shrine in Mikulčice was questioned in 2012. (Mazuch 2012)","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8132-1506-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-1506-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7190-3458-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3458-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7190-3426-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-3426-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7190-7135-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7135-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-930042-44-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930042-44-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-930042-44-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930042-44-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-472-06186-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-06186-0"},{"link_name":"Moravcsik, Gyula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyula_Moravcsik"},{"link_name":"Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780884020219","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884020219"}],"sub_title":"Primary sources","text":"\"King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius\" (1852). In Giles, J. A. The Whole Works of King Alfred the Great, with Preliminary Essays Illustrative of the History, Arts, and Manners, of the Ninth Century, Volume 2 (Jubilee Edition, 3 vols). J.F. Smith for the Alfred Committee.\n\"Liudprand of Cremona: Retribution\" (2007). In: The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona (Translated by Paolo Squatriti); The Catholic University of Press; ISBN 978-0-8132-1506-8.\nThe Annals of Fulda (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II) (Translated and annotated by Timothy Reuter) (1992). Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-3458-2.\nThe Annals of St-Bertin (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume I) (Translated and annotated by Janet L. Nelson) (1991). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-3426-8.\nThe Chronicle of Regino of Prüm (2009). In: History and Politics in Late Carolingian and Ottonian Europe: The Chronicle of Regino of Prüm and Adalbert of Magdeburg (Translated and annotated by Simon MacLean); Manchester University Press; ISBN 978-0-7190-7135-5.\n\"The Life of Constantine\" (1983). In Medieval Slavic Lives of Saints and Princes (Marvin Kantor) [Michigan Slavic Translation 5]. University of Michigan. pp. 23–96. ISBN 0-930042-44-1.\n\"The Life of Methodius\" (1983). In Medieval Slavic Lives of Saints and Princes (Marvin Kantor) [Michigan Slavic Translation 5]. University of Michigan. pp. 97–138. ISBN 0-930042-44-1.\n\"The Royal Frankish Annals\" In Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories (Translated by Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers) (2006). The University of Michigan Press. pp. 35–126. ISBN 0-472-06186-0.\nPrimary documents can be found in the following volumes:\n\nHavlík, Lubomír E. (1966–1977). Magnae Moraviae Fontes Historici I.-V., Brno: Masarykova univerzita.\nMarsina, Richard (1971). Codex diplomaticus et epistolaris Slovaciae I., Bratislava: Veda.\nMoravcsik, Gyula, ed. (1967) [1949]. Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (2nd revised ed.). Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 9780884020219.\nRatkoš, Peter (1964). Pramene k dejinám Veľkej Moravy, Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-963-04-9196-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-04-9196-9"},{"link_name":"The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern 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Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521074599","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521074599"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-8062-1545-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8062-1545-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-8062-1544-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8062-1544-8"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0018-2575","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2575"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-80-89236-62-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-89236-62-6"}],"sub_title":"Secondary sources","text":"Angi, János (1997). \"A nyugati szláv államok [=Western Slavic states]\". In Pósán, László; Papp, Imre; Bárány, Attila; Orosz, István; Angi, János (eds.). Európa a korai középkorban [\"Europe in the Early Middle Ages\"]. Multiplex Media - Debrecen University Press. pp. 358–365. ISBN 978-963-04-9196-9.\nBarford, Paul M. (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801439779.\nBenda, Kálmán, ed. (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája (\"The Historical Chronology of Hungary\"). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-05-2661-6.\nBerend, Nora; Urbanczyk, Przemyslaw; Wiszewski, Przemyslaw (2013). Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c.900–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521781565.\nBetti, Maddalena (2013). The Making of Christian Moravia (858-882): Papal Power and Political Reality. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004260085.\nBoba, Imre (1971). Moravia's History Reconsidered: A Reinterpretation of Medieval Sources. Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9789024750412.\nBotek, Andrej (2014a). Veľkomoravské kostoly na Slovensku [The Great Moravian Churches in Slovakia] (in Slovak). Bratislava: Post Scriptum. ISBN 978-80-89567-37-9.\nBotek, Andrej (2014b). \"Veľkomoravská bazilika na Bratislavskom hrade\" [The Greatmoravian Basilica on the Bratislava castle] (PDF). Verbum Historiae (in Slovak) (1).\nBowlus, Charles R. (1995). Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788-907. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812232769.\nBowlus, Charles R. (2009). \"Nitra: when did it become a part of the Moravian realm? Evidence in the Frankish sources\". Early Medieval Europe. 17 (3): 311–328. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00279.x. S2CID 161655879.\nČaplovič, Dušan (1998). Včasnostredoveké osídlenie Slovenska [Early Medieval settlement of Slovakia]. Bratislava: Electronic Academic Press. ISBN 978-80-88880-19-6.\nChampion, Tim (1995). Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-98515-1.\nCollins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe, 300-1000. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-113-7014-28-3.\nCurta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nDekan, Ján (1981). Moravia Magna: The Great Moravian Empire, Its Art and Time. Control Data Arts. ISBN 978-0-89893-084-9.\nDrulák, Petr (2012). \"Czech geopolitics: struggling for survival\". In Guzzini, Stefano (ed.). The Return of Geopolitics in Europe? - Social Mechanisms and Foreign Policy Identity Crises. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77–100. ISBN 978-1-107-02734-3.\nDvornik, Francis (1948). The Photian Schism: History and Legend. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.\nFine, John Van Antwerp Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472081497.\nGaluška, Luděk (1991). Great Moravia. Brno: Moravian Museum. ISBN 978-80-7028-023-2.\nGoldberg, Eric J. (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817-876. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801438905.\nHavlík, Lubomír E. (2013). Kronika o Velké Moravě [=Chronicle of Great Moravia]. Jota. ISBN 978-80-85617-04-7.\nHavlík, Lubomír E. (1994). Svatopluk Veliký, král Moravanů a Slovanů [Svatopluk the Great, King of the Moravians and Slavs]. Jota. ISBN 978-80-85617-19-1.\nHavlík, Lubomír E. (2004). \"Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome\". In Champion, T. C. (ed.). Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Routledge. pp. 227–237. ISBN 978-0-415-12253-5.\nHosszú, Gábor (2012). Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Dr Gábor Hosszú. p. 317. ISBN 9789638843746.\nKirschbaum, Stanislav J. (2005). A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival (2 ed.). Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 9780333620793.\nKniezsa, István (2000). Magyarország népei a XI. században. Lucidus Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-85954-3-0.\nKristó, Gyula (1988). A vármegyék kialakulása Magyarországon (\"The formation of counties in Hungary\"). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. ISBN 978-963-14-1189-8.\nKristó, Gyula, ed. (1994). Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9-14. század) (Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History - 9-14th centuries). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-05-6722-0.\nKristó, Gyula (1996). Hungarian History in the Ninth Century. Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 978-1-4039-6929-3.\nKristó, Gyula (1996a). Magyar honfoglalás - honfoglaló magyarok (\"The Hungarians' Occupation of their Country - The Hungarians occupying their Country\"). Kossuth Könyvkiadó. ISBN 978-963-09-3836-5.\nKučera, Matúš (1974). Slovensko po páde Veľkej Moravy, Bratislava: Veda.\nLouth, Andrew (2007). Greek East and Latin West: The Church AD 681–1071. Crestwood, N.Y.: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881413205.\nLukačka, Ján (2002). Formovanie vyššej šľachty na západnom Slovensku, Bratislava: Mistrál.\nMacháček, Jiří (2009). \"Disputes over Great Moravia: chiefdom or state? the Morava or the Tisza River?\". Early Medieval Europe. 17 (3): 248–267. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00276.x. S2CID 154795263. Retrieved 2013-08-30.\nMacháček, Jiří (2012). \"\"Great Moravian state\"–a controversy in Central European medieval studies\". Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana. 11 (1): 5–26. Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2013-08-30.\nMcCornick, Michael (2001). Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300-900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66102-7.\nMacLean, Simon (2003). Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139440295.\nMahoney, William M. (2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363054.\nMarsina, Richard (1997). \"Ethnogenesis of Slovaks\" (PDF). Human Affairs. 7 (1): 15–23. doi:10.1515/humaff-1997-070103. S2CID 148273682. Retrieved 2013-08-31.\nMarsina, Richard (1995). Nové pohľady historickej vedy na Slovenské dejiny. 1. Najstaršie obdobie slovenských dejín (do prelomu 9.-10. storočia) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Metodické centrum mesta Bratislavy. ISBN 978-80-7164-069-1.\nMarsina, Richard (1999). \"Najstaršia poloha Veľkej Moravy\". Slovensko a európsky juhovýchod: medzikultúrne vztahy a kontexty (zborník k životnému jubileu Tatiany Štefanovicovej) (in Slovak). Bratislava, SLO: Katedra všeobecných dejín a Katedra archeológie FFUK. ISBN 978-8096739141.\nMarsina, Richard (2000). \"Where was Great Moravia\". In Kováč, Dušan (ed.). Slovak Contributions to 19th International Congress of Historical Sciences. Bratislava: VEDA, Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied. ISBN 978-80-224-0665-9.\nMazuch, Marian (2012). \"K údajné existenci tzv. kruhového pohanského kultovního objektu v podhradí velkomoravského mocenského centra Mikulčice-Valy\" [To the Alleged Existence of So-Called Circular Pagan Cultic Feature in the Suburbium of the Great Moravian Center of Power Mikulčice – Valy]. Slavia Antiqua (in Czech). 53 (3). ISSN 0080-9993.\nMěřínský, Zdeněk (2002). České země od příchodu Slovanů po Velkou Moravu II [The Czech Lands since the arrival of the Slavs to Great Moravia] (in Czech). Prague: Libry. ISBN 978-80-7277-105-9.\nObolensky, Dimitri (1994). Byzantium and the Slavs. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-008-2.\nOdler, Martin (2012). \"Avarské sídliská v strednej Európe: problémová bilancia\" [Avar Settlements in Central Europe: the Balance of the Problem]. In Klápště, Jan (ed.). Studia mediaevalia Pragensia 11 (in Slovak). Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze – Nakladatelství Karolinum. ISBN 978-80-246-2107-4.\nOstrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.\nPetkov, Kiril (2008). The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16831-2.\nPoulík, Josef (1975). Mikulčice: Sídlo a pevnost knížat velkomoravských, Praha.\nPoulík, Josef (1978). \"The origins of Christianity in Slavonic countries north of the Middle Danube Basin\". World Archaeology. 10 (2): 158–171. doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979728.\nPüspöki-Nagy, Péter (1978). \"Nagymorávia fekvéséről [=On the location of Great Moravia]\". Valóság. XXI (11): 60–82.\nRogers, Clifford, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-5334-03-6.\nRóna-Tas, András (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. CEU Press. ISBN 978-963-9116-48-1.\nRuttkay, Alexander (1997). \"O veľkomoravskom vojenstve s osobitným zreteľom na obdobie vlády Svätopluka\" [About the Great Moravian Warfare With a Special Attention to the Reign of Svatopluk]. In Marsina, Richard; Ruttkay, Alexander (eds.). Svätopluk 894 - 1994. Nitra. ISBN 978-80-88709-34-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nRuttkay, Matej (2002). \"Vývoj osídlenia na strednom Dunaji v 6.–12. stor\" [Development of settlement around the Middle Danube in the 6th-12th cent.]. In Ruttkay, Alexander; Ruttkay, Matej; Šalkovský, Peter (eds.). Slovensko vo včasnom stredoveku. Nitra: Archeologický ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied. ISBN 978-80-88709-60-2.\nSedlák, Vincent (2005). \"Onomastika a historiografia\". In Fábrová, Karin (ed.). Príspevky k slovenským dejinám. Prešov. pp. 17–28. ISBN 978-80-8068-330-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nSenga, Toru (1983). \"Morávia bukása és a honfoglaló magyarok [=The fall of Moravia and the Hungarians occupying the Carpathian Basin]\". Századok (2): 307–345.\nSommer, Petr; Třeštík, Dušan; Žemlička, Josef; Opačić, Zoë (2007). \"Bohemia and Moravia\". Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c.900–1200 (1. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–262. ISBN 9781139468367.\nSpiesz, Anton; Caplovic, Dusan (2006). Illustrated Slovak History: A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86516-426-0.\nSpinei, Victor (2003). The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century. Translated by Dana Badulescu. Romanian Cultural Institute. ISBN 978-973-85894-5-2.\nSteinhübel, Ján (2011a). \"The Duchy of Nitra\". In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin D. (eds.). Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–29. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.\nSteinhübel, Ján (2011b). Kapitoly z najstarších dejín českých 531–1004 [=Chapters from the oldest Czech history 531–1004]. Spolok Slovákov v Poľsku – Towarzystwo Słowakow w Polsce. ISBN 978-83-7490-370-7.\nŠtefan, Ivo (2011). \"Great Moravia, Statehood and Archaeology: The \"Decline and Fall\" of One Early Medieval Polity\". In Macháček, Jiří; Ungerman, Šimon (eds.). Frühgeschichtliche Zentralorte in Mitteleuropa. Bonn: Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt. pp. 333–354. ISBN 978-3-7749-3730-7. Retrieved 2013-08-27.\nŠtefanovičová, Tatiana (1989). Osudy starých Slovanov [=Fate of the Ancient Slavs]. Osveta.\nŠtefanovičová, Tatiana (2000). \"K niektorým mýtom o počiatkch našich národných dejín\" [To some myths about the beginnings of our national history] (PDF) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.\nSenga, Toru (1982). \"La situation géographique de la Grande-Moravie et les Hongrois conquérants\" [The geographical location of Great Moravia and the Hungarian conquerors]. Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (in French). 30 (4). ISSN 0021-4019.\nŠkvarna, Dušan; Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Wauconda: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 9780865164444.\nSzőke, Béla Miklós (2007). \"New findings of the excavations in Mosaburg/Zalavar (Western Hungary)\". In Henning, Joachim (ed.). Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The heirs of the Roman West. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 411–428. ISBN 978-3-110-18356-6.\nTóth, Sándor László (1998). Levediától a Kárpát-medencéig (\"From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin\"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 978-963-482-175-5.\nTřeštík, Dušan (2010). Vznik Velké Moravy. Moravané, Čechové a štřední Evropa v letech 791–871 [The Formation of Great Moravia. Moravians, Czechs and Central Europe in the years 791-871]. Nakladatelství lidové noviny. ISBN 978-80-7422-049-4.\nTurčan, Valdimír (2003). \"Prvá staroslovanská svätyňa na Slovensku\" [The first Old Slavonic pagan shrine in Slovakia]. Historia - Revue O Dejnách Spoločnosti (in Slovak) (3). ISSN 1335-8316. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2015-10-21.\nUrbańczyk, Przemysław (2005). \"Early State Formation in East Central Europe\". In Curta, Florin (ed.). East Central & Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages. The University of Michigan Press. pp. 139–151. ISBN 978-0-472-11498-6.\nVlasto, Alexis P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521074599.\nWieczorek, Alfried and Hans-Martin Hinz (Hrsg.) (2000). Europas Mitte um 1000, Stuttgart. ISBN 3-8062-1545-6 or ISBN 3-8062-1544-8\nWolfram, Herwig (1995). \"Historické pramene a poloha (Veľkej) Moravy\" [Historical sources and the location of Great Moravia]. Historický časopis (in Slovak). 43 (1). ISSN 0018-2575.\nZábojník, Jozef (2009). Slovensko a avarský kaganát [Slovakia and the Avar Khaganate] (in Slovak). Bratislava: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Komenského. ISBN 978-80-89236-62-6.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Great Moravian sword from Blatnica, unearthed in the 19th century, originally interpreted as a burial equipment from a \"ducal\" mound","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Blatnica.jpg/220px-Blatnica.jpg"},{"image_text":"The core of Great Moravia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Core_of_moravia_en.png/220px-Core_of_moravia_en.png"},{"image_text":"Principalities and lands within Great Moravia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Great_Moravia-eng.png/250px-Great_Moravia-eng.png"},{"image_text":"Jewelry from a princely burial site at Kolín, c. 850–900 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Jewellery_from_the_Princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn%2C_850-900_AD%2C_187594.jpg/220px-Jewellery_from_the_Princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn%2C_850-900_AD%2C_187594.jpg"},{"image_text":"Spherical gombiki from the Mikulčice Archaeological Park","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mikul%C4%8Dice_Archaeopark_05.JPG/220px-Mikul%C4%8Dice_Archaeopark_05.JPG"},{"image_text":"Map of Moravia within East Francia in 814","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Central_Europe_in_Carolingian_times.jpg/200px-Central_Europe_in_Carolingian_times.jpg"},{"image_text":"A map presenting the theory of the co-existence of two principalities (Moravia and Nitra) before the 830s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Nitra_moravia_833.png/200px-Nitra_moravia_833.png"},{"image_text":"Modern depiction of Rastislav as an Orthodox saint","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Prince_Rastislav.JPG/200px-Prince_Rastislav.JPG"},{"image_text":"Constantine and Methodius in Rome","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/San_clemente_fresco.jpg/200px-San_clemente_fresco.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Svatopluk I on Bratislava Castle, Slovakia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Bratislava_Profesionalita_maestra_Kulicha.jpg/220px-Bratislava_Profesionalita_maestra_Kulicha.jpg"},{"image_text":"The papal bull Scire vos volumus of 879 addressed to Svatopluk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Letter_svatopluk.jpg/200px-Letter_svatopluk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Icon of St Gorazd, a disciple of St Cyril and Method of Moravian origin, who was the designated successor of archbishop Method","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gorazd_from_Slivnica_Monastery.jpg/200px-Gorazd_from_Slivnica_Monastery.jpg"},{"image_text":"Svatopluk I with three twigs and his three sons—Mojmír II, Svatopluk II and Predslav","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Svatopluk_I.jpg/220px-Svatopluk_I.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Europe in 900, showing Great Moravia and its neighbors","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Europe_in_900_AD.png/240px-Europe_in_900_AD.png"},{"image_text":"Reconstruction of a Great Moravian gatehouse and ramparts in Thunau am Kamp, Austria","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Thunau_am_Kamp_Reconstructed_Slavic_gatehouse_03.JPG/220px-Thunau_am_Kamp_Reconstructed_Slavic_gatehouse_03.JPG"},{"image_text":"Foundations of a pre-Romanesque rotunda at the Great Moravian court in Ducové","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Kostolec.JPG/220px-Kostolec.JPG"},{"image_text":"Svatopluk I disguised as a monk in the court of Arnulf, King of East Francia (from the 14th-century Chronicle of Dalimil)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Dvur.jpg/200px-Dvur.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map showing the distribution of Slavic tribes between the 7th–9th centuries AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg/220px-Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg"},{"image_text":"Church of St. Margaret of Antioch in Kopčany, Slovakia, one of remaining buildings for which the Great Moravian origin is considered","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Kopcany_st._margaret_3.jpg/220px-Kopcany_st._margaret_3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stone foundations of a church in Valy u Mikulčic, Czech Republic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Mikul%C4%8Dice-Valy_4.JPG/220px-Mikul%C4%8Dice-Valy_4.JPG"},{"image_text":"Exhibition Among the tribes and the state. Room with the Early medieval princely burial from Kolín (Starý Kolín), 850–900 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Early_medieval_princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn%2C_850-900_AD%2C_187612.jpg/220px-Early_medieval_princely_burial_from_Kol%C3%ADn%2C_850-900_AD%2C_187612.jpg"},{"image_text":"An example of the Glagolitic script created by Saint Cyril for the mission in Great Moravia (Baščanska ploča from Croatia). The inscribed stone slab records Croatian king Zvonimir's donation of a piece of land to a Benedictine abbey in the time of abbot Drzhiha.[255]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bascanska_ploca.jpg/220px-Bascanska_ploca.jpg"},{"image_text":"A silver cross from Mikulčice","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/K%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%BE_z_Mikul%C4%8Dic.png/220px-K%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%BE_z_Mikul%C4%8Dic.png"}]
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[{"title":"History of Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Moravia"},{"title":"History of Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Slovakia"},{"title":"History of the Czech lands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_lands"},{"title":"Slavs in Lower Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavs_in_Lower_Pannonia"}]
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[{"reference":"Elvins, Mark Twinham (1994). Towards a People's Liturgy: The Importance of Language. Gracewing. ISBN 9780852442579.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ_U42D-I-EC","url_text":"Towards a People's Liturgy: The Importance of Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852442579","url_text":"9780852442579"}]},{"reference":"Lutterer, Ivan; Majtán, Ivan; Šrámek, Rudolf (1982), Zeměpisná jména Československa. Slovník vybraných zeměpisných jmen s výkladem jejich původu a historického vývoje (trans: Geographic Names of Czechoslovakia) (in Czech), Mladá Fronta","urls":[]},{"reference":"Opačić, Zoë, Great Moravia, retrieved 2014-10-12","urls":[{"url":"http://christianization.hist.cam.ac.uk/regions/bohemia/great-moravia.html","url_text":"Great Moravia"}]},{"reference":"Budd, Joseph P. (2009). \"We do know English: Philadelphia's Czechoslovak Presbyterian Church of Jan Hus, 1926-1967\" (PDF). University of Delaware. Retrieved 2013-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://udspace.udel.edu/bitstream/handle/19716/5471/Joseph_Budd_thesis.pdf?sequence=1","url_text":"\"We do know English: Philadelphia's Czechoslovak Presbyterian Church of Jan Hus, 1926-1967\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sts. Cyril and Methodius | Sts. Cyril and Methodius Parish\". cyrilmetod.org. Archived from the original on 2017-01-16. Retrieved 2017-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170116082020/http://cyrilmetod.org/1150","url_text":"\"Sts. Cyril and Methodius | Sts. Cyril and Methodius Parish\""},{"url":"http://www.cyrilmetod.org/1150","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bruce-Mitford, Rupert Leo Scott; Poulík, Josef; Holmqvist, Wilhelm (1975). Recent Archaeological Excavations in Europe. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-7963-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Bruce-Mitford","url_text":"Bruce-Mitford, Rupert Leo Scott"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/recentarchaeolog0000unse_m7g3","url_text":"Recent Archaeological Excavations in Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-7963-3","url_text":"978-0-7100-7963-3"}]},{"reference":"Poulík, Josef (1975). Mikulčice: Sídlo a pevnost knížat velkomoravských. Praha: Academia.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Čaplovič, Dušan; Viliam Čičaj; Dušan Kováč; Ľubomír Lipták; Ján Lukačka (2000). Dejiny Slovenska. Bratislava: AEP.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kristó, Gyula (1993). A Kárpát-medence és a magyarság régmultja (1301-ig) (The ancient history of the Carpathian Basin and the Hungarians - till 1301). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 978-963-04-2914-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-04-2914-6","url_text":"978-963-04-2914-6"}]},{"reference":"Engel, Pál (1996). Magyarország világi archontológiája (1301-1457) I. Budapest: História - MTA Történettudományi Intézete. p. 300. ISBN 978-963-8312-44-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-8312-44-0","url_text":"978-963-8312-44-0"}]},{"reference":"Bartoňková Dagmar; et al., eds. (1969). \"Libellus de conversione Bagoariorum et Carantanorum (i.e. Conversio)\". Magnae Moraviae fonts historic III. Praha: Statni pedagogic nail.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Annales Fuldenses, sive, Annales regni Francorum orientalis ab Einhardo, Ruodolfo, Meginhardo Fuldensibus, Seligenstadi, Fuldae, Mogontiaci conscripti cum continuationibus Ratisbonensi et Altahensibus / post editionem G.H. Pertzii recognovit Friderious Kurze; Accedunt Annales Fuldenses antiquissimi. Hanover: Hahn. 1978. Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2009-10-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070312020323/http://www.medievalsources.co.uk/fulda.htm","url_text":"Annales Fuldenses, sive, Annales regni Francorum orientalis ab Einhardo, Ruodolfo, Meginhardo Fuldensibus, Seligenstadi, Fuldae, Mogontiaci conscripti cum continuationibus Ratisbonensi et Altahensibus / post editionem G.H. Pertzii recognovit Friderious Kurze; Accedunt Annales Fuldenses antiquissimi"},{"url":"http://www.medievalsources.co.uk/fulda.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Špiesz, Anton (2001). Bratislava v stredoveku. Bratislava: Perfekt.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dvořáková, Daniela (2007). Kôň a človek v stredoveku: K spolužitiu človeka a koňa v Uhorskom kráľovstve. Budmerice: Rak.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Havlík, Lubomír E. (1989). \"Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome\". In Champion, T. (ed.). Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. London, Boston: Routledge. pp. 227–237.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kobyliński, Zbigniew (1995). \"The Slavs\". In McKitterick, Rosamond (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 1, C.500-c.700. Vol. 1, C.500–c.700. Cambridge University Press. p. 531. ISBN 9780521362917.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamond_McKitterick","url_text":"McKitterick, Rosamond"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JcmwuoTsKO0C","url_text":"The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 1, C.500-c.700"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521362917","url_text":"9780521362917"}]},{"reference":"Hlobil, K. (2009). Before You. Insomniac Press. p. 116. ISBN 9781926582474. Retrieved 2017-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=S7yUM9Dboz0C&pg=PA116","url_text":"Before You"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781926582474","url_text":"9781926582474"}]},{"reference":"Dvornik, Francis (1956). The Slavs: their early history and civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sommer, Petr; Dusan Trestik; Josef Zemlicka (2007). \"Bohemia and Moravia\". In Berend, Nora (ed.). Christianization and the rise of Christian monarchy : Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c. 900-1200. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–262.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stanislav, Ján (1934). Životy slovanských apoštolov Cyrila a Metoda. Panonsko-moravské legendy. Bratislava, Praha: Vydané spoločne nakladateľstvom Slovenskej ligy a L. Mazáča. Archived from the original on 2008-03-25. Retrieved 2009-10-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080325040146/http://www.proglas.sk/Metod.htm","url_text":"Životy slovanských apoštolov Cyrila a Metoda. Panonsko-moravské legendy"},{"url":"http://www.proglas.sk/Metod.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Philip Schaff. History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073. CCEL. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-1-61025-043-6. Retrieved 2013-06-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=v5CV_-6BGFgC&pg=PT161","url_text":"History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61025-043-6","url_text":"978-1-61025-043-6"}]},{"reference":"Miroslav Lysý (2019). \"Christian Morals and the Ideal of Chastity as reflected in Medieval Hungarian Sources\" (PDF). Beiträge zur Rechtsgeschichte Österreichs. 1: 50–51. doi:10.1553/BRGOE2019-1s50. S2CID 188152550. Retrieved 17 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://austriaca.at/0xc1aa5576%200x003aaabf.pdf","url_text":"\"Christian Morals and the Ideal of Chastity as reflected in Medieval Hungarian Sources\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1553%2FBRGOE2019-1s50","url_text":"10.1553/BRGOE2019-1s50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:188152550","url_text":"188152550"}]},{"reference":"Dvornik, Francis (1956). The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization. Boston: American Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 179. The Psalter and the Book of Prophets were adapted or \"modernized\" with special regard to their use in Bulgarian churches and it was in this school that the Glagolitic script was replaced by the so-called Cyrillic writing, which was more akin to the Greek uncial, simplified matters considerably and is still used by the Orthodox Slavs.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/slavstheirearlyh00dvor","url_text":"The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/slavstheirearlyh00dvor/page/n184","url_text":"179"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_script","url_text":"Glagolitic script"}]},{"reference":"Hussey, J. M.; Louth, Andrew (2010). \"The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire\". Oxford History of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-19-161488-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J-H9BTVHKRMC&pg=PR98","url_text":"\"The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161488-0","url_text":"978-0-19-161488-0"}]},{"reference":"Kučera, Matúš (1974). Slovensko po páde Veľkej Moravy. Bratislava: Veda.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lukačka, Ján (2002). Formovanie vyššej šľachty na západnom Slovensku. Bratislava: Mistrál.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fügedi, Erik (1986). Ispánok, bárók, kiskirályok (Counts, barons and petty kings). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. pp. 12, 24. ISBN 978-963-14-0582-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-14-0582-8","url_text":"978-963-14-0582-8"}]},{"reference":"Benda, Gyula; Bertényi, Iván; Pótó, János, eds. (2004). Anonymus: A magyarok cselekedetei – Kézai Simon: A magyarok cselekedetei (Anonymous: The Deeds of the Hungarians – Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of Hungarians). Budapest: Osiris. pp. 120–122. ISBN 978-963-389-606-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-389-606-8","url_text":"978-963-389-606-8"}]},{"reference":"Heller, Mihail (2000). Orosz történelem - Az Orosz Birodalom története (Russian History - A History of the Russian Empire). Budapest: Osiris Kiadó. p. 37. ISBN 963-379-243-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-379-243-6","url_text":"963-379-243-6"}]},{"reference":"Ján, Steinhübel (2004). Nitrianske kniežatstvo: Počiatky stredovekého Slovenska. Budmerice: Rak. ISBN 978-80-224-0812-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-224-0812-7","url_text":"978-80-224-0812-7"}]},{"reference":"\"dMGH | Suche\". dmgh.de. Retrieved 2017-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dmgh.de/","url_text":"\"dMGH | Suche\""}]},{"reference":"Tibenský, Ján (1971). Slovensko: Dejiny. Bratislava: Obzor.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pástor, Zoltán (2000). Dejiny Slovenska: Vybrané kapitoly. Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja Bela.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Moravcsik, Gyula, ed. (1967) [1949]. Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (2nd revised ed.). Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 9780884020219.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyula_Moravcsik","url_text":"Moravcsik, Gyula"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC","url_text":"Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780884020219","url_text":"9780884020219"}]},{"reference":"Angi, János (1997). \"A nyugati szláv államok [=Western Slavic states]\". In Pósán, László; Papp, Imre; Bárány, Attila; Orosz, István; Angi, János (eds.). Európa a korai középkorban [\"Europe in the Early Middle Ages\"]. Multiplex Media - Debrecen University Press. pp. 358–365. ISBN 978-963-04-9196-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-04-9196-9","url_text":"978-963-04-9196-9"}]},{"reference":"Barford, Paul M. (2001). The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801439779.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z9ItAtbJ5AC","url_text":"The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801439779","url_text":"0801439779"}]},{"reference":"Benda, Kálmán, ed. (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája (\"The Historical Chronology of Hungary\"). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-05-2661-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-2661-6","url_text":"978-963-05-2661-6"}]},{"reference":"Berend, Nora; Urbanczyk, Przemyslaw; Wiszewski, Przemyslaw (2013). Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c.900–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521781565.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521781565","url_text":"9780521781565"}]},{"reference":"Betti, Maddalena (2013). The Making of Christian Moravia (858-882): Papal Power and Political Reality. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004260085.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MdLYAQAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Making of Christian Moravia (858-882): Papal Power and Political Reality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004260085","url_text":"9789004260085"}]},{"reference":"Boba, Imre (1971). Moravia's History Reconsidered: A Reinterpretation of Medieval Sources. Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9789024750412.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AXwKAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Moravia's History Reconsidered: A Reinterpretation of Medieval Sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789024750412","url_text":"9789024750412"}]},{"reference":"Botek, Andrej (2014a). Veľkomoravské kostoly na Slovensku [The Great Moravian Churches in Slovakia] (in Slovak). Bratislava: Post Scriptum. ISBN 978-80-89567-37-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-89567-37-9","url_text":"978-80-89567-37-9"}]},{"reference":"Botek, Andrej (2014b). \"Veľkomoravská bazilika na Bratislavskom hrade\" [The Greatmoravian Basilica on the Bratislava castle] (PDF). Verbum Historiae (in Slovak) (1).","urls":[{"url":"http://puchovodedicstvo.sk/wp-content/uploads/Verbum_Historiae_1-2014.pdf","url_text":"\"Veľkomoravská bazilika na Bratislavskom hrade\""}]},{"reference":"Bowlus, Charles R. (1995). Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788-907. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812232769.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=x5x0BAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788-907"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812232769","url_text":"9780812232769"}]},{"reference":"Bowlus, Charles R. (2009). \"Nitra: when did it become a part of the Moravian realm? Evidence in the Frankish sources\". Early Medieval Europe. 17 (3): 311–328. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00279.x. S2CID 161655879.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0254.2009.00279.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00279.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161655879","url_text":"161655879"}]},{"reference":"Čaplovič, Dušan (1998). Včasnostredoveké osídlenie Slovenska [Early Medieval settlement of Slovakia]. Bratislava: Electronic Academic Press. ISBN 978-80-88880-19-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-88880-19-6","url_text":"978-80-88880-19-6"}]},{"reference":"Champion, Tim (1995). Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-98515-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-98515-1","url_text":"978-0-203-98515-1"}]},{"reference":"Collins, Roger (2010). Early Medieval Europe, 300-1000. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-113-7014-28-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-113-7014-28-3","url_text":"978-113-7014-28-3"}]},{"reference":"Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt","url_text":"Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250"}]},{"reference":"Dekan, Ján (1981). Moravia Magna: The Great Moravian Empire, Its Art and Time. Control Data Arts. ISBN 978-0-89893-084-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89893-084-9","url_text":"978-0-89893-084-9"}]},{"reference":"Drulák, Petr (2012). \"Czech geopolitics: struggling for survival\". In Guzzini, Stefano (ed.). The Return of Geopolitics in Europe? - Social Mechanisms and Foreign Policy Identity Crises. Cambridge University Press. pp. 77–100. ISBN 978-1-107-02734-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02734-3","url_text":"978-1-107-02734-3"}]},{"reference":"Dvornik, Francis (1948). The Photian Schism: History and Legend. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Dvornik","url_text":"Dvornik, Francis"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=X_A8AAAAIAAJ","url_text":"The Photian Schism: History and Legend"}]},{"reference":"Fine, John Van Antwerp Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472081497.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Van_Antwerp_Fine_Jr.","url_text":"Fine, John Van Antwerp Jr."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C","url_text":"The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472081497","url_text":"0472081497"}]},{"reference":"Galuška, Luděk (1991). Great Moravia. Brno: Moravian Museum. ISBN 978-80-7028-023-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7028-023-2","url_text":"978-80-7028-023-2"}]},{"reference":"Goldberg, Eric J. (2006). Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817-876. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801438905.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oyiTg0wgl58C","url_text":"Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817-876"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801438905","url_text":"9780801438905"}]},{"reference":"Havlík, Lubomír E. (2013). Kronika o Velké Moravě [=Chronicle of Great Moravia]. Jota. ISBN 978-80-85617-04-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-85617-04-7","url_text":"978-80-85617-04-7"}]},{"reference":"Havlík, Lubomír E. (1994). Svatopluk Veliký, král Moravanů a Slovanů [Svatopluk the Great, King of the Moravians and Slavs]. Jota. ISBN 978-80-85617-19-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-85617-19-1","url_text":"978-80-85617-19-1"}]},{"reference":"Havlík, Lubomír E. (2004). \"Great Moravia between the Franconians, Byzantium and Rome\". In Champion, T. C. (ed.). Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology. Routledge. pp. 227–237. ISBN 978-0-415-12253-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12253-5","url_text":"978-0-415-12253-5"}]},{"reference":"Hosszú, Gábor (2012). Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Dr Gábor Hosszú. p. 317. ISBN 9789638843746.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789638843746","url_text":"9789638843746"}]},{"reference":"Kirschbaum, Stanislav J. (2005). A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival (2 ed.). Basingstoke: Macmillan. 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ISBN 978-963-14-1189-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyula_Krist%C3%B3","url_text":"Kristó, Gyula"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-14-1189-8","url_text":"978-963-14-1189-8"}]},{"reference":"Kristó, Gyula, ed. (1994). Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9-14. század) (Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History - 9-14th centuries). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-05-6722-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-6722-0","url_text":"978-963-05-6722-0"}]},{"reference":"Kristó, Gyula (1996). Hungarian History in the Ninth Century. Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. 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Crestwood, N.Y.: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 9780881413205.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Louth","url_text":"Louth, Andrew"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WlpPjOlVzQwC","url_text":"Greek East and Latin West: The Church AD 681–1071"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881413205","url_text":"9780881413205"}]},{"reference":"Macháček, Jiří (2009). \"Disputes over Great Moravia: chiefdom or state? the Morava or the Tisza River?\". Early Medieval Europe. 17 (3): 248–267. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00276.x. S2CID 154795263. Retrieved 2013-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/1510799","url_text":"\"Disputes over Great Moravia: chiefdom or state? the Morava or the Tisza River?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0254.2009.00276.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00276.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154795263","url_text":"154795263"}]},{"reference":"Macháček, Jiří (2012). \"\"Great Moravian state\"–a controversy in Central European medieval studies\". Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana. 11 (1): 5–26. Archived from the original on 2021-05-13. Retrieved 2013-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210513165400/http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=76f95861-a935-4376-b759-fe8e8c8970b8&articleid=94adf0da-86a3-4740-9763-19d628c35fbb#a94adf0da-86a3-4740-9763-19d628c35fbb","url_text":"\"\"Great Moravian state\"–a controversy in Central European medieval studies\""},{"url":"http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=76f95861-a935-4376-b759-fe8e8c8970b8&articleid=94adf0da-86a3-4740-9763-19d628c35fbb#a94adf0da-86a3-4740-9763-19d628c35fbb","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"McCornick, Michael (2001). Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300-900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66102-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66102-7","url_text":"978-0-521-66102-7"}]},{"reference":"MacLean, Simon (2003). Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century: Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139440295.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139440295","url_text":"9781139440295"}]},{"reference":"Mahoney, William M. (2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363054.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313363054","url_text":"9780313363054"}]},{"reference":"Marsina, Richard (1997). \"Ethnogenesis of Slovaks\" (PDF). Human Affairs. 7 (1): 15–23. doi:10.1515/humaff-1997-070103. S2CID 148273682. Retrieved 2013-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Marsina","url_text":"Marsina, Richard"},{"url":"http://www.aepress.sk/hum/full/hum197b.pdf","url_text":"\"Ethnogenesis of Slovaks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fhumaff-1997-070103","url_text":"10.1515/humaff-1997-070103"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148273682","url_text":"148273682"}]},{"reference":"Marsina, Richard (1995). Nové pohľady historickej vedy na Slovenské dejiny. 1. Najstaršie obdobie slovenských dejín (do prelomu 9.-10. storočia) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Metodické centrum mesta Bratislavy. ISBN 978-80-7164-069-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Marsina","url_text":"Marsina, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7164-069-1","url_text":"978-80-7164-069-1"}]},{"reference":"Marsina, Richard (1999). \"Najstaršia poloha Veľkej Moravy\". Slovensko a európsky juhovýchod: medzikultúrne vztahy a kontexty (zborník k životnému jubileu Tatiany Štefanovicovej) (in Slovak). Bratislava, SLO: Katedra všeobecných dejín a Katedra archeológie FFUK. ISBN 978-8096739141.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Marsina","url_text":"Marsina, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8096739141","url_text":"978-8096739141"}]},{"reference":"Marsina, Richard (2000). \"Where was Great Moravia\". In Kováč, Dušan (ed.). Slovak Contributions to 19th International Congress of Historical Sciences. Bratislava: VEDA, Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied. ISBN 978-80-224-0665-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Marsina","url_text":"Marsina, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-224-0665-9","url_text":"978-80-224-0665-9"}]},{"reference":"Mazuch, Marian (2012). \"K údajné existenci tzv. kruhového pohanského kultovního objektu v podhradí velkomoravského mocenského centra Mikulčice-Valy\" [To the Alleged Existence of So-Called Circular Pagan Cultic Feature in the Suburbium of the Great Moravian Center of Power Mikulčice – Valy]. Slavia Antiqua (in Czech). 53 (3). ISSN 0080-9993.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/5049484","url_text":"\"K údajné existenci tzv. kruhového pohanského kultovního objektu v podhradí velkomoravského mocenského centra Mikulčice-Valy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0080-9993","url_text":"0080-9993"}]},{"reference":"Měřínský, Zdeněk (2002). České země od příchodu Slovanů po Velkou Moravu II [The Czech Lands since the arrival of the Slavs to Great Moravia] (in Czech). Prague: Libry. ISBN 978-80-7277-105-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_M%C4%9B%C5%99%C3%ADnsk%C3%BD","url_text":"Měřínský, Zdeněk"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7277-105-9","url_text":"978-80-7277-105-9"}]},{"reference":"Obolensky, Dimitri (1994). Byzantium and the Slavs. St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-008-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-008-2","url_text":"978-0-88141-008-2"}]},{"reference":"Odler, Martin (2012). \"Avarské sídliská v strednej Európe: problémová bilancia\" [Avar Settlements in Central Europe: the Balance of the Problem]. In Klápště, Jan (ed.). Studia mediaevalia Pragensia 11 (in Slovak). Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze – Nakladatelství Karolinum. ISBN 978-80-246-2107-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-246-2107-4","url_text":"978-80-246-2107-4"}]},{"reference":"Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Ostrogorsky","url_text":"Ostrogorsky, George"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ","url_text":"History of the Byzantine State"}]},{"reference":"Petkov, Kiril (2008). The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16831-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16831-2","url_text":"978-90-04-16831-2"}]},{"reference":"Poulík, Josef (1978). \"The origins of Christianity in Slavonic countries north of the Middle Danube Basin\". World Archaeology. 10 (2): 158–171. doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979728.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1978.9979728","url_text":"10.1080/00438243.1978.9979728"}]},{"reference":"Püspöki-Nagy, Péter (1978). \"Nagymorávia fekvéséről [=On the location of Great Moravia]\". Valóság. XXI (11): 60–82.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rogers, Clifford, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019-5334-03-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-019-5334-03-6","url_text":"978-019-5334-03-6"}]},{"reference":"Róna-Tas, András (1999). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History. CEU Press. ISBN 978-963-9116-48-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9116-48-1","url_text":"978-963-9116-48-1"}]},{"reference":"Ruttkay, Alexander (1997). \"O veľkomoravskom vojenstve s osobitným zreteľom na obdobie vlády Svätopluka\" [About the Great Moravian Warfare With a Special Attention to the Reign of Svatopluk]. In Marsina, Richard; Ruttkay, Alexander (eds.). Svätopluk 894 - 1994. Nitra. ISBN 978-80-88709-34-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-88709-34-3","url_text":"978-80-88709-34-3"}]},{"reference":"Ruttkay, Matej (2002). \"Vývoj osídlenia na strednom Dunaji v 6.–12. stor\" [Development of settlement around the Middle Danube in the 6th-12th cent.]. In Ruttkay, Alexander; Ruttkay, Matej; Šalkovský, Peter (eds.). Slovensko vo včasnom stredoveku. Nitra: Archeologický ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied. ISBN 978-80-88709-60-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-88709-60-2","url_text":"978-80-88709-60-2"}]},{"reference":"Sedlák, Vincent (2005). \"Onomastika a historiografia\". In Fábrová, Karin (ed.). Príspevky k slovenským dejinám. Prešov. pp. 17–28. ISBN 978-80-8068-330-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-8068-330-6","url_text":"978-80-8068-330-6"}]},{"reference":"Senga, Toru (1983). \"Morávia bukása és a honfoglaló magyarok [=The fall of Moravia and the Hungarians occupying the Carpathian Basin]\". Századok (2): 307–345.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sommer, Petr; Třeštík, Dušan; Žemlička, Josef; Opačić, Zoë (2007). \"Bohemia and Moravia\". Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c.900–1200 (1. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 214–262. ISBN 9781139468367.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UmFrVUb5DSwC","url_text":"Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c.900–1200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139468367","url_text":"9781139468367"}]},{"reference":"Spiesz, Anton; Caplovic, Dusan (2006). Illustrated Slovak History: A Struggle for Sovereignty in Central Europe. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86516-426-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-426-0","url_text":"978-0-86516-426-0"}]},{"reference":"Spinei, Victor (2003). The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century. Translated by Dana Badulescu. Romanian Cultural Institute. ISBN 978-973-85894-5-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-973-85894-5-2","url_text":"978-973-85894-5-2"}]},{"reference":"Steinhübel, Ján (2011a). \"The Duchy of Nitra\". In Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin D. (eds.). Slovakia in History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–29. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Steinh%C3%BCbel","url_text":"Steinhübel, Ján"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80253-6","url_text":"978-0-521-80253-6"}]},{"reference":"Steinhübel, Ján (2011b). Kapitoly z najstarších dejín českých 531–1004 [=Chapters from the oldest Czech history 531–1004]. Spolok Slovákov v Poľsku – Towarzystwo Słowakow w Polsce. ISBN 978-83-7490-370-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Steinh%C3%BCbel","url_text":"Steinhübel, Ján"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7490-370-7","url_text":"978-83-7490-370-7"}]},{"reference":"Štefan, Ivo (2011). \"Great Moravia, Statehood and Archaeology: The \"Decline and Fall\" of One Early Medieval Polity\". In Macháček, Jiří; Ungerman, Šimon (eds.). Frühgeschichtliche Zentralorte in Mitteleuropa. Bonn: Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt. pp. 333–354. ISBN 978-3-7749-3730-7. Retrieved 2013-08-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/1016725","url_text":"\"Great Moravia, Statehood and Archaeology: The \"Decline and Fall\" of One Early Medieval Polity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7749-3730-7","url_text":"978-3-7749-3730-7"}]},{"reference":"Štefanovičová, Tatiana (1989). Osudy starých Slovanov [=Fate of the Ancient Slavs]. Osveta.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana_%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1","url_text":"Štefanovičová, Tatiana"}]},{"reference":"Štefanovičová, Tatiana (2000). \"K niektorým mýtom o počiatkch našich národných dejín\" [To some myths about the beginnings of our national history] (PDF) (in Slovak). Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana_%C5%A0tefanovi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1","url_text":"Štefanovičová, Tatiana"},{"url":"https://uniba.sk/fileadmin/ruk/veda/profesorske_prednasky/prof_prednaska_Stefanovicova.pdf","url_text":"\"K niektorým mýtom o počiatkch našich národných dejín\""}]},{"reference":"Senga, Toru (1982). \"La situation géographique de la Grande-Moravie et les Hongrois conquérants\" [The geographical location of Great Moravia and the Hungarian conquerors]. Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (in French). 30 (4). ISSN 0021-4019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-4019","url_text":"0021-4019"}]},{"reference":"Škvarna, Dušan; Bartl, Július; Čičaj, Viliam; Kohútova, Mária; Letz, Róbert; Segeš, Vladimír (2002). Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon. Wauconda: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN 9780865164444.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3orG2yZ9mBkC","url_text":"Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780865164444","url_text":"9780865164444"}]},{"reference":"Szőke, Béla Miklós (2007). \"New findings of the excavations in Mosaburg/Zalavar (Western Hungary)\". In Henning, Joachim (ed.). Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The heirs of the Roman West. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 411–428. ISBN 978-3-110-18356-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-110-18356-6","url_text":"978-3-110-18356-6"}]},{"reference":"Tóth, Sándor László (1998). Levediától a Kárpát-medencéig (\"From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin\"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. ISBN 978-963-482-175-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-482-175-5","url_text":"978-963-482-175-5"}]},{"reference":"Třeštík, Dušan (2010). Vznik Velké Moravy. Moravané, Čechové a štřední Evropa v letech 791–871 [The Formation of Great Moravia. Moravians, Czechs and Central Europe in the years 791-871]. Nakladatelství lidové noviny. ISBN 978-80-7422-049-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-7422-049-4","url_text":"978-80-7422-049-4"}]},{"reference":"Turčan, Valdimír (2003). \"Prvá staroslovanská svätyňa na Slovensku\" [The first Old Slavonic pagan shrine in Slovakia]. Historia - Revue O Dejnách Spoločnosti (in Slovak) (3). ISSN 1335-8316. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2015-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170202041636/http://www.historiarevue.sk/index.php?id=2003turcan5","url_text":"\"Prvá staroslovanská svätyňa na Slovensku\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1335-8316","url_text":"1335-8316"},{"url":"http://www.historiarevue.sk/index.php?id=2003turcan5","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Urbańczyk, Przemysław (2005). \"Early State Formation in East Central Europe\". In Curta, Florin (ed.). East Central & Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages. The University of Michigan Press. pp. 139–151. ISBN 978-0-472-11498-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11498-6","url_text":"978-0-472-11498-6"}]},{"reference":"Vlasto, Alexis P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521074599.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ","url_text":"The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521074599","url_text":"9780521074599"}]},{"reference":"Wolfram, Herwig (1995). \"Historické pramene a poloha (Veľkej) Moravy\" [Historical sources and the location of Great Moravia]. Historický časopis (in Slovak). 43 (1). ISSN 0018-2575.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2575","url_text":"0018-2575"}]},{"reference":"Zábojník, Jozef (2009). Slovensko a avarský kaganát [Slovakia and the Avar Khaganate] (in Slovak). Bratislava: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Komenského. ISBN 978-80-89236-62-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-89236-62-6","url_text":"978-80-89236-62-6"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Sloan_Kettering_Cancer_Center
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Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
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["1 History","1.1 New York Cancer Hospital (1884–1934)","1.2 Memorial Hospital and the Sloan Kettering Institute (1934–1980)","1.3 Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (1980–present)","2 Associated facilities and programs","2.1 India Center","3 Training","4 Notable faculty","4.1 Presidents","4.2 Presidents of the Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Allied Diseases","4.3 Presidents of the Sloan Kettering Institute","4.4 Others","5 Reputation","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 40°45′51″N 73°57′25″W / 40.764096°N 73.956842°W / 40.764096; -73.956842Treatment and research hospital in New York City
Hospital in New York, U.S.Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer CenterMain entrance on York AvenueGeographyLocation1275 York Avenue, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.Coordinates40°45′51″N 73°57′25″W / 40.764096°N 73.956842°W / 40.764096; -73.956842OrganisationFundingNon-profit hospitalTypeSpecialistServicesEmergency departmentUrgent care centerBeds498 (as of 2018)SpecialityOncologyHistoryFormer name(s)New York Cancer HospitalOpened1884; 140 years ago (1884) (as New York Cancer Hospital)LinksWebsitewww.mskcc.orgListsHospitals in U.S.Other linksHospitals in Manhattan
HistoryA radium laboratory at Memorial Hospital, 1918Memorial Hospital, 1930Rockefeller's York Avenue land donation, 1937The relocated Memorial Hospital building, built between 1936 and 1939, standing on its present location on York AvenueGroundbreaking at the Sloan Kettering Institute, 1946The original New York Cancer Hospital built between 1884 and 1886, now housing, at 455 Central Park West and 106th Street in Manhattan
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK or MSKCC) is a cancer treatment and research institution in Manhattan in New York City. It was founded in 1884 as the New York Cancer Hospital. MSKCC is one of 72 National Cancer Institute-designated Comprehensive Cancer Centers. It had already been renamed and relocated, to its present site, when the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research was founded in 1945, and built adjacent to the hospital. The two medical entities formally coordinated their operations in 1960, and formally merged as a single entity in 1980. Its main campus is located at 1275 York Avenue between 67th and 68th Streets in Manhattan.
In U.S. News & World Report's 2021–2022 Best Hospitals, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK) is ranked the second-best hospital for cancer care in the nation after MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston.
History
New York Cancer Hospital (1884–1934)
The hospital was founded on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in 1884 as New York Cancer Hospital by a group that included John Jacob Astor III and his wife Charlotte. The hospital appointed as an attending surgeon William B. Coley, who pioneered an early form of immunotherapy to eradicate tumors. Rose Hawthorne, daughter of author Nathaniel Hawthorne, trained there in the summer of 1896 before founding her own order, Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne. In 1899, the hospital was renamed General Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases. In 1902, Arabella Huntington made a US$100,000 (equivalent to $3.5 million in 2023) bequest in memory of her late husband Collis Potter Huntington to establish the first cancer research fund in the country, the Huntington Fund for Cancer Research.
Around 1910, James Ewing, a professor at Cornell University's medical college, established a collaboration with Memorial Hospital with the help and funding of industrialist and philanthropist James Douglas, who gave $100,000 (equivalent to $3.3 million in 2023) to endow twenty beds for clinical research, equipment for working with radium, and a clinical laboratory for that purpose. Douglas' enthusiasm and funding for development of radiation therapy for cancer inspired Ewing to become one of the pioneers in developing this treatment. Ewing soon took over effective leadership of clinical and laboratory research at Memorial. In 1916 the hospital was renamed again, dropping "General" to become known as Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases.
The first fellowship training program in the U.S. was created at Memorial in 1927, funded by the Rockefellers. In 1931 the then-most-powerful 900k-volt X-ray tube was put into use in radiation-based cancer treatment at Memorial; the tube had been built by General Electric over several years. In 1931 Ewing was formally appointed president of the hospital, a role he had effectively played until then, and was featured on the cover of Time magazine as "Cancer Man Ewing"; the accompanying article described his role as one of the most important cancer doctors of his era. He worked at the Memorial until his retirement, in 1939. Under his leadership, Memorial became a model for other cancer centers in the United States, combining patient care with clinical and laboratory research, and it was said of him that "the relationship of Ewing to the Memorial Hospital can best be expressed in the words of Emerson, 'Every institution is but the lengthening shadow of some man.' Dr. Ewing is the Memorial Hospital".
Memorial Hospital and the Sloan Kettering Institute (1934–1980)
In 1934, John D. Rockefeller Jr. donated land on York Avenue for a new location. Two years later, he granted Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases (Memorial Hospital) $3.0 million (equivalent to $65.9 million in 2023) and the hospital began their move across town. Memorial Hospital officially reopened at the new location in 1939. In 1945, the chairman of General Motors, Alfred P. Sloan, donated $4.0 million (equivalent to $67.7 million in 2023) to create the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research through his Sloan Foundation, and Charles F. Kettering, GM's vice president and director of research, personally agreed to oversee the organization of a cancer research program based on industrial techniques. The originally independent research institute was built adjacent to Memorial Hospital.
In 1948, Cornelius P. Rhoads became the director of Memorial. Rhoads had run chemical weapons programs for the United States Army in World War II, and had been involved in the work that led to the discovery that nitrogen mustards could potentially be used as cancer drugs.: 91–92 He fostered a collaboration between Joseph H. Burchenal, a clinician at Memorial and Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings at Burroughs Wellcome, who discovered 6 MP; the collaboration led to the development and eventual wide use of this cancer drug.: 91–92
From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s Chester M. Southam conducted pioneering clinical research on virotherapy and cancer immunotherapy at MSK; however he conducted his research on people without their informed consent. He did this to patients under his care or others' care, and to prisoners. In 1963 some doctors objected to the lack of consent in his experiments and reported him to the Regents of the University of the State of New York which found him guilty of fraud, deceit, and unprofessional conduct, and in the end, he was placed on probation for a year. Southam's research experiments and the case at the Regents were covered in The New York Times.
In 1960, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center was formed as a new corporation to coordinate the two institutions, and John Heller, the former director of the National Cancer Institute was named its president. At the end of the 1960s, as the field of pediatric oncology began seeing success in treating children with cancer, Memorial opened an outpatient pediatric day hospital, partly to deal with the growing number of cancer survivors.
In the early 1970s, Burchenal and Benno Schmidt, a professional investor and trustee of MSK, were appointed to the presidential panel that initiated the U.S. federal government's War on Cancer in the early 1970s.: 184 When Congress passed the National Cancer Act of 1971 as part of that effort, Memorial Sloan Kettering was designated as one of only three Comprehensive Cancer Centers nationwide.
In 1977, Jimmie C. Holland established a full-time psychiatric service at MSK dedicated to helping people with cancer cope with their disease and its treatment; it was one of the first such programs and was part of the creation of the field of psycho-oncology.
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (1980–present)
Schwartz Cancer Research Building, 1250 1st AveRockefeller Outpatient Pavilion, 160 E 53rd St
In 1980, Memorial Hospital and the Sloan-Kettering Institute formally merged into a singular entity under the name Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.
In 1990 it entered an agreement with Amgen to receive royalties for recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, the basis for neupogen and neulasta, earning the institute well over $100 million.
In 2000, former NIH director Harold Varmus became director of MSK. During his tenure, he helped build new facilities, strengthened the bond between MSK's clinical and research arms, and fostered collaborations with other institutions, including Weill-Cornell Medical College and Rockefeller University.
In 2006, MSK opened the Mortimer B. Zuckerman Research Center, a 23-story building that houses over 100 laboratories. In 2009 it opened the Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center.
In 2010, Craig B. Thompson, an oncologist and researcher, was appointed MSK's president and CEO. The following year, MSK was rated the third most successful nonprofit in terms of FDA-approved drugs and vaccines, behind the National Institutes of Health and the University of California system. In 2012, Thompson appointed José Baselga as physician-in-chief, who directed the clinical side of MSK. That same year, a collaboration with IBM's Watson was announced with the goal of developing new tools and resources to better tailor diagnostic and treatment recommendations for patients. The director of SKI, the research arm of MSK, Joan Massagué was appointed in 2013. Baselga resigned in September 2018 after information came out regarding millions of dollars he received from pharmaceutical companies without disclosing a financial conflict of interest.
In 2015 it opened the Josie Robertson Surgery Center for outpatient surgeries, named in honor of the wife of philanthropist Julian Robertson.
In 2017, the Food and Drug Administration approved an MSK-developed immunotherapy, CAR-T, for certain applications in leukemia and lymphoma. The FDA approved the first academic or commercial tumor identification test MSK-IMPACT in November 2018.
In 2020 it opened The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care as an outpatient facility.
In April 2022, MSK announced a $50 million donation from The Starr Foundation to aid in expanding funding for basic cancer research and discovery science. The donation will establish The Starr Foundation programme for Discovery Science at the Sloan Kettering Institute, the goal of the institute is to drive next-generation cancer breakthroughs.
In June 2022, a small trial of an experimental treatment found that tumors vanished in all 14 patients diagnosed with early stage rectal cancer who completed the study by the time it was published.
MSK has expanded into regional sites, including in Westchester County, New York, Commack, Hauppauge, Rockville Centre on Long Island, and Bergen County, Monmouth County, and Basking Ridge in New Jersey.
MSK currently employs over 1,200 physicians and treats patients with approximately 400 types of cancer annually.
Associated facilities and programs
Bendheim Integrative Medicine Center
The Memorial Sloan Kettering Bendheim Integrative Medicine Center had occupied 1429 First Avenue on the corner of East 74th Street in Manhattan. The former bank was built in the 1930s by Perkins and Will as architects. It was remodeled for use by Memorial Sloan Kettering in 1997.
The Center for Image-Guided Intervention was opened in June 2010 in the Memorial Hospital building to oversee image guiding activities across MSK. In October 2012, the Sillerman Center for Rehabilitation was opened, moving rehabilitation out of Memorial Hospital and closer to the Rockefeller Outpatient Pavilion.
Koch Center (right)
The New York Proton Center opened in 2019 as a partnership between Memorial Sloan Kettering, Montefiore Health, and Mount Sinai Health System. The center was the first Proton therapy center to open in New York state. The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center opened at 530 East 74th Street between York Avenue and FDR Drive January 2020. Perkins Eastman designed 750,000sq ft facility in collaboration with Ennead Architects, and ICRAVE. Thornton Tomasetti served as structural engineer, with Jaros, Baum & Bolles providing MEP engineering.
India Center
The center launched its India facility in Chennai in August 2022, to provide telemedicine services in collaboration with iCiliniq to facilitate second opinion from the cancer specialists, without the need to travel to a U.S. facility.
Training
Approximately 1,700 medical residents and Fellows are in training at MSK. There are 575 postdoctoral researchers training at MSK labs and a combined 288 PhD and MD-PhD candidates.
In 2004, the Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences was opened at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The first students graduated in 2012. As of January 2019, the dean of the graduate school is cell biologist Michael Overholtzer. The founding dean, serving for over a decade, was molecular biologist Ken Marians.
The Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program is a partnership of MSKCC, Weill Cornell Medicine, and The Rockefeller University. The dual degree program takes advantage of the close proximity of these three institutions for collaboration on biomedical research and medical training. MSKCC also has an academic partnership with Weill Cornell Medicine known as the Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences.
Notable faculty
Presidents
The following individuals have served as president, first of the overarching corporation (1960–1980), and later of the combined hospital (1980 onwards).
John R. Heller, 1960–1961
Richard D. Vanderwarker, 1962–1971
David Walsh, 1971–1973
Lewis Thomas, 1973–1980
Paul A. Marks, 1980–1999
Harold Varmus, 2000–2010
Craig B. Thompson, 2010–2022
Selwyn M. Vickers, 2022–
Presidents of the Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Allied Diseases
John E. Parsons, 1884–1915
Herbert Parsons, 1915–1917
George C. Clark, 1917–1919
Herbert Parsons, 1919–1923
Walter Douglas, 1924–1932
Harry P. Robbins, 1933–1944
Reginald G. Coombe, 1945–1950
Laurance Rockefeller, 1950–1958
B. Brewster Jennings, 1958–1961
Ogden White, 1962–1964
John M. Walker, 1965–1973
James D. Robinson III, 1974–1980
Presidents of the Sloan Kettering Institute
Frank A. Howard, 1945–1959
Frank L. Horsfall, 1960–1971
Leo Wade, 1971–1972
Robert A. Good, 1973–1980
Others
James P. Allison
Jae H Kim
Chris Park - Drexel Graduate
Steven Sinchi
Ghause Ali
Dustin Wong
Kathryn V. Anderson
Murray Brennan
Carol L. Brown
Samuel Danishefsky
Nori Dattatreyudu
Lisa DeAngelis
Jeffrey Drebin
Jimmie C. Holland
Maria Jasin
David Kissane
Iris Long
Scott W. Lowe
Joan Massagué
Kenneth Offit
Lloyd Old
Nikola P. Pavletich
Mark S. Ptashne
James Rothman
Alexander Rudensky
Valerie Rusch
Charles Sawyers
Lorenz Studer
Reputation
In 2015, Charity Watch rated Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center an "A". That same year, heads of the charity received $2,107,939 to $2,639,669 salary/compensation from the charity. CEO Craig B. Thompson received $2,554,085 salary/compensation from the charity.
See also
MD Anderson Cancer Center
National Comprehensive Cancer Network
Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program
Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences
HCG Cancer Centre
References
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center". Forbes.
^ a b Barbanel, Josh. "Would an Aardvark Live Here?" The New York Times, September 17, 2006. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
^ "The New York Cancer Hospital: laying the corner-stone of a much-needed institution". The New York Times. May 18, 1884. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ "NCI-Designated Cancer Centers". National Cancer Institute. April 5, 2012. Retrieved June 11, 2019.
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center - Cancer". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
^ a b Abel, Emily K. (2013). The inevitable hour: a history of caring for dying patients in America. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1421409191. OCLC 808769549.
^ Coley to Cure:The Story of the Cancer Research Institute. Cancer Research Institute. 2014. pp. 12–13. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ Smith, Fran; Himmel, Shiela (2013). Changing the Way We Die: Compassionate End of Life Care and The Hospice Movement. Berkeley, California: Cleis Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781936740604. OCLC 839388370.
^ "SESSION OF THE SENATE.; Bills Passed and Introduced and Routine Business Transacted". The New York Times. February 16, 1899. Retrieved February 27, 2016.
^ a b c d e Murphy, James B. (1951). "James Ewing—1866–1943" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.
^ Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases Thirty First Annual Report for the Year 1915 (Report). p. 19.
^ a b "Rockefeller Provides $3,000,000 to Build Cancer Hospital Here". The New York Times. April 28, 1936. p. 1. Archived from the original on March 13, 2018. Retrieved February 4, 2016. A gift of $3,000,000 from the General Education Board, founded by John D. Rockefeller, to the Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases
^ a b Wilkins, Sam A. Jr. (February 25, 1970). "James Ewing Society, 1940-1969: Presidential Address" (PDF). Cancer. 25 (2): 321–323. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(197002)25:2<321::AID-CNCR2820250207>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 4905156. S2CID 31026667.
^ "900,000-VOLT TUBE TO COMBAT CANCER: Largest X-Ray Device of Kind Being Built by General Electric for Hospital Here". The New York Times. March 1, 1931. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ Time Magazine Cover, January 12, 1931
^ "Cancer Crusade". January 12, 1931. Time 17(2):26
^ Brand, RA (March 2012). "Biographical sketch: James Stephen Ewing, MD (1844-1943)". Clin Orthop Relat Res. 470 (3): 639–41. doi:10.1007/s11999-011-2234-y. PMC 3270161. PMID 22207564.
^ "Rockefeller Gives Block to Institute". The New York Times. December 28, 1934. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ "THE MEMORIAL HOSPITAL". The New York Times. June 16, 1939. Retrieved February 27, 2016.
^ a b Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, History & Milestones. Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center website..
^ a b "Sloan, Kettering to Combat Cancer; Studying Sketch of Proposed Cancer Research Institute". The New York Times. August 8, 1945. p. 1 (cont'd p. 40).
^ a b c Mukherjee, Siddhartha (2010). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. New York. ISBN 978-1439170915.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Bouton, Katherine (January 29, 1989). "The Nobel Pair". The New York Times.
^ a b Skloot, Rebecca (2010). The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown/Archetype. pp. 127–135. ISBN 9780307589385.
^ a b Mulford, R.D. (1967). "Experimentation on Human Beings". Stanford Law Review. 20 (1): 99–117. doi:10.2307/1227417. JSTOR 1227417.
^ "14 Convicts Injected With Live Cancer Cells". The New York Times. June 15, 1956.
^ Johnston, Richard J.H. (April 15, 1957). "Cancer Defenses Found to Differ; Tests Indicate Victims Lack Some Mechanisms That Well Human Being Has Cancer Recurred Deficiency Is Noted Warning by Southam". The New York Times.
^ Osmundsen, John A. (January 26, 1964). "Many Scientific Experts Condemn Ethics of Cancer Injection". The New York Times.
^ Plumb, Robert K. (March 22, 1964). "Scientists Split on Cancer Tests". The New York Times.
^ "Ruling is Upset on Cancer Test". The New York Times. July 8, 1964.
^ "U.S. Aide to Head Cancer Center: Dr. John R. Heller, Cured of Disease, to Assume New Sloan-Kettering Post". The New York Times. April 19, 1960. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
^ Johnson, Rudy (December 3, 1972). "Parents Are on Team at Memorial's Day Hospital for Children With Cancer". The New York Times.
^ Marks, Paul; Sterngold, James (2014). On the Cancer Frontier: One Man, One Disease, and a Medical Revolution. PublicAffairs. p. 91. ISBN 978-1610392525.
^ Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Annual Report, 1977 (Report). p. 22.
^ Rosenthal, Elizabeth (July 20, 1997). "Scientist at Work: Jimmie Holland; Listening to the Emotional Needs of Cancer Patients". The New York Times. Retrieved March 22, 2016.
^ "Amgen to Pay Lower Royalties on New Drug : Pharmaceuticals: It costs the Thousand Oaks firm $50 million to alter its agreement with a research center. That will lead to a loss this quarter". Los Angeles Times.
^ "Sloan-Kettering Institute Looks to Recover $72M in Unpaid Drug Royalties from Amgen". Genomeweb.
^ a b "The Harold Varmus Papers: Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 2000-2010, and National Cancer Institute, 2010-2015". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved April 22, 2016.
^ "Sloan Kettering Institute: About SKI". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
^ "New Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center and MSKCC Imaging Center Opens". MSKCC.
^ "Craig Thompson Named President of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. August 10, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2013.
^ Stevens, AJ; Jensen, JJ; Wyller, K; Kilgore, PC; Chatterjee, S; Rohrbaugh, ML (February 10, 2011). "The role of public-sector research in the discovery of drugs and vaccines". The New England Journal of Medicine. 364 (6): 535–41. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa1008268. PMID 21306239.
^ "Center names physician-in-chief". HemOnc Today. November 10, 2012.
^ Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Annual Report, 2013. p. 5.
^ Barajas, Carlos (November 26, 2013). "El español Joan Massagué, al frente del Sloan-Kettering de Nueva York". El Mundo.
^ "Why do medical journals keep taking authors at their word? - STAT". STAT. September 14, 2018. Retrieved September 14, 2018.
^ "MSK Cancer Center Orders Staff to 'Do a Better Job' of Disclosing Industry Ties". Retrieved September 14, 2018.
^ "Josie Robertson Surgery Center". MSKCC.
^ "Sloan-Kettering Receives $50 Million From Robertson Foundation".
^ "FDA approves CAR-T cell therapy to treat adults with certain types of large B-cell lymphoma". FDA. September 10, 2019. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ Tontonoz, Matthew (August 30, 2017). "FDA Approves First CAR T Cell Therapy for Leukemia". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "How Scientists Built a 'Living Drug' to Beat Cancer". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
^ "Cell Therapy Manufacturing Tries "Building the Plane While Flying It"". GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. October 1, 2019. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
^ Tontonoz, Matthew (October 19, 2017). "FDA Approves CAR T Cell Therapy for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "MSK-IMPACT: A Targeted Test for Mutations in Both Rare and Common Cancers". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "Tisagenlecleucel (Kymriah) Approved to Treat Some Lymphomas". National Cancer Institute. May 22, 2018. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "A New Era of Care: The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center to Open in January 2020". MSKCC.
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering receives $50 million for cancer research". Philanthropy News Digest. April 20, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
^ "MSmall cancer drug trial sees tumors disappear in 100 percent of patients". WSJ. April 20, 2022. Retrieved June 9, 2022.
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Regional Sites". Retrieved October 27, 2019.
^ a b "History & Milestones". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved November 14, 2019.
^ Norval White; Elliot Willensky; Fran Leadon (June 14, 2010). AIA Guide to New York City. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199758647. Retrieved January 10, 2013.
^ "New Facility Eases Patient Experience and Promotes Collaborative Treatment and Research". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. July 1, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering Opens Outpatient Rehabilitation Center". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. October 1, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2019.
^ "Trio Of Medical Networks Join Forces To Fight Cancer With New Proton Center In Harlem". November 20, 2019. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
^ "New York Proton Center | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center". www.mskcc.org. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
^ "New York City's largest freestanding cancer center opens". Building Design + Construction. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
^ "MSK to open $1.5B Koch Center for Cancer Care". Crain's New York Business. December 10, 2019. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
^ Herman, Gabe (December 12, 2019). "New cancer center opens next month on Upper East Side". amNewYork. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
^ "Construction Update: Koch Center for Cancer Care". FIELD CONDITION. Retrieved October 27, 2022.
^ "Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center inaugurates centre in Chennai". The Hindu BusinessLine. The Hindu. August 27, 2022. Retrieved September 15, 2022.
^ Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Annual Report, 2005. p. 3.
^ "First Four Students Receive Doctoral Degrees from Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
^ "MSK's Graduate School Welcomes New Dean, Bids Farewell to Its First". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
^ "Graduate School of Medical Sciences | Weill Cornell Medicine". gradschool.weill.cornell.edu. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
^ "Office of the President: Past Presidents | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center". www.mskcc.org. Retrieved May 23, 2023.
^ a b "Charity Ratings". charitywatch.org. Retrieved April 5, 2016.
External links
"Gerstner Sloan–Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences". Sloan Kettering.
"Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences". Cornell.
"Sloan Kettering Institute". MSKCC.
"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Library". MSKCC.
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It was founded in 1884 as the New York Cancer Hospital. MSKCC is one of 72 National Cancer Institute-designated Comprehensive Cancer Centers.[3][4] It had already been renamed and relocated, to its present site, when the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research was founded in 1945, and built adjacent to the hospital. The two medical entities formally coordinated their operations in 1960, and formally merged as a single entity in 1980. Its main campus is located at 1275 York Avenue between 67th and 68th Streets in Manhattan.In U.S. News & World Report's 2021–2022 Best Hospitals, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSK) is ranked the second-best hospital for cancer care in the nation after MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston.[5]","title":"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Upper West Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_West_Side"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barbanel-2"},{"link_name":"New York Cancer Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cancer_Hospital"},{"link_name":"John Jacob Astor III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Astor_III"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abel-6"},{"link_name":"William B. Coley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Coley"},{"link_name":"early form of immunotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coley%27s_toxins"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Rose Hawthorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Mary_Alphonsa"},{"link_name":"Nathaniel Hawthorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne"},{"link_name":"Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Sisters_of_Hawthorne"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Arabella Huntington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabella_Huntington"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"Collis Potter Huntington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collis_Potter_Huntington"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abel-6"},{"link_name":"James Ewing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Ewing_(pathologist)"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"James Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Douglas_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"radium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASbio-10"},{"link_name":"radiation therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_therapy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASbio-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASbio-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT1936FullName-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EwingLecture-13"},{"link_name":"X-ray tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_tube"},{"link_name":"radiation-based cancer treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_therapy"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASbio-10"},{"link_name":"Time magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BrandBio-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EwingLecture-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASbio-10"}],"sub_title":"New York Cancer Hospital (1884–1934)","text":"The hospital was founded on the Upper West Side of Manhattan[2] in 1884 as New York Cancer Hospital by a group that included John Jacob Astor III and his wife Charlotte.[6] The hospital appointed as an attending surgeon William B. Coley, who pioneered an early form of immunotherapy to eradicate tumors.[7] Rose Hawthorne, daughter of author Nathaniel Hawthorne, trained there in the summer of 1896 before founding her own order, Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne.[8] In 1899, the hospital was renamed General Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases.[9] In 1902, Arabella Huntington made a US$100,000 (equivalent to $3.5 million in 2023) bequest in memory of her late husband Collis Potter Huntington to establish the first cancer research fund in the country, the Huntington Fund for Cancer Research.[6]Around 1910, James Ewing, a professor at Cornell University's medical college, established a collaboration with Memorial Hospital with the help and funding of industrialist and philanthropist James Douglas, who gave $100,000 (equivalent to $3.3 million in 2023) to endow twenty beds for clinical research, equipment for working with radium, and a clinical laboratory for that purpose.[10] Douglas' enthusiasm and funding for development of radiation therapy for cancer inspired Ewing to become one of the pioneers in developing this treatment.[10] Ewing soon took over effective leadership of clinical and laboratory research at Memorial.[10] In 1916 the hospital was renamed again, dropping \"General\" to become known as Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases.[11][12]The first fellowship training program in the U.S. was created at Memorial in 1927, funded by the Rockefellers.[13] In 1931 the then-most-powerful 900k-volt X-ray tube was put into use in radiation-based cancer treatment at Memorial; the tube had been built by General Electric over several years.[14] In 1931 Ewing was formally appointed president of the hospital, a role he had effectively played until then,[10] and was featured on the cover of Time magazine as \"Cancer Man Ewing\";[15] the accompanying article described his role as one of the most important cancer doctors of his era.[16] He worked at the Memorial until his retirement, in 1939.[17] Under his leadership, Memorial became a model for other cancer centers in the United States, combining patient care with clinical and laboratory research,[13] and it was said of him that \"the relationship of Ewing to the Memorial Hospital can best be expressed in the words of Emerson, 'Every institution is but the lengthening shadow of some man.' Dr. Ewing is the Memorial Hospital\".[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John D. Rockefeller Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller_Jr."},{"link_name":"York Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York_Avenue_and_Sutton_Place"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT1936FullName-12"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSKCC.org_history_page-20"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Alfred P. Sloan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_P._Sloan"},{"link_name":"Charles F. Kettering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Kettering"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_1945-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_1945-21"},{"link_name":"Cornelius P. Rhoads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_P._Rhoads"},{"link_name":"chemical weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapons"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"nitrogen mustards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_mustard"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emp-22"},{"link_name":"Joseph H. Burchenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_H._Burchenal"},{"link_name":"Gertrude B. Elion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion"},{"link_name":"George H. Hitchings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._Hitchings"},{"link_name":"Burroughs Wellcome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSK_plc"},{"link_name":"6 MP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercaptopurine"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emp-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Chester M. Southam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_M._Southam"},{"link_name":"clinical research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research"},{"link_name":"virotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virotherapy"},{"link_name":"informed consent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informed_consent"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skloot-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mulford-25"},{"link_name":"University of the State of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_State_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skloot-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mulford-25"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"John Heller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Heller_Jr."},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"pediatric oncology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric_oncology"},{"link_name":"outpatient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outpatient"},{"link_name":"day hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_hospital"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Benno Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benno_C._Schmidt,_Sr."},{"link_name":"War on Cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_on_Cancer"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emp-22"},{"link_name":"Comprehensive Cancer Centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCI-designated_Cancer_Center"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Jimmie C. Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_C._Holland"},{"link_name":"psycho-oncology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycho-oncology"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosenthal-35"}],"sub_title":"Memorial Hospital and the Sloan Kettering Institute (1934–1980)","text":"In 1934, John D. Rockefeller Jr. donated land on York Avenue for a new location.[18] Two years later, he granted Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases (Memorial Hospital) $3.0 million (equivalent to $65.9 million in 2023) and the hospital began their move across town.[12] Memorial Hospital officially reopened at the new location in 1939.[19][20] In 1945, the chairman of General Motors, Alfred P. Sloan, donated $4.0 million (equivalent to $67.7 million in 2023) to create the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research through his Sloan Foundation, and Charles F. Kettering, GM's vice president and director of research, personally agreed to oversee the organization of a cancer research program based on industrial techniques.[21] The originally independent research institute was built adjacent to Memorial Hospital.[21]In 1948, Cornelius P. Rhoads became the director of Memorial. Rhoads had run chemical weapons programs for the United States Army in World War II, and had been involved in the work that led to the discovery that nitrogen mustards could potentially be used as cancer drugs.[22]: 91–92 He fostered a collaboration between Joseph H. Burchenal, a clinician at Memorial and Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings at Burroughs Wellcome, who discovered 6 MP; the collaboration led to the development and eventual wide use of this cancer drug.[22]: 91–92 [23]From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s Chester M. Southam conducted pioneering clinical research on virotherapy and cancer immunotherapy at MSK; however he conducted his research on people without their informed consent. He did this to patients under his care or others' care, and to prisoners.[24][25] In 1963 some doctors objected to the lack of consent in his experiments and reported him to the Regents of the University of the State of New York which found him guilty of fraud, deceit, and unprofessional conduct, and in the end, he was placed on probation for a year.[24][25] Southam's research experiments and the case at the Regents were covered in The New York Times.[26][27][28][29][30]In 1960, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center was formed as a new corporation to coordinate the two institutions, and John Heller, the former director of the National Cancer Institute was named its president.[31] At the end of the 1960s, as the field of pediatric oncology began seeing success in treating children with cancer, Memorial opened an outpatient pediatric day hospital, partly to deal with the growing number of cancer survivors.[32]In the early 1970s, Burchenal and Benno Schmidt, a professional investor and trustee of MSK, were appointed to the presidential panel that initiated the U.S. federal government's War on Cancer in the early 1970s.[22]: 184 When Congress passed the National Cancer Act of 1971 as part of that effort, Memorial Sloan Kettering was designated as one of only three Comprehensive Cancer Centers nationwide.[33]In 1977, Jimmie C. Holland established a full-time psychiatric service at MSK dedicated to helping people with cancer cope with their disease and its treatment; it was one of the first such programs and was part of the creation of the field of psycho-oncology.[34][35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memorial_Sloan_Kettering_entrance_at_night_(First_Avenue)_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Memorial_Sloan-Kettering_Rockefeller_Outpatient_Pavilion.jpg"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSKCC.org_history_page-20"},{"link_name":"Amgen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amgen"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"NIH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health"},{"link_name":"Harold Varmus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Varmus"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varmus_Papers-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varmus_Papers-38"},{"link_name":"Mortimer B. Zuckerman Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_B._Zuckerman_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mskcc.org-39"},{"link_name":"Evelyn H. Lauder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Lauder"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Craig B. Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_B._Thompson"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"José Baselga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jose_Baselga"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_(computer)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Joan Massagué","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Massagu%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Julian Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Robertson"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"leukemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"lymphoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphoma"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"David H. Koch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Koch"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Westchester County, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westchester_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Commack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commack,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Hauppauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauppauge,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Rockville Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockville_Centre,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Long Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island"},{"link_name":"Bergen County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_County,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Monmouth County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monmouth_County,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Basking Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basking_Ridge,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mskcc.org1-61"}],"sub_title":"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (1980–present)","text":"Schwartz Cancer Research Building, 1250 1st AveRockefeller Outpatient Pavilion, 160 E 53rd StIn 1980, Memorial Hospital and the Sloan-Kettering Institute formally merged into a singular entity under the name Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.[20]In 1990 it entered an agreement with Amgen to receive royalties for recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, the basis for neupogen and neulasta, earning the institute well over $100 million.[36] [37]In 2000, former NIH director Harold Varmus became director of MSK.[38] During his tenure, he helped build new facilities, strengthened the bond between MSK's clinical and research arms, and fostered collaborations with other institutions, including Weill-Cornell Medical College and Rockefeller University.[38]In 2006, MSK opened the Mortimer B. Zuckerman Research Center, a 23-story building that houses over 100 laboratories.[39] In 2009 it opened the Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center.[40]In 2010, Craig B. Thompson, an oncologist and researcher, was appointed MSK's president and CEO.[41] The following year, MSK was rated the third most successful nonprofit in terms of FDA-approved drugs and vaccines, behind the National Institutes of Health and the University of California system.[42] In 2012, Thompson appointed José Baselga as physician-in-chief, who directed the clinical side of MSK.[43] That same year, a collaboration with IBM's Watson was announced with the goal of developing new tools and resources to better tailor diagnostic and treatment recommendations for patients.[44] The director of SKI, the research arm of MSK, Joan Massagué was appointed in 2013.[45] Baselga resigned in September 2018 after information came out regarding millions of dollars he received from pharmaceutical companies without disclosing a financial conflict of interest.[46][47]In 2015 it opened the Josie Robertson Surgery Center for outpatient surgeries, named in honor of the wife of philanthropist Julian Robertson.[48] [49]In 2017, the Food and Drug Administration approved an MSK-developed immunotherapy, CAR-T, for certain applications in leukemia[50][51][52] and lymphoma.[53][54] The FDA approved the first academic or commercial tumor identification test MSK-IMPACT in November 2018.[55][56]In 2020 it opened The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care as an outpatient facility. [57]In April 2022, MSK announced a $50 million donation from The Starr Foundation to aid in expanding funding for basic cancer research and discovery science. The donation will establish The Starr Foundation programme for Discovery Science at the Sloan Kettering Institute, the goal of the institute is to drive next-generation cancer breakthroughs.[58]In June 2022, a small trial of an experimental treatment found that tumors vanished in all 14 patients diagnosed with early stage rectal cancer who completed the study by the time it was published.[59]MSK has expanded into regional sites, including in Westchester County, New York, Commack, Hauppauge, Rockville Centre on Long Island, and Bergen County, Monmouth County, and Basking Ridge in New Jersey.[60]MSK currently employs over 1,200 physicians and treats patients with approximately 400 types of cancer annually.[61]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bendheim_Sloan-Kettering_1_Av_74_St_jeh.jpg"},{"link_name":"First Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Avenue_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"East 74th Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/74th_Street_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"Perkins and Will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkins_Eastman"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:525_East_72_apt_%26_73_St_MSK_jeh.jpg"},{"link_name":"Montefiore Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montefiore_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"Mount Sinai Health System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Sinai_Health_System"},{"link_name":"New York state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Thornton Tomasetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton_Tomasetti"},{"link_name":"structural engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineering"},{"link_name":"Jaros, Baum & Bolles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaros,_Baum_%26_Bolles"},{"link_name":"MEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"Bendheim Integrative Medicine CenterThe Memorial Sloan Kettering Bendheim Integrative Medicine Center had occupied 1429 First Avenue on the corner of East 74th Street in Manhattan. The former bank was built in the 1930s by Perkins and Will as architects. It was remodeled for use by Memorial Sloan Kettering in 1997.[62]The Center for Image-Guided Intervention was opened in June 2010 in the Memorial Hospital building to oversee image guiding activities across MSK. In October 2012, the Sillerman Center for Rehabilitation was opened, moving rehabilitation out of Memorial Hospital and closer to the Rockefeller Outpatient Pavilion.[63][64]Koch Center (right)The New York Proton Center opened in 2019 as a partnership between Memorial Sloan Kettering, Montefiore Health, and Mount Sinai Health System. The center was the first Proton therapy center to open in New York state.[65][66] The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center opened at 530 East 74th Street between York Avenue and FDR Drive January 2020. Perkins Eastman designed 750,000sq ft facility in collaboration with Ennead Architects, and ICRAVE.[67][68][69] Thornton Tomasetti served as structural engineer, with Jaros, Baum & Bolles providing MEP engineering.[70]","title":"Associated facilities and programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Chennai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennai"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"India Center","text":"The center launched its India facility in Chennai in August 2022, to provide telemedicine services in collaboration with iCiliniq to facilitate second opinion from the cancer specialists, without the need to travel to a U.S. facility.[71]","title":"Associated facilities and programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mskcc.org1-61"},{"link_name":"Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_V._Gerstner,_Jr."},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-Institutional_MD%E2%80%93PhD_Program"},{"link_name":"Weill Cornell Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weill_Cornell_Medicine"},{"link_name":"The Rockefeller University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rockefeller_University"},{"link_name":"Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weill_Cornell_Graduate_School_of_Medical_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"text":"Approximately 1,700 medical residents and Fellows are in training at MSK. There are 575 postdoctoral researchers training at MSK labs and a combined 288 PhD and MD-PhD candidates.[61]In 2004, the Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences was opened at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.[72] The first students graduated in 2012.[73] As of January 2019, the dean of the graduate school is cell biologist Michael Overholtzer. The founding dean, serving for over a decade, was molecular biologist Ken Marians.[74]The Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program is a partnership of MSKCC, Weill Cornell Medicine, and The Rockefeller University. The dual degree program takes advantage of the close proximity of these three institutions for collaboration on biomedical research and medical training. MSKCC also has an academic partnership with Weill Cornell Medicine known as the Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences.[75]","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Lewis Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Paul A. Marks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Marks_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"Harold Varmus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Varmus"},{"link_name":"Craig B. Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_B._Thompson"},{"link_name":"Selwyn M. Vickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selwyn_M._Vickers"}],"sub_title":"Presidents","text":"The following individuals have served as president, first of the overarching corporation (1960–1980), and later of the combined hospital (1980 onwards).[76]John R. Heller, 1960–1961\nRichard D. Vanderwarker, 1962–1971\nDavid Walsh, 1971–1973\nLewis Thomas, 1973–1980\nPaul A. Marks, 1980–1999\nHarold Varmus, 2000–2010\nCraig B. Thompson, 2010–2022\nSelwyn M. Vickers, 2022–","title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John E. Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_E._Parsons"},{"link_name":"Herbert Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Parsons_(New_York_politician)"},{"link_name":"Laurance Rockefeller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurance_Rockefeller"},{"link_name":"B. Brewster Jennings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Brewster_Jennings"},{"link_name":"John M. Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Walker"},{"link_name":"James D. Robinson III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Robinson_III"}],"sub_title":"Presidents of the Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Allied Diseases","text":"John E. Parsons, 1884–1915\nHerbert Parsons, 1915–1917\nGeorge C. Clark, 1917–1919\nHerbert Parsons, 1919–1923\nWalter Douglas, 1924–1932\nHarry P. Robbins, 1933–1944\nReginald G. Coombe, 1945–1950\nLaurance Rockefeller, 1950–1958\nB. Brewster Jennings, 1958–1961\nOgden White, 1962–1964\nJohn M. Walker, 1965–1973\nJames D. Robinson III, 1974–1980","title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frank L. Horsfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Horsfall"},{"link_name":"Robert A. Good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_A._Good"}],"sub_title":"Presidents of the Sloan Kettering Institute","text":"Frank A. Howard, 1945–1959\nFrank L. Horsfall, 1960–1971\nLeo Wade, 1971–1972\nRobert A. Good, 1973–1980","title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James P. Allison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_P._Allison"},{"link_name":"Jae H Kim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jae_H_Kim&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chris Park - Drexel Graduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chris_Park_-_Drexel_Graduate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Steven Sinchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steven_Sinchi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ghause Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghause_Ali&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dustin Wong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Wong"},{"link_name":"Kathryn V. Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn_V._Anderson"},{"link_name":"Murray Brennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Brennan"},{"link_name":"Carol L. Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Brown_(physician)"},{"link_name":"Samuel Danishefsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Danishefsky"},{"link_name":"Nori Dattatreyudu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nori_Dattatreyudu"},{"link_name":"Lisa DeAngelis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_DeAngelis"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Drebin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Drebin"},{"link_name":"Jimmie C. Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_C._Holland"},{"link_name":"Maria Jasin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Jasin"},{"link_name":"David Kissane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kissane"},{"link_name":"Iris Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_Long"},{"link_name":"Scott W. Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_W._Lowe"},{"link_name":"Joan Massagué","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Massagu%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Offit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Offit"},{"link_name":"Lloyd Old","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Old"},{"link_name":"Nikola P. Pavletich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_P._Pavletich"},{"link_name":"Mark S. Ptashne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_S._Ptashne"},{"link_name":"James Rothman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rothman"},{"link_name":"Alexander Rudensky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Rudensky"},{"link_name":"Valerie Rusch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie_Rusch"},{"link_name":"Charles Sawyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sawyers"},{"link_name":"Lorenz Studer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_Studer"}],"sub_title":"Others","text":"James P. Allison\nJae H Kim\nChris Park - Drexel Graduate\nSteven Sinchi\nGhause Ali\nDustin Wong\nKathryn V. Anderson\nMurray Brennan\n Carol L. Brown\nSamuel Danishefsky\nNori Dattatreyudu\nLisa DeAngelis\nJeffrey Drebin\nJimmie C. Holland\nMaria Jasin\nDavid Kissane\nIris Long\nScott W. Lowe\nJoan Massagué\nKenneth Offit\nLloyd Old\nNikola P. Pavletich\nMark S. Ptashne\nJames Rothman\nAlexander Rudensky\nValerie Rusch\nCharles Sawyers\nLorenz Studer","title":"Notable faculty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charity Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Charity_Watch-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Charity_Watch-77"}],"text":"In 2015, Charity Watch rated Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center an \"A\".[77] That same year, heads of the charity received $2,107,939 to $2,639,669 salary/compensation from the charity. CEO Craig B. Thompson received $2,554,085 salary/compensation from the charity.[77]","title":"Reputation"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Bendheim Integrative Medicine Center","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Bendheim_Sloan-Kettering_1_Av_74_St_jeh.jpg/220px-Bendheim_Sloan-Kettering_1_Av_74_St_jeh.jpg"},{"image_text":"Koch Center (right)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/525_East_72_apt_%26_73_St_MSK_jeh.jpg/220px-525_East_72_apt_%26_73_St_MSK_jeh.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"MD Anderson Cancer Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD_Anderson_Cancer_Center"},{"title":"National Comprehensive Cancer Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Comprehensive_Cancer_Network"},{"title":"Tri-Institutional MD–PhD Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri-Institutional_MD%E2%80%93PhD_Program"},{"title":"Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weill_Cornell_Graduate_School_of_Medical_Sciences"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center\". Forbes.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/companies/memorial-sloan-kettering-cancer-center/","url_text":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center\""}]},{"reference":"\"The New York Cancer Hospital: laying the corner-stone of a much-needed institution\". The New York Times. May 18, 1884. Retrieved February 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1884/05/18/archives/the-newyork-cancer-hospital-laying-the-cornerstone-of-a-muchneeded.html","url_text":"\"The New York Cancer Hospital: laying the corner-stone of a much-needed institution\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._Y._Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"NCI-Designated Cancer Centers\". National Cancer Institute. April 5, 2012. Retrieved June 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cancer.gov/research/nci-role/cancer-centers","url_text":"\"NCI-Designated Cancer Centers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center - Cancer\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved November 16, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://health.usnews.com/best-hospitals/area/ny/memorial-sloan-kettering-cancer-center-6213060/cancer","url_text":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center - Cancer\""}]},{"reference":"Abel, Emily K. (2013). The inevitable hour: a history of caring for dying patients in America. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-1421409191. OCLC 808769549.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1421409191","url_text":"978-1421409191"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/808769549","url_text":"808769549"}]},{"reference":"Coley to Cure:The Story of the Cancer Research Institute. Cancer Research Institute. 2014. pp. 12–13. Retrieved February 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://cloud.3dissue.com/75528/75875/90117/ColeytoCure/index.html","url_text":"Coley to Cure:The Story of the Cancer Research Institute"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Fran; Himmel, Shiela (2013). Changing the Way We Die: Compassionate End of Life Care and The Hospice Movement. Berkeley, California: Cleis Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781936740604. OCLC 839388370.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781936740604","url_text":"9781936740604"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/839388370","url_text":"839388370"}]},{"reference":"\"SESSION OF THE SENATE.; Bills Passed and Introduced and Routine Business Transacted\". The New York Times. February 16, 1899. Retrieved February 27, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1899/02/16/archives/session-of-the-senate-bills-passed-and-introduced-and-routine.html","url_text":"\"SESSION OF THE SENATE.; Bills Passed and Introduced and Routine Business Transacted\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Murphy, James B. (1951). \"James Ewing—1866–1943\" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/ewing-james.pdf","url_text":"\"James Ewing—1866–1943\""}]},{"reference":"Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases Thirty First Annual Report for the Year 1915 (Report). p. 19.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Rockefeller Provides $3,000,000 to Build Cancer Hospital Here\". The New York Times. April 28, 1936. p. 1. Archived from the original on March 13, 2018. Retrieved February 4, 2016. A gift of $3,000,000 from the General Education Board, founded by John D. Rockefeller, to the Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/28/archives/rockefeller-provides-3000000-to-build-cancer-hospital-here-gift-of.html","url_text":"\"Rockefeller Provides $3,000,000 to Build Cancer Hospital Here\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180313213959/https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/28/archives/rockefeller-provides-3000000-to-build-cancer-hospital-here-gift-of.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wilkins, Sam A. Jr. (February 25, 1970). \"James Ewing Society, 1940-1969: Presidential Address\" (PDF). Cancer. 25 (2): 321–323. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(197002)25:2<321::AID-CNCR2820250207>3.0.CO;2-R. PMID 4905156. S2CID 31026667.","urls":[{"url":"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/1097-0142(197002)25:2%3C321::AID-CNCR2820250207%3E3.0.CO;2-R/asset/2820250207_ftp.pdf?v=1&t=imbfy6ah&s=eba11907ae69c486cdb6c017017da73258a6291e","url_text":"\"James Ewing Society, 1940-1969: Presidential Address\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1097-0142%28197002%2925%3A2%3C321%3A%3AAID-CNCR2820250207%3E3.0.CO%3B2-R","url_text":"10.1002/1097-0142(197002)25:2<321::AID-CNCR2820250207>3.0.CO;2-R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4905156","url_text":"4905156"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31026667","url_text":"31026667"}]},{"reference":"\"900,000-VOLT TUBE TO COMBAT CANCER: Largest X-Ray Device of Kind Being Built by General Electric for Hospital Here\". The New York Times. March 1, 1931. Retrieved February 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1931/03/01/archives/900000volt-tube-to-combat-cancer-largest-xray-device-of-kind-being.html","url_text":"\"900,000-VOLT TUBE TO COMBAT CANCER: Largest X-Ray Device of Kind Being Built by General Electric for Hospital Here\""}]},{"reference":"Brand, RA (March 2012). \"Biographical sketch: James Stephen Ewing, MD (1844-1943)\". Clin Orthop Relat Res. 470 (3): 639–41. doi:10.1007/s11999-011-2234-y. PMC 3270161. PMID 22207564.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3270161","url_text":"\"Biographical sketch: James Stephen Ewing, MD (1844-1943)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11999-011-2234-y","url_text":"10.1007/s11999-011-2234-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3270161","url_text":"3270161"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22207564","url_text":"22207564"}]},{"reference":"\"Rockefeller Gives Block to Institute\". The New York Times. December 28, 1934. Retrieved February 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1934/12/28/archives/rockefeller-gives-block-to-institute-use-to-which-york-av-land-will.html","url_text":"\"Rockefeller Gives Block to Institute\""}]},{"reference":"\"THE MEMORIAL HOSPITAL\". The New York Times. June 16, 1939. Retrieved February 27, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1939/06/16/archives/the-memorial-hospital.html","url_text":"\"THE MEMORIAL HOSPITAL\""}]},{"reference":"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, History & Milestones. Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center website..","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mskcc.org/history-milestones","url_text":"History & Milestones. Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center website."}]},{"reference":"\"Sloan, Kettering to Combat Cancer; Studying Sketch of Proposed Cancer Research Institute\". The New York Times. August 8, 1945. p. 1 (cont'd p. 40).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1945/08/08/archives/sloan-kettering-to-combat-cancer-studying-sketch-of-proposed-cancer.html","url_text":"\"Sloan, Kettering to Combat Cancer; Studying Sketch of Proposed Cancer Research Institute\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Mukherjee, Siddhartha (2010). The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer. New York. ISBN 978-1439170915.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439170915","url_text":"978-1439170915"}]},{"reference":"Bouton, Katherine (January 29, 1989). \"The Nobel Pair\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/29/magazine/the-nobel-pair.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"The Nobel Pair\""}]},{"reference":"Skloot, Rebecca (2010). The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown/Archetype. pp. 127–135. ISBN 9780307589385.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307589385","url_text":"9780307589385"}]},{"reference":"Mulford, R.D. (1967). \"Experimentation on Human Beings\". Stanford Law Review. 20 (1): 99–117. doi:10.2307/1227417. JSTOR 1227417.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1227417","url_text":"10.2307/1227417"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1227417","url_text":"1227417"}]},{"reference":"\"14 Convicts Injected With Live Cancer Cells\". The New York Times. June 15, 1956.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1956/06/15/archives/14-convicts-injected-with-live-cancer-cells.html","url_text":"\"14 Convicts Injected With Live Cancer Cells\""}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Richard J.H. (April 15, 1957). \"Cancer Defenses Found to Differ; Tests Indicate Victims Lack Some Mechanisms That Well Human Being Has Cancer Recurred Deficiency Is Noted Warning by Southam\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1957/04/15/archives/cancer-defenses-found-to-differ-tests-indicate-victims-lack-some.html","url_text":"\"Cancer Defenses Found to Differ; Tests Indicate Victims Lack Some Mechanisms That Well Human Being Has Cancer Recurred Deficiency Is Noted Warning by Southam\""}]},{"reference":"Osmundsen, John A. (January 26, 1964). \"Many Scientific Experts Condemn Ethics of Cancer Injection\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1964/01/26/many-scientific-experts-condemn-ethics-of-cancer-injection.html","url_text":"\"Many Scientific Experts Condemn Ethics of Cancer Injection\""}]},{"reference":"Plumb, Robert K. (March 22, 1964). \"Scientists Split on Cancer Tests\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1964/03/22/scientists-split-on-cancer-tests.html","url_text":"\"Scientists Split on Cancer Tests\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ruling is Upset on Cancer Test\". The New York Times. July 8, 1964.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1964/07/08/ruling-is-upset-on-cancer-test.html","url_text":"\"Ruling is Upset on Cancer Test\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Aide to Head Cancer Center: Dr. John R. Heller, Cured of Disease, to Assume New Sloan-Kettering Post\". The New York Times. April 19, 1960. Retrieved February 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1960/04/19/archives/us-aide-to-head-cancer-center-dr-john-r-heller-cured-of-disease-to.html","url_text":"\"U.S. Aide to Head Cancer Center: Dr. John R. Heller, Cured of Disease, to Assume New Sloan-Kettering Post\""}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Rudy (December 3, 1972). \"Parents Are on Team at Memorial's Day Hospital for Children With Cancer\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B05EEDE143DE53ABC4B53DFB4678389669EDE","url_text":"\"Parents Are on Team at Memorial's Day Hospital for Children With Cancer\""}]},{"reference":"Marks, Paul; Sterngold, James (2014). On the Cancer Frontier: One Man, One Disease, and a Medical Revolution. PublicAffairs. p. 91. ISBN 978-1610392525.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/oncancerfrontier0000mark/page/91","url_text":"On the Cancer Frontier: One Man, One Disease, and a Medical Revolution"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/oncancerfrontier0000mark/page/91","url_text":"91"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610392525","url_text":"978-1610392525"}]},{"reference":"Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Annual Report, 1977 (Report). p. 22.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rosenthal, Elizabeth (July 20, 1997). \"Scientist at Work: Jimmie Holland; Listening to the Emotional Needs of Cancer Patients\". The New York Times. Retrieved March 22, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/20/science/scientist-work-jimmie-holland-listening-emotional-needs-cancer-patients.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"Scientist at Work: Jimmie Holland; Listening to the Emotional Needs of Cancer Patients\""}]},{"reference":"\"Amgen to Pay Lower Royalties on New Drug : Pharmaceuticals: It costs the Thousand Oaks firm $50 million to alter its agreement with a research center. That will lead to a loss this quarter\". Los Angeles Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-13-fi-4506-story.html","url_text":"\"Amgen to Pay Lower Royalties on New Drug : Pharmaceuticals: It costs the Thousand Oaks firm $50 million to alter its agreement with a research center. That will lead to a loss this quarter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Sloan-Kettering Institute Looks to Recover $72M in Unpaid Drug Royalties from Amgen\". Genomeweb.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.genomeweb.com/biotechtransferweek/sloan-kettering-institute-looks-recover-72m-unpaid-drug-royalties-amgen","url_text":"\"Sloan-Kettering Institute Looks to Recover $72M in Unpaid Drug Royalties from Amgen\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Harold Varmus Papers: Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 2000-2010, and National Cancer Institute, 2010-2015\". profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved April 22, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/MV/p-nid/369","url_text":"\"The Harold Varmus Papers: Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 2000-2010, and National Cancer Institute, 2010-2015\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sloan Kettering Institute: About SKI\". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved December 4, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mskcc.org/research-areas/programs-centers/ski/about","url_text":"\"Sloan Kettering Institute: About SKI\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center and MSKCC Imaging Center Opens\". MSKCC.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mskcc.org/news-releases/new-evelyn-h-lauder-breast-and-mskcc-imaging-opens","url_text":"\"New Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center and MSKCC Imaging Center Opens\""}]},{"reference":"\"Craig Thompson Named President of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center\". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. August 10, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/99913.cfm","url_text":"\"Craig Thompson Named President of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center\""}]},{"reference":"Stevens, AJ; Jensen, JJ; Wyller, K; Kilgore, PC; Chatterjee, S; Rohrbaugh, ML (February 10, 2011). \"The role of public-sector research in the discovery of drugs and vaccines\". 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|
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Heller, Cured of Disease, to Assume New Sloan-Kettering Post\""},{"Link":"https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B05EEDE143DE53ABC4B53DFB4678389669EDE","external_links_name":"\"Parents Are on Team at Memorial's Day Hospital for Children With Cancer\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/oncancerfrontier0000mark/page/91","external_links_name":"On the Cancer Frontier: One Man, One Disease, and a Medical Revolution"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/oncancerfrontier0000mark/page/91","external_links_name":"91"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/20/science/scientist-work-jimmie-holland-listening-emotional-needs-cancer-patients.html?pagewanted=all","external_links_name":"\"Scientist at Work: Jimmie Holland; Listening to the Emotional Needs of Cancer Patients\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-11-13-fi-4506-story.html","external_links_name":"\"Amgen to Pay Lower Royalties on New Drug : Pharmaceuticals: It costs the Thousand Oaks firm $50 million to alter its agreement with a research center. That will lead to a loss this quarter\""},{"Link":"https://www.genomeweb.com/biotechtransferweek/sloan-kettering-institute-looks-recover-72m-unpaid-drug-royalties-amgen","external_links_name":"\"Sloan-Kettering Institute Looks to Recover $72M in Unpaid Drug Royalties from Amgen\""},{"Link":"https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/MV/p-nid/369","external_links_name":"\"The Harold Varmus Papers: Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 2000-2010, and National Cancer Institute, 2010-2015\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/research-areas/programs-centers/ski/about","external_links_name":"\"Sloan Kettering Institute: About SKI\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/news-releases/new-evelyn-h-lauder-breast-and-mskcc-imaging-opens","external_links_name":"\"New Evelyn H. Lauder Breast Center and MSKCC Imaging Center Opens\""},{"Link":"http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/99913.cfm","external_links_name":"\"Craig Thompson Named President of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsa1008268","external_links_name":"\"The role of public-sector research in the discovery of drugs and vaccines\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsa1008268","external_links_name":"10.1056/NEJMsa1008268"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21306239","external_links_name":"21306239"},{"Link":"http://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/practice-management/news/print/hemonc-today/%7B20593db8-bd40-4c49-970a-9fe52a576835%7D/center-names-physician-in-chief","external_links_name":"\"Center names physician-in-chief\""},{"Link":"http://www.elmundo.es/salud/2013/11/26/52949c7761fd3d453b8b459e.html","external_links_name":"\"El español Joan Massagué, al frente del Sloan-Kettering de Nueva York\""},{"Link":"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/14/jose-baselga-doctors-industry-conflict/","external_links_name":"\"Why do medical journals keep taking authors at their word? - STAT\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/09/health/cancer-memorial-sloan-kettering-disclosure.html?","external_links_name":"\"MSK Cancer Center Orders Staff to 'Do a Better Job' of Disclosing Industry Ties\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/locations/directory/josie-robertson-surgery","external_links_name":"\"Josie Robertson Surgery Center\""},{"Link":"https://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/sloan-kettering-receives-50-million-from-robertson-foundation","external_links_name":"\"Sloan-Kettering Receives $50 Million From Robertson Foundation\""},{"Link":"https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-car-t-cell-therapy-treat-adults-certain-types-large-b-cell-lymphoma","external_links_name":"\"FDA approves CAR-T cell therapy to treat adults with certain types of large B-cell lymphoma\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/blog/model-ts-fda-approves-first-car-t-cells-cancer","external_links_name":"\"FDA Approves First CAR T Cell Therapy for Leukemia\""},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/story/how-scientists-built-living-drug-to-beat-cancer/","external_links_name":"\"How Scientists Built a 'Living Drug' to Beat Cancer\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028","external_links_name":"1059-1028"},{"Link":"https://www.genengnews.com/insights/cell-therapy-manufacturing-tries-building-the-plane-while-flying-it/","external_links_name":"\"Cell Therapy Manufacturing Tries \"Building the Plane While Flying It\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/blog/fda-approves-car-cell-therapy-non-hodgkin-lymphoma","external_links_name":"\"FDA Approves CAR T Cell Therapy for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/msk-impact","external_links_name":"\"MSK-IMPACT: A Targeted Test for Mutations in Both Rare and Common Cancers\""},{"Link":"https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2018/tisagenlecleucel-fda-lymphoma","external_links_name":"\"Tisagenlecleucel (Kymriah) Approved to Treat Some Lymphomas\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/news-releases/new-era-care-david-koch-center-cancer-care-mskcc-open-january-2020","external_links_name":"\"A New Era of Care: The David H. Koch Center for Cancer Care at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center to Open in January 2020\""},{"Link":"https://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/memorial-sloan-kettering-receives-50-million-for-cancer-research","external_links_name":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering receives $50 million for cancer research\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2022/06/08/cancer-drug-trial/","external_links_name":"\"MSmall cancer drug trial sees tumors disappear in 100 percent of patients\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/locations","external_links_name":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Regional Sites\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/history-milestones","external_links_name":"\"History & Milestones\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MTJlkowOwA4C&q=memoria+sloan-kettering+international+center&pg=PT3563","external_links_name":"AIA Guide to New York City"},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/blog/new-facility-eases-patient-experience-and-promotes-collaborative-treatment-and-research","external_links_name":"\"New Facility Eases Patient Experience and Promotes Collaborative Treatment and Research\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/blog/msk-opens-outpatient-rehabilitation","external_links_name":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Opens Outpatient Rehabilitation Center\""},{"Link":"https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2019/11/20/trio-of-medical-networks-join-forces-to-fight-cancer-with-new-proton-center-in-harlem/","external_links_name":"\"Trio Of Medical Networks Join Forces To Fight Cancer With New Proton Center In Harlem\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/about/innovative-collaborations/new-york-proton-center","external_links_name":"\"New York Proton Center | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center\""},{"Link":"https://www.bdcnetwork.com/new-york-city%E2%80%99s-largest-freestanding-cancer-center-opens","external_links_name":"\"New York City's largest freestanding cancer center opens\""},{"Link":"https://www.crainsnewyork.com/health-pulse/msk-open-15b-koch-center-cancer-care","external_links_name":"\"MSK to open $1.5B Koch Center for Cancer Care\""},{"Link":"https://www.amny.com/health/new-cancer-center-opens-next-month-on-upper-east-side/","external_links_name":"\"New cancer center opens next month on Upper East Side\""},{"Link":"http://fieldcondition.com/blog/2017/2/13/koch-center-for-cancer-care","external_links_name":"\"Construction Update: Koch Center for Cancer Care\""},{"Link":"https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/memorial-sloan-kettering-cancer-center-inaugurates-centre-in-chennai/article65817769.ece","external_links_name":"\"Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center inaugurates centre in Chennai\""},{"Link":"https://www.mskcc.org/blog/first-four-students-receive-doctoral-degrees-gerstner-graduate-school-biomedical-sciences","external_links_name":"\"First Four Students Receive Doctoral Degrees from Louis V. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans_%E2%80%93_Bricy_Air_Base
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Orléans – Bricy Air Base
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["1 Units","2 Aircraft","3 History","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Airport in Orléans, FranceOrléans - Bricy Air BaseBase aérienne 123« Commandant Charles Paoli »Advanced Landing Ground (ALG) A-50IATA: noneICAO: LFOJSummaryOwnerGovernment of FranceOperatorArmée de l'air et de l'espaceLocationOrléans, FranceElevation AMSL314 ft / 96 mCoordinates47°59′15″N 001°45′38″E / 47.98750°N 1.76056°E / 47.98750; 1.76056MapLFOJLocation of Orléans – Bricy Air BaseRunways
Direction
Length
Surface
m
ft
07/25
2,400
7,874
Asphalt
02/30
4,000
Turf
Orléans – Bricy Air Base (French: Base aérienne 123 « Commandant Charles Paoli ») (ICAO: LFOJ) is a French Air and Space Force (Armée de l'air et de l'espace) (ALAE) base. The base is located approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) north-northwesst of Ingré near the city of Orléans; about 65 miles (105 km) south-southwest of Paris, France.
The mission of the base is primarily tactical airlift.
Hangar from 1/61 Touraine tactical transport squadron
Demo with C-160 during the airshow on the base in June 2010
Units
Escadron de Transport 1/61 Touraine with the Airbus A400M Atlas
Escadron de Transport 2/61 Franche-Comté with the Lockheed C-130H Hercules, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules and the Lockheed Martin KC-130J
Escadron de Transport 3/61 Poitou with the Lockheed C-130H Hercules, Transall C-160 and the de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter
Centre d'Instruction des Equipages de Transport 340 Général Lionel de Marmier
Aircraft
27 Transall C-160F
5 Lockheed C-130H Hercules
8 Lockheed C-130H-30
c11 Airbus A400M
History
Orléans-Bricy Air Base was built prior to World War II as a French Air Force facility. It was seized by the Germans in June 1940 during the Battle of France, and was used as a major Luftwaffe military airfield during the occupation. LG 1 (Luftflotte (Air Fleet) 3/Fliegerkorps (Division) V/1st Heavy Fighter Wing) stationed Junkers Ju 88A-5 (Fuselage Code L1+) day/night interceptors at the base.
It was liberated by Allied ground forces about 22 August 1944 during the Northern France Campaign. Almost immediately, the USAAF IX Engineering Command 832d, 833dd and 877th Engineer Aviation Battalions began clearing the base of mines and destroyed Luftwaffe aircraft and repairing operational facilities for use by American aircraft. Subsequently, Bricy became a USAAF Ninth Air Force combat airfield, designated as "A-50" about 24 August, only a few days after its capture from German forces.
Almost immediately, the repaired base became home to numerous combat units.
394th Bombardment Group, flew Martin B-26 Marauders from 18 September through 8 October 1944
440th Troop Carrier Group, flew Douglas C-47 Skytrains from 2 November 1944 through 18 October 1945. The C-47s pulled gliders in the airborne assault across the Rhine (Operation Varsity).
The Americans returned control of the base to the French Air Force at the end of October 1945 and it returned to being a French military airfield.
After the war, the base was completely rebuilt. An 8000' new jet runway was laid down along with two circular marguerite systems of hardstands that could be revetted later with earth for added protection. The Marguerite consist of fifteen to eighteen hardstands around a semicircular taxiway. Each hardstand can hold one or two aircraft, and allows the planes to be spaced approximately 150 feet (46 m) apart. Each marguerite is dispersed at each end of the runway, allowing the aircraft to be launched quickly. Each squadron is assigned to a separate hangar/hardstand complex. The wartime main runway was extended to become the taxiway for the new jet runway. Additional dispersed aircraft parking, ramp space and hangars were also constructed, along with a completely new administrative and personnel area. A 4000' grass runway was also constructed for glider and small aircraft landings.
Bricy is the home of the Airbus A400M Atlas new European tactical cargo aircraft for the French Air and Space Force.
See also
Advanced Landing Ground
References
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
^ a b c d "Chiffres clés de l'Armée de l'air - L'Armée de l'air en chiffres : 2019-2020 (FR)". French Air and Space Force. Retrieved November 3, 2020.
^ Units and aircraft of the Luftwaffe in the West
^ Identification codes of units of the Luftwaffe 1939 - 1945
^ "IX Engineering Command ETO Airfields General Construction Information". Archived from the original on 2019-06-30. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
^ Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1983. ISBN 0-89201-092-4.
^ Johnson, David C. (1988), U.S. Army Air Forces Continental Airfields (ETO), D-Day to V-E Day; Research Division, USAF Historical Research Center, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.
French Senate Document, LIST AIR BASES, AND THEIR MAIN ACTIVITIES
External links
Airport information for LFOJ at Great Circle Mapper.
Links to related articles
vte USAAF Ninth Air Force in World War IIStationsPalestine (Mand)
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Europe
Advanced Landing Grounds (ALGs) in France, Belgium, Netherlands, and Germany too numerous.
UnitsCommands
9th Air Division (was IX Bomber Command)
IX Air Defense
IX Fighter
IX Tactical Air
IX Troop Carrier
XIX Tactical Air
XXIX Tactical Air
WingsBombardment
97th Bombardment
98th Bombardment
99th Bombardment
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GroupsBombardment
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322d Bombardment
323d Bombardment Group
340th Bombardment Group
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376th Bombardment
386th Bombardment
387th Bombardment
391st Bombardment
394th Bombardment
397th Bombardment
409th Bombardment
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416th Bombardment
Fighter
36th Fighter
48th Fighter
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79th Fighter
324th Fighter
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362d Fighter
363d Fighter
366th Fighter
367th Fighter
368th Fighter
370th Fighter
371st Fighter
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406th Fighter
474th Fighter
Troop carrier
61st Troop Carrier
64th Troop Carrier
313th Troop Carrier
314th Troop Carrier
315th Troop Carrier
316th Troop Carrier
349th Troop Carrier
434th Troop Carrier
435th Troop Carrier
436th Troop Carrier
437th Troop Carrier
438th Troop Carrier
439th Troop Carrier
440th Troop Carrier
441st Troop Carrier
442d Troop Carrier
IX Troop Carrier Pathfinder (Provisional)
Reconnaissance
10th Reconnaissance
67th Reconnaissance
69th Reconnaissance
SquadronsLiaison
14th Liaison
47th Liaison
Night fighter
422d Night Fighter
425th Night Fighter
United States Army Air Forces
First
Second
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It was seized by the Germans in June 1940 during the Battle of France, and was used as a major Luftwaffe military airfield during the occupation. LG 1 (Luftflotte (Air Fleet) 3/Fliegerkorps (Division) V/1st Heavy Fighter Wing) stationed Junkers Ju 88A-5 (Fuselage Code L1+) day/night interceptors at the base.[2][3]It was liberated by Allied ground forces about 22 August 1944 during the Northern France Campaign. Almost immediately, the USAAF IX Engineering Command 832d, 833dd and 877th Engineer Aviation Battalions began clearing the base of mines and destroyed Luftwaffe aircraft and repairing operational facilities for use by American aircraft. Subsequently, Bricy became a USAAF Ninth Air Force combat airfield, designated as \"A-50\" about 24 August, only a few days after its capture from German forces.[4]Almost immediately, the repaired base became home to numerous combat units.[5]394th Bombardment Group, flew Martin B-26 Marauders from 18 September through 8 October 1944\n440th Troop Carrier Group, flew Douglas C-47 Skytrains from 2 November 1944 through 18 October 1945. The C-47s pulled gliders in the airborne assault across the Rhine (Operation Varsity).The Americans returned control of the base to the French Air Force at the end of October 1945 and it returned to being a French military airfield.[6]After the war, the base was completely rebuilt. An 8000' new jet runway was laid down along with two circular marguerite systems of hardstands that could be revetted later with earth for added protection. The Marguerite consist of fifteen to eighteen hardstands around a semicircular taxiway. Each hardstand can hold one or two aircraft, and allows the planes to be spaced approximately 150 feet (46 m) apart. Each marguerite is dispersed at each end of the runway, allowing the aircraft to be launched quickly. Each squadron is assigned to a separate hangar/hardstand complex. The wartime main runway was extended to become the taxiway for the new jet runway. Additional dispersed aircraft parking, ramp space and hangars were also constructed, along with a completely new administrative and personnel area. A 4000' grass runway was also constructed for glider and small aircraft landings.Bricy is the home of the Airbus A400M Atlas new European tactical cargo aircraft for the French Air and Space Force.","title":"History"}]
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[{"image_text":"Hangar from 1/61 Touraine tactical transport squadron","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hangar_1-61_Touraine_BA123.jpg/220px-Hangar_1-61_Touraine_BA123.jpg"},{"image_text":"Demo with C-160 during the airshow on the base in June 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Exercice_BA123.jpg/220px-Exercice_BA123.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Advanced Landing Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Landing_Ground#A-41_to_A-50"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Chiffres clés de l'Armée de l'air - L'Armée de l'air en chiffres : 2019-2020 (FR)\". French Air and Space Force. Retrieved November 3, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gouv.fr/air/presentation/chiffres-cles/chiffres-cles-de-l-armee-de-l-air","url_text":"\"Chiffres clés de l'Armée de l'air - L'Armée de l'air en chiffres : 2019-2020 (FR)\""}]},{"reference":"\"IX Engineering Command ETO Airfields General Construction Information\". Archived from the original on 2019-06-30. Retrieved 2009-09-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190630184037/http://www.ixengineercommand.com/airfields/general.php","url_text":"\"IX Engineering Command ETO Airfields General Construction Information\""},{"url":"http://www.ixengineercommand.com/airfields/general.php","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Orl%C3%A9ans_%E2%80%93_Bricy_Air_Base¶ms=47_59_15_N_001_45_38_E_type:airport","external_links_name":"47°59′15″N 001°45′38″E / 47.98750°N 1.76056°E / 47.98750; 1.76056"},{"Link":"https://www.afhra.af.mil/","external_links_name":"Air Force Historical Research Agency"},{"Link":"https://www.defense.gouv.fr/air/presentation/chiffres-cles/chiffres-cles-de-l-armee-de-l-air","external_links_name":"\"Chiffres clés de l'Armée de l'air - L'Armée de l'air en chiffres : 2019-2020 (FR)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000709143524/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/2072/Jan41.html","external_links_name":"Units and aircraft of the Luftwaffe in the West"},{"Link":"http://www.rlm.at/cont/archiv02_e.htm","external_links_name":"Identification codes of units of the Luftwaffe 1939 - 1945"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190630184037/http://www.ixengineercommand.com/airfields/general.php","external_links_name":"\"IX Engineering Command ETO Airfields General Construction Information\""},{"Link":"http://www.ixengineercommand.com/airfields/general.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.senat.fr/rap/a05-102-6/a05-102-616.html","external_links_name":"French Senate Document, LIST AIR BASES, AND THEIR MAIN ACTIVITIES"},{"Link":"http://www.gcmap.com/airport/LFOJ","external_links_name":"Airport information for LFOJ"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War
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Signal Corps in the American Civil War
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["1 U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps","1.1 First chief signal officer","1.2 War organization","2 Confederate Signal Corps","3 Signal equipment and techniques","3.1 Wig-wag signaling","3.2 Telegraph train and the Beardslee telegraph","3.3 Ciphers","4 Signal contributions to battles and campaigns","4.1 First Bull Run","4.2 Fredericksburg","4.3 Chancellorsville","4.4 Gettysburg","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
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U.S. Army Signal Corps station on Elk Mountain, Maryland, overlooking the Antietam battlefield.
The Signal Corps in the American Civil War comprised two organizations: the U.S. Army Signal Corps, which began with the appointment of Major Albert J. Myer as its first signal officer just before the war and remains an entity to this day, and the Confederate States Army Signal Corps, a much smaller group of officers and men, using similar organizations and techniques as their Union opponents. Both accomplished tactical and strategic communications for the warring armies, including electromagnetic telegraphy and aerial telegraphy ("wig-wag" signaling). Although both services had an implicit mission of battlefield observation, intelligence gathering, and artillery fire direction from their elevated signal stations, the Confederate Signal Corps also included an explicit espionage function.
The Union Signal Corps, although effective on the battlefield, suffered from political disputes in Washington, D.C., particularly in its rivalry with the civilian-led U.S. Military Telegraph Corps. Myer was relieved of his duties as chief signal officer by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton for his attempts to control all electromagnetic telegraphy within the Signal Corps. He was not restored to his role as chief signal officer until after the war.
U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps
First chief signal officer
Albert J. Myer, first chief signal officer.
The "father" of the U.S. Army Signal Corps was Major Albert J. Myer, an Army surgeon with an interest in communications by sign language for the deaf and then in signaling over long distances with lightweight and simple to use equipment. He invented a signaling system using a flag (or a kerosene torch for nighttime use) that is known as wig-wag signaling, or aerial telegraphy. Unlike semaphore flag signaling, which employed two flags, signal wig-wag required only one, using a binary code to represent each letter of the alphabet or digit. Myer was serving at Fort Duncan, Texas, in 1856 when he wrote to Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and offered his signaling system to the War Department. Although the chief engineer of the Army, Colonel Joseph G. Totten, supported Myer's proposal, it did not include specific technical details and Davis rejected it. When John B. Floyd replaced Davis as secretary of war in 1857, Totten reintroduced Myer's proposal, and in March 1859, a board of examination was formed in Washington, D.C. The board, presided over by Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee, was not enthusiastic about the proposal, judging it suitable only as a secondary means of communications over short distances, but it did recommend further testing.
Myer began testing in April 1859 at Fort Monroe, Virginia, and then New York Harbor, West Point, New York, and Washington, D.C. One of Myer's principal assistants was Second Lieutenant Edward Porter Alexander, the future Confederate signal, engineer, and artillery officer. They were able to communicate at distances up to 15 miles and Myer reported to the War Department that the tests had "exceeded anticipation." He recommended that the Army adopt his signaling system and that he should be placed in charge of it.
On March 29, 1860, the United States House of Representatives approved the Army appropriations bill for fiscal year 1861, which included the following amendment:
For the manufacture or purchase of apparatus and equipment for field signals, $2000; and that there be added to the staff of the Army one signal officer, with the rank, pay, and allowance of a major of cavalry, who shall have charge, under the direction of the Secretary of War, of all signal duty, and all books, papers, and apparatus connected therewith.
The United States Senate eventually approved the appropriations bill, over the objections of Jefferson Davis, now Senator from Mississippi, and President James Buchanan signed it into law on June 21, 1860, the date now celebrated as the birthday of the modern U.S. Army Signal Corps. Myer's appointment as the first signal officer with the rank of major was confirmed by the Senate on June 27. However, the appropriations bill provided for no personnel to work for Myer and the Signal Corps as a formal organization would not be authorized until March 1863.
Immediately before the war, Myer was assigned to the Department of New Mexico to test his signals in the field during a campaign against the Navajos. In that assignment, he was assisted by Second Lieutenant William J. L. Nicodemus, who would later succeed him as chief signal officer. Field testing proceeded successfully, and won the admiration of Major Edward Canby, who became a strong advocate of forming a dedicated Signal Corps; Myer at this time believed that the best approach for staffing signal work would be to train officers across the Army in its disciplines.
War organization
Headquarters of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Washington, D.C., 1865.
Upon the outbreak of war, Myer returned to Washington and addressed the problem of having no signal personnel. His only option was to persuade officers to be detailed from other assignments, which was not considered satisfactory by Myer or the officers themselves, who feared loss of promotion opportunities. He submitted draft legislation to Secretary of War Simon Cameron in August 1861, proposing that a Signal Corps be established with himself, seven assistant signal officers, 40 warrant officers, and 40 signal artificers to serve as line builders and repairmen. He intended that each division of the Army, which he assumed would eventually comprise 500,000 men, would have dedicated aerial and electromagnetic telegraphy support. Congress adjourned without considering the legislation. That fall, Myer, who in addition to being chief signal officer for the Army, served as chief signal officer of the newly formed Army of the Potomac, set up training facilities for detailed officers and men in Fort Monroe and at Red Hill, Georgetown, Washington, D.C. His latter training camp remained in operation through the Peninsula Campaign and the rest of 1862, a period in which he continued to lobby with Congress and the Secretary of War, now Edwin M. Stanton, to establish a permanent corps.
Myer's persistence paid off when President Abraham Lincoln signed a sundry civil appropriations bill on March 3, 1863, which authorized the organization of a Signal Corps during the "present rebellion." It included the position of chief signal officer with the rank of colonel, a lieutenant colonel, two majors, a captain for each corps or military department, and as many lieutenants, not to exceed eight, per corps or department as the president deemed necessary. Each officer was provided one sergeant and six privates. Myer was appointed to the position of chief signal officer and the rank of colonel by Secretary Stanton on April 29, but his appointment could not be immediately confirmed by the Senate, which was in recess.
Although Myer interpreted his appointment to include control over electromagnetic telegraphy, a rival organization emerged. The U.S. Military Telegraph Corps employed civilian telegraph operators, with supervisors who received military commissions in the Quartermaster Department, under the general management of Anson Stager, a former official of the Western Union Telegraph Company. In February 1862, Lincoln took control of the nation's commercial telegraph lines, which were then used by Stager's organization. Secretary Stanton, a former director and attorney for the Atlantic and Ohio Telegraph Company, understood the technical and strategic importance of telegraphy and located the telegraph office directly next to his own in the War Department. One of his biographers described the operators as Stanton's "little army ... part of his own personal and confidential staff." Myer began a campaign to supersede this organization by proposing the purchase of equipment to form telegraph trains (in the sense of wagon trains, not railroad) in the Signal Corps, to provide mobility for telegraph operators supporting armies on the move. Since he was concerned about the training required for telegraph operators using traditional Morse key equipment, he outfitted his trains with a magneto-electric telegraph instrument invented by George W. Beardslee of New York City. When this device suffered from technical limitations, in the autumn of 1862 he advertised in the Army and Navy Official Gazette for trained telegraphers. The War Department informed Myer that his actions were "irregular and improper" and he was removed as chief signal officer on November 10, 1863. All of the Beardslee devices were given to the Military Telegraph Service (which never used them, due to unreliability) and Myer was transferred to Memphis, Tennessee. His replacement as acting chief signal officer was Major William J. L. Nicodemus, his former apprentice. During his exile in the West, Myer's A Manual of Signals: For the Use of Signal Officers in the Field was published in 1864, a work that would remain the basis of signal doctrine for many years.
William J. L. Nicodemus.
Benjamin F. Fisher.
Nicodemus inherited an organization that had grown to approximately 200 officers and 1000 enlisted men. He also ran afoul of Secretary Stanton when the 1864 annual report for the Signal Corps was published because it revealed that the corps was able to read the enemy's signals. Stanton rightfully believed this to be a breach of security and he dismissed Nicodemus from the Army in December 1864. The final chief signal officer during the war was Colonel Benjamin F. Fisher, former chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, who had been captured near Aldie, Virginia, in the Gettysburg Campaign and spent eight months in Libby Prison before escaping and returning to duty.
The Signal Corps completed its wartime service and was dissolved in August 1865. During its lifetime, 146 officers were commissioned in the corps or were offered commissions. There were 297 acting signal officers appointed, although some were for very brief periods. The total number of enlisted men who served during the war was about 2,500.
Albert Myer was eventually rescued from oblivion. In May 1864, Myer's prewar ally, Edward Canby, selected him to be the signal officer for the Military Division of West Mississippi. Myer served in this position as a major because his confirmation as a colonel had been revoked after his dismissal from Washington. At the end of the Civil War, he was given a brevet promotion to brigadier general. On July 28, 1866, reacting to the influence of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and President Andrew Johnson, Congress reorganized the Signal Corps and, with the permanent rank of colonel, Myer again became chief signal officer, as of October 30, 1866. His new duties included control of the telegraph service, resolving the dispute that had removed him from his position.
Confederate Signal Corps
Edward Porter Alexander
William Norris
Edward P. Alexander, Myer's assistant in testing the wig-wag signaling system, resigned his U.S. Army commission on May 1, 1861, to join the Confederate Army as a captain of engineers. While organizing and training new recruits to form a Confederate signal service, he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas Junction, Virginia. He became the chief engineer and signal officer of the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac on June 3. After becoming the chief ordnance officer for the Army of Northern Virginia, Alexander retained his position as signal officer, but his other duties took precedence.
Although the Confederate Signal Corps would never achieve a distinct branch identity to the extent that the Union version did, the Confederate Congress authorized its establishment as a separate organization, attached to the Adjutant and Inspector General's Department, on April 19, 1862, a year before the U.S. Congress did so. The first chief signal officer was Captain William Norris, a Maryland lawyer then a civilian volunteer on the staff of Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder.
The corps under Norris was organized to consist of one major, 10 captains, 20 lieutenants, 20 sergeants, and 1500 men detailed from all branches of the service. A signal officer was authorized for the staff at each corps and division. The Confederate Signal Corps perform duties and utilized equipment very similar to their Northern counterparts, with some exceptions. Electric telegraphy was not used in tactical battlefield communications due to shortages of telegraph wire and trained operators. Their aerial telegraphy was performed with similar flags, but with slightly modified codes and movements from the Myer methods. Unlike the Union Signal Corps, however, the Confederate Signal Corps also was chartered to conduct espionage for the South. (Both services provided valuable battlefield intelligence, and sometimes artillery fire direction, from their elevated observation points, but the Confederate corpsmen performed undercover missions behind enemy lines as well.) Acting as the Secret Service of the Confederacy, the corps administered the Secret Line, an information network that ran between Richmond and the North and extended into Canada. It is because of its clandestine nature that much of the work of the Confederate Signal Corps is lost to history. Many of its records were burned in the fall of Richmond and in a subsequent fire at Norris's home, which claimed his personal papers.
Signal equipment and techniques
Wig-wag signaling
Main article: Wigwag (flag signals)
Wig-wag signaling was performed during daylight with a single flag tied to a hickory staff constructed in four-foot jointed sections. Flags were generally made of cotton, linen, or another lightweight fabric and were issued in the following sizes:
Standard Issue Civil War Signal Corps Kit, complete with flags and torches.
Flag size (feet)
Flag background color
Center color
Center size (inches)
6 x 6
white
red
24 x 24
6 x 6
black
white
24 x 24
4 x 4
white
red
16 x 16
4 x 4
black
white
16 x 16
4 x 4
red
white
16 x 16
2 x 2
white
red
8 x 8
2 x 2
red
white
8 x 8
The 4-foot flags with white backgrounds, mounted on 12 foot staffs, were most often used, although 2-foot flags were used when the flagman wanted to avoid enemy attention. Red flags were generally used at sea. For nighttime signaling, torches were copper cylinders, 18 inches long and 1.5 inches in diameter with a cotton wick.
Myer's "General Service Code" for wig-wag signaling, standardized in 1864, was also known as the "four element" code because all of the characters transmitted were composed of from one to four flag motions. (Myer's original method from the 1850s was called a "two element code" because elements were described only in terms of movement from the vertical position.) The flagman took a position facing the station to receive the message and signaled digits "1" through "5" as follows:
Wave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.
Wave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.
Wave the flag from the ground on the right to the ground on the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal "3" always followed a "2" or "4."
Wave the flag from the ground on the left to the ground on the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal "4" always followed a "1" or "3."
Wave the flag directly in front of the flagman to the ground, returning immediately to the vertical position.
Codes for the alphabet, digits, and some special characters were as follows for the Union Signal Corps:
A - 11
F - 1114
K - 1434
P - 2343
U - 223
Z - 1111
1 - 14223
6 - 23111
B - 1423
G - 1142
L - 114
Q - 2342
V - 2311
& - 2222
2 - 23114
7 - 22311
C - 234
H - 231
M - 2314
R - 142
W - 2234
tion - 2223
3 - 11431
8 - 22223
D - 111
I - 2
N - 22
S - 143
X - 1431
ing - 1143
4 - 11143
9 - 22342
E - 23
J - 2231
O - 14
T - 1
Y - 222
ed - 1422
5 - 11114
0 - 11111
Waving the flag continuously from left to right was used to attract attention and to indicate that signaling was about to start. Other special sequences of digits were:
5
End of word
55
End of sentence
555
End of message
11, 11, 11, 5
"I understand"
11, 11, 11, 555
"Cease signaling"
234, 234, 234, 5
"Repeat"
143434, 5
"Error"
Telegraph train and the Beardslee telegraph
Beardslee telegraph.
Telegraph trains were introduced by Myer to support telegraphy for mobile operations. The horse-drawn wagons carried the telegraph sets and supplies such as reels of insulated copper wire and iron lances, for stringing temporary field lines, a practice called "flying telegraph lines." Each train consisted of two wagons, equipped with 5 miles of wire and a telegraph instrument. The first model train was constructed by Henry J. Rogers, a telegraphic engineer from New York City who had worked with Samuel F.B. Morse in building the first commercial telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. Rogers's original telegraph instrument for the train replaced the traditional sending key and sound receiver with a dial indicator, a circular index plate bearing the letters of the alphabet and a pointer that turned to the letter to be transmitted. A similar pointer spelled out the message at the receiving end. Rogers provided a galvanic battery that eliminated the danger of acid spills. This equipment eliminated the need for skilled operators who had to be trained in Morse code. Field trials in February 1862 found that it worked satisfactorily over a test circuit of 2 miles of wire. A board of three signal officers recommended that such a train would be of great use as an auxiliary to permanent telegraph lines.
For its first use in combat, during the 1862 Peninsula Campaign, the Rogers train substituted a new telegraph instrument, the Beardslee Patent Magneto-Electric Field Telegraph Machine, invented by George W. Beardslee of New York. This instrument required no battery, using instead a hand-cranked generator, but it was also based on a dial indicator. The Beardslee telegraph was housed in a wooden chest with handles and weighed about 100 pounds. It had two significant technical deficiencies, however. Its generator could not produce enough electricity to transmit signals more than about 5 to 8 miles. More seriously, there was a tendency for the sending and receiving index pointers to get out of synchronization, hopelessly garbling transmitted messages. Broken machines had to be sent back to New York City for repair. It was these deficiencies that led Myer to his decision to use traditional Morse key technology and attempt to hire trained telegraphers, a decision that led Secretary Stanton to dismiss him as chief signal officer. All of the telegraph train assets of the Signal Corps were turned over to the Military Telegraph Service, but they did not use the Beardslee telegraph due to its unreliability. At their peak of usage in 1863, there were 30 telegraph trains in the field.
Ciphers
Union Signal Corps cipher disc with two-element General Signal Code inscriptions.
Since aerial telegraphy was sometimes conducted within the clear sight of the enemy, security was a major problem. The Signal Corps introduced a cipher disc, a simple device that allowed the encryption of text. Two concentric discs were inscribed with letters and their numerical equivalents. The sending and receiving party had to agree on the specific alignment between the two discs, ensuring that both parties had identical alignment. To encipher a message, the signal officer selected an "adjustment letter" on the inner disc and then made this letter correspond with a preselected numerical code or "key number" on the outer disc. The signal officer would typically give the key numbers to the flagmen without revealing the plain text version of the message. Although this method of encryption was primitive by modern standards, there is no record that the Confederates ever deciphered a Union message that had been processed in this manner. A more complex system in which four concentric discs were used was invented by Sergeant Francis M. Metcalf and modified by Captain Lemuel B. Norton, but it did not receive widespread adoption.
Signal contributions to battles and campaigns
First Bull Run
Monument on Signal Hill, Manassas, Virginia, the site from which Edward Porter Alexander first used wig-wag signaling in combat.
At the First Battle of Bull Run, Confederate Capt. Edward Porter Alexander made history by transmitting the first message in combat using signal flags over a long distance. Stationed atop "Signal Hill" in Manassas, Alexander saw Union troop movements and signaled to the brigade under Col. Nathan "Shanks" Evans, "Look out for your left, your position is turned", which meant that they were in danger of being attacked on their left flank. Upon receiving a similar message, Gens. Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston sent timely reinforcements that turned the tide of battle in the Confederates' favor.
On the Union side, Myer attempted to deploy a military observation balloon at Manassas, bringing along 20 troops from the 26th Pennsylvania Infantry because of the lack of Signal Corps personnel that early in the war. Because of the haste of these untrained men, the balloon was damaged after a collision with a tree and could not be used for the battle.
Fredericksburg
At the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862, significant use of the Beardslee telegraph made it possible for Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside to communicate with the Army through the fog and smoke from the burning town. On December 13, the main day of the battle, signal corpsmen extended a line across the Rappahannock River into the town of Fredericksburg while under fire and Burnside was able to communicate with both of his grand division commanders and his supply base, 7.5 miles away.
Chancellorsville
During the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, the performance of the Beardslee telegraph was so poor that Albert Myer soon decided to replace it. The campaign got off to a bad start because the chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Samuel T. Cushing, was kept in the dark about the plans of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker and he could not arrange his signal assets in advance. As the Army advanced, Cushing had insufficient wire on hand and was forced to use untested wire that had been left in the field, supported by iron lances, since Fredericksburg. On April 29, as the Army prepared to cross the Rapidan River, the Beardslee telegraph did not work, probably due to excessive wire length. Captain Frederick E. Beardslee, son of the inventor, was sent to make repairs. He found that the machine had been hit by lightning and was operating erratically. That evening a telegraph reached headquarters from the Ford on the Rapidan at 10:30 p.m., but it was marked (incorrectly) as originating at 5:30 p.m. Maj. Gen. Daniel Butterfield, Chief of Staff of the Army of the Potomac, told Cushing that he was not going to wake the commanding general for any telegram that was five hours late; his repose was "worth more than the commissions of a dozen signal officers." The inadequate wires and the unreliable telegraph caused persistent problems and kept General Hooker isolated from his forces in the Wilderness. On May 1, operators of the U.S. Military Telegraph Service were ordered to replace the Signal Corps Beardslee operators.
It was also at Chancellorsville that a major change happened in Union signal security. Butterfield was concerned about Confederate interception of aerial telegraphy signals, but he used this as an advantage, ordering deceptive messages to be transmitted early in the campaign to mask the Union Army's true intentions. Since the Union signal corpsmen could routinely decipher Confederate messages, Butterfield was able to confirm that his bogus messages had been received. It was after these incidents that the Union began deploying the cipher disc devices and improving the security of their messages.
Gettysburg
Plaque on Little Round Top, Gettysburg Battlefield.
The Battle of Gettysburg featured the Union Signal Corps in its role of observing the battlefield. The chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Lemuel B. Norton, had field telegraph trains at his disposal, but did not deploy them. On July 1, 1863, a Union signal officer, Lt. Aaron B. Jerome, ascended the cupola of the Lutheran Theological Seminary and the courthouse steeple to observe the enemy's approach and reported to Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard. On July 2, the Confederate corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet attempted to maneuver into position for an attack on the Union left flank. They were forced into a lengthy counter march, delaying their attack, when they spotted the presence of the Union signal station on Little Round Top mountain and knew that their approach would be reported. During the Confederate assault, the fighting was so heavy that the signal station had to be abandoned until the following day. A plaque commemorating the U.S. Army Signal Corps' contribution to the battle is mounted today on a boulder near the peak of Little Round Top. On July 3, before Pickett's Charge, artillery fire against the Union line was so intense that the signalmen could not use their flags. Captain Edward C. Pierce, a signal officer attached to the VI Corps, acted as a mounted courier to Maj. Gen. George G. Meade's headquarters, despite warnings that he would never make it alive through the firing.
See also
Flag semaphore systems
Notes
^ Raines, pp. 5-6; Brown, pp. 20-22.
^ Raines, p. 5.
^ Raines, pp. 5-6; Brown, pp. 21-22.
^ a b Eicher, p. 402.
^ Raines, pp. 7, 12, 33.
^ Raines, pp. 7-8; Brown, pp. 25-34.
^ Raines, pp. 9-11; Brown, pp. 46-77.
^ Raines, pp. 12-13.
^ Raines, pp. 13, 17-22.
^ Raines, pp. 22-23.
^ a b c Scheips, Civil War History article.
^ Raines, p. 29.
^ a b Brown, pp. 205-09; Raines, pp. 29-30.
^ a b Raines, pp. 13-14.
^ Brown, pp. 93-97.
^ a b Raines, pp. 18-21.
^ Brown, pp. 99-102, 118-19; Raines, p. 16.
^ Brown, pp. 43-45; Alexander, pp. 50-51. Alexander recalls that the signal was "You are flanked."
^ Heidler, pp. 29-31.
^ Raines, p. 23.
^ Sears, pp. 194-96.
^ Sears, pp. 121-22.
References
Alexander, Edward P. (1989). Gallagher, Gary W. (ed.). Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4722-4.
Brown, J. Willard. (1974) . The Signal Corps, U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion. New York: Arno Press. ISBN 0-405-06036-X.
Cameron, Bill (2000). "Albert James Myer". In Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
Eicher, John H. & Eicher, David J. (2001). Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (2000). "Edward Porter Alexander". In Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
Raines, Rebecca Robbins (1996). Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Army Historical Series. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. ISBN 0160453518.
Scheips, Paul J. (December 1963). "Union Signal Communications: Innovation and Conflict". Civil War History. 9 (4): 399–421. doi:10.1353/cwh.1963.0012. S2CID 144182764.
Sears, Stephen W. (1996). Chancellorsville. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-87744-X.
Further reading
Plum, William Rattle The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States: With an Exposition of Ancient and Modern Means of Communication, and of the Federal and Confederate Cipher Systems; Also a Running Account of the War Between the States. (Vol. 1, Vol. 2). New York: Jansen, McClurg & Company, 1882.
External links
Signal Corps Association 1860–1865
Signal Corps 150th Anniversary Commemoration Site
Beardslee telegraph
Myer's 1864 Manual of Signals
Flash demonstration of wig-wag signaling
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Signal_station_Elk_Mountain.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elk Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elk_Ridge_(Maryland)"},{"link_name":"Antietam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army Signal Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army_Signal_Corps"},{"link_name":"Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Albert J. Myer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_J._Myer"},{"link_name":"Confederate States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army"},{"link_name":"telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy"},{"link_name":"\"wig-wag\" signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigwag_(flag_signals)"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"U.S. Military Telegraph Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Military_Telegraph_Corps"},{"link_name":"Secretary of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War"},{"link_name":"Edwin M. Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_M._Stanton"}],"text":"U.S. Army Signal Corps station on Elk Mountain, Maryland, overlooking the Antietam battlefield.The Signal Corps in the American Civil War comprised two organizations: the U.S. Army Signal Corps, which began with the appointment of Major Albert J. Myer as its first signal officer just before the war and remains an entity to this day, and the Confederate States Army Signal Corps, a much smaller group of officers and men, using similar organizations and techniques as their Union opponents. Both accomplished tactical and strategic communications for the warring armies, including electromagnetic telegraphy and aerial telegraphy (\"wig-wag\" signaling). Although both services had an implicit mission of battlefield observation, intelligence gathering, and artillery fire direction from their elevated signal stations, the Confederate Signal Corps also included an explicit espionage function.The Union Signal Corps, although effective on the battlefield, suffered from political disputes in Washington, D.C., particularly in its rivalry with the civilian-led U.S. Military Telegraph Corps. Myer was relieved of his duties as chief signal officer by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton for his attempts to control all electromagnetic telegraphy within the Signal Corps. He was not restored to his role as chief signal officer until after the war.","title":"Signal Corps in the American Civil War"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_J._Myer.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert J. Myer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_J._Myer"},{"link_name":"Albert J. Myer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_J._Myer"},{"link_name":"wig-wag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigwag_(flag_signals)"},{"link_name":"semaphore flag signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_semaphore"},{"link_name":"Fort Duncan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Duncan"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"Secretary of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War"},{"link_name":"Jefferson Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Davis"},{"link_name":"Joseph G. Totten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_G._Totten"},{"link_name":"John B. Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Floyd"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Lt. Col.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel"},{"link_name":"Robert E. Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Lee"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Fort Monroe, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Monroe,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"New York Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Harbor"},{"link_name":"West Point, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Second Lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Lieutenant#United_States"},{"link_name":"Edward Porter Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Porter_Alexander"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"United States Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"James Buchanan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Buchanan"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eicher-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Navajos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_people"},{"link_name":"William J. L. Nicodemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_J._L._Nicodemus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Edward Canby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Canby"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"First chief signal officer","text":"Albert J. Myer, first chief signal officer.The \"father\" of the U.S. Army Signal Corps was Major Albert J. Myer, an Army surgeon with an interest in communications by sign language for the deaf and then in signaling over long distances with lightweight and simple to use equipment. He invented a signaling system using a flag (or a kerosene torch for nighttime use) that is known as wig-wag signaling, or aerial telegraphy. Unlike semaphore flag signaling, which employed two flags, signal wig-wag required only one, using a binary code to represent each letter of the alphabet or digit. Myer was serving at Fort Duncan, Texas, in 1856 when he wrote to Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and offered his signaling system to the War Department. Although the chief engineer of the Army, Colonel Joseph G. Totten, supported Myer's proposal, it did not include specific technical details and Davis rejected it. When John B. Floyd replaced Davis as secretary of war in 1857, Totten reintroduced Myer's proposal, and in March 1859, a board of examination was formed in Washington, D.C. The board, presided over by Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee, was not enthusiastic about the proposal, judging it suitable only as a secondary means of communications over short distances, but it did recommend further testing.[1]Myer began testing in April 1859 at Fort Monroe, Virginia, and then New York Harbor, West Point, New York, and Washington, D.C. One of Myer's principal assistants was Second Lieutenant Edward Porter Alexander, the future Confederate signal, engineer, and artillery officer. They were able to communicate at distances up to 15 miles and Myer reported to the War Department that the tests had \"exceeded anticipation.\" He recommended that the Army adopt his signaling system and that he should be placed in charge of it.[2]On March 29, 1860, the United States House of Representatives approved the Army appropriations bill for fiscal year 1861, which included the following amendment:For the manufacture or purchase of apparatus and equipment for field signals, $2000; and that there be added to the staff of the Army one signal officer, with the rank, pay, and allowance of a major of cavalry, who shall have charge, under the direction of the Secretary of War, of all signal duty, and all books, papers, and apparatus connected therewith.[3]The United States Senate eventually approved the appropriations bill, over the objections of Jefferson Davis, now Senator from Mississippi, and President James Buchanan signed it into law on June 21, 1860, the date now celebrated as the birthday of the modern U.S. Army Signal Corps. Myer's appointment as the first signal officer with the rank of major was confirmed by the Senate on June 27.[4] However, the appropriations bill provided for no personnel to work for Myer and the Signal Corps as a formal organization would not be authorized until March 1863.[5]Immediately before the war, Myer was assigned to the Department of New Mexico to test his signals in the field during a campaign against the Navajos. In that assignment, he was assisted by Second Lieutenant William J. L. Nicodemus, who would later succeed him as chief signal officer. Field testing proceeded successfully, and won the admiration of Major Edward Canby, who became a strong advocate of forming a dedicated Signal Corps; Myer at this time believed that the best approach for staffing signal work would be to train officers across the Army in its disciplines.[6]","title":"U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HQ_Signal_Corps_1865.jpg"},{"link_name":"Simon Cameron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Cameron"},{"link_name":"Army of the Potomac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac"},{"link_name":"Georgetown, Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown,_Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Peninsula Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Edwin M. Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_M._Stanton"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"lieutenant colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"majors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"captain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)"},{"link_name":"corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps"},{"link_name":"sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant#United_States"},{"link_name":"privates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_(rank)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"U.S. Military Telegraph Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Military_Telegraph_Corps"},{"link_name":"Western Union Telegraph Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Union_Telegraph_Company"},{"link_name":"Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_F._B._Morse"},{"link_name":"telegraph instrument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Beardslee_telegraph"},{"link_name":"George W. Beardslee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_W._Beardslee&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Memphis, Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_J._L._Nicodemus.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_F._Fisher.jpg"},{"link_name":"Benjamin F. Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_F._Fisher"},{"link_name":"Aldie, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldie,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Gettysburg Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Libby Prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libby_Prison"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scheips-11"},{"link_name":"brevet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brevet_(military)"},{"link_name":"brigadier general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Lt. Gen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Ulysses S. Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Andrew Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scheips-11"}],"sub_title":"War organization","text":"Headquarters of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Washington, D.C., 1865.Upon the outbreak of war, Myer returned to Washington and addressed the problem of having no signal personnel. His only option was to persuade officers to be detailed from other assignments, which was not considered satisfactory by Myer or the officers themselves, who feared loss of promotion opportunities. He submitted draft legislation to Secretary of War Simon Cameron in August 1861, proposing that a Signal Corps be established with himself, seven assistant signal officers, 40 warrant officers, and 40 signal artificers to serve as line builders and repairmen. He intended that each division of the Army, which he assumed would eventually comprise 500,000 men, would have dedicated aerial and electromagnetic telegraphy support. Congress adjourned without considering the legislation. That fall, Myer, who in addition to being chief signal officer for the Army, served as chief signal officer of the newly formed Army of the Potomac, set up training facilities for detailed officers and men in Fort Monroe and at Red Hill, Georgetown, Washington, D.C. His latter training camp remained in operation through the Peninsula Campaign and the rest of 1862, a period in which he continued to lobby with Congress and the Secretary of War, now Edwin M. Stanton, to establish a permanent corps.[7]Myer's persistence paid off when President Abraham Lincoln signed a sundry civil appropriations bill on March 3, 1863, which authorized the organization of a Signal Corps during the \"present rebellion.\" It included the position of chief signal officer with the rank of colonel, a lieutenant colonel, two majors, a captain for each corps or military department, and as many lieutenants, not to exceed eight, per corps or department as the president deemed necessary. Each officer was provided one sergeant and six privates. Myer was appointed to the position of chief signal officer and the rank of colonel by Secretary Stanton on April 29, but his appointment could not be immediately confirmed by the Senate, which was in recess.[8]Although Myer interpreted his appointment to include control over electromagnetic telegraphy, a rival organization emerged. The U.S. Military Telegraph Corps employed civilian telegraph operators, with supervisors who received military commissions in the Quartermaster Department, under the general management of Anson Stager, a former official of the Western Union Telegraph Company. In February 1862, Lincoln took control of the nation's commercial telegraph lines, which were then used by Stager's organization. Secretary Stanton, a former director and attorney for the Atlantic and Ohio Telegraph Company, understood the technical and strategic importance of telegraphy and located the telegraph office directly next to his own in the War Department. One of his biographers described the operators as Stanton's \"little army ... part of his own personal and confidential staff.\" Myer began a campaign to supersede this organization by proposing the purchase of equipment to form telegraph trains (in the sense of wagon trains, not railroad) in the Signal Corps, to provide mobility for telegraph operators supporting armies on the move. Since he was concerned about the training required for telegraph operators using traditional Morse key equipment, he outfitted his trains with a magneto-electric telegraph instrument invented by George W. Beardslee of New York City. When this device suffered from technical limitations, in the autumn of 1862 he advertised in the Army and Navy Official Gazette for trained telegraphers. The War Department informed Myer that his actions were \"irregular and improper\" and he was removed as chief signal officer on November 10, 1863. All of the Beardslee devices were given to the Military Telegraph Service (which never used them, due to unreliability) and Myer was transferred to Memphis, Tennessee. His replacement as acting chief signal officer was Major William J. L. Nicodemus, his former apprentice. During his exile in the West, Myer's A Manual of Signals: For the Use of Signal Officers in the Field was published in 1864, a work that would remain the basis of signal doctrine for many years.[9]William J. L. Nicodemus.Benjamin F. Fisher.Nicodemus inherited an organization that had grown to approximately 200 officers and 1000 enlisted men. He also ran afoul of Secretary Stanton when the 1864 annual report for the Signal Corps was published because it revealed that the corps was able to read the enemy's signals. Stanton rightfully believed this to be a breach of security and he dismissed Nicodemus from the Army in December 1864. The final chief signal officer during the war was Colonel Benjamin F. Fisher, former chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, who had been captured near Aldie, Virginia, in the Gettysburg Campaign and spent eight months in Libby Prison before escaping and returning to duty.[10]The Signal Corps completed its wartime service and was dissolved in August 1865. During its lifetime, 146 officers were commissioned in the corps or were offered commissions. There were 297 acting signal officers appointed, although some were for very brief periods. The total number of enlisted men who served during the war was about 2,500.[11]Albert Myer was eventually rescued from oblivion. In May 1864, Myer's prewar ally, Edward Canby, selected him to be the signal officer for the Military Division of West Mississippi. Myer served in this position as a major because his confirmation as a colonel had been revoked after his dismissal from Washington. At the end of the Civil War, he was given a brevet promotion to brigadier general. On July 28, 1866, reacting to the influence of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and President Andrew Johnson, Congress reorganized the Signal Corps and, with the permanent rank of colonel, Myer again became chief signal officer, as of October 30, 1866. His new duties included control of the telegraph service, resolving the dispute that had removed him from his position.[11]","title":"U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Porter_Alexander.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edward Porter Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Porter_Alexander"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Major_William_Norris.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brig. Gen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_General_(CSA)"},{"link_name":"P.G.T. Beauregard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.G.T._Beauregard"},{"link_name":"Manassas Junction, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manassas,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Army of the Potomac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac_(Confederate)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eicher-4"},{"link_name":"Army of Northern Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Northern_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"William Norris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Norris_(Confederate_signal_officer)"},{"link_name":"Maj. Gen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_General_(CSA)"},{"link_name":"John B. Magruder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Magruder"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B205R29-13"},{"link_name":"Richmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B205R29-13"}],"text":"Edward Porter AlexanderWilliam NorrisEdward P. Alexander, Myer's assistant in testing the wig-wag signaling system, resigned his U.S. Army commission on May 1, 1861, to join the Confederate Army as a captain of engineers. While organizing and training new recruits to form a Confederate signal service, he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas Junction, Virginia. He became the chief engineer and signal officer of the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac on June 3.[4] After becoming the chief ordnance officer for the Army of Northern Virginia, Alexander retained his position as signal officer, but his other duties took precedence.[12]Although the Confederate Signal Corps would never achieve a distinct branch identity to the extent that the Union version did, the Confederate Congress authorized its establishment as a separate organization, attached to the Adjutant and Inspector General's Department, on April 19, 1862, a year before the U.S. Congress did so. The first chief signal officer was Captain William Norris, a Maryland lawyer then a civilian volunteer on the staff of Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder.[13] \nThe corps under Norris was organized to consist of one major, 10 captains, 20 lieutenants, 20 sergeants, and 1500 men detailed from all branches of the service. A signal officer was authorized for the staff at each corps and division. The Confederate Signal Corps perform duties and utilized equipment very similar to their Northern counterparts, with some exceptions. Electric telegraphy was not used in tactical battlefield communications due to shortages of telegraph wire and trained operators. Their aerial telegraphy was performed with similar flags, but with slightly modified codes and movements from the Myer methods. Unlike the Union Signal Corps, however, the Confederate Signal Corps also was chartered to conduct espionage for the South. (Both services provided valuable battlefield intelligence, and sometimes artillery fire direction, from their elevated observation points, but the Confederate corpsmen performed undercover missions behind enemy lines as well.) Acting as the Secret Service of the Confederacy, the corps administered the Secret Line, an information network that ran between Richmond and the North and extended into Canada. It is because of its clandestine nature that much of the work of the Confederate Signal Corps is lost to history. Many of its records were burned in the fall of Richmond and in a subsequent fire at Norris's home, which claimed his personal papers.[13]","title":"Confederate Signal Corps"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Signal equipment and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raines1314-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Civil_War_Signal_Corps_Kit.jpg"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raines1314-14"},{"link_name":"General Service Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Service_Code"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Wig-wag signaling","text":"Wig-wag signaling was performed during daylight with a single flag tied to a hickory staff constructed in four-foot jointed sections. Flags were generally made of cotton, linen, or another lightweight fabric and were issued in the following sizes:[14]Standard Issue Civil War Signal Corps Kit, complete with flags and torches.The 4-foot flags with white backgrounds, mounted on 12 foot staffs, were most often used, although 2-foot flags were used when the flagman wanted to avoid enemy attention. Red flags were generally used at sea. For nighttime signaling, torches were copper cylinders, 18 inches long and 1.5 inches in diameter with a cotton wick.[14]Myer's \"General Service Code\" for wig-wag signaling, standardized in 1864, was also known as the \"four element\" code because all of the characters transmitted were composed of from one to four flag motions. (Myer's original method from the 1850s was called a \"two element code\" because elements were described only in terms of movement from the vertical position.) The flagman took a position facing the station to receive the message and signaled digits \"1\" through \"5\" as follows:[15]Wave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.\nWave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.\nWave the flag from the ground on the right to the ground on the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal \"3\" always followed a \"2\" or \"4.\"\nWave the flag from the ground on the left to the ground on the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal \"4\" always followed a \"1\" or \"3.\"\nWave the flag directly in front of the flagman to the ground, returning immediately to the vertical position.Codes for the alphabet, digits, and some special characters were as follows for the Union Signal Corps:Waving the flag continuously from left to right was used to attract attention and to indicate that signaling was about to start. Other special sequences of digits were:","title":"Signal equipment and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beardslee_telegraph.jpg"},{"link_name":"Samuel F.B. Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_F.B._Morse"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R1821-16"},{"link_name":"Peninsula Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R1821-16"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scheips-11"}],"sub_title":"Telegraph train and the Beardslee telegraph","text":"Beardslee telegraph.Telegraph trains were introduced by Myer to support telegraphy for mobile operations. The horse-drawn wagons carried the telegraph sets and supplies such as reels of insulated copper wire and iron lances, for stringing temporary field lines, a practice called \"flying telegraph lines.\" Each train consisted of two wagons, equipped with 5 miles of wire and a telegraph instrument. The first model train was constructed by Henry J. Rogers, a telegraphic engineer from New York City who had worked with Samuel F.B. Morse in building the first commercial telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. Rogers's original telegraph instrument for the train replaced the traditional sending key and sound receiver with a dial indicator, a circular index plate bearing the letters of the alphabet and a pointer that turned to the letter to be transmitted. A similar pointer spelled out the message at the receiving end. Rogers provided a galvanic battery that eliminated the danger of acid spills. This equipment eliminated the need for skilled operators who had to be trained in Morse code. Field trials in February 1862 found that it worked satisfactorily over a test circuit of 2 miles of wire. A board of three signal officers recommended that such a train would be of great use as an auxiliary to permanent telegraph lines.[16]For its first use in combat, during the 1862 Peninsula Campaign, the Rogers train substituted a new telegraph instrument, the Beardslee Patent Magneto-Electric Field Telegraph Machine, invented by George W. Beardslee of New York. This instrument required no battery, using instead a hand-cranked generator, but it was also based on a dial indicator. The Beardslee telegraph was housed in a wooden chest with handles and weighed about 100 pounds. It had two significant technical deficiencies, however. Its generator could not produce enough electricity to transmit signals more than about 5 to 8 miles. More seriously, there was a tendency for the sending and receiving index pointers to get out of synchronization, hopelessly garbling transmitted messages. Broken machines had to be sent back to New York City for repair. It was these deficiencies that led Myer to his decision to use traditional Morse key technology and attempt to hire trained telegraphers, a decision that led Secretary Stanton to dismiss him as chief signal officer.[16] All of the telegraph train assets of the Signal Corps were turned over to the Military Telegraph Service, but they did not use the Beardslee telegraph due to its unreliability. At their peak of usage in 1863, there were 30 telegraph trains in the field.[11]","title":"Signal equipment and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Civil_War_cipher_disk.jpg"},{"link_name":"cipher disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher_disk"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Ciphers","text":"Union Signal Corps cipher disc with two-element General Signal Code inscriptions.Since aerial telegraphy was sometimes conducted within the clear sight of the enemy, security was a major problem. The Signal Corps introduced a cipher disc, a simple device that allowed the encryption of text. Two concentric discs were inscribed with letters and their numerical equivalents. The sending and receiving party had to agree on the specific alignment between the two discs, ensuring that both parties had identical alignment. To encipher a message, the signal officer selected an \"adjustment letter\" on the inner disc and then made this letter correspond with a preselected numerical code or \"key number\" on the outer disc. The signal officer would typically give the key numbers to the flagmen without revealing the plain text version of the message. Although this method of encryption was primitive by modern standards, there is no record that the Confederates ever deciphered a Union message that had been processed in this manner. A more complex system in which four concentric discs were used was invented by Sergeant Francis M. Metcalf and modified by Captain Lemuel B. Norton, but it did not receive widespread adoption.[17]","title":"Signal equipment and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Signal contributions to battles and campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Signal_Hill_Manassas_VA.jpg"},{"link_name":"Manassas, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manassas,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Edward Porter Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Porter_Alexander"},{"link_name":"First Battle of Bull Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run"},{"link_name":"Edward Porter Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Porter_Alexander"},{"link_name":"Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army"},{"link_name":"Nathan \"Shanks\" Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_George_Evans"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Joseph E. Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Heidler-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"First Bull Run","text":"Monument on Signal Hill, Manassas, Virginia, the site from which Edward Porter Alexander first used wig-wag signaling in combat.At the First Battle of Bull Run, Confederate Capt. Edward Porter Alexander made history by transmitting the first message in combat using signal flags over a long distance. Stationed atop \"Signal Hill\" in Manassas, Alexander saw Union troop movements and signaled to the brigade under Col. Nathan \"Shanks\" Evans, \"Look out for your left, your position is turned\", which meant that they were in danger of being attacked on their left flank.[18] Upon receiving a similar message, Gens. Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston sent timely reinforcements that turned the tide of battle in the Confederates' favor.[19]On the Union side, Myer attempted to deploy a military observation balloon at Manassas, bringing along 20 troops from the 26th Pennsylvania Infantry because of the lack of Signal Corps personnel that early in the war. Because of the haste of these untrained men, the balloon was damaged after a collision with a tree and could not be used for the battle.[20]","title":"Signal contributions to battles and campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Fredericksburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg"},{"link_name":"Ambrose E. Burnside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_E._Burnside"},{"link_name":"Rappahannock River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rappahannock_River"}],"sub_title":"Fredericksburg","text":"At the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862, significant use of the Beardslee telegraph made it possible for Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside to communicate with the Army through the fog and smoke from the burning town. On December 13, the main day of the battle, signal corpsmen extended a line across the Rappahannock River into the town of Fredericksburg while under fire and Burnside was able to communicate with both of his grand division commanders and his supply base, 7.5 miles away.","title":"Signal contributions to battles and campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joseph Hooker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Hooker"},{"link_name":"Rapidan River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapidan_River"},{"link_name":"Daniel Butterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Butterfield"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Chancellorsville","text":"During the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, the performance of the Beardslee telegraph was so poor that Albert Myer soon decided to replace it. The campaign got off to a bad start because the chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Samuel T. Cushing, was kept in the dark about the plans of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker and he could not arrange his signal assets in advance. As the Army advanced, Cushing had insufficient wire on hand and was forced to use untested wire that had been left in the field, supported by iron lances, since Fredericksburg. On April 29, as the Army prepared to cross the Rapidan River, the Beardslee telegraph did not work, probably due to excessive wire length. Captain Frederick E. Beardslee, son of the inventor, was sent to make repairs. He found that the machine had been hit by lightning and was operating erratically. That evening a telegraph reached headquarters from the Ford on the Rapidan at 10:30 p.m., but it was marked (incorrectly) as originating at 5:30 p.m. Maj. Gen. Daniel Butterfield, Chief of Staff of the Army of the Potomac, told Cushing that he was not going to wake the commanding general for any telegram that was five hours late; his repose was \"worth more than the commissions of a dozen signal officers.\" The inadequate wires and the unreliable telegraph caused persistent problems and kept General Hooker isolated from his forces in the Wilderness. On May 1, operators of the U.S. Military Telegraph Service were ordered to replace the Signal Corps Beardslee operators.[21]It was also at Chancellorsville that a major change happened in Union signal security. Butterfield was concerned about Confederate interception of aerial telegraphy signals, but he used this as an advantage, ordering deceptive messages to be transmitted early in the campaign to mask the Union Army's true intentions. Since the Union signal corpsmen could routinely decipher Confederate messages, Butterfield was able to confirm that his bogus messages had been received. It was after these incidents that the Union began deploying the cipher disc devices and improving the security of their messages.[22]","title":"Signal contributions to battles and campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Signal_Corps_plaque_Gettysburg.jpg"},{"link_name":"Little Round Top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Round_Top"},{"link_name":"Gettysburg Battlefield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_Battlefield"},{"link_name":"Battle of Gettysburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg"},{"link_name":"Lutheran Theological Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Theological_Seminary_at_Gettysburg"},{"link_name":"Oliver O. Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_O._Howard"},{"link_name":"Lt. Gen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_General_(CSA)"},{"link_name":"James Longstreet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Longstreet"},{"link_name":"Little Round Top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Round_Top"},{"link_name":"Pickett's Charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickett%27s_Charge"},{"link_name":"VI Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VI_Corps_(ACW)"},{"link_name":"George G. Meade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_G._Meade"}],"sub_title":"Gettysburg","text":"Plaque on Little Round Top, Gettysburg Battlefield.The Battle of Gettysburg featured the Union Signal Corps in its role of observing the battlefield. The chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Lemuel B. Norton, had field telegraph trains at his disposal, but did not deploy them. On July 1, 1863, a Union signal officer, Lt. Aaron B. Jerome, ascended the cupola of the Lutheran Theological Seminary and the courthouse steeple to observe the enemy's approach and reported to Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard. On July 2, the Confederate corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet attempted to maneuver into position for an attack on the Union left flank. They were forced into a lengthy counter march, delaying their attack, when they spotted the presence of the Union signal station on Little Round Top mountain and knew that their approach would be reported. During the Confederate assault, the fighting was so heavy that the signal station had to be abandoned until the following day. A plaque commemorating the U.S. Army Signal Corps' contribution to the battle is mounted today on a boulder near the peak of Little Round Top. On July 3, before Pickett's Charge, artillery fire against the Union line was so intense that the signalmen could not use their flags. Captain Edward C. Pierce, a signal officer attached to the VI Corps, acted as a mounted courier to Maj. Gen. George G. Meade's headquarters, despite warnings that he would never make it alive through the firing.","title":"Signal contributions to battles and campaigns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Eicher_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Eicher_4-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Scheips_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Scheips_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Scheips_11-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-B205R29_13-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-B205R29_13-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Raines1314_14-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Raines1314_14-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-R1821_16-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-R1821_16-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Heidler_19-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"}],"text":"^ Raines, pp. 5-6; Brown, pp. 20-22.\n\n^ Raines, p. 5.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 5-6; Brown, pp. 21-22.\n\n^ a b Eicher, p. 402.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 7, 12, 33.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 7-8; Brown, pp. 25-34.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 9-11; Brown, pp. 46-77.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 12-13.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 13, 17-22.\n\n^ Raines, pp. 22-23.\n\n^ a b c Scheips, Civil War History article.\n\n^ Raines, p. 29.\n\n^ a b Brown, pp. 205-09; Raines, pp. 29-30.\n\n^ a b Raines, pp. 13-14.\n\n^ Brown, pp. 93-97.\n\n^ a b Raines, pp. 18-21.\n\n^ Brown, pp. 99-102, 118-19; Raines, p. 16.\n\n^ Brown, pp. 43-45; Alexander, pp. 50-51. Alexander recalls that the signal was \"You are flanked.\"\n\n^ Heidler, pp. 29-31.\n\n^ Raines, p. 23.\n\n^ Sears, pp. 194-96.\n\n^ Sears, pp. 121-22.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/militarytelegra00plumgoog"},{"link_name":"Vol. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/militarytelegra01plumgoog"}],"text":"Plum, William Rattle The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States: With an Exposition of Ancient and Modern Means of Communication, and of the Federal and Confederate Cipher Systems; Also a Running Account of the War Between the States. (Vol. 1, Vol. 2). New York: Jansen, McClurg & Company, 1882.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"U.S. Army Signal Corps station on Elk Mountain, Maryland, overlooking the Antietam battlefield.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Signal_station_Elk_Mountain.jpg/250px-Signal_station_Elk_Mountain.jpg"},{"image_text":"Albert J. Myer, first chief signal officer.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Albert_J._Myer.jpg/220px-Albert_J._Myer.jpg"},{"image_text":"Headquarters of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Washington, D.C., 1865.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/HQ_Signal_Corps_1865.jpg/250px-HQ_Signal_Corps_1865.jpg"},{"image_text":"William J. L. Nicodemus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/William_J._L._Nicodemus.jpg/220px-William_J._L._Nicodemus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Benjamin F. Fisher.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Benjamin_F._Fisher.jpg/220px-Benjamin_F._Fisher.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edward Porter Alexander","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Edward_Porter_Alexander.jpg/220px-Edward_Porter_Alexander.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Norris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Major_William_Norris.jpg/220px-Major_William_Norris.jpg"},{"image_text":"Standard Issue Civil War Signal Corps Kit, complete with flags and torches.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Civil_War_Signal_Corps_Kit.jpg/220px-Civil_War_Signal_Corps_Kit.jpg"},{"image_text":"Beardslee telegraph.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/49/Beardslee_telegraph.jpg/220px-Beardslee_telegraph.jpg"},{"image_text":"Union Signal Corps cipher disc with two-element General Signal Code inscriptions.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Civil_War_cipher_disk.jpg/220px-Civil_War_cipher_disk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Monument on Signal Hill, Manassas, Virginia, the site from which Edward Porter Alexander first used wig-wag signaling in combat.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6f/Signal_Hill_Manassas_VA.jpg/220px-Signal_Hill_Manassas_VA.jpg"},{"image_text":"Plaque on Little Round Top, Gettysburg Battlefield.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/72/Signal_Corps_plaque_Gettysburg.jpg/220px-Signal_Corps_plaque_Gettysburg.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Flag semaphore systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_semaphore"}]
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[{"reference":"Alexander, Edward P. (1989). Gallagher, Gary W. (ed.). Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4722-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Porter_Alexander","url_text":"Alexander, Edward P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher","url_text":"Gallagher, Gary W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-4722-4","url_text":"0-8078-4722-4"}]},{"reference":"Brown, J. Willard. (1974) [First published 1896 by U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association]. The Signal Corps, U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion. New York: Arno Press. ISBN 0-405-06036-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-06036-X","url_text":"0-405-06036-X"}]},{"reference":"Cameron, Bill (2000). \"Albert James Myer\". In Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04758-X","url_text":"0-393-04758-X"}]},{"reference":"Eicher, John H. & Eicher, David J. (2001). Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_J._Eicher","url_text":"Eicher, David J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-3641-3","url_text":"0-8047-3641-3"}]},{"reference":"Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (2000). \"Edward Porter Alexander\". In Heidler, David S. & Heidler, Jeanne T. (eds.). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04758-X","url_text":"0-393-04758-X"}]},{"reference":"Raines, Rebecca Robbins (1996). Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Army Historical Series. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. ISBN 0160453518.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gettingmessageth00rebe","url_text":"Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Center_of_Military_History","url_text":"United States Army Center of Military History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0160453518","url_text":"0160453518"}]},{"reference":"Scheips, Paul J. (December 1963). \"Union Signal Communications: Innovation and Conflict\". Civil War History. 9 (4): 399–421. doi:10.1353/cwh.1963.0012. S2CID 144182764.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1963.0012","url_text":"10.1353/cwh.1963.0012"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144182764","url_text":"144182764"}]},{"reference":"Sears, Stephen W. (1996). Chancellorsville. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-87744-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_W._Sears","url_text":"Sears, Stephen W."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/chancellorsville00sear","url_text":"Chancellorsville"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-87744-X","url_text":"0-395-87744-X"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/gettingmessageth00rebe","external_links_name":"Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwh.1963.0012","external_links_name":"10.1353/cwh.1963.0012"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144182764","external_links_name":"144182764"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/chancellorsville00sear","external_links_name":"Chancellorsville"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/militarytelegra00plumgoog","external_links_name":"Vol. 1"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/militarytelegra01plumgoog","external_links_name":"Vol. 2"},{"Link":"http://www.civilwarsignals.org/","external_links_name":"Signal Corps Association 1860–1865"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100626004736/http://signal150.army.mil/","external_links_name":"Signal Corps 150th Anniversary Commemoration Site"},{"Link":"http://www.beardsleetelegraph.org/","external_links_name":"Beardslee telegraph"},{"Link":"http://www.civilwarsignals.org/pdf/lgmanualofsignals.pdf","external_links_name":"Myer's 1864 Manual of Signals"},{"Link":"http://www.civilwarsignals.org/lessons/flash/flashflagpage.html","external_links_name":"Flash demonstration of wig-wag signaling"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120347_Salacia
|
120347 Salacia
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["1 Orbit","2 Physical characteristics","3 Satellite","4 Name","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
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Possible dwarf planet
120347 SalaciaKeck Telescope image of Salacia (bright, center) and its moon Actaea (faint, at left)DiscoveryDiscovered byH. G. RoeM. E. BrownK. M. BarkumeDiscovery sitePalomar Obs.Discovery date22 September 2004DesignationsMPC designation(120347) SalaciaPronunciation/səˈleɪʃə/ (sə-LAY-shə)Named afterSalacia (Roman mythology)Alternative designations2004 SB60Minor planet categoryTNO · CubewanoExtendedAdjectivesSalacianSymbol or Orbital characteristicsEpoch 31 May 2020 (JD 2459000.5)Uncertainty parameter 3Observation arc37.16 yr (13,572 days)Earliest precovery date25 July 1982Aphelion46.670 AUPerihelion37.697 AUSemi-major axis42.184 AUEccentricity0.10636Orbital period (sidereal)273.98 yr (100,073 days)Mean anomaly123.138°Mean motion0° 0m 12.951s / dayInclination23.921°Longitude of ascending node279.880°Argument of perihelion312.294°Known satellites1 (Actaea)Physical characteristicsMean diameter846±21 km854±45 km (equal albedos)866±37 kmMass(4.922±0.071)×1020 kg (system)(4.38±0.16)×1020 kg (system mass)Mean density1.5±0.12 g/cm31.29+0.29−0.23 g/cm3 (system)1.26±0.16 g/cm3Synodic rotation period6.09 h (0.254 d)Sidereal rotation period6.09 hGeometric albedo0.044±0.0040.042±0.004Spectral typeBBB−V=0.66±0.06V−R=0.40±0.04V−I=0.83±0.04Apparent magnitude20.7Absolute magnitude (H)4.360±0.011 (system)4.476±0.013 (Salacia)6.850±0.053 (Actaea)3.9
Salacia (minor-planet designation: 120347 Salacia) is a large trans-Neptunian object in the Kuiper belt, approximately 850 km (530 mi) in diameter. It was discovered on 22 September 2004, by American astronomers Henry Roe, Michael Brown and Kristina Barkume at the Palomar Observatory in California, United States. Salacia orbits the Sun at an average distance that is slightly greater than that of Pluto. It was named after the Roman goddess Salacia and has a single known moon, Actaea.
Brown estimated that Salacia is nearly certainly a dwarf planet. However, William Grundy et al. argue that objects in the size range of 400–1,000 km, with densities of ≈ 1.2 g/cm3 or less and albedos less than ≈ 0.2, have likely never compressed into fully solid bodies or been resurfaced, let alone differentiated or collapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, and so are highly unlikely to be dwarf planets. Salacia is at the upper end of this size range and has a very low albedo, though Grundy et al. later found it to have the relatively high density of 1.5±0.1 g/cm3.
Orbit
The orbit of Salacia is similar to Pluto's, except for a near opposite longitude of ascending node. Its current position is near its most northern position above the ecliptic.
Salacia is a non-resonant object with a moderate eccentricity (0.11) and large inclination (23.9°), making it a scattered–extended object in the classification of the Deep Ecliptic Survey and a hot classical Kuiper belt object in the classification system of Gladman et al., which may be the same thing if they are part of a single population that formed during the outward migration of Neptune. Salacia's orbit is within the parameter space of the Haumea collisional family, but Salacia is not part of it, as evidenced by its lack of the strong water-ice absorption bands.
Physical characteristics
As of 2019, the total mass of the Salacia–Actaea system is estimated at (4.922±0.071)×1020 kg, with an average system density of 1.51 g/cm3; Salacia itself is estimated to be around 846 km in diameter. Salacia has the lowest albedo of any known large trans-Neptunian object. According to the estimate from 2017 based on an improved thermophysical modelling, the size of Salacia is slightly larger at 866 km and its density therefore slightly lower (calculated at 1.26 g/cm3 with the old mass estimate discussed below).
Salacia was previously believed to have a mass of around (4.38±0.16)×1020 kg, in which case it would also have had the lowest density (around 1.29 g/cm3) of any known large TNO; William Grundy and colleagues proposed that this low density would imply that Salacia never collapsed into a solid body, in which case it would not be in hydrostatic equilibrium. Salacia's infrared spectrum is almost featureless, indicating an abundance of water ice of less than 5% on the surface. Near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 revealed the presence of water ice in Salacia's surface. No signs of volatile ices such as methane were detected in JWST's spectrum of Salacia. Its light-curve amplitude is only 3%.
Satellite
Main article: Actaea (moon)
Salacia has one known natural satellite, Actaea, that orbits its primary every 5.49380±0.00016 d at a distance of 5619±89 km and with an eccentricity of 0.0084±0.0076. It was discovered on 21 July 2006 by Keith Noll, Harold Levison, Denise Stephens and William Grundy with the Hubble Space Telescope.
Actaea is 2.372±0.060 magnitudes fainter than Salacia, implying a diameter ratio of 2.98 for equal albedos. Hence, assuming equal albedos, it has a diameter of 286±24 km According to the estimate from 2017 based on an improved modelling, the size of Actaea is slightly larger at 290±21 km.
Actaea has the same color as Salacia (V−I = 0.89±0.02 and 0.87±0.01, respectively), supporting the assumption of equal albedos.
It has been calculated that the Salacia system should have undergone enough tidal evolution to circularize their orbits, which is consistent with the low measured eccentricity, but that the primary need not be tidally locked. The ratio of its semi-major axis to its primary's Hill radius is 0.0023, the tightest trans-Neptunian binary with a known orbit. Salacia and Actaea will next occult each other in 2067.
Name
This minor planet was named after Salacia (/səˈleɪʃə/), the goddess of salt water and the wife of Neptune. The naming citation was published on 18 February 2011 (M.P.C. 73984).
The moon's name, Actaea /ækˈtiːə/, was assigned on the same date. Actaea is a nereid or sea nymph.
Planetary symbols are no longer used in astronomy, so Salacia never received a symbol in the astronomical literature. Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer who designed symbols for dwarf planets, proposed a stylised hippocamp (, formerly ) as the symbol for Salacia; this symbol is not widely used.
See also
List of Solar System objects by size
Notes
^ approximation if Salacia and Actaea were both spherical and had the same albedo
References
Artistic comparison of Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea, Gonggong (2007 OR10), Sedna, Quaoar, Orcus, 2002 MS4, and Salacia. vte
^ a b c d e "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 120347 Salacia (2004 SB60)" (2019-09-21 last obs.). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 7 November 2019. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
^ a b c "120347 Salacia (2004 SB60)". Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
^ "MPEC 2009-R09 :Distant Minor Planets (2009 SEPT. 16.0 TT)". IAU Minor Planet Center. 2009-09-04. Archived from the original on 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
^ Buie, Marc W. "Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 120347" (2007-08-12 using 62 of 73 observations). SwRI (Space Science Department). Archived from the original on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
^ a b c d e Grundy, W. M.; Noll, K. S.; Roe, H. G.; Buie, M. W.; Porter, S. B.; Parker, A. H.; Nesvorný, D.; Benecchi, S. D.; Stephens, D. C.; Trujillo, C. A. (2019). "Mutual Orbit Orientations of Transneptunian Binaries" (PDF). Icarus. 334: 62–78. Bibcode:2019Icar..334...62G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.03.035. ISSN 0019-1035. S2CID 133585837. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-01-15. Retrieved 2019-10-26.
^ a b c d e f g h
Fornasier, S.; Lellouch, E.; Müller, P., T.; et al. (2013). "TNOs are Cool: A survey of the trans-Neptunian region. VIII. Combined Herschel PACS and SPIRE observations of 9 bright targets at 70–500 μm". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 555: A92. arXiv:1305.0449v2. Bibcode:2013A&A...555A..15F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321329. S2CID 119261700.
^ a b c d e Brown, Michael E.; Butler, Bryan J. (20 June 2017). "The Density of Mid-sized Kuiper Belt Objects from ALMA Thermal Observations". The Astronomical Journal. 154 (1): 19. arXiv:1702.07414. Bibcode:2017AJ....154...19B. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa6346.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m
Stansberry, J.A.; Grundy, W.M.; Mueller, M.; et al. (2012). "Physical Properties of Trans-Neptunian Binaries (120347) Salacia–Actaea and (42355) Typhon–Echidna". Icarus. 219 (2): 676–688. Bibcode:2012Icar..219..676S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.6675. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.03.029.
^ a b c d Belskaya, Irina N.; Barucci, Maria A.; Fulchignoni, Marcello; Lazzarin, M. (April 2015). "Updated taxonomy of trans-neptunian objects and centaurs: Influence of albedo". Icarus. 250: 482–491. Bibcode:2015Icar..250..482B. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.12.004.
^ Brown, Michael E. "How many dwarf planets are there in the outer solar system? (updates daily)". California Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 2022-07-19. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
^ a b W.M. Grundy, K.S. Noll, M.W. Buie, S.D. Benecchi, D. Ragozzine & H.G. Roe, 'The Mutual Orbit, Mass, and Density of Transneptunian Binary Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà ((229762) 2007 UK126)', Icarus (forthcoming, available online 30 March 2019) Archived 7 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine DOI: 10.1016/j.icarus.2018.12.037,
^ Gladman, B.; Marsden, B. G.; VanLaerhoven, C. (2008). "Nomenclature in the Outer Solar System" (PDF). The Solar System Beyond Neptune. p. 43. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-11-02. Retrieved 2016-05-01.
^
Schaller, E. L.; Brown, M. E. (2008). "Detection of Additional Members of the 2003 EL61 Collisional Family via Near-Infrared Spectroscopy". Astrophysical Journal. 684 (2): L107–L109. arXiv:0808.0185. Bibcode:2008ApJ...684L.107S. doi:10.1086/592232. S2CID 118487075.
^ a b Cook, J. C.; Brunetto, R.; De Souza Feliciano, A. C.; Emery, J.; Holler, B.; Parker, A. H.; et al. (June 2023). Hapke Modeling of Several KBOs from JWST Observations (PDF). Asteroids, Comets, Meteors Conference 2023. Lunar and Planetary Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-24. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
^ "IAUC 8751: (120347) 2004 SB_60; 2006gi, 2006gj; V733 Cep". Cbat.eps.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2014-06-14.
^ "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
^ Miller, Kirk (26 October 2021). "Unicode request for dwarf-planet symbols" (PDF). unicode.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
External links
(120347) Salacia at Johnston's Archive
Salacia: As big as Ceres, but much farther away (Emily Lakdawalla – 2012/06/26)
120347 Salacia at the JPL Small-Body DatabaseClose approach · Discovery · Ephemeris · Orbit diagram · Orbital elements · Physical parameters
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minor-planet designation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor-planet_designation"},{"link_name":"trans-Neptunian object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object"},{"link_name":"Kuiper belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt"},{"link_name":"Henry Roe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_G._Roe"},{"link_name":"Michael Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_E._Brown"},{"link_name":"Palomar Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palomar_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Pluto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto"},{"link_name":"Salacia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salacia_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Actaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actaea_(moon)"},{"link_name":"dwarf planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-dplist-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grundy2019-12"},{"link_name":"albedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grundy-orbits-5"}],"text":"Salacia (minor-planet designation: 120347 Salacia) is a large trans-Neptunian object in the Kuiper belt, approximately 850 km (530 mi) in diameter. It was discovered on 22 September 2004, by American astronomers Henry Roe, Michael Brown and Kristina Barkume at the Palomar Observatory in California, United States. Salacia orbits the Sun at an average distance that is slightly greater than that of Pluto. It was named after the Roman goddess Salacia and has a single known moon, Actaea.Brown estimated that Salacia is nearly certainly a dwarf planet.[10] However, William Grundy et al. argue that objects in the size range of 400–1,000 km, with densities of ≈ 1.2 g/cm3 or less and albedos less than ≈ 0.2, have likely never compressed into fully solid bodies or been resurfaced, let alone differentiated or collapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, and so are highly unlikely to be dwarf planets.[11] Salacia is at the upper end of this size range and has a very low albedo, though Grundy et al. later found it to have the relatively high density of 1.5±0.1 g/cm3.[5]","title":"120347 Salacia"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salacia_orbit_2018.png"},{"link_name":"Pluto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto"},{"link_name":"longitude of ascending node","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude_of_ascending_node"},{"link_name":"scattered–extended object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattered_disc"},{"link_name":"Deep Ecliptic Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Ecliptic_Survey"},{"link_name":"hot classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Kuiper_belt_object#Orbits:_'hot'_and_'cold'_populations"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gladman-classification-13"},{"link_name":"outward migration of Neptune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_model"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"parameter space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_space"},{"link_name":"Haumea collisional family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haumea_family"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"}],"text":"The orbit of Salacia is similar to Pluto's, except for a near opposite longitude of ascending node. Its current position is near its most northern position above the ecliptic.Salacia is a non-resonant object with a moderate eccentricity (0.11) and large inclination (23.9°), making it a scattered–extended object in the classification of the Deep Ecliptic Survey and a hot classical Kuiper belt object in the classification system of Gladman et al.,[12] which may be the same thing if they are part of a single population that formed during the outward migration of Neptune.[8] Salacia's orbit is within the parameter space of the Haumea collisional family, but Salacia is not part of it, as evidenced by its lack of the strong water-ice absorption bands.[8]","title":"Orbit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grundy-orbits-5"},{"link_name":"trans-Neptunian object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown2017-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNOsCool8-7"},{"link_name":"hydrostatic equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grundy2019-12"},{"link_name":"infrared spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNOsCool8-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schaller2008-14"},{"link_name":"Near-infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-infrared"},{"link_name":"spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"James Webb Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cook2023-15"},{"link_name":"volatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)"},{"link_name":"methane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cook2023-15"},{"link_name":"light-curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_curve"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"}],"text":"As of 2019, the total mass of the Salacia–Actaea system is estimated at (4.922±0.071)×1020 kg, with an average system density of 1.51 g/cm3; Salacia itself is estimated to be around 846 km in diameter.[5] Salacia has the lowest albedo of any known large trans-Neptunian object.[8] According to the estimate from 2017 based on an improved thermophysical modelling, the size of Salacia is slightly larger at 866 km and its density therefore slightly lower (calculated at 1.26 g/cm3 with the old mass estimate discussed below).[7]Salacia was previously believed to have a mass of around (4.38±0.16)×1020 kg, in which case it would also have had the lowest density (around 1.29 g/cm3) of any known large TNO;[6] William Grundy and colleagues proposed that this low density would imply that Salacia never collapsed into a solid body, in which case it would not be in hydrostatic equilibrium.[11] Salacia's infrared spectrum is almost featureless, indicating an abundance of water ice of less than 5% on the surface.[6][13] Near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 revealed the presence of water ice in Salacia's surface.[14] No signs of volatile ices such as methane were detected in JWST's spectrum of Salacia.[14] Its light-curve amplitude is only 3%.[8]","title":"Physical characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_moon"},{"link_name":"Actaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actaea_(moon)"},{"link_name":"Harold Levison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Levison"},{"link_name":"Denise Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denise_Stephens"},{"link_name":"Hubble Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IAUC8751-16"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNOsCool8-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TNOsCool8-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown2017-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"tidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"Hill radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_radius"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stansberry-result-9"}],"text":"Salacia has one known natural satellite, Actaea, that orbits its primary every 5.49380±0.00016 d at a distance of 5619±89 km and with an eccentricity of 0.0084±0.0076. It was discovered on 21 July 2006 by Keith Noll, Harold Levison, Denise Stephens and William Grundy with the Hubble Space Telescope.[15]Actaea is 2.372±0.060 magnitudes fainter than Salacia,[6] implying a diameter ratio of 2.98 for equal albedos.[8] Hence, assuming equal albedos, it has a diameter of 286±24 km[6] According to the estimate from 2017 based on an improved modelling, the size of Actaea is slightly larger at 290±21 km.[7]Actaea has the same color as Salacia (V−I = 0.89±0.02 and 0.87±0.01, respectively), supporting the assumption of equal albedos.[8]It has been calculated that the Salacia system should have undergone enough tidal evolution to circularize their orbits, which is consistent with the low measured eccentricity, but that the primary need not be tidally locked.[8] The ratio of its semi-major axis to its primary's Hill radius is 0.0023, the tightest trans-Neptunian binary with a known orbit.[8] Salacia and Actaea will next occult each other in 2067.[8]","title":"Satellite"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Salacia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salacia_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"/səˈleɪʃə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Neptune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-Salacia-2"},{"link_name":"M.P.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_Planet_Circulars"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-Circulars-Archive-17"},{"link_name":"Actaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actaea_(Greek_mythology)"},{"link_name":"/ækˈtiːə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"nereid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nereid"},{"link_name":"Planetary symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_symbol"},{"link_name":"hippocamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocamp"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salacia_symbol_(fixed_width).svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salacia_symbol_(fixed_width,_Greek).svg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miller-18"}],"text":"This minor planet was named after Salacia (/səˈleɪʃə/), the goddess of salt water and the wife of Neptune.[2] The naming citation was published on 18 February 2011 (M.P.C. 73984).[16]The moon's name, Actaea /ækˈtiːə/, was assigned on the same date. Actaea is a nereid or sea nymph.Planetary symbols are no longer used in astronomy, so Salacia never received a symbol in the astronomical literature. Denis Moskowitz, a software engineer who designed symbols for dwarf planets, proposed a stylised hippocamp (, formerly ) as the symbol for Salacia;[17] this symbol is not widely used.","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"text":"^ approximation if Salacia and Actaea were both spherical and had the same albedo","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"The orbit of Salacia is similar to Pluto's, except for a near opposite longitude of ascending node. Its current position is near its most northern position above the ecliptic.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Salacia_orbit_2018.png/220px-Salacia_orbit_2018.png"},{"image_text":"Artistic comparison of Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea, Gonggong (2007 OR10), Sedna, Quaoar, Orcus, 2002 MS4, and Salacia. vte","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/10_Largest_Trans-Neptunian_objects_%28TNOS%29.png/310px-10_Largest_Trans-Neptunian_objects_%28TNOS%29.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of Solar System objects by size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Solar_System_objects_by_size"}]
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[{"reference":"\"JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 120347 Salacia (2004 SB60)\" (2019-09-21 last obs.). Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 7 November 2019. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=2120347","url_text":"\"JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 120347 Salacia (2004 SB60)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory","url_text":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170403194747/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=2120347","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"120347 Salacia (2004 SB60)\". Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. 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SwRI (Space Science Department). Archived from the original on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2009-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_W._Buie","url_text":"Buie, Marc W."},{"url":"http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/120347.html","url_text":"\"Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 120347\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120309113753/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/120347.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Grundy, W. M.; Noll, K. S.; Roe, H. G.; Buie, M. W.; Porter, S. B.; Parker, A. H.; Nesvorný, D.; Benecchi, S. D.; Stephens, D. C.; Trujillo, C. A. (2019). \"Mutual Orbit Orientations of Transneptunian Binaries\" (PDF). Icarus. 334: 62–78. Bibcode:2019Icar..334...62G. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.03.035. ISSN 0019-1035. S2CID 133585837. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-01-15. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum_Duxford
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Imperial War Museum Duxford
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["1 Museum history","1.1 Duxford aerodrome","2 Duxford Aviation Society","3 Air shows and flying","4 Site layout","5 AirSpace","5.1 Airborne Assault","6 Hangar 2: Flying Aircraft","7 Hangar 3: Air and Sea","8 Hangar 4: Battle of Britain Exhibition","9 Hangar 5: Conservation in Action","10 American Air Museum","10.1 Architecture and construction","10.2 Opening and re-dedication","11 Land Warfare Hall","11.1 Forgotten War","11.2 Royal Anglian Regiment Museum and Memorial","12 North side: collections storage","13 See also","14 References","15 External links"]
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Coordinates: 52°05′35″N 0°07′46″E / 52.09306°N 0.12944°E / 52.09306; 0.12944
Aviation museum in Cambridgeshire, England
Imperial War Museum DuxfordThe AirSpace exhibition hall at Imperial War Museum Duxford (October 2009)Location within CambridgeshireEstablished1977 (1977)LocationImperial War Museum DuxfordCambridgeshireCB22 4QRUnited KingdomCoordinates52°05′35″N 0°07′46″E / 52.09306°N 0.12944°E / 52.09306; 0.12944TypeAviation museumVisitors401,287 (2019)Public transit access Whittlesford ParkwayWebsitewww.iwm.org.uk/visits/iwm-duxfordImperial War Museums
Churchill War Rooms
HMS Belfast
IWM Duxford
IWM London
IWM North
Imperial War Museum Duxford is a branch of the Imperial War Museum near Duxford in Cambridgeshire, England. Britain's largest aviation museum, Duxford houses the museum's large exhibits, including nearly 200 aircraft, military vehicles, artillery and minor naval vessels in seven main exhibition buildings. The site also provides storage space for the museum's other collections of material such as film, photographs, documents, books and artefacts. The site accommodates several British Army regimental museums, including those of the Parachute Regiment (named Airborne Assault) and the Royal Anglian Regiment.
Based on the historic Duxford Aerodrome, the site was originally operated by the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. During the Second World War Duxford played a prominent role during the Battle of Britain and was later used by United States Army Air Forces fighter units in support of the daylight bombing of Germany. Duxford remained an active RAF airfield until 1961. After the Ministry of Defence declared the site surplus to requirements in 1969 the Imperial War Museum received permission to use part of the site for storage. The entirety of the site was transferred to the museum in February 1976.
In keeping with the site's history many of Duxford's original buildings, such as hangars used during the Battle of Britain, are still in use. Many of these buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance and over thirty have listed building status, Duxford "retain the best-preserved technical fabric remaining from up to November 1918" and being "remarkably well-preserved". The site also features several purpose-built exhibition buildings, such as the Stirling Prize-winning American Air Museum, designed by Sir Norman Foster. The site remains an active airfield and is used by civilian flying companies, and hosts regular air shows. The site is operated in partnership with Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society, a charity formed in 1975 to preserve civil aircraft and promote appreciation of British civil aviation history.
Museum history
Main article: Imperial War Museum
The Imperial War Museum originated during the First World War in 1917 as the National War Museum committee, formed by the British government to record the war effort and sacrifice of Britain and her Empire. The museum opened in 1920, by which point it had been renamed the Imperial War Museum. With the outbreak of the Second World War, the museum's terms of reference were enlarged to include that conflict as well. The museum's terms of reference was broadened again in 1953 to include all modern conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces were engaged. The effect of these expansions of remit was to cause the museum's collections to expand enormously, to the point that many parts of the collection, especially those of aircraft, vehicles and artillery, could not be effectively stored or exhibited. Although the museum's south London home (a nineteenth-century building in Southwark which was previously the Bethlem Royal Hospital) had been extended in 1966, by the end of the decade the museum was seeking additional space.
RAF Duxford, a Royal Air Force fighter station had been declared surplus to requirements by the Ministry of Defence in 1969, and the museum duly requested permission to use part of one of the airfield's hangars as temporary storage. Duxford featured three double bay hangars of First World War vintage, which together provided over 9,000 square metres (97,000 sq ft) of space. Within two years, ten of the museum's aircraft had been brought to Duxford, and were being restored by volunteers of the East Anglia Aviation Society. While the museum's own aircraft were not restored to flying condition, by cooperating with private groups the museum was able to mount its first airshow in 1973. Further air shows followed, with a display in June 1976 attracting an audience of 45,000 people. The runway was bought by Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977. The success of these shows provided a valuable source of revenue, and complemented the efforts of volunteers, so that the museum applied for the permanent transfer of the entire site to its use. Permission was received in February 1976 and Duxford became the first outstation of the Imperial War Museum. Initially open from March–October, Duxford received 167,000 visitors in the 1977 season, and 340,000 in 1978. Two million visitors had been received by 1982 and Duxford welcomed its ten millionth visitor in August 2005.
Duxford aerodrome
Main article: Duxford Aerodrome
K9795, a Spitfire Mk I operated from Duxford by No. 19 Squadron in 1938.
Duxford has been associated with British military aviation since 1917, when a site near the village of Duxford, in southern Cambridgeshire, was selected for a new Royal Flying Corps training aerodrome. From 1925 Duxford became a fighter airfield, a role it was to retain until the end of its operational life, and in August 1938 the Duxford-based No.19 Squadron RAF became the first to operate the Supermarine Spitfire.
With the outbreak of war in September 1939 Duxford was home to three RAF squadrons engaged on coastal patrol duties. From July 1940, Duxford saw considerable action during the Battle of Britain as a sector station of RAF Fighter Command's No. 12 Group. In the middle years of the war Duxford was home to specialist units, such as the tacticians and engineers of the Air Fighting Development Unit. In April 1942 the first Typhoon Wing was formed at Duxford. Notable among the pilots of the Wing was Group Captain John Grandy who would later rise to be Chief of the Air Staff and also served as Chairman of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum from 1978 to 1989.
78th Fighter Group P-51D Mustangs at Duxford in summer 1945.
In March 1943 the United States Army Air Forces' 78th Fighter Group started to arrive at Duxford with their Republic P-47 Thunderbolts. The Group reequipped with North American P-51 Mustangs in December 1944 and until the end of the war in Europe the Group remained at Duxford carrying out bomber escort and fighter sweeps, ground strafing and ground attack missions.
Duxford was officially returned to the RAF on 1 December 1945. It remained a fighter station but by 1958 changing defence priorities saw the RAF's fighter force move to more northerly bases. Duxford's last operational flight was made in July 1961. No longer operational, the site gradually became increasingly derelict and overgrown. In 1968 the American film studio United Artists obtained permission to use the site for the filming of Battle of Britain. During the shoot a single bay hangar, which had been built during the First World War, was demolished to simulate an air raid. After the Ministry of Defence announced its intention to dispose of Duxford plans were drawn up for various developments including two Young Offenders Institutes but were not implemented.
Duxford Aviation Society
The Duxford Aviation Society Comet 4 on display in AirSpace.
Duxford is operated in partnership between the Imperial War Museum, Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society. The Society is a registered charity (No. 285809) and states two objectives; to educate the public by collecting and exhibiting historic aircraft, military vehicles and boats, and to support the Imperial War Museum.
The Society was formed in 1975 from a divergence of members of the East Anglian Aviation Society, which formerly operated the now-closed Bassingbourn Tower Museum at the former RAF Bassingbourn.
Duxford Aviation Society preserves and maintains the Civil Aviation Collection. Especially notable aircraft in the collection include a de Havilland Comet which made the first eastbound jet-powered trans-Atlantic passenger flight on 4 October 1958, and Concorde G-AXDN 101, a pre-production aircraft which achieved the highest speed of any Concorde, making a westwards trans-Atlantic flight in two hours, 56 minutes.
In support of the Museum's goals, the DAS Military Vehicle Wing provides one of the world's leading teams of military vehicle restoration engineers The Wing (or its volunteers) own some of the vehicles located at Duxford, and provide restoration services for vehicles within the museum's collection. The team also operate vehicles for demonstrations during the year. The wing's works have been featured in the Discovery Channel's Tank Overhaul programme, James May's 20th Century, and wide variety of magazines and other media.
Other elements of the society provide or support a range of functions at the Duxford site, including canteen, aircraft conservation, learning and interpretative activities and administrative tasks. An affiliated group, the Duxford Radio Society, collects, preserves, exhibits, and demonstrates historic military electronic equipment. This is housed in Buildings 177 and 178, close to the Gibraltar Gun.
Since January 1999, the Society have operated the Friends of Duxford membership scheme with the Museum.
As of 2008, the Duxford Aviation Society had almost 700 volunteer members.
Air shows and flying
Hurricanes and Spitfires of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight at the Duxford Air Show, May 2007.
Duxford remains an active airfield (IATA: QFO, ICAO: EGSU) and maintains two parallel runways; an unpaved 880 m (2,890 ft) grass strip, and a concrete runway with a length of 1,503 m (4,931 ft), both oriented at 060/240-degrees. The runway was originally purchased from the Ministry of Defence by the Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977. In October 2008, an agreement was reached between the council and the Imperial War Museum, under which the runways and 146 acres (0.59 km2; 0.228 sq mi) of surrounding grassland would be sold to the museum for approximately £1.6 million.
Since 1973, Duxford has held regular air shows. Duxford is the home of several private aviation companies, such as Classic Wings, The Fighter Collection, the Old Flying Machine Company and The Aircraft Restoration Company. Between them these companies provide pleasure flights, historic aircraft for film or television work, and aircraft restoration services. Perhaps the most notable privately owned and operated aircraft based at Duxford is B-17 Preservation Ltd's Sally B, the only airworthy B-17 Flying Fortress in Europe.
Major air shows held regularly include the Duxford Air Show, and American Air Day, which is held in conjunction with units of the Third Air Force (part of the United States Air Forces in Europe), based at nearby RAF Lakenheath and RAF Mildenhall. The Flying Legends show (organised by The Fighter Collection), was held annually at Duxford until 2019.
The Duxford Air Show usually exhibits a wide range of aircraft, from vintage warbirds to contemporary jet aircraft, along with aerobatic flying by groups such as the Red Arrows. while the Flying Legends show focuses on historic aircraft, especially those of the Second World War. In 2008 it was reported that these displays generate up to £1.8 million, while the loss of up to £100,000 due to adverse weather is also budgeted for. The policing bill, necessary to manage the resulting road traffic, was reported as some £8,000. Major events have included the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary airshow, held on 4–5 September 2010, attended by more than 40,000 people, featuring formation displays by four Hawker Hurricanes and sixteen Spitfires.
As an active civil airfield, operations at Duxford are regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). In 2002 a privately operated Aero L-39 Albatros suffered a braking failure on landing, overran the runway and came to rest on the M11 motorway, a student pilot being killed after ejecting at ground level. An Air Accidents Investigation Branch inquiry recommended a review of arrangements for aircraft taking off or landing towards the M11. As a result, the CAA and Duxford agreed to a reduction in the runway's 1,500 m (4,900 ft) declared length, from 1,350 m (4,430 ft) to 1,200 m (3,900 ft), in order to provide a greater margin of error.
As a licensed airfield Duxford has its own Fire Service (currently five vehicles, and 16 fire fighters / officers) which operates as part of the Airfield & Security department, the fire service was originally operated by voluntary crews who were part of Duxford Aviation Society, with the training officers coming from Stansted and other local airports, for the last few years it has been a mixed voluntary/full-time operation.
Site layout
An aerial view of the IWM Duxford site in June 2008. Visible on the right is the large AirSpace exhibition hall, Hangars 2, 3, 4 and 5, the American Air Museum and the eastern end of the runway.
When originally planned in 1917, Duxford aerodrome was to occupy a 238-acre (0.96 km2; 0.372 sq mi) site divided by what is now the A505 road which runs north-east from Royston to Newmarket. The area north of the road would be occupied by accommodation and administrative buildings with the airfield, hangars and technical buildings on the south side. Still divided by the A505, the museum's site is now bounded to the east by the M11 motorway, which meets the A505 adjacent to the museum site at Junction 10. The construction of the M11 in 1977 (the year the museum opened) forced the shortening of the runway by 300 metres (980 ft). In its role as a museum, the north side of the site is occupied by the Imperial War Museum's stored collections and is not generally open to the public, while the south side is occupied by various hangars and other historic buildings, purpose-built structures, and by two runways.
The south side visitor entrance, which now houses a shop and visitor facilities, was previously the airfield's armoury. The various buildings are arranged roughly parallel to the A505; AirSpace is furthest east, with Hangars 2, 3, 4 and 5 running westwards, followed by the American Air Museum and the Land Warfare Hall. The museum site is approximately 1,800 m (5,900 ft) from one end to the other, and a visitor bus operates during opening hours.
Some aircraft and other exhibits are displayed externally, such as a Comet tank and replica Hawker Hurricane as gate guardians at the main entrance. Several commercial airliners belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society stand on the runway apron opposite the hangars. A Bloodhound surface-to-air missile stands on the site of the demolished hangar. A United States Air Force F-15 Eagle previously stood near the American Air Museum (now hanging inside). A Royal Engineers' Centurion AVRE stands outside the Land Warfare Hall and the Gibraltar Gun, a 9.2-inch artillery piece previously emplaced on the Rock of Gibraltar is nearby.
A view of Duxford's original Operations Room.
As a historic site, many of Duxford's buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance. In 2005, following a review of sites relating to British aviation history by English Heritage, some 255 buildings at 31 sites received listed building status. Duxford contains over thirty of these buildings, the largest number at any one site. Listed buildings include three hangars dating back to the First World War and the operations block, which received Grade II* status. This block, open to the public, houses the wartime operations room from which Duxford's aircraft were directed. Another historic building, the 1918 Watch Office, has been converted to accommodate the Historic Duxford exhibition, depicting the history of the site and the experiences of Duxford's personnel.
AirSpace
Main article: List of aircraft at IWM Duxford
In 2000, Duxford announced plans for the redevelopment of Hangar 1, previously known as the 'Superhangar', which was built in the 1980s. The plans would expand the building by 40%, providing more display and conservation space, improve internal conditions, and enable the museum's British and Commonwealth aircraft collection to be brought under cover. Planning permission was received later that year. The project cost £25 million and was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the East of England Development Agency and BAE Systems, which contributed £6 million. The building, which provides 12,000 square metres (130,000 sq ft) of floor space, consists of an aircraft conservation area, a large exhibition hall, and a mezzanine providing views of the aircraft and interactive educational installations exploring aeronautical engineering and the principles of flight.
AirSpace officially opened to the public on 12 July 2007. Over 30 aircraft are on display, dating back to the First World War; early aircraft include rare examples of an Airco DH.9 and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8. The former is one of only six surviving DH9s and the only example on display in the UK, and the latter is the only complete and original R.E.8 in existence. More recent notable aircraft include a Hawker Siddeley Harrier which served during the Falklands War with No. 1 Squadron RAF, and a Panavia Tornado, which flew the highest number of bomber sorties of any Tornado in the 1991 Gulf War. Also on display is a British Aircraft Corporation TSR-2 strike aircraft, one of only two survivors from the cancellation of the project in 1965. Recent additions include Eurofighter Typhoon DA4, one of seven Typhoon development aircraft, which was donated to the museum by the Ministry of Defence in 2008 and went on display in June 2009. Civil aircraft include the Duxford Aviation Society's Concorde and Comet described above.
Panorama of the AirSpace exhibition hall, with the Duxford Aviation Society Concorde right foreground.
Airborne Assault
Main article: Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum
AirSpace also houses Airborne Assault, the museum of the British Army's Parachute Regiment and airborne forces. Previously located at Browning Barracks near Aldershot, the museum opened at Duxford on 8 December 2008. The opening ceremony was led by the then Prince Charles, the Parachute Regiment's Colonel-in-Chief. The museum chronicles the history of British airborne forces from the Second World War to current operations in Afghanistan and cost £3 million.
Hangar 2: Flying Aircraft
Hangar 2 is a double Type T2 hangar, erected in the 1970s. It occupies the site of a T2 hangar erected in the 1950s. It accommodates the flyable aircraft of Duxford's private aviation companies, such as The Fighter Collection, and allows visitors to see aircraft undergoing maintenance or restoration.
Hangar 3: Air and Sea
Fairey Gannet AS6, with the hangar's Belfast truss construction visible above.
Hangar 3, an original Belfast truss hangar, houses Duxford's maritime exhibition. The collection includes notable vessels and naval aircraft. Boats on display include Coastal Motor Boat 4, built by Thornycroft in 1916. She saw action during the Baltic campaign of 1918–19, and her commander Lieutenant Augustus Agar won the Victoria Cross for sinking the Russian cruiser Oleg on 17 June 1919. Other vessels include the Vosper motor torpedo boat MTB-71, acquired from the British Military Powerboat Trust in 2005, an example of an X-Craft midget submarine, and a wartime Royal National Lifeboat Institution boat, the Jesse Lumb which was stationed at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight. A variety of naval aircraft are on display, including a de Havilland Sea Vixen, Sea Venom, and Sea Vampire, and a Westland Wasp helicopter which was embarked on the frigate HMS Apollo during the Falklands War.
Hangar 4: Battle of Britain Exhibition
Tableau of crashed Bf 109E in Hangar 4.
Hangar 4 is one of Duxford's historic hangars, and now houses an exhibition exploring Duxford's history as an operational RAF airfield from the First World War to the Cold War. The early period is represented by a Bristol Fighter, a type operated by Duxford's No.2 Flying Training School from 1920. The latter period is represented by a Hawker Hunter which flew at Duxford with No. 65 Squadron RAF, a Gloster Javelin, the type which made the last operational flight at Duxford in 1961, and by a Hungarian Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, a common Warsaw Pact jet fighter. Britain's air defence during the Second World War is particularly emphasised, with exhibits representing the Battle of Britain, the Blitz and the V-1 flying bomb offensive from 1944. Notable aircraft include a Messerschmitt Bf 109E which was flown during the Battle of Britain until forced down in Sussex due to engine failure. It is displayed as part of a tableau showing the crashed aircraft under guard. One unusual aircraft on display is the Cierva C.30A autogyro, which was used by 74 (Signals) Wing, based at Duxford, to test the calibration of coastal radar units.
Hangar 5: Conservation in Action
Hangar 5, the westernmost original hangar, houses Duxford's aircraft conservation workshops. Open to the public, the hangar allows visitors to see museum staff and volunteers at work on a variety of conservation tasks. Notable projects include a Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter acquired from an American owner in 'jungle recovery' condition, and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 now on display in AirSpace. Duxford is a partner with the British Aviation Preservation Council in the National Aviation Heritage Skills Initiative, which has been funded since 2005 by the Heritage Lottery Fund and aims to provide training to volunteers supporting aviation heritage projects. It is currently working on the cockpits of a Handley Page Victor (XH669) and a Vickers Valiant (XD826).
American Air Museum
A US Air Force F-15 Eagle with the American Air Museum behind.
From the late 1970s the museum acquired several important American aircraft; a B-17G Flying Fortress in 1978, a B-29 Superfortress named It's Hawg Wild in 1980 and a B-52 Stratofortress in 1983. With Duxford's association with the US Army Air Forces (USAAF), in the mid-1980s plans developed for a commemoration of the role of American air power in the Second World War. A group of American supporters was formed, and the architect Norman Foster was commissioned to design a new building. Fundraising for the project began in 1987, support and funds being sought in the United States; the Founding Member was General Jimmy Doolittle in 1989. Fundraising events were held across the US in Houston (1989), Washington, D.C., (1991) and Los Angeles (1992). The project was widely supported in the United States by some 50,000 individual subscribers. A further $1 million of funding was secured from Saudi Arabia, and £6.5 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund. On 8 September 1995 the groundbreaking for the new building was performed by wartime 78th Fighter Group veteran, Major James E Stokes.
Architecture and construction
The American Air Museum was designed by Norman Foster and Chris Wise at Arup. The museum's specification called for a landmark building that would provide a neutral backdrop for the aircraft collection and provide appropriate climatic controls while being cost efficient to operate. The building is shaped as a section of a torus, formed from a curved concrete roof 90 m (300 ft) wide, 18.5 m (61 ft) high and 100 m (330 ft) deep. The dimensions of the building were dictated by the need to accommodate the museum's B-52 Stratofortress bomber with its 61 m (200 ft) wingspan and a tail 16 m (52 ft) high. The roof was constructed as a double-layered concrete shell, built in 924 precast reinforced concrete sections. Inverted T-shaped sections provided the inner layer with further flat panels forming the outer layer.
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird −962
The roof weighs 6,000 tonnes (5,900 long tons; 6,600 short tons) and is able to support suspended aircraft weighing up to 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons). A glass wall, demountable to permit aircraft to be rearranged, allows in daylight, thereby reducing lighting costs and enabling the aircraft to be seen from outside the building. It also allows visitors inside the museum to watch aircraft landing or taking off. From a visitor's perspective, the pedestrian entrance leads to a mezzanine floor level with the cockpit of the museum's B-52, while the lack of supporting columns allows aircraft to hang from the ceiling. Heavier aircraft stand on the floor of the building, which covers 6,500 m2 (70,000 sq ft). Construction began with the building of abutments in October 1995 and the roof was completed in September 1996. The building won the 1998 Stirling Prize for Foster and Partners and was described by the judges as "a great big, clear span hangar of a building...dramatic, awe-inspiring, an object of beauty...simple yet replete with imagery."
Opening and re-dedication
American Air Museum interior; F-111, left foreground, B-52 cockpit, right foreground, and SPAD S.XIII, PT-17 and A-10 Thunderbolt II, suspended above.
The American Air Museum was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 August 1997. The total cost of the project had been £13.5 million. The museum was re-dedicated on 27 September 2002, in a ceremony attended by the then Prince Charles & former President George H. W. Bush. Since being opened, the museum has had its glass front temporarily removed to permit access for an SR-71 Blackbird and Consolidated B-24 Liberator. The SR-71, serial number 61-7962, is the only example of its type on display outside the United States, and set a flight altitude record of 85,069 feet (25,929m) in July 1976. Besides the Blackbird, nineteen other American aircraft are on display. Notable examples include a C-47 Skytrain which flew with the 316th Troop Carrier Group and participated in three major Second World War airborne operations; the June 1944 Normandy landings, Operation Market Garden and Operation Varsity, the airborne crossing of the River Rhine in March 1945. The museum's B-29 flew during the Korean War as part of the 7th Bomb Wing; it is the only example in Europe and one of only two preserved in museums outside the United States. The B-52 flew 200 sorties during the Vietnam War as part of the 28th Bomb Wing. The General Dynamics F-111 on display flew 19 missions during the 1991 Gulf War as part of the 77th Fighter Squadron.
On 17 January 2014 the museum announced an award of £980,000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund. The museum planned to use the money to build a website based on the photographic collection of aviation historian Roger Freeman, to update the museum's interpretation, and to conserve aircraft and other exhibits. The museum launched americanairmuseum.com in October 2014. The website seeks to crowdsource photographs and information from the public about the men and women of the US Army Air Forces who served from the UK in the Second World War and the British people who befriended them.
Land Warfare Hall
Canadian-built Sherman tank
The Land Warfare Hall was opened on 28 September 1992 by Field Marshal Lord Bramall on behalf of Prime Minister John Major. The building provides accommodation for the Imperial War Museum's collection of armoured vehicles, artillery and military vehicles. Also included are vehicles belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society Military Vehicle Section. The hall comprises a viewing balcony that runs for most of the length of the hall, providing views over a range of tableaux of vehicles, tanks and artillery that run chronologically from the First World War to the present day. Notable among the First World War exhibits is a battle-damaged artillery limber used by L Battery Royal Horse Artillery during an action at Néry in September 1914 where three Victoria Crosses were won. The Second World War in particular is illustrated with tableaux of the North African Campaign, the Eastern Front and the invasion of Normandy. Outside the building is a Whale floating roadway bridge span from Mulberry B harbour at Arromanches.
Significant vehicles in the collection include three command vehicles used by Field Marshal Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group during the north-west Europe campaign. Also on display are extracts from Montgomery's personal papers, which are held by the Imperial War Museum's Department of Documents. Other tableaux depict scenes from post-1945 conflicts such as the Korean War, the Northern Ireland Troubles, the Falklands War, British peacekeeping contributions in Bosnia and the Gulf War. As many of the vehicles in the Land Warfare Hall are maintained in running condition, the site features garages and a running area behind the building.
Various diorama are exhibited, including of the Battle of the Tennis Court.
Forgotten War
The Land Warfare Hall also houses the Forgotten War exhibition, which opened on 25 March 1999 and was a joint project between the Imperial War Museum and the Burma Star Association. The Association represents veterans of the Burma campaign who often consider themselves to have fought in a "Forgotten Army" compared to those who fought in Europe. The exhibition explores aspects of the Second World War in the Far East and features artifacts, archival film and photographs, and tableaux depicting scenes such as troops moving through jungle and a Burmese village. The exhibition was supported financially by the Burma Star Association and by £126,000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund.
Royal Anglian Regiment Museum and Memorial
The Land Warfare Hall also accommodates the Royal Anglian Regiment Museum. The Royal Anglian Regiment was formed in 1964 by the amalgamation of the three regiments of the East Anglian Brigade and the Royal Leicestershire Regiment. The museum was opened in June 1996 by noted war correspondent Martin Bell, who had previously served as a sergeant in the Suffolk Regiment while a national serviceman. The museum covers the history of the Regiment and its predecessors, which date back to the seventeenth century, up to recent operations in Iraq, Afghanistan and Sierra Leone. Alongside the museum is the Cambridgeshire Regiment Exhibition, which displays items from the Cambridgeshire Regiment collection. Exhibits include the Singapore Drums, lost at the fall of Singapore in 1942 and recovered after the war.
On 12 September 2010 a Royal Anglian Regiment memorial was dedicated at Duxford. A fundraising campaign, which raised more than £340,000, was launched following the deaths in action of nine soldiers of 1st Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment during the unit's 2007 operational tour in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. The memorial is inscribed with the names of 78 soldiers killed since 1958 (when the first of the three East Anglian regiments was formed) in conflicts including Afghanistan, Iraq, Northern Ireland and Aden. The dedication was attended by more than 5,000 people.
North side: collections storage
In addition to the exhibition buildings, Duxford's 'North Side', the area of the site north of the A505 road, provides storage for the Imperial War Museum's collecting departments. The stored collections include the film collection, which includes reels existing on nitrate film stock, which is highly flammable and subject to decomposition, kept in purpose-built vaults at nearby Ickleton. Other collections stored at Duxford's north side include books, maps, ephemera, photographs, documents and collections of uniforms and equipment.
See also
List of aerospace museums
References
^ "ALVA - Association of Leading Visitor Attractions". www.alva.org.uk. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
^ a b Holt, John (September 2008) 'Air play' Museums Journal Vol.108 No.9 p.32-35
^ a b c d e f For a list of aircraft, vehicles and boats at Duxford, see "IWM Duxford: Aircraft and Vehicles" (PDF). Imperial War Museum. June 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
^ "About IWM Duxford".
^ a b Imperial War Museum Duxford (2009) Historic Duxford Archived 1 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
^ a b Department for Culture, Media and Sport (2 December 2005) 'Chocks away! David Lammy secures a future for the aviation sites that protected our past' Press Release Archived 8 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
^ Kavanagh, Gaynor (1988), "Museum as Memorial: The Origins of the Imperial War Museum", Journal of Contemporary History, 23 (1): 77–97, doi:10.1177/002200948802300105, JSTOR 260869, S2CID 159747045
^ 'Imperial War Museum: Collection of war relics', The Times 14 May 1940 Issue 48615 Page 4 Column F
^ Imperial War Museum London (guidebook), (London: Imperial War Museum, 2009) pp. 2 ISBN 978-1-904897-95-8
^ Frankland, Noble (1999). History at War. London: Giles de la Mare. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-900357-10-4.
^ Frankland (1999) pg. 205–208.
^ National Museum Directors' Conference (September 2005) Newsletter No.48. Retrieved 21 October 2009
^ Cheek, Tim (1998) 'Duxford: An unofficial history of one of the RAF's most distinguished airfields' Between the wars Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford History of Duxford:1918–1924 Archived 26 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine, 1925–36 Archived 5 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine and 1938–39 Archived 5 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
^ Woolford and Warner (2008) Imperial War Museum Duxford (guidebook), London: Imperial War Museum ISBN 978-1-904897-72-9 p.21-28
^ a b Cheek, Tim (1998) 'Duxford: An unofficial history of one of the RAF's most distinguished airfields' Second World War Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
^ Barrass, M B (2008) Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation Marshal of the RAF Sir John Grandy. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
^ Cheek, Tim (1998) 'Duxford: An unofficial history of one of the RAF's most distinguished airfields' Second World War: American Period 1943–1945 Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
^ Cheek, Tim (1998) 'Duxford: An unofficial history of one of the RAF's most distinguished airfields' Battle of Britain Archived 29 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ Evans, Peter (8 July 1971) 'Need for 20 new penal centres in S E likely' The Times Issue 58219 pg. 3
^ No. 285809 – Duxford Aviation Society, Charity Commission charitycommission.gov.uk/. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
^ a b Duxford Aviation Society. "About us: A brief history of the Society". Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
^ Tower Museum Bassingbourn. "About us". Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
^ Woolford & Warner (2008) p. 12 & 14.
^ Tank Overhaul, Episode "The Centurion_tank", aired 18 March 2009.
^ Duxford Aviation Society. "Media". Archived from the original on 15 February 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
^ Duxford Radio Society Home page. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford Friends of Duxford Archived 2 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Annual Report and Account 2007–2008 Archived 9 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine. p. 24 Accessed 15 September 2009.
^ "Aerodrome/Heliport EGSU". www.aurora.nats.co.uk. 27 August 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford (2009) Airfield Information Archived 26 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ Thwaites, Glenn (9 October 2008) Duxford deal is run-a-way success Archived 19 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridgeshire County Council Press Release. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
^ Classic Wings Home page. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ The Fighter Collection Home page Archived 17 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ Old Flying Machine Company Home page. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ The Aircraft Restoration Company Home page. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ B-17 Preservation Ltd: The Sally B Website Home page. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ Royal Air Force Lakenheath (11 August 2009) Third annual American Air Day at The Imperial War Museum Duxford Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
^ For example, see Johnson, Paul (September 2009) Flightline UK The Duxford Air Show 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
^ Fenwick, Simon (2009) Flightline UK Flying Legends 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
^ Culture24 (6 September 2010). "Thousands of fans enjoy Imperial War Museum Duxford's Battle of Britain Air Show". Retrieved 1 November 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Duxford BofB show is a hit", Aeroplane Monthly, IPC Media: 7, 1 November 2010
^ Air Accident Investigation Branch (July 2003) Aero Vodochody L-39C Albatros, G-BZVL. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
^ Civil Aviation Authority (7 August 2003) Follow-up Action on Occurrence Report Archived 11 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
^ a b c Duxford Update: A Duxford Buildings Tour www.Duxford-Update.info Archived 26 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford Duxford brochure Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine p. 3 (site map). Retrieved 9 September 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford Visitor Information: Accessibility Archived 25 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
^ 'Picture Gallery' photo caption: 'A 9.2-inch coastal gun is unloaded at the Imperial War Museum's outdoor display at Duxford Airfield, Cambridgeshire, after its journey from Gibraltar where during the last war it guarded the Straits'. The Times 8 August 1981.
^ 'Victory in battle for Britain's RAF heritage' (27 June 2005) The Daily Telegraph Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
^ "History of RAF Duxford told in new exhibition". BBC News Cambridge. 8 March 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
^ "Duxford's big plans". Air Classics (March 2000). findarticles.com. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ "Duxford developments". Air Classics (October 2000). findarticles.com. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ Parsons, Gary (2008) 'AirSpace takes off!' AirSceneUK.org.uk Archived 2 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 September 2009.
^ Selwood, Sara (October 2007) 'AirSpace, Imperial War Museum Duxford' Museums Journal Issue 107/10 pg.56–57
^ Cunningham, Justin (25 July 2007). "The sky's the limit". Professional Engineering. 20 (14): 30. ISSN 0953-6639.
^ Oakey, Michael (Ed.) (Vol. 35 No. 9, September 2007) "Duxford's AirSpace opens". Aeroplane
^ Reynold, Nigel and Condron, Stephanie (20 April 2007) The Daily Telegraph 'Maharajah's bomber spreads its wings again'. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
^ a b Gosling, Peter (October 2004) R.E.8 Restoration Flight Journal (findarticles.com). Retrieved 14 September 2009.
^ Harrier GR3, serial XZ133 and Tornado GR1, serial ZA465. Woolford and Warner (2008) p.15
^ Parsons, Gary (2005) 'TSR2 cubed' AirSceneUK.org.uk Archived 25 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 September 2009.
^ 'IWM Duxford unveils new Eurofighter Typhoon exhibit' (22 June 2009) culture24.org.uk. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
^ Smith, Michael (7 December 2008). "New museum honours Parachute Regiment". London: timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ Agar's Victoria Cross, and some of his personal effects such as a telescope, are also held by the museum.
^ British Military Powerboat Trust MTB-71: 60ft Vosper Motor Torpedo Boat Accessed 11 September 2009.
^ Woolford and Warner, p. 33
^ See also Imperial War Museum Duxford Hangar 4: The Battle of Britain Archived 22 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine and The Battle of Britain Exhibition Archived 23 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 September 2009.
^ Duxford Update: Hangar 4 www.Duxford-Update.info Archived 30 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 September 2009.
^ Duxford Update: Hangar 5 www.Duxford-Update.info Archived 11 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 14 September 2009.
^ Duxford gets a zero Air Classics (April 1999) (findarticles.com) Accessed 14 September 2009.
^ National Aviation Heritage Skills Initiative (2009) Nahsi.org.uk Homepage Archived 29 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
^ Dormer, Peter (14 August 1995). "Making a Mecca for the plane crazy". The Independent. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ a b American Air Museum: History aam.iwm.org.uk Archived 21 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23 August 2009.
^ For a demonstration of the building's geometry, see Foster+Partners "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). Retrieved 25 August 2009
^ Jones, Mike. "Foster Solves the Big Span Problem with Reinforced Concrete: AJ Feature: The Shell is the Core". Architects' Journal (14 July 1993). Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ Evans, Barrie. "Concrete in flight: AJ Feature: Shell Logic". Architects' Journal (6 November 1997). Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ a b Evans, Barrie. "Concrete in flight: AJ feature: The Story of Duxford". Architects' Journal (6 November 1997). Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ McGuire, Penny (1998). "Flying colours – design of the American Air Museum in Duxford, England". The Architectural Review (February 1998). findarticles.com. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
^ Duxford American Air Museum Architects' Journal: Building library Archived 1 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ Evans, Barrie. "Concrete in Flight: AJ Feature: Raising the Roof". Architects' Journal (6 November 1997). Archived from the original on 4 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ Niesewand, Nonie (20 November 1998) The Independent Architecture: Foster and his flying machine. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
^ "Duxford Blackbird hand-over". Air Classics (September 2001). findarticles.com. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ "Liberator begins arriving at Duxford". Air Classics (August 1999). findarticles.com. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
^ Woolford and Warner (2008) p.47
^ B-29A-BN, serial 44-61748. Woolford and Warner (2008), p.49
^ B-52D, serial 56-0689. Woolford and Warner (2008), p.49
^ Serial 67-0120. Woolford and Warner (2008), p.51.
^
American Air Museum in Britain (17 January 2014). "AAM secures Heritage Lottery Fund support". Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
^ "Our Partners – American Air Museum in Britain". www.americanairmuseum.com. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ The Independent (29 September 1992) Photograph caption: 'Sentry duty at the Land Warfare Exhibition Hall which opened yesterday at the Imperial War Museum in Duxford, Cambridgeshire. The display contains 40 artillery pieces, more than 50 tanks, and military vehicles including three lorries used as a bedroom and offices by Field Marshal Montgomery in the Second World War'. independent.co.uk. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
^ Duxford Aviation Society Military Vehicle Section Archived 2 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford Land Warfare Hall Archived 15 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
^ 'Montgomery documents',The Times 8 July 1982, Issue 61280, page 2 column A
^ "Kohima Diorama - IWM Duxford | planetFigure | Miniatures".
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford. "The Forgotten War Exhibition". duxford.iwm.org.uk. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ "Forgotten War". Air Classics (June 1999). findarticles.com. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
^ Royal Anglian Regiment Museum Supporters Archived 27 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 16 June 2009.
^ Royal Anglian Regiment Museum A Tour of the Museum Archived 27 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
^ MacDonald, Patrick 'The History of the Cambridgeshire Regiment' Suffolk Regiment.org. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
^ Collett, Amy (14 September 2010). "Royal Anglian memorial unveiled: we will never forget their sacrifices". PeterboroughToday.co.uk. Johnston Publishing Limited. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
^ Imperial War Museum Duxford: Friends of Duxford: Events (2009) North Side Tour At Duxford, 27 May 2009 Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Imperial War Museum Duxford.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Duxford Airshow.
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Britain's largest aviation museum,[2] Duxford houses the museum's large exhibits, including nearly 200 aircraft, military vehicles, artillery and minor naval vessels in seven main exhibition buildings.[3] The site also provides storage space for the museum's other collections of material such as film, photographs, documents, books and artefacts. The site accommodates several British Army regimental museums, including those of the Parachute Regiment (named Airborne Assault) and the Royal Anglian Regiment.Based on the historic Duxford Aerodrome, the site was originally operated by the Royal Flying Corps[4] (RFC) during the First World War. During the Second World War Duxford played a prominent role during the Battle of Britain and was later used by United States Army Air Forces fighter units in support of the daylight bombing of Germany. Duxford remained an active RAF airfield until 1961. After the Ministry of Defence declared the site surplus to requirements in 1969 the Imperial War Museum received permission to use part of the site for storage. The entirety of the site was transferred to the museum in February 1976.In keeping with the site's history many of Duxford's original buildings, such as hangars used during the Battle of Britain, are still in use. Many of these buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance and over thirty have listed building status,[5] Duxford \"retain[ing] the best-preserved technical fabric remaining from [a historic airfield] up to November 1918\" and being \"remarkably well-preserved\".[6] The site also features several purpose-built exhibition buildings, such as the Stirling Prize-winning American Air Museum, designed by Sir Norman Foster. The site remains an active airfield and is used by civilian flying companies, and hosts regular air shows. The site is operated in partnership with Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society, a charity formed in 1975 to preserve civil aircraft and promote appreciation of British civil aviation history.","title":"Imperial War Museum Duxford"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"her Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IWMLguide2-9"},{"link_name":"Southwark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwark"},{"link_name":"Bethlem Royal Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlem_Royal_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frankland-10"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire County Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire_County_Council"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The Imperial War Museum originated during the First World War in 1917 as the National War Museum committee, formed by the British government to record the war effort and sacrifice of Britain and her Empire. The museum opened in 1920, by which point it had been renamed the Imperial War Museum.[7] With the outbreak of the Second World War, the museum's terms of reference were enlarged to include that conflict as well.[8] The museum's terms of reference was broadened again in 1953 to include all modern conflicts in which British or Commonwealth forces were engaged.[9] The effect of these expansions of remit was to cause the museum's collections to expand enormously, to the point that many parts of the collection, especially those of aircraft, vehicles and artillery, could not be effectively stored or exhibited. Although the museum's south London home (a nineteenth-century building in Southwark which was previously the Bethlem Royal Hospital) had been extended in 1966, by the end of the decade the museum was seeking additional space.[10]RAF Duxford, a Royal Air Force fighter station had been declared surplus to requirements by the Ministry of Defence in 1969, and the museum duly requested permission to use part of one of the airfield's hangars as temporary storage. Duxford featured three double bay hangars of First World War vintage, which together provided over 9,000 square metres (97,000 sq ft) of space. Within two years, ten of the museum's aircraft had been brought to Duxford, and were being restored by volunteers of the East Anglia Aviation Society. While the museum's own aircraft were not restored to flying condition, by cooperating with private groups the museum was able to mount its first airshow in 1973. Further air shows followed, with a display in June 1976 attracting an audience of 45,000 people. The runway was bought by Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977. The success of these shows provided a valuable source of revenue, and complemented the efforts of volunteers, so that the museum applied for the permanent transfer of the entire site to its use. Permission was received in February 1976 and Duxford became the first outstation of the Imperial War Museum. Initially open from March–October, Duxford received 167,000 visitors in the 1977 season, and 340,000 in 1978. Two million visitors had been received by 1982[11] and Duxford welcomed its ten millionth visitor in August 2005.[12]","title":"Museum history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpitI19a.jpg"},{"link_name":"No. 19 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._19_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Royal Flying Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps"},{"link_name":"No.19 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.19_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Supermarine Spitfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IWMD-15"},{"link_name":"RAF Fighter Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command"},{"link_name":"No. 12 Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._12_Group_RAF"},{"link_name":"Air Fighting Development Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Fighting_Development_Unit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cheek39-42-16"},{"link_name":"Typhoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Typhoon"},{"link_name":"John Grandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Grandy"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Air Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Air_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P-51ds-duxford-1945.jpg"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"78th Fighter Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78th_Fighter_Group"},{"link_name":"Republic P-47 Thunderbolts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt"},{"link_name":"North American P-51 Mustangs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_P-51_Mustang"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CheeckWW2a-18"},{"link_name":"United Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Artists"},{"link_name":"Battle of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain_(film)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Young Offenders Institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Offenders_Institute"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Duxford aerodrome","text":"K9795, a Spitfire Mk I operated from Duxford by No. 19 Squadron in 1938.Duxford has been associated with British military aviation since 1917, when a site near the village of Duxford, in southern Cambridgeshire, was selected for a new Royal Flying Corps training aerodrome. From 1925 Duxford became a fighter airfield, a role it was to retain until the end of its operational life, and in August 1938 the Duxford-based No.19 Squadron RAF became the first to operate the Supermarine Spitfire.[13][14][15]\nWith the outbreak of war in September 1939 Duxford was home to three RAF squadrons engaged on coastal patrol duties. From July 1940, Duxford saw considerable action during the Battle of Britain as a sector station of RAF Fighter Command's No. 12 Group. In the middle years of the war Duxford was home to specialist units, such as the tacticians and engineers of the Air Fighting Development Unit.[16] In April 1942 the first Typhoon Wing was formed at Duxford. Notable among the pilots of the Wing was Group Captain John Grandy who would later rise to be Chief of the Air Staff and also served as Chairman of the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum from 1978 to 1989.[17]78th Fighter Group P-51D Mustangs at Duxford in summer 1945.In March 1943 the United States Army Air Forces' 78th Fighter Group started to arrive at Duxford with their Republic P-47 Thunderbolts. The Group reequipped with North American P-51 Mustangs in December 1944 and until the end of the war in Europe the Group remained at Duxford carrying out bomber escort and fighter sweeps, ground strafing and ground attack missions.[18]\nDuxford was officially returned to the RAF on 1 December 1945. It remained a fighter station but by 1958 changing defence priorities saw the RAF's fighter force move to more northerly bases. Duxford's last operational flight was made in July 1961. No longer operational, the site gradually became increasingly derelict and overgrown. In 1968 the American film studio United Artists obtained permission to use the site for the filming of Battle of Britain. During the shoot a single bay hangar, which had been built during the First World War, was demolished to simulate an air raid.[19] After the Ministry of Defence announced its intention to dispose of Duxford plans were drawn up for various developments including two Young Offenders Institutes but were not implemented.[20]","title":"Museum history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De_Havilland_Comet_pic_2_REJS.jpg"},{"link_name":"Comet 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet"},{"link_name":"registered charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_charity#Charity_registration"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DAS-22"},{"link_name":"RAF Bassingbourn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bassingbourn"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"de Havilland Comet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Comet"},{"link_name":"Concorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concorde"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Tank Overhaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_Overhaul"},{"link_name":"James May's 20th Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_May%27s_20th_Century"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DAS-22"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"The Duxford Aviation Society Comet 4 on display in AirSpace.Duxford is operated in partnership between the Imperial War Museum, Cambridgeshire County Council and the Duxford Aviation Society. The Society is a registered charity (No. 285809) and states two objectives; to educate the public by collecting and exhibiting historic aircraft, military vehicles and boats, and to support the Imperial War Museum.[21]The Society was formed in 1975 from a divergence of members of the East Anglian Aviation Society,[22] which formerly operated the now-closed Bassingbourn Tower Museum at the former RAF Bassingbourn.[23]Duxford Aviation Society preserves and maintains the Civil Aviation Collection. Especially notable aircraft in the collection include a de Havilland Comet which made the first eastbound jet-powered trans-Atlantic passenger flight on 4 October 1958, and Concorde G-AXDN 101, a pre-production aircraft which achieved the highest speed of any Concorde, making a westwards trans-Atlantic flight in two hours, 56 minutes.[24]In support of the Museum's goals, the DAS Military Vehicle Wing provides one of the world's leading teams of military vehicle restoration engineers[25] The Wing (or its volunteers) own some of the vehicles located at Duxford, and provide restoration services for vehicles within the museum's collection. The team also operate vehicles for demonstrations during the year. The wing's works have been featured in the Discovery Channel's Tank Overhaul programme, James May's 20th Century,[26] and wide variety of magazines and other media.Other elements of the society provide or support a range of functions at the Duxford site, including canteen, aircraft conservation, learning and interpretative activities and administrative tasks. An affiliated group, the Duxford Radio Society, collects, preserves, exhibits, and demonstrates historic military electronic equipment. This is housed in Buildings 177 and 178, close to the Gibraltar Gun.[27]Since January 1999, the Society have operated the Friends of Duxford membership scheme with the Museum.[22][28]As of 2008, the Duxford Aviation Society had almost 700 volunteer members.[29]","title":"Duxford Aviation Society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BBMF_spits_and_hurricane.JPG"},{"link_name":"Hurricanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane"},{"link_name":"Spitfires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitfire"},{"link_name":"Battle of Britain Memorial Flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain_Memorial_Flight"},{"link_name":"IATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IATA_airport_code"},{"link_name":"ICAO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICAO_airport_code"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Sally B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally_B"},{"link_name":"B-17 Flying Fortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Third Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Air Forces in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Forces_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"RAF Lakenheath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Lakenheath"},{"link_name":"RAF Mildenhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Mildenhall"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Flying Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Legends"},{"link_name":"Red Arrows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Arrows"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holt-2"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Hawker Hurricanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane"},{"link_name":"Spitfires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitfire"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Civil Aviation Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Aero L-39 Albatros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aero_L-39_Albatros"},{"link_name":"Air Accidents Investigation Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Accidents_Investigation_Branch"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"Hurricanes and Spitfires of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight at the Duxford Air Show, May 2007.Duxford remains an active airfield (IATA: QFO, ICAO: EGSU) and maintains two parallel runways; an unpaved 880 m (2,890 ft) grass strip, and a concrete runway with a length of 1,503 m (4,931 ft),[30] both oriented at 060/240-degrees.[31] The runway was originally purchased from the Ministry of Defence by the Cambridgeshire County Council in 1977. In October 2008, an agreement was reached between the council and the Imperial War Museum, under which the runways and 146 acres (0.59 km2; 0.228 sq mi) of surrounding grassland would be sold to the museum for approximately £1.6 million.[32]Since 1973, Duxford has held regular air shows. Duxford is the home of several private aviation companies, such as Classic Wings,[33] The Fighter Collection,[34] the Old Flying Machine Company[35] and The Aircraft Restoration Company.[36] Between them these companies provide pleasure flights, historic aircraft for film or television work, and aircraft restoration services. Perhaps the most notable privately owned and operated aircraft based at Duxford is B-17 Preservation Ltd's Sally B, the only airworthy B-17 Flying Fortress in Europe.[37]Major air shows held regularly include the Duxford Air Show, and American Air Day, which is held in conjunction with units of the Third Air Force (part of the United States Air Forces in Europe), based at nearby RAF Lakenheath and RAF Mildenhall.[38] The Flying Legends show (organised by The Fighter Collection), was held annually at Duxford until 2019.The Duxford Air Show usually exhibits a wide range of aircraft, from vintage warbirds to contemporary jet aircraft, along with aerobatic flying by groups such as the Red Arrows.[39] while the Flying Legends show focuses on historic aircraft, especially those of the Second World War.[40] In 2008 it was reported that these displays generate up to £1.8 million, while the loss of up to £100,000 due to adverse weather is also budgeted for. The policing bill, necessary to manage the resulting road traffic, was reported as some £8,000.[2] Major events have included the Battle of Britain 70th Anniversary airshow, held on 4–5 September 2010, attended by more than 40,000 people,[41] featuring formation displays by four Hawker Hurricanes and sixteen Spitfires.[42]As an active civil airfield, operations at Duxford are regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). In 2002 a privately operated Aero L-39 Albatros suffered a braking failure on landing, overran the runway and came to rest on the M11 motorway, a student pilot being killed after ejecting at ground level. An Air Accidents Investigation Branch inquiry recommended a review of arrangements for aircraft taking off or landing towards the M11. As a result, the CAA and Duxford agreed to a reduction in the runway's 1,500 m (4,900 ft) declared length, from 1,350 m (4,430 ft) to 1,200 m (3,900 ft), in order to provide a greater margin of error.[43][44]As a licensed airfield Duxford has its own Fire Service (currently five vehicles, and 16 fire fighters / officers) which operates as part of the Airfield & Security department, the fire service was originally operated by voluntary crews who were part of Duxford Aviation Society, with the training officers coming from Stansted and other local airports, for the last few years it has been a mixed voluntary/full-time operation.","title":"Air shows and flying"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ImperialWarMuseumDuxfordaerial1.JPG"},{"link_name":"A505 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A505_road"},{"link_name":"Royston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royston,_Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"Newmarket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newmarket,_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"M11 motorway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M11_motorway"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DUsite-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Comet tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_tank"},{"link_name":"gate guardians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gate_guardian"},{"link_name":"runway apron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_ramp"},{"link_name":"Bloodhound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Bloodhound"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"F-15 Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-15_Eagle"},{"link_name":"Royal Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Engineers"},{"link_name":"Centurion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centurion_tank"},{"link_name":"AVRE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_Vehicle_Royal_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"9.2-inch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BL_9.2-inch_Mk_IX_%E2%80%93_X_naval_gun"},{"link_name":"Rock of Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_of_Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&V-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operations_room_at_Duxford_from_its_RAF_days_.JPG"},{"link_name":"English Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage"},{"link_name":"listed building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lammy-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IWMDhistoric-5"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DUsite-45"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"An aerial view of the IWM Duxford site in June 2008. Visible on the right is the large AirSpace exhibition hall, Hangars 2, 3, 4 and 5, the American Air Museum and the eastern end of the runway.When originally planned in 1917, Duxford aerodrome was to occupy a 238-acre (0.96 km2; 0.372 sq mi) site divided by what is now the A505 road which runs north-east from Royston to Newmarket. The area north of the road would be occupied by accommodation and administrative buildings with the airfield, hangars and technical buildings on the south side. Still divided by the A505, the museum's site is now bounded to the east by the M11 motorway, which meets the A505 adjacent to the museum site at Junction 10. The construction of the M11 in 1977 (the year the museum opened) forced the shortening of the runway by 300 metres (980 ft). In its role as a museum, the north side of the site is occupied by the Imperial War Museum's stored collections and is not generally open to the public, while the south side is occupied by various hangars and other historic buildings, purpose-built structures, and by two runways.The south side visitor entrance, which now houses a shop and visitor facilities, was previously the airfield's armoury.[45] The various buildings are arranged roughly parallel to the A505; AirSpace is furthest east, with Hangars 2, 3, 4 and 5 running westwards, followed by the American Air Museum and the Land Warfare Hall. The museum site is approximately 1,800 m (5,900 ft) from one end to the other, and a visitor bus operates during opening hours.[46][47]Some aircraft and other exhibits are displayed externally, such as a Comet tank and replica Hawker Hurricane as gate guardians at the main entrance. Several commercial airliners belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society stand on the runway apron opposite the hangars. A Bloodhound surface-to-air missile stands on the site of the demolished hangar. A United States Air Force F-15 Eagle previously stood near the American Air Museum (now hanging inside). A Royal Engineers' Centurion AVRE stands outside the Land Warfare Hall and the Gibraltar Gun,[48] a 9.2-inch artillery piece previously emplaced on the Rock of Gibraltar is nearby.[3]A view of Duxford's original Operations Room.As a historic site, many of Duxford's buildings are of particular architectural or historic significance. In 2005, following a review of sites relating to British aviation history by English Heritage, some 255 buildings at 31 sites received listed building status.[6] Duxford contains over thirty of these buildings,[5] the largest number at any one site.[49] Listed buildings include three hangars dating back to the First World War and the operations block, which received Grade II* status. This block, open to the public, houses the wartime operations room from which Duxford's aircraft were directed.[45] Another historic building, the 1918 Watch Office, has been converted to accommodate the Historic Duxford exhibition, depicting the history of the site and the experiences of Duxford's personnel.[50]","title":"Site layout"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Heritage Lottery Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_Lottery_Fund"},{"link_name":"East of England Development Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_England_Development_Agency"},{"link_name":"BAE Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"aeronautical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_engineering"},{"link_name":"principles of flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_flight"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Airco DH.9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airco_DH.9"},{"link_name":"Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_R.E.8"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R.E.8_Restoration-58"},{"link_name":"Hawker Siddeley Harrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley_Harrier"},{"link_name":"Falklands War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War"},{"link_name":"No. 1 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._1_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Panavia Tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panavia_Tornado"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"British Aircraft Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Aircraft_Corporation"},{"link_name":"TSR-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSR-2"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Eurofighter Typhoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurofighter_Typhoon"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&V-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panoramaairspaceimperialwarmuseumduxford.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panoramaairspaceimperialwarmuseumduxford.jpg"}],"text":"In 2000, Duxford announced plans for the redevelopment of Hangar 1, previously known as the 'Superhangar', which was built in the 1980s. The plans would expand the building by 40%, providing more display and conservation space, improve internal conditions, and enable the museum's British and Commonwealth aircraft collection to be brought under cover.[51] Planning permission was received later that year.[52] The project cost £25 million and was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the East of England Development Agency and BAE Systems, which contributed £6 million. The building, which provides 12,000 square metres (130,000 sq ft) of floor space,[53] consists of an aircraft conservation area, a large exhibition hall, and a mezzanine providing views of the aircraft and interactive educational installations exploring aeronautical engineering and the principles of flight.[54][55]AirSpace officially opened to the public on 12 July 2007.[56] Over 30 aircraft are on display, dating back to the First World War; early aircraft include rare examples of an Airco DH.9 and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8. The former is one of only six surviving DH9s and the only example on display in the UK,[57] and the latter is the only complete and original R.E.8 in existence.[58] More recent notable aircraft include a Hawker Siddeley Harrier which served during the Falklands War with No. 1 Squadron RAF, and a Panavia Tornado, which flew the highest number of bomber sorties of any Tornado in the 1991 Gulf War.[59] Also on display is a British Aircraft Corporation TSR-2 strike aircraft, one of only two survivors from the cancellation of the project in 1965.[60] Recent additions include Eurofighter Typhoon DA4, one of seven Typhoon development aircraft, which was donated to the museum by the Ministry of Defence in 2008 and went on display in June 2009.[61] Civil aircraft include the Duxford Aviation Society's Concorde and Comet described above.[3]Panorama of the AirSpace exhibition hall, with the Duxford Aviation Society Concorde right foreground.","title":"AirSpace"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Parachute Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute_Regiment_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Aldershot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldershot"},{"link_name":"Prince Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles,_Prince_of_Wales"},{"link_name":"Colonel-in-Chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel-in-Chief"},{"link_name":"current operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Herrick"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Airborne Assault","text":"AirSpace also houses Airborne Assault, the museum of the British Army's Parachute Regiment and airborne forces. Previously located at Browning Barracks near Aldershot, the museum opened at Duxford on 8 December 2008. The opening ceremony was led by the then Prince Charles, the Parachute Regiment's Colonel-in-Chief. The museum chronicles the history of British airborne forces from the Second World War to current operations in Afghanistan and cost £3 million.[62]","title":"AirSpace"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Fighter Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fighter_Collection"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DUsite-45"}],"text":"Hangar 2 is a double Type T2 hangar, erected in the 1970s. It occupies the site of a T2 hangar erected in the 1950s. It accommodates the flyable aircraft of Duxford's private aviation companies, such as The Fighter Collection, and allows visitors to see aircraft undergoing maintenance or restoration.[45]","title":"Hangar 2: Flying Aircraft"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duxford_UK_Feb2005_FaireyGannet.JPG"},{"link_name":"Coastal Motor Boat 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_Motor_Boat_4"},{"link_name":"Thornycroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I._Thornycroft_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"Baltic campaign of 1918–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Campaign_in_the_Baltic_1918%E2%80%931919"},{"link_name":"Augustus Agar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Agar"},{"link_name":"Victoria Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Cross"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Oleg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogatyr_class_cruiser"},{"link_name":"motor torpedo boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_torpedo_boat"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"X-Craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_class_submarine"},{"link_name":"midget submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midget_submarine"},{"link_name":"Royal National Lifeboat Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Lifeboat_Institution"},{"link_name":"Jesse Lumb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNLB_Jesse_Lumb"},{"link_name":"Bembridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bembridge_Lifeboat_Station"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight"},{"link_name":"de Havilland Sea Vixen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Sea_Vixen"},{"link_name":"Sea Venom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Vampire"},{"link_name":"Sea Vampire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Vampire"},{"link_name":"Westland Wasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westland_Wasp"},{"link_name":"HMS Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Apollo_(F70)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&V-3"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"text":"Fairey Gannet AS6, with the hangar's Belfast truss construction visible above.Hangar 3, an original Belfast truss hangar, houses Duxford's maritime exhibition. The collection includes notable vessels and naval aircraft. Boats on display include Coastal Motor Boat 4, built by Thornycroft in 1916. She saw action during the Baltic campaign of 1918–19, and her commander Lieutenant Augustus Agar won the Victoria Cross[63] for sinking the Russian cruiser Oleg on 17 June 1919. Other vessels include the Vosper motor torpedo boat MTB-71, acquired from the British Military Powerboat Trust in 2005,[64] an example of an X-Craft midget submarine, and a wartime Royal National Lifeboat Institution boat, the Jesse Lumb which was stationed at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight. A variety of naval aircraft are on display, including a de Havilland Sea Vixen, Sea Venom, and Sea Vampire, and a Westland Wasp helicopter which was embarked on the frigate HMS Apollo during the Falklands War.[3][65]","title":"Hangar 3: Air and Sea"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bf109atimperialwarmuseumduxford.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Bristol Fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_F.2_Fighter"},{"link_name":"Hawker Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunter"},{"link_name":"No. 65 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._65_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Gloster Javelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloster_Javelin"},{"link_name":"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21"},{"link_name":"Warsaw Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact"},{"link_name":"the Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"link_name":"V-1 flying bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Bf 109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"link_name":"Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex"},{"link_name":"Cierva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cierva"},{"link_name":"C.30A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cierva_C.30"},{"link_name":"autogyro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyro"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cheek39-42-16"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"text":"Tableau of crashed Bf 109E in Hangar 4.Hangar 4 is one of Duxford's historic hangars, and now houses an exhibition exploring Duxford's history as an operational RAF airfield from the First World War to the Cold War. The early period is represented by a Bristol Fighter, a type operated by Duxford's No.2 Flying Training School from 1920. The latter period is represented by a Hawker Hunter which flew at Duxford with No. 65 Squadron RAF, a Gloster Javelin, the type which made the last operational flight at Duxford in 1961, and by a Hungarian Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21, a common Warsaw Pact jet fighter. Britain's air defence during the Second World War is particularly emphasised, with exhibits representing the Battle of Britain, the Blitz and the V-1 flying bomb offensive from 1944. Notable aircraft include a Messerschmitt Bf 109E which was flown during the Battle of Britain until forced down in Sussex due to engine failure. It is displayed as part of a tableau showing the crashed aircraft under guard. One unusual aircraft on display is the Cierva C.30A autogyro, which was used by 74 (Signals) Wing, based at Duxford, to test the calibration of coastal radar units.[16][66][67]","title":"Hangar 4: Battle of Britain Exhibition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"A6M Zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A6M_Zero"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Factory_R.E.8"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R.E.8_Restoration-58"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Handley Page Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Victor"},{"link_name":"Vickers Valiant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Valiant"}],"text":"Hangar 5, the westernmost original hangar, houses Duxford's aircraft conservation workshops.[68] Open to the public, the hangar allows visitors to see museum staff and volunteers at work on a variety of conservation tasks. Notable projects include a Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter acquired from an American owner in 'jungle recovery' condition,[69] and a Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 now on display in AirSpace.[58] Duxford is a partner with the British Aviation Preservation Council in the National Aviation Heritage Skills Initiative, which has been funded since 2005 by the Heritage Lottery Fund and aims to provide training to volunteers supporting aviation heritage projects.[70] It is currently working on the cockpits of a Handley Page Victor (XH669) and a Vickers Valiant (XD826).","title":"Hangar 5: Conservation in Action"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Imperialwarmuseumduxfordamericanairmuseumwithf15.jpg"},{"link_name":"US Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"F-15 Eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-15_Eagle"},{"link_name":"B-29 Superfortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-29_Superfortress"},{"link_name":"It's Hawg Wild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=It%27s_Hawg_Wild&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"B-52 Stratofortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress"},{"link_name":"US Army Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Norman Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Foster_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Doolittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Doolittle"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Heritage Lottery Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_Lottery_Fund"},{"link_name":"groundbreaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundbreaking"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAMhistory-72"}],"text":"A US Air Force F-15 Eagle with the American Air Museum behind.From the late 1970s the museum acquired several important American aircraft; a B-17G Flying Fortress in 1978, a B-29 Superfortress named It's Hawg Wild in 1980 and a B-52 Stratofortress in 1983. With Duxford's association with the US Army Air Forces (USAAF), in the mid-1980s plans developed for a commemoration of the role of American air power in the Second World War. A group of American supporters was formed, and the architect Norman Foster was commissioned to design a new building. Fundraising for the project began in 1987, support and funds being sought in the United States; the Founding Member was General Jimmy Doolittle in 1989. Fundraising events were held across the US in Houston (1989), Washington, D.C., (1991) and Los Angeles (1992). The project was widely supported in the United States by some 50,000 individual subscribers.[71] A further $1 million of funding was secured from Saudi Arabia, and £6.5 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund. On 8 September 1995 the groundbreaking for the new building was performed by wartime 78th Fighter Group veteran, Major James E Stokes.[72]","title":"American Air Museum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chris Wise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Wise"},{"link_name":"Arup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arup_Group_Limited"},{"link_name":"torus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-shell_structure"},{"link_name":"reinforced concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concrete"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blackbird_Sr71.jpg"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Story-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McGuire-77"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Story-76"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"abutments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abutment"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Stirling Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_Prize"},{"link_name":"Foster and Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_and_Partners"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"Architecture and construction","text":"The American Air Museum was designed by Norman Foster and Chris Wise at Arup. The museum's specification called for a landmark building that would provide a neutral backdrop for the aircraft collection and provide appropriate climatic controls while being cost efficient to operate. The building is shaped as a section of a torus,[73] formed from a curved concrete roof 90 m (300 ft) wide, 18.5 m (61 ft) high and 100 m (330 ft) deep. The dimensions of the building were dictated by the need to accommodate the museum's B-52 Stratofortress bomber with its 61 m (200 ft) wingspan and a tail 16 m (52 ft) high.[74] The roof was constructed as a double-layered concrete shell, built in 924 precast reinforced concrete sections. Inverted T-shaped sections provided the inner layer with further flat panels forming the outer layer.[75]Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird −962The roof weighs 6,000 tonnes (5,900 long tons; 6,600 short tons) and is able to support suspended aircraft weighing up to 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[76] A glass wall, demountable to permit aircraft to be rearranged, allows in daylight, thereby reducing lighting costs and enabling the aircraft to be seen from outside the building. It also allows visitors inside the museum to watch aircraft landing or taking off.[77] From a visitor's perspective, the pedestrian entrance leads to a mezzanine floor level with the cockpit of the museum's B-52, while the lack of supporting columns allows aircraft to hang from the ceiling. Heavier aircraft stand on the floor of the building, which covers 6,500 m2 (70,000 sq ft).[76][78] Construction began with the building of abutments in October 1995 and the roof was completed in September 1996.[79] The building won the 1998 Stirling Prize for Foster and Partners and was described by the judges as \"a great big, clear span hangar of a building...dramatic, awe-inspiring, an object of beauty...simple yet replete with imagery.\"[80]","title":"American Air Museum"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duxford_UK_Feb2005_american3.JPG"},{"link_name":"F-111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-111"},{"link_name":"B-52","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-52"},{"link_name":"SPAD S.XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPAD_S.XIII"},{"link_name":"PT-17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing-Stearman_Model_75"},{"link_name":"A-10 Thunderbolt II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-10_Thunderbolt_II"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAMhistory-72"},{"link_name":"Prince Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Charles"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"George H. W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush"},{"link_name":"SR-71 Blackbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-71_Blackbird"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Consolidated B-24 Liberator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"flight altitude record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_altitude_record#Jet_plane"},{"link_name":"C-47 Skytrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrain"},{"link_name":"316th Troop Carrier Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/316th_Operations_Group"},{"link_name":"Normandy landings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_landings"},{"link_name":"Operation Market Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden"},{"link_name":"Operation Varsity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Varsity"},{"link_name":"River Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Rhine"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"7th Bomb Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_Bomb_Wing"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"28th Bomb Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Bomb_Wing"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"General Dynamics F-111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-111"},{"link_name":"77th Fighter Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/77th_Fighter_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&V-3"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Roger Freeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_A._Freeman"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"crowdsource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdsourcing"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Opening and re-dedication","text":"American Air Museum interior; F-111, left foreground, B-52 cockpit, right foreground, and SPAD S.XIII, PT-17 and A-10 Thunderbolt II, suspended above.The American Air Museum was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 August 1997. The total cost of the project had been £13.5 million.[72] The museum was re-dedicated on 27 September 2002, in a ceremony attended by the then Prince Charles & former President George H. W. Bush. Since being opened, the museum has had its glass front temporarily removed to permit access for an SR-71 Blackbird[81] and Consolidated B-24 Liberator.[82] The SR-71, serial number 61-7962, is the only example of its type on display outside the United States, and set a flight altitude record of 85,069 feet (25,929m) in July 1976. Besides the Blackbird, nineteen other American aircraft are on display. Notable examples include a C-47 Skytrain which flew with the 316th Troop Carrier Group and participated in three major Second World War airborne operations; the June 1944 Normandy landings, Operation Market Garden and Operation Varsity, the airborne crossing of the River Rhine in March 1945.[83] The museum's B-29 flew during the Korean War as part of the 7th Bomb Wing;[84] it is the only example in Europe and one of only two preserved in museums outside the United States. The B-52 flew 200 sorties during the Vietnam War as part of the 28th Bomb Wing.[85] The General Dynamics F-111 on display flew 19 missions during the 1991 Gulf War as part of the 77th Fighter Squadron.[3][86]On 17 January 2014 the museum announced an award of £980,000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund. The museum planned to use the money to build a website based on the photographic collection of aviation historian Roger Freeman, to update the museum's interpretation, and to conserve aircraft and other exhibits.[87] The museum launched americanairmuseum.com in October 2014. The website seeks to crowdsource photographs and information from the public about the men and women of the US Army Air Forces who served from the UK in the Second World War and the British people who befriended them.[88]","title":"American Air Museum"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sherman_at_Duxford.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canadian-built Sherman tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grizzly_I_cruiser"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Field Marshal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Marshal"},{"link_name":"Lord Bramall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Bramall,_Baron_Bramall"},{"link_name":"John Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Major"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A&V-3"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"artillery limber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbers_and_caissons_(military)"},{"link_name":"L Battery Royal Horse Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_(N%C3%A9ry)_Battery_Royal_Horse_Artillery"},{"link_name":"Néry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9ry"},{"link_name":"Victoria Crosses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Crosses"},{"link_name":"North African Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Eastern Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"invasion of Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein"},{"link_name":"21st Army Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Army_Group"},{"link_name":"Department of Documents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum#Collections"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Troubles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubles"},{"link_name":"Falklands War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War"},{"link_name":"peacekeeping contributions in Bosnia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNPROFOR"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"garages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_repair_shop"},{"link_name":"diorama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diorama"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Tennis Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tennis_Court"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"text":"Canadian-built Sherman tankThe Land Warfare Hall was opened on 28 September 1992[89] by Field Marshal Lord Bramall on behalf of Prime Minister John Major. The building provides accommodation for the Imperial War Museum's collection of armoured vehicles, artillery and military vehicles. Also included are vehicles belonging to the Duxford Aviation Society Military Vehicle Section.[3][90] The hall comprises a viewing balcony that runs for most of the length of the hall, providing views over a range of tableaux of vehicles, tanks and artillery that run chronologically from the First World War to the present day. Notable among the First World War exhibits is a battle-damaged artillery limber used by L Battery Royal Horse Artillery during an action at Néry in September 1914 where three Victoria Crosses were won. The Second World War in particular is illustrated with tableaux of the North African Campaign, the Eastern Front and the invasion of Normandy.[91] Outside the building is a Whale floating roadway bridge span from Mulberry B harbour at Arromanches.Significant vehicles in the collection include three command vehicles used by Field Marshal Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group during the north-west Europe campaign. Also on display are extracts from Montgomery's personal papers, which are held by the Imperial War Museum's Department of Documents.[92] Other tableaux depict scenes from post-1945 conflicts such as the Korean War, the Northern Ireland Troubles, the Falklands War, British peacekeeping contributions in Bosnia and the Gulf War. As many of the vehicles in the Land Warfare Hall are maintained in running condition, the site features garages and a running area behind the building.Various diorama are exhibited, including of the Battle of the Tennis Court.[93]","title":"Land Warfare Hall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Burma Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Star"},{"link_name":"Burma campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign"},{"link_name":"Forgotten Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forgotten_Army"},{"link_name":"in the Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"tableaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau_vivant"},{"link_name":"jungle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle"},{"link_name":"Burmese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"National Heritage Memorial Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_Memorial_Fund"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"}],"sub_title":"Forgotten War","text":"The Land Warfare Hall also houses the Forgotten War exhibition, which opened on 25 March 1999 and was a joint project between the Imperial War Museum and the Burma Star Association. The Association represents veterans of the Burma campaign who often consider themselves to have fought in a \"Forgotten Army\" compared to those who fought in Europe. The exhibition explores aspects of the Second World War in the Far East and features artifacts, archival film and photographs, and tableaux depicting scenes such as troops moving through jungle and a Burmese village. The exhibition was supported financially by the Burma Star Association and by £126,000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund.[94][95]","title":"Land Warfare Hall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Anglian Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Anglian_Regiment"},{"link_name":"East Anglian Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglian_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Royal Leicestershire Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Leicestershire_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Martin Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Bell"},{"link_name":"sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant"},{"link_name":"Suffolk Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffolk_Regiment"},{"link_name":"national serviceman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_Kingdom#After_1945"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Telic"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Herrick"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Palliser"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire_Regiment"},{"link_name":"fall of Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"deaths in action of nine soldiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_forces_casualties_in_Afghanistan_since_2001#April_2007"},{"link_name":"operational tour in Helmand Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Herrick"},{"link_name":"Aden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aden_Emergency"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"}],"sub_title":"Royal Anglian Regiment Museum and Memorial","text":"The Land Warfare Hall also accommodates the Royal Anglian Regiment Museum. The Royal Anglian Regiment was formed in 1964 by the amalgamation of the three regiments of the East Anglian Brigade and the Royal Leicestershire Regiment. The museum was opened in June 1996 by noted war correspondent Martin Bell, who had previously served as a sergeant in the Suffolk Regiment while a national serviceman.[96] The museum covers the history of the Regiment and its predecessors, which date back to the seventeenth century, up to recent operations in Iraq, Afghanistan and Sierra Leone.[97] Alongside the museum is the Cambridgeshire Regiment Exhibition, which displays items from the Cambridgeshire Regiment collection. Exhibits include the Singapore Drums, lost at the fall of Singapore in 1942 and recovered after the war.[98]On 12 September 2010 a Royal Anglian Regiment memorial was dedicated at Duxford. A fundraising campaign, which raised more than £340,000, was launched following the deaths in action of nine soldiers of 1st Battalion Royal Anglian Regiment during the unit's 2007 operational tour in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. The memorial is inscribed with the names of 78 soldiers killed since 1958 (when the first of the three East Anglian regiments was formed) in conflicts including Afghanistan, Iraq, Northern Ireland and Aden. The dedication was attended by more than 5,000 people.[99]","title":"Land Warfare Hall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"collecting departments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum#Documents"},{"link_name":"nitrate film stock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrocellulose#Film"},{"link_name":"Ickleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ickleton"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"}],"text":"In addition to the exhibition buildings, Duxford's 'North Side', the area of the site north of the A505 road, provides storage for the Imperial War Museum's collecting departments. The stored collections include the film collection, which includes reels existing on nitrate film stock, which is highly flammable and subject to decomposition, kept in purpose-built vaults at nearby Ickleton. Other collections stored at Duxford's north side include books, maps, ephemera, photographs, documents and collections of uniforms and equipment.[100]","title":"North side: collections storage"}]
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[{"image_text":"K9795, a Spitfire Mk I operated from Duxford by No. 19 Squadron in 1938.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/SpitI19a.jpg/220px-SpitI19a.jpg"},{"image_text":"78th Fighter Group P-51D Mustangs at Duxford in summer 1945.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/P-51ds-duxford-1945.jpg/220px-P-51ds-duxford-1945.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Duxford Aviation Society Comet 4 on display in AirSpace.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/De_Havilland_Comet_pic_2_REJS.jpg/220px-De_Havilland_Comet_pic_2_REJS.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hurricanes and Spitfires of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight at the Duxford Air Show, May 2007.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/BBMF_spits_and_hurricane.JPG/220px-BBMF_spits_and_hurricane.JPG"},{"image_text":"An aerial view of the IWM Duxford site in June 2008. Visible on the right is the large AirSpace exhibition hall, Hangars 2, 3, 4 and 5, the American Air Museum and the eastern end of the runway.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/ImperialWarMuseumDuxfordaerial1.JPG/220px-ImperialWarMuseumDuxfordaerial1.JPG"},{"image_text":"A view of Duxford's original Operations Room.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Operations_room_at_Duxford_from_its_RAF_days_.JPG/220px-Operations_room_at_Duxford_from_its_RAF_days_.JPG"},{"image_text":"Fairey Gannet AS6, with the hangar's Belfast truss construction visible above.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Duxford_UK_Feb2005_FaireyGannet.JPG/220px-Duxford_UK_Feb2005_FaireyGannet.JPG"},{"image_text":"Tableau of crashed Bf 109E in Hangar 4.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Bf109atimperialwarmuseumduxford.jpg/220px-Bf109atimperialwarmuseumduxford.jpg"},{"image_text":"A US Air Force F-15 Eagle with the American Air Museum behind.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Imperialwarmuseumduxfordamericanairmuseumwithf15.jpg/220px-Imperialwarmuseumduxfordamericanairmuseumwithf15.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird −962","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Blackbird_Sr71.jpg/220px-Blackbird_Sr71.jpg"},{"image_text":"American Air Museum interior; F-111, left foreground, B-52 cockpit, right foreground, and SPAD S.XIII, PT-17 and A-10 Thunderbolt II, suspended above.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Duxford_UK_Feb2005_american3.JPG/220px-Duxford_UK_Feb2005_american3.JPG"},{"image_text":"Canadian-built Sherman tank","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Sherman_at_Duxford.jpg/220px-Sherman_at_Duxford.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of aerospace museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aerospace_museums"}]
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[{"reference":"\"ALVA - Association of Leading Visitor Attractions\". www.alva.org.uk. Retrieved 27 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.alva.org.uk/details.cfm?p=423","url_text":"\"ALVA - Association of Leading Visitor Attractions\""}]},{"reference":"\"IWM Duxford: Aircraft and Vehicles\" (PDF). Imperial War Museum. June 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 August 2009. Retrieved 26 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090804174610/http://duxford.iwm.org.uk/upload/pdf/AircraftandVehicles.pdf","url_text":"\"IWM Duxford: Aircraft and Vehicles\""},{"url":"http://duxford.iwm.org.uk/upload/pdf/AircraftandVehicles.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About IWM Duxford\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iwm.org.uk/iwm-duxford/about","url_text":"\"About IWM Duxford\""}]},{"reference":"Kavanagh, Gaynor (1988), \"Museum as Memorial: The Origins of the Imperial War Museum\", Journal of Contemporary History, 23 (1): 77–97, doi:10.1177/002200948802300105, JSTOR 260869, S2CID 159747045","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948802300105","url_text":"10.1177/002200948802300105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/260869","url_text":"260869"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159747045","url_text":"159747045"}]},{"reference":"Frankland, Noble (1999). History at War. London: Giles de la Mare. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-900357-10-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-900357-10-4","url_text":"978-1-900357-10-4"}]},{"reference":"Duxford Aviation Society. \"About us: A brief history of the Society\". Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120501101954/http://www.das.org.uk/history.htm","url_text":"\"About us: A brief history of the Society\""},{"url":"http://www.das.org.uk/history.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Tower Museum Bassingbourn. \"About us\". Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120227045138/http://www.towermuseumbassingbourn.co.uk/aboutus.html","url_text":"\"About us\""},{"url":"http://www.towermuseumbassingbourn.co.uk/aboutus.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Duxford Aviation Society. \"Media\". Archived from the original on 15 February 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130215013549/http://www.das.org.uk/media.htm","url_text":"\"Media\""},{"url":"http://www.das.org.uk/media.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Aerodrome/Heliport EGSU\". www.aurora.nats.co.uk. 27 August 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aurora.nats.co.uk/htmlAIP/Publications/2020-10-08-AIRAC/html/eAIP/EG-AD-2.EGSU-en-GB.html#EGSU-AD-2.12","url_text":"\"Aerodrome/Heliport EGSU\""}]},{"reference":"Culture24 (6 September 2010). \"Thousands of fans enjoy Imperial War Museum Duxford's Battle of Britain Air Show\". 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Air Classics (June 1999). findarticles.com. Retrieved 24 August 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3901/is_199906/ai_n8870342/","url_text":"\"Forgotten War\""}]},{"reference":"Collett, Amy (14 September 2010). \"Royal Anglian memorial unveiled: we will never forget their sacrifices\". PeterboroughToday.co.uk. Johnston Publishing Limited. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140201231855/http://www.peterboroughtoday.co.uk/news/local/royal_anglian_memorial_unveiled_we_will_never_forget_their_sacrifices_1_1156020","url_text":"\"Royal Anglian memorial unveiled: we will never forget their sacrifices\""},{"url":"http://www.peterboroughtoday.co.uk/news/local/royal_anglian_memorial_unveiled_we_will_never_forget_their_sacrifices_1_1156020","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Railleur
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HMS Railleur
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["1 References"]
|
Three vessels of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Railleur:
HMS Railleur (1783) was a French 14-gun sloop captured in 1783
HMS Railleur (1797) was a French 20-gun sloop captured in 1797 and foundered in 1800
HMS Railleur (1804) was the 20-gun sloop Henry, purchased in 1804 and sold in 1810
References
Colledge, J. J.; Warlow, Ben (2006) . Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy (Rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8.
List of ships with the same or similar names
This article includes a list of ships with the same or similar names. If an internal link for a specific ship led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended ship article, if one exists.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HMS Railleur (1783)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Railleur_(1783)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sloop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloop"},{"link_name":"HMS Railleur (1797)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Railleur_(1797)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"HMS Railleur (1804)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Railleur_(1804)&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"HMS Railleur (1783) was a French 14-gun sloop captured in 1783\nHMS Railleur (1797) was a French 20-gun sloop captured in 1797 and foundered in 1800\nHMS Railleur (1804) was the 20-gun sloop Henry, purchased in 1804 and sold in 1810","title":"HMS Railleur"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Colledge, J. J.; Warlow, Ben (2006) [1969]. Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy (Rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-86176-281-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Colledge","url_text":"Colledge, J. J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ships_of_the_Royal_Navy","url_text":"Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86176-281-8","url_text":"978-1-86176-281-8"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere/HMS_Railleur&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep-learning
|
Sleep-learning
|
["1 History","2 In fiction","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
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Attempt to convey information to a sleeping person
Sleep-learning (also known as hypnopædia or hypnopedia) is an attempt to convey information to a sleeping person, typically by playing a sound recording to them while they sleep. Although sleep is considered an important period for memory consolidation, scientific research has concluded that sleep-learning is not possible. It appears frequently in fiction.
History
In 1927, Alois Benjamin Saliger invented the Psycho-Phone for sleep learning, stating: "It has been proven that natural sleep is identical with hypnotic sleep and that during natural sleep the unconscious mind is most receptive to suggestions."
Since the electroencephalography studies by Charles W. Simon and William H. Emmons in 1956, learning by sleep has not been taken seriously. The researchers concluded that learning during sleep was "impractical and probably impossible". They reported that stimulus material presented during sleep was not recalled later when the subject awoke, unless alpha wave activity occurred at the same time the stimulus material was given.
In fiction
Sleep-learning is found in influential science fiction and other literature. The following examples are listed chronologically by publication or original air date, when known.
In Hugo Gernsback's 1911 story Ralph 124C 41+, one finds the Hypnobioscope, a sleep learning device.
In Aldous Huxley's 1932 novel Brave New World, it is used for the conditioning of children into the novel's fictional future culture. In the novel, sleep-learning was discovered by accident when a Polish boy named Reuben Rabinovitch was able to recite an entire radio broadcast in English after a radio receiver was left on in his sleep. The boy was unable to comprehend what he had heard via hypnopædia, but it was soon realized that hypnopædia could be used to effectively make suggestions about morality.
In Robert Heinlein's 1948 novel Space Cadet, the character Matt Dodson is taught to speak Venutian (the language of the planet Venus) while under drug-aided hypnosis. He surprises his Venus-born friend Oscar by spontaneously reproving him when Oscar utters a curse in Venutian. (Later in the novel, Matt appears to have forgotten what he learned and relies on Oscar for translation.)
In the BBC Radio series Journey into Space (1953–1958), during the second and third parts of the trilogy, there were said to be Martians abducting people from the Earth and conditioning them to obey instructions or to make them believe things that were not true. The inception of this conditioning involved putting the subject into a hypnotic sleep and appraising them of a certain situation; once they awoke they would believe it, regardless of the validity.
In a 1961 episode of My Three Sons, "A Lesson In Any Language", Mike connects a phonograph to an automatic timer to play Spanish lessons while he sleeps. Steve and Bub ultimately end up sleeping in the room and are able to speak fluent Spanish the following day.
In Anthony Burgess's 1962 novel A Clockwork Orange, it is used to reverse the effects of the Ludovico Technique, a form of conditioning, which was used on the main character Alex to make him incapable of violent behavior. The conditioning was a new technique which was supposed to rehabilitate violent criminals in a short period of time, but which resulted in Alex attempting to commit suicide. This reflected very badly on the government, which had sanctioned the experiment, so hypnopædia was used to undo the conditioning.
In 1954 Günter Spang wrote a children's book called Lohengrin schwant etwas, meaning Lohengrin has a good idea, in which a bunch of schoolchildren take an easy way out of studying by learning in their sleep.
In a 1963 episode of The Patty Duke Show, "The Conquering Hero", Cathy tries to help a failing basketball player pass a quiz. She suggests that the latest scientific method of "subconscious learning" will help. She records the lessons on a tape which plays repeatedly while he is asleep. He passes the quiz after the answers "come to him" while looking at the questions.
In the 1965 episode of "I Spy" titled Chrysanthemum, the assigned partner of Bill Cosby and Robert Culp's characters, Maximilian de Broget claims to have learned Mandarin Chinese in his sleep.
In the 1965 movie The Monkey's Uncle, a college student connects a phonograph to an automatic timer, which plays to sleeping students the voice of a girl reading their lessons aloud. This backfires in class, however—when asked to give an oral report, the students speak, but in the girl's voice.
In the 1966 novel Flowers for Algernon, an intellectually disabled 37-year-old, Charlie Gordon, has an operation to increase his intelligence. Professor Nemur and Dr. Strauss then give Charlie a "teeching mashine that werks like T.V." Charlie explains to Professor Nemur that "I dint think I was goin to get smart anyway" .
The 1976 film Logan's Run contains a scene where Logan 5 (Michael York) chastises his friend Francis 7 (Richard Jordan) for his rigidly orthodox opinions, "You sound like a sleep-teacher with a stuck tape".
In a 1988 episode of the BBC2 sitcom Red Dwarf, "Me2", Arnold Rimmer uses sleep-learning tapes such as Learn Esperanto While You Sleep and Learn Quantum Theory While You Sleep, to the dismay of his bunkmate Dave Lister.
In the 1990 movie Dragon Ball Z: The Tree of Might, Chi-Chi packs for her son Gohan a tape recorder so he can learn while he sleeps on a camping trip.
In a 1992 episode of The Simpsons, "Bart's Friend Falls in Love", Homer orders hypnosis tapes which are supposed to induce weight loss. However, the mail-order company sends him vocabulary builder tapes instead, and Homer gets fatter and fatter while his vocabulary increases, through hypnopædia.
In a 1996 episode of Dexter's Laboratory, "The Big Cheese", Dexter hooks himself up to a gramophone that repeats his lesson for a French class test the next morning. The gramophone gets stuck at the phrase omelette du fromage, and Dexter finds out the next morning that it is all he is capable of saying.
In a 1997 episode of Friends, "The One with the Hypnosis Tape", Chandler borrows from Rachel a smoking-cessation audiocassette, to which he listens while he is asleep. The tape tells him that he is "a strong, confident woman" who does not need to smoke. He stops smoking, but also begins acting effeminately.
In the 1997 PC game Outpost 2: Divided Destiny, one of the items available for research was hypnopædia, which allowed scientists to be trained more quickly.
In a 2001 episode of Homestar Runner, "A Jorb Well Done", Coach Z attempts to overcome his speech impediment with the word "job" (which he pronounces as "jorb"). After unsuccessfully trying several methods, Strong Sad gives him a tape of him repeating the word job thousands of times, "from when (he) was practicing the dictionary". Coach Z takes it home and listens to it while he sleeps, and the next day is able to pronounce "job" correctly, but forgets Homestar's name.
The twins Hank and Dean Venture, of the animated television program The Venture Bros., are homeschooled through the use of hypnopædic beds.
See also
Educational technology
Mozart effect
Sleep and learning, the science that ties sleep to learning
References
^ Diekelmann, Susanne; Born, Jan (2010). "The memory function of sleep". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 11 (2): 114–126. doi:10.1038/nrn2762. PMID 20046194. S2CID 1851910.
^ "Psycho-Phone". The New Yorker. 1933. Retrieved 2010-11-18. Well, sir, since 1927, Mr. Saliger has sold more than 2500 Psycho-phones ...
^ Fromm, Erika; Ronald E. Shor (1972). Hypnosis. Aldine/Atherton. ISBN 978-0-202-30856-2. 020230856. p. 78 Referring to Charles W. Simon and William H. Emmons EEG, Consciousness, and Sleep Archived 2016-04-17 at the Wayback Machine, Science, 1956, 124, 1066–1069.
^ Kleitman, Nathaniel (1987). Sleep and Wakefulness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-44073-7. p. 125.
^ "Hypnopaedia – sleep learning". sleepdex.org.
^ "The One with the Hypnosis Tape". March 13, 1997 – via IMDb.
Further reading
Emmons William, H.; Simon Charles, W. (Mar 1956). "The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep". American Journal of Psychology. 69 (1): 76–81. doi:10.2307/1418117. JSTOR 1418117. PMID 13302501. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
Fox, B.H.; Robbin, J.S. (1952). "The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology. 43 (1): 75–79. doi:10.1037/h0057555. PMID 14907994.
Fox, B.H. (1968). Current research in Hypnopaedia. Macdonald & Co.
Leshan, L. (1942). "The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology. 37 (3): 406–408. doi:10.1037/h0057703.
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Although sleep is considered an important period for memory consolidation,[1] scientific research has concluded that sleep-learning is not possible.[citation needed] It appears frequently in fiction.","title":"Sleep-learning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alois Benjamin Saliger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Benjamin_Saliger"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"electroencephalography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography"},{"link_name":"alpha wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_wave"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hyp-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wake-4"}],"text":"In 1927, Alois Benjamin Saliger invented the Psycho-Phone for sleep learning, stating: \"It has been proven that natural sleep is identical with hypnotic sleep and that during natural sleep the unconscious mind is most receptive to suggestions.\"[2]Since the electroencephalography studies by Charles W. Simon and William H. Emmons in 1956, learning by sleep has not been taken seriously. The researchers concluded that learning during sleep was \"impractical and probably impossible\". They reported that stimulus material presented during sleep was not recalled later when the subject awoke, unless alpha wave activity occurred at the same time the stimulus material was given.[3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Hugo Gernsback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback"},{"link_name":"Ralph 124C 41+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_124C_41%2B"},{"link_name":"Aldous Huxley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldous_Huxley"},{"link_name":"Brave New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave_New_World"},{"link_name":"conditioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"},{"link_name":"Space Cadet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Cadet"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio"},{"link_name":"Journey into Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journey_into_Space"},{"link_name":"Martians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian"},{"link_name":"hypnotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis"},{"link_name":"My Three Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Three_Sons"},{"link_name":"phonograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Anthony Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Burgess"},{"link_name":"A Clockwork Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(novel)"},{"link_name":"suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide"},{"link_name":"The Patty Duke Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Patty_Duke_Show"},{"link_name":"subconscious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subconscious"},{"link_name":"The Monkey's Uncle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monkey%27s_Uncle"},{"link_name":"Flowers for Algernon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowers_for_Algernon"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"Logan's Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan%27s_Run_(film)"},{"link_name":"Michael York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_York"},{"link_name":"Richard Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Jordan"},{"link_name":"BBC2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC2"},{"link_name":"sitcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitcom"},{"link_name":"Red Dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Dwarf"},{"link_name":"Arnold Rimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Rimmer"},{"link_name":"Esperanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto"},{"link_name":"Quantum Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Dave Lister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Lister"},{"link_name":"Dragon Ball Z: The Tree of Might","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Ball_Z:_The_Tree_of_Might"},{"link_name":"The Simpsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simpsons"},{"link_name":"Bart's Friend Falls in Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bart%27s_Friend_Falls_in_Love"},{"link_name":"Dexter's Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexter%27s_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Friends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"smoking-cessation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_cessation"},{"link_name":"audiocassette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_cassette"},{"link_name":"Outpost 2: Divided Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outpost_2:_Divided_Destiny"},{"link_name":"Homestar Runner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestar_Runner"},{"link_name":"Hank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Venture"},{"link_name":"Dean Venture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Venture"},{"link_name":"The Venture Bros.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Venture_Bros."},{"link_name":"homeschooled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling"}],"text":"Sleep-learning is found in influential science fiction and other literature.[5] The following examples are listed chronologically by publication or original air date, when known.In Hugo Gernsback's 1911 story Ralph 124C 41+, one finds the Hypnobioscope, a sleep learning device.\nIn Aldous Huxley's 1932 novel Brave New World, it is used for the conditioning of children into the novel's fictional future culture. In the novel, sleep-learning was discovered by accident when a Polish boy named Reuben Rabinovitch was able to recite an entire radio broadcast in English after a radio receiver was left on in his sleep. The boy was unable to comprehend what he had heard via hypnopædia, but it was soon realized that hypnopædia could be used to effectively make suggestions about morality.\nIn Robert Heinlein's 1948 novel Space Cadet, the character Matt Dodson is taught to speak Venutian (the language of the planet Venus) while under drug-aided hypnosis. He surprises his Venus-born friend Oscar by spontaneously reproving him when Oscar utters a curse in Venutian. (Later in the novel, Matt appears to have forgotten what he learned and relies on Oscar for translation.)\nIn the BBC Radio series Journey into Space (1953–1958), during the second and third parts of the trilogy, there were said to be Martians abducting people from the Earth and conditioning them to obey instructions or to make them believe things that were not true. The inception of this conditioning involved putting the subject into a hypnotic sleep and appraising them of a certain situation; once they awoke they would believe it, regardless of the validity.\nIn a 1961 episode of My Three Sons, \"A Lesson In Any Language\", Mike connects a phonograph to an automatic timer to play Spanish lessons while he sleeps. Steve and Bub ultimately end up sleeping in the room and are able to speak fluent Spanish the following day.\nIn Anthony Burgess's 1962 novel A Clockwork Orange, it is used to reverse the effects of the Ludovico Technique, a form of conditioning, which was used on the main character Alex to make him incapable of violent behavior. The conditioning was a new technique which was supposed to rehabilitate violent criminals in a short period of time, but which resulted in Alex attempting to commit suicide. This reflected very badly on the government, which had sanctioned the experiment, so hypnopædia was used to undo the conditioning.\nIn 1954 Günter Spang wrote a children's book called Lohengrin schwant etwas, meaning Lohengrin has a good idea, in which a bunch of schoolchildren take an easy way out of studying by learning in their sleep.\nIn a 1963 episode of The Patty Duke Show, \"The Conquering Hero\", Cathy tries to help a failing basketball player pass a quiz. She suggests that the latest scientific method of \"subconscious learning\" will help. She records the lessons on a tape which plays repeatedly while he is asleep. He passes the quiz after the answers \"come to him\" while looking at the questions.\nIn the 1965 episode of \"I Spy\" titled Chrysanthemum, the assigned partner of Bill Cosby and Robert Culp's characters, Maximilian de Broget claims to have learned Mandarin Chinese in his sleep.\nIn the 1965 movie The Monkey's Uncle, a college student connects a phonograph to an automatic timer, which plays to sleeping students the voice of a girl reading their lessons aloud. This backfires in class, however—when asked to give an oral report, the students speak, but in the girl's voice.\nIn the 1966 novel Flowers for Algernon, an intellectually disabled 37-year-old, Charlie Gordon, has an operation to increase his intelligence. Professor Nemur and Dr. Strauss then give Charlie a \"teeching mashine that werks like T.V.\" Charlie explains to Professor Nemur that \"I dint think I was goin to get smart anyway\" [sic].\nThe 1976 film Logan's Run contains a scene where Logan 5 (Michael York) chastises his friend Francis 7 (Richard Jordan) for his rigidly orthodox opinions, \"You sound like a sleep-teacher with a stuck tape\".\nIn a 1988 episode of the BBC2 sitcom Red Dwarf, \"Me2\", Arnold Rimmer uses sleep-learning tapes such as Learn Esperanto While You Sleep and Learn Quantum Theory While You Sleep, to the dismay of his bunkmate Dave Lister.\nIn the 1990 movie Dragon Ball Z: The Tree of Might, Chi-Chi packs for her son Gohan a tape recorder so he can learn while he sleeps on a camping trip.\nIn a 1992 episode of The Simpsons, \"Bart's Friend Falls in Love\", Homer orders hypnosis tapes which are supposed to induce weight loss. However, the mail-order company sends him vocabulary builder tapes instead, and Homer gets fatter and fatter while his vocabulary increases, through hypnopædia.\nIn a 1996 episode of Dexter's Laboratory, \"The Big Cheese\", Dexter hooks himself up to a gramophone that repeats his lesson for a French class test the next morning. The gramophone gets stuck at the phrase omelette du fromage, and Dexter finds out the next morning that it is all he is capable of saying.\nIn a 1997 episode of Friends, \"The One with the Hypnosis Tape\",[6] Chandler borrows from Rachel a smoking-cessation audiocassette, to which he listens while he is asleep. The tape tells him that he is \"a strong, confident woman\" who does not need to smoke. He stops smoking, but also begins acting effeminately.\nIn the 1997 PC game Outpost 2: Divided Destiny, one of the items available for research was hypnopædia, which allowed scientists to be trained more quickly.\nIn a 2001 episode of Homestar Runner, \"A Jorb Well Done\", Coach Z attempts to overcome his speech impediment with the word \"job\" (which he pronounces as \"jorb\"). After unsuccessfully trying several methods, Strong Sad gives him a tape of him repeating the word job thousands of times, \"from when (he) was practicing the dictionary\". Coach Z takes it home and listens to it while he sleeps, and the next day is able to pronounce \"job\" correctly, but forgets Homestar's name.\nThe twins Hank and Dean Venture, of the animated television program The Venture Bros., are homeschooled through the use of hypnopædic beds.","title":"In fiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1418117","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1418117"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1418117","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1418117"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"13302501","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13302501"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832"},{"link_name":"\"The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=42"},{"link_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_Psychology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/h0057555","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057555"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"14907994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14907994"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Current research in Hypnopaedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"\"The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=72"},{"link_name":"Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Abnormal_%26_Social_Psychology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/h0057703","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057703"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"}],"text":"Emmons William, H.; Simon Charles, W. (Mar 1956). \"The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep\". American Journal of Psychology. 69 (1): 76–81. doi:10.2307/1418117. JSTOR 1418117. PMID 13302501. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.\nFox, B.H.; Robbin, J.S. (1952). \"The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep\" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology. 43 (1): 75–79. doi:10.1037/h0057555. PMID 14907994.[permanent dead link]\nFox, B.H. (1968). Current research in Hypnopaedia[permanent dead link]. Macdonald & Co. [PDF]\nLeshan, L. (1942). \"The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep\" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology. 37 (3): 406–408. doi:10.1037/h0057703.[permanent dead link]","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"title":"Educational technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology"},{"title":"Mozart effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozart_effect"},{"title":"Sleep and learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_and_learning"}]
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[{"reference":"Diekelmann, Susanne; Born, Jan (2010). \"The memory function of sleep\". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 11 (2): 114–126. doi:10.1038/nrn2762. PMID 20046194. S2CID 1851910.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2762","url_text":"10.1038/nrn2762"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20046194","url_text":"20046194"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1851910","url_text":"1851910"}]},{"reference":"\"Psycho-Phone\". The New Yorker. 1933. Retrieved 2010-11-18. Well, sir, since 1927, Mr. Saliger has sold more than 2500 Psycho-phones ...","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DlUQAAAAIAAJ&q=Saliger+psycho-phone","url_text":"\"Psycho-Phone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker","url_text":"The New Yorker"}]},{"reference":"Fromm, Erika; Ronald E. Shor (1972). Hypnosis. Aldine/Atherton. ISBN 978-0-202-30856-2. 020230856.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1dR6rGvVCOIC&q=hypnop%C3%A6dia&pg=PA78","url_text":"Hypnosis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-202-30856-2","url_text":"978-0-202-30856-2"}]},{"reference":"Kleitman, Nathaniel (1987). Sleep and Wakefulness. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-44073-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FwKzKM4sdEoC&q=%22sleep+learning%22&pg=PA725","url_text":"Sleep and Wakefulness"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-44073-7","url_text":"0-226-44073-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Hypnopaedia – sleep learning\". sleepdex.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sleepdex.org/hypnopaedia.htm","url_text":"\"Hypnopaedia – sleep learning\""}]},{"reference":"\"The One with the Hypnosis Tape\". March 13, 1997 – via IMDb.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0583615/","url_text":"\"The One with the Hypnosis Tape\""}]},{"reference":"Emmons William, H.; Simon Charles, W. (Mar 1956). \"The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep\". American Journal of Psychology. 69 (1): 76–81. doi:10.2307/1418117. JSTOR 1418117. PMID 13302501. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832","url_text":"\"The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychology","url_text":"American Journal of Psychology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1418117","url_text":"10.2307/1418117"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1418117","url_text":"1418117"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13302501","url_text":"13302501"},{"url":"http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fox, B.H.; Robbin, J.S. (1952). \"The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep\" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology. 43 (1): 75–79. doi:10.1037/h0057555. PMID 14907994.","urls":[{"url":"http://peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=42","url_text":"\"The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Experimental_Psychology","url_text":"Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057555","url_text":"10.1037/h0057555"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14907994","url_text":"14907994"}]},{"reference":"Leshan, L. (1942). \"The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep\" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology. 37 (3): 406–408. doi:10.1037/h0057703.","urls":[{"url":"http://peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=72","url_text":"\"The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Abnormal_%26_Social_Psychology","url_text":"Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057703","url_text":"10.1037/h0057703"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn2762","external_links_name":"10.1038/nrn2762"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20046194","external_links_name":"20046194"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1851910","external_links_name":"1851910"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DlUQAAAAIAAJ&q=Saliger+psycho-phone","external_links_name":"\"Psycho-Phone\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1dR6rGvVCOIC&q=hypnop%C3%A6dia&pg=PA78","external_links_name":"Hypnosis"},{"Link":"http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0604651","external_links_name":"EEG, Consciousness, and Sleep"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160417184650/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0604651","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FwKzKM4sdEoC&q=%22sleep+learning%22&pg=PA725","external_links_name":"Sleep and Wakefulness"},{"Link":"http://www.sleepdex.org/hypnopaedia.htm","external_links_name":"\"Hypnopaedia – sleep learning\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0583615/","external_links_name":"\"The One with the Hypnosis Tape\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201034/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832","external_links_name":"\"The Non-Recall of Material Presented During Sleep\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1418117","external_links_name":"10.2307/1418117"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1418117","external_links_name":"1418117"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13302501","external_links_name":"13302501"},{"Link":"http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0422832","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=42","external_links_name":"\"The Retention of Material Presented During Sleep\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057555","external_links_name":"10.1037/h0057555"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14907994","external_links_name":"14907994"},{"Link":"http://peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf","external_links_name":"Current research in Hypnopaedia"},{"Link":"http://peter.thys.googlepages.com/Currentresearchinhypnopedia-F.Rubin.pdf#page=72","external_links_name":"\"The Breaking of a Habit by Suggestion During Sleep\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0057703","external_links_name":"10.1037/h0057703"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_(Australia)
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Opposition (Australia)
|
["1 State and territory opposition","2 See also","3 References"]
|
Second largest party in the Australian House of Representatives
In Australian parliamentary practice, the Opposition or the Official Opposition consists of the second largest party or coalition of parties in the Australian House of Representatives, with its leader being given the title Leader of the Opposition. The Opposition serves the same function as the official opposition in other Commonwealth of Nations monarchies that follow the Westminster conventions and practices. It is seen as the alternative government and the existing administration's main opponent in the Australian Parliament and at a general election. By convention, the Opposition Leader in the federal Parliament comes from the House of Representatives, as does the deputy, although the Government and Opposition may also both have leaders in the Senate. The Opposition is sometimes styled as His Majesty's Loyal Opposition to show that, although the group may be against the sitting government, it remains loyal to the Crown (the embodiment of the Australian state), and thus to Australia.
The current Opposition at a federal level is the centre-right Liberal Party/National Party Coalition, led by Peter Dutton.
State and territory opposition
The Opposition parties and leaders of Australian States and Territories are:
State/territory
Opposition party/coalition
Leader of the Opposition
Opposition
Australian Capital Territory
Liberal
Elizabeth Lee
Australian Capital Territory Opposition
New South Wales
Liberal (Coalition)
Mark Speakman
New South Wales Opposition
National (Coalition)
Northern Territory
Country Liberal
Lia Finocchiaro
Northern Territory Opposition
Queensland
Liberal National
David Crisafulli
Queensland Opposition
South Australia
Liberal
David Speirs
South Australian Opposition
Tasmania
Labor
Dean Winter
Tasmanian Opposition
Victoria
Liberal (Coalition)
John Pesutto
Victorian Opposition
National (Coalition)
Western Australia
National
Shane Love
Western Australian Opposition
Liberal
See also
List of federal Opposition Leaders
Shadow Ministry of Australia
References
^ Maiden, Samantha (18 November 2010). "Altar egos clash over Wills and Babykins". The Australian. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
^ "ACT Shadow Ministry Tenth Assembly" (PDF). www.parliament.act.gov.au. 30 June 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Shadow Ministry". Parliament of New South Wales. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Shadow Ministry - 14th Assembly". parliament.nt.gov.au. Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory. 19 May 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Current Shadow Ministers". www.parliament.qld.gov.au. Queensland Parliament. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "SA Liberals elect former environment minister David Speirs as new party leader". ABC News. 19 April 2022. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023.
^ "South Australia - 55th Parliament Shadow Ministry" (PDF). The Parliament of South Australia. 8 August 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Labor Shadow Ministry". www.parliament.tas.gov.au. Parliament of Tasmania. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Liberal Nationals Shadow Cabinet" (PDF). new.parliament.vic.gov.au. 20 December 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
^ "Shadow Ministers". www.parliament.wa.gov.au. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
vtePolitics of AustraliaCommonwealth
Monarch
Governor-General
Prime Minister
Cabinet (Shadow Cabinet)
Executive Council
Ministry
Foreign relations
Parliament
House of Representatives
Senate
Opposition Leader
High Court
Lower Courts
Constitution
Statute of Westminster
Australia Act
Federal elections
Pre-1972
1972
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2004
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Next
By-elections
Referendums
Timeline
State/territory governments
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Parliaments and Assemblies
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State/territory elections
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Timeline
Local government
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South Australia (list)
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Western Australia (list)
Political parties
Coalition (Liberal, National, Liberal National, Country Liberal)
Centre Alliance
Greens
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Labor
Lambie
One Nation
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Other parties
Historical
Political terminology
Battlers
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Donkey vote
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Double dissolution
Faceless men
Forgotten People
Group voting ticket
Hardworking Families
How-to-vote card
Independent politicians
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Langer vote
Leadership spill
Mortgage belt
Nationalism
Parliamentary secretary
Playmander
Pub test
Quiet Australians
Responsible government
Stolen Generations
Working Family
Worm
vteCurrent opposition leaders of Australian states and territoriesACTNSWNTQLDSATASVICWA
Elizabeth Lee (Lib)
Mark Speakman (Lib)
Lia Finocchiaro (CLP)
David Crisafulli (LNP)
David Speirs (Lib)
Dean Winter (ALP)
John Pesutto (Lib)
Shane Love (Nat)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Australian House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Leader of the Opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"official opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"Australian Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Parliament"},{"link_name":"House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Senate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Peter Dutton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Dutton"}],"text":"In Australian parliamentary practice, the Opposition or the Official Opposition consists of the second largest party or coalition of parties in the Australian House of Representatives, with its leader being given the title Leader of the Opposition. The Opposition serves the same function as the official opposition in other Commonwealth of Nations monarchies that follow the Westminster conventions and practices. It is seen as the alternative government and the existing administration's main opponent in the Australian Parliament and at a general election. By convention, the Opposition Leader in the federal Parliament comes from the House of Representatives, as does the deputy, although the Government and Opposition may also both have leaders in the Senate. The Opposition is sometimes styled as His Majesty's Loyal Opposition[1] to show that, although the group may be against the sitting government, it remains loyal to the Crown (the embodiment of the Australian state), and thus to Australia.The current Opposition at a federal level is the centre-right Liberal Party/National Party Coalition, led by Peter Dutton.","title":"Opposition (Australia)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian States and Territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia"}],"text":"The Opposition parties and leaders of Australian States and Territories are:","title":"State and territory opposition"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"List of federal Opposition Leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(Australia)"},{"title":"Shadow Ministry of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Ministry_of_Peter_Dutton"}]
|
[{"reference":"Maiden, Samantha (18 November 2010). \"Altar egos clash over Wills and Babykins\". The Australian. Retrieved 31 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/altar-egos-clash-over-wills-and-babykins/story-e6frg6zo-1225955250021","url_text":"\"Altar egos clash over Wills and Babykins\""}]},{"reference":"\"ACT Shadow Ministry Tenth Assembly\" (PDF). www.parliament.act.gov.au. 30 June 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1655962/Opposition-June-2022-Shadow-Ministry-list.pdf","url_text":"\"ACT Shadow Ministry Tenth Assembly\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918033044/https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1655962/Opposition-June-2022-Shadow-Ministry-list.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Shadow Ministry\". Parliament of New South Wales. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/members/Pages/shadow-ministry.aspx","url_text":"\"Shadow Ministry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_New_South_Wales","url_text":"Parliament of New South Wales"}]},{"reference":"\"Shadow Ministry - 14th Assembly\". parliament.nt.gov.au. Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory. 19 May 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://parliament.nt.gov.au/members/shadow-ministry","url_text":"\"Shadow Ministry - 14th Assembly\""}]},{"reference":"\"Current Shadow Ministers\". www.parliament.qld.gov.au. Queensland Parliament. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/members/current/list/current-shadow-ministers","url_text":"\"Current Shadow Ministers\""}]},{"reference":"\"SA Liberals elect former environment minister David Speirs as new party leader\". ABC News. 19 April 2022. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-19/sa-liberals-elect-david-speirs-as-new-leader/100998430","url_text":"\"SA Liberals elect former environment minister David Speirs as new party leader\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"ABC News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918031849/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-19/sa-liberals-elect-david-speirs-as-new-leader/100998430","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"South Australia - 55th Parliament Shadow Ministry\" (PDF). The Parliament of South Australia. 8 August 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/-/media/Project/Parliament/Documents/Members/Shadow-Cabinet-as-at-08-August-2023.pdf","url_text":"\"South Australia - 55th Parliament Shadow Ministry\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918035040/https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/-/media/Project/Parliament/Documents/Members/Shadow-Cabinet-as-at-08-August-2023.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Labor Shadow Ministry\". www.parliament.tas.gov.au. Parliament of Tasmania. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/house-of-assembly/laborcab","url_text":"\"Labor Shadow Ministry\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918025343/https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/house-of-assembly/laborcab","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Liberal Nationals Shadow Cabinet\" (PDF). new.parliament.vic.gov.au. 20 December 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://new.parliament.vic.gov.au/48f24a/contentassets/f02f227ef9104652a5a706db2b634a0d/shadow-ministry-60th-parl-dec-2022.pdf","url_text":"\"Liberal Nationals Shadow Cabinet\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shadow Ministers\". www.parliament.wa.gov.au. Retrieved 18 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament/memblist.nsf/ScreenMembersWShadPolOffHold","url_text":"\"Shadow Ministers\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/altar-egos-clash-over-wills-and-babykins/story-e6frg6zo-1225955250021","external_links_name":"\"Altar egos clash over Wills and Babykins\""},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1655962/Opposition-June-2022-Shadow-Ministry-list.pdf","external_links_name":"\"ACT Shadow Ministry Tenth Assembly\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918033044/https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1655962/Opposition-June-2022-Shadow-Ministry-list.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/members/Pages/shadow-ministry.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Shadow Ministry\""},{"Link":"https://parliament.nt.gov.au/members/shadow-ministry","external_links_name":"\"Shadow Ministry - 14th Assembly\""},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/members/current/list/current-shadow-ministers","external_links_name":"\"Current Shadow Ministers\""},{"Link":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-19/sa-liberals-elect-david-speirs-as-new-leader/100998430","external_links_name":"\"SA Liberals elect former environment minister David Speirs as new party leader\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918031849/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-19/sa-liberals-elect-david-speirs-as-new-leader/100998430","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/-/media/Project/Parliament/Documents/Members/Shadow-Cabinet-as-at-08-August-2023.pdf","external_links_name":"\"South Australia - 55th Parliament Shadow Ministry\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918035040/https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/-/media/Project/Parliament/Documents/Members/Shadow-Cabinet-as-at-08-August-2023.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/house-of-assembly/laborcab","external_links_name":"\"Labor Shadow Ministry\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230918025343/https://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/house-of-assembly/laborcab","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://new.parliament.vic.gov.au/48f24a/contentassets/f02f227ef9104652a5a706db2b634a0d/shadow-ministry-60th-parl-dec-2022.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Liberal Nationals Shadow Cabinet\""},{"Link":"https://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament/memblist.nsf/ScreenMembersWShadPolOffHold","external_links_name":"\"Shadow Ministers\""}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg_pietism
|
Pietism
|
["1 Beliefs","2 By country","2.1 Germany","2.2 Scandinavia","3 History","3.1 Forerunners","3.2 Founding","3.3 Early leaders","3.4 Establishment reaction","3.5 Hymnody","3.6 Later history","4 Pietistic Lutheran denominations","5 Cross-denominational influence","5.1 Radical Pietism","5.2 Influence on the Methodists","5.3 Influence on religion in America","6 Influence on science","7 Impact on party voting in United States and Great Britain","8 See also","9 References","10 Further reading","10.1 Older works","11 External links"]
|
Movement within Lutheranism
Part of a series onLutheranism
Background
Christianity
Start of the Reformation
Reformation
Protestantism
Doctrine and theology
Bible
Old Testament
New Testament
Creeds
Apostles' Creed
Nicene Creed
Athanasian Creed
Book of Concord
Augsburg Confession
Apology of the Augsburg Confession
Luther's Small / Large Catechism
Smalcald Articles
Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope
Formula of Concord
Distinctive theological concepts
Theology of Martin Luther
Justification
Law and Gospel
Sola gratia
Sola scriptura
Christology
Sanctification
Two kingdoms
catholicity
Two states of the Church
Priesthood of all believers
Divine Providence
Marian theology
Theology of the Cross
Sacramental Union
Other relevant topics
Homosexuality
Sacraments and worship
Baptism
Eucharist
Confession
Confirmation
Matrimony
Anointing of the Sick
Holy Orders
Divine Service
Matins
Vespers
Liturgical calendar
Calendar of saints
Lutheran hymn
Lutheran hymnwriters
Normative principle
Lutheran art
Organization
Confessional EvangelicalLutheran Conference
Global Confessional &Missional Lutheran Forum
International Lutheran Council
Lutheran World Federation
Denominations
Lutheranism by region
Movements
History of Lutheranism
Crypto-Lutherans
Gnesio-Lutherans
Lutheran orthodoxy
Pietists
Radical Pietism
Haugeans
Laestadians
Finnish Awakening
Old Lutherans
Neo-Lutherans
High church Lutherans
Confessional Lutheranism
Key figuresMissionaries
John Campanius
Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg
Hans Egede
Johann Heinrich Callenberg
Johann Phillip Fabricius
Paul Henkel
John Christian Frederick Heyer
Karl Graul
Martti Rautanen
Wilhelm Sihler
F. C. D. Wyneken
Hans Paludan Smith Schreuder
Lars Olsen Skrefsrud
Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen
Onesimos Nesib
Paul Olaf Bodding
Johann Flierl
Christian Keyser
Jens Christensen
Bible Translators
Martin Luther
Casiodoro de Reina
Kjell Magne Yri
Onesimos Nesib
Aster Ganno
Kristian Osvald Viderø
Jákup Dahl
Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg
Johann Phillip Fabricius
William Tyndale
John Rogers
George Constantine
Jozef Roháček
Johannes Avetaranian
Guðbrandur Þorláksson
Ludvig Olsen Fossum
Hans Egede / Paul Egede
Otto Fabricius
Nils Vibe Stockfleth
Olaus Petri / Laurentius Petri
Martti Rautanen
Primož Trubar
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Pietism (/ˈpaɪ.ɪtɪzəm/), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life.
Although the movement is aligned with Lutheranism, it has had a tremendous impact on Protestantism worldwide, particularly in North America and Europe. Pietism originated in modern Germany in the late 17th century with the work of Philipp Spener, a Lutheran theologian whose emphasis on personal transformation through spiritual rebirth and renewal, individual devotion, and piety laid the foundations for the movement. Although Spener did not directly advocate the quietistic, legalistic, and semi-separatist practices of Pietism, they were more or less involved in the positions he assumed or the practices which he encouraged.
Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland, the rest of German-speaking Europe, and to Scandinavia and the Baltics, where it was heavily influential, leaving a permanent mark on the region's dominant Lutheranism, with figures like Hans Nielsen Hauge in Norway, Peter Spaak and Carl Olof Rosenius in Sweden, Katarina Asplund in Finland, and Barbara von Krüdener in the Baltics, and to the rest of Europe. It was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. There, it influenced Protestants of other ethnic and other (non-Lutheran) denominational backgrounds, contributing to the 18th-century foundation of evangelicalism, an interdenominational movement within Protestantism that today has some 300 million followers.
In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway, which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge. In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience. The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus, a Lutheran denomination with a largely Pietistic following with some Presbyterian and Pentecostal influence and primarily based in Ethiopia and among the Ethiopian diaspora, is the largest individual member Lutheran denomination within the Lutheran World Federation.
Whereas Pietistic Lutherans stayed within the Lutheran tradition, adherents of a related movement known as Radical Pietism believed in separating from the established Lutheran Churches. Some of the theological tenets of Pietism also influenced other traditions of Protestantism, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Anabaptist Schwarzenau Brethren movement.
Pietism (in lower case spelling) is also used to refer to an "emphasis on devotional experience and practices", or an "affectation of devotion", "pious sentiment, especially of an exaggerated or affected nature", not necessarily connected with Lutheranism or even Christianity.
Beliefs
Pietistic Lutherans meet together in conventicles, "apart from Divine Service in order to mutually encourage piety". They believe "that any true Christian could point back in his or her life to an inner struggle with sin that culminated in a crisis and ultimately a decision to start a new, Christ-centered life." Pietistic Lutherans emphasize following "biblical divine commands of believers to live a holy life and to strive for holy living, or sanctification".
By country
Germany
The "Five Brothers of Württemberg Pietism": Johannes Schnaitmann (1767–1847), Anton Egeler (1770–1850), Johann Martin Schäffer (1763–1851), Immanuel Gottlieb Kolb (1784–1859) and Johann Michael Hahn (1758–1819).
Pietism did not die out in the 18th century, but was alive and active in the American Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenverein des Westens (German Evangelical Church Society of the West, based in Gravois, Missouri, later German Evangelical Synod of North America and still later the Evangelical and Reformed Church, a precursor of the United Church of Christ.) The church president from 1901 to 1914 was a pietist named Jakob Pister. Some vestiges of Pietism were still present in 1957 at the time of the formation of the United Church of Christ. In the 21st century Pietism is still alive in groups inside the Evangelical Church in Germany. These groups are called Landeskirchliche Gemeinschaften and emerged in the second half of the 19th century in the so-called Gemeinschaftsbewegung.
The 19th century saw a revival of confessional Lutheran doctrine, known as the neo-Lutheran movement. This movement focused on a reassertion of the identity of Lutherans as a distinct group within the broader community of Christians, with a renewed focus on the Lutheran Confessions as a key source of Lutheran doctrine. Associated with these changes was a renewed focus on traditional doctrine and liturgy, which paralleled the growth of Anglo-Catholicism in England.
Scandinavia
Pietistic Lutheran frugality, humility, restraint, sense of duty and order have been strong cultural and religious influences in Scandinavia.
In Denmark, Pietistic Lutheranism became popular in 1703. There, the faithful were organized into conventicles that "met for prayer and Bible reading".
Pietistic Lutheranism entered Sweden in the 1600s after the writings of Johann Arndt, Philipp Jakob Spener, and August Hermann Francke became popular. Pietistic Lutheranism gained patronage under Archbishop Erik Benzelius, who encouraged the Pietistic Lutheran practices.
Laestadian Lutheranism, a form of Pietistic Lutheranism, continues to flourish in Scandinavia, where Church of Sweden priest Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded the revival in the 19th century.
History
Forerunners
As the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. Amongst them were the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme (Behmen); Johann Arndt, whose work, True Christianity, became widely known and appreciated; Heinrich Müller, who described the font, the pulpit, the confessional, and the altar as "the four dumb idols of the Lutheran Church"; the theologian Johann Valentin Andrea, court chaplain of the Landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to restore the Bible to its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus Grossgebauer (d. 1661) of Rostock, who from his pulpit and by his writings raised what he called "the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion".
Founding
Philipp Spener (1635–1705), the "Father of Pietism", is considered the founder of the movement.
The direct originator of the movement was Philipp Spener. Born at Rappoltsweiler in Alsace, now in France, on 13 January 1635, trained by a devout godmother who used books of devotion like Arndt's True Christianity, Spener was convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious reformation within German Lutheranism. He studied theology at Strasbourg, where the professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were more inclined to "practical" Christianity than to theological disputation. He afterwards spent a year in Geneva, and was powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesiastical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and the piety of the Waldensian professor Antoine Leger and the converted Jesuit preacher Jean de Labadie.
During a stay in Tübingen, Spener read Grossgebauer's Alarm Cry, and in 1666 he entered upon his first pastoral charge at Frankfurt with a profound opinion that the Christian life within Evangelical Lutheranism was being sacrificed to zeal for rigid Lutheran orthodoxy. Pietism, as a distinct movement in the German Church, began with religious meetings at Spener's house (collegia pietatis) where he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the New Testament, and induced those present to join in conversation on religious questions. In 1675, Spener published his Pia desideria or Earnest Desire for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church, the title giving rise to the term "Pietists". This was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of "Methodists" somewhat later in England.
In Pia desideria, Spener made six proposals as the best means of restoring the life of the church:
The earnest and thorough study of the Bible in private meetings, ecclesiolae in ecclesia ("little churches within the church")
The Christian priesthood being universal, the laity should share in the spiritual government of the church
A knowledge of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its indispensable sign and supplement
Instead of merely didactic, and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a sympathetic and kindly treatment of them
A reorganization of the theological training of the universities, giving more prominence to the devotional life
A different style of preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implanting of Christianity in the inner or new man, the soul of which is faith, and its effects the fruits of life
This work produced a great impression throughout Germany. While large numbers of orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Spener's book, many other pastors immediately adopted Spener's proposals.
Early leaders
Haugean Pietist Conventicle
In 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In Leipzig, a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout application of the Bible. Three magistrates belonging to that society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke, subsequently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695), commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a practical and devotional character, and in the German language, which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen. The lectures aroused the ill-will of the other theologians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasius and Spener founded the new University of Halle. The theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new Pietistic Lutheran school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the Pietists' conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of heart and consequent holiness of life. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a gross simplification, stressing the need for the church and for sound theological underpinnings.
Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through the whole of Middle and North Germany. Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic institutions founded at Halle, were the revival of the Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf, formerly a pupil in Francke's School for Young Noblemen in Halle, and the establishment of Protestant missions. In particular, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (10 July 1682 – 23 February 1719) became the first Pietist missionary to India.
Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world (see Asceticism). Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could teach theology. The whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to a new form of justification by works. Its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century; one leader was Valentin Ernst Löscher, superintendent at Dresden.
Title page of the 1743 Mose och Lambsens wisor. This edition had 136 hymns, which were not numbered, although most had instructions as to which melody the text should be sung. For a complete list of hymns, see the Swedish article on Mose och Lambsens wisor. The title is a reference to Revelation 15:3, where those who triumph over the beast sing the songs of Moses and the Lamb.
Establishment reaction
Authorities within state-endorsed Churches were suspicious of pietist doctrine which they often viewed as a social danger, as it "seemed either to generate an excess of evangelical fervor and so disturb the public tranquility or to promote a mysticism so nebulous as to obscure the imperatives of morality. A movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself". While some pietists (such as Francis Magny) held that "mysticism and the moral law went together", for others (like his pupil Françoise-Louise de la Tour) "pietist mysticism did less to reinforce the moral law than to take its place… the principle of 'guidance by inner light' was often a signal to follow the most intense of her inner sentiments… the supremacy of feeling over reason". Religious authorities could bring pressure on pietists, such as when they brought some of Magny's followers before the local consistory to answer questions about their unorthodox views or when they banished Magny from Vevey for heterodoxy in 1713. Likewise, pietism challenged the orthodoxy via new media and formats: Periodical journals gained importance versus the former pasquills and single thesis, traditional disputation was replaced by competitive debating, which tried to gain new knowledge instead of defending orthodox scholarship.
Hymnody
Main article: Hymnody of continental Europe § Pietism
Later history
The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866
As a distinct movement, Pietism had its greatest strength by the middle of the 18th century; its very individualism in fact helped to prepare the way for the Enlightenment (Aufklärung), which took the church in an altogether different direction. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and not merely of the intellect.
It likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Rudolf Sohm claimed that "It was the last great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun by the Reformation; it was the completion and the final form of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men." Dietrich Bonhoeffer of the German Confessing Church framed the same characterization in less positive terms when he called Pietism the last attempt to save Christianity as a religion: Given that for him religion was a negative term, more or less an opposite to revelation, this constitutes a rather scathing judgment. Bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a "desired piety" in a person, as unbiblical.
Pietism is considered the major influence that led to the creation of the "Evangelical Church of the Union" in Prussia in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite; they took the name "Evangelical" as a name both groups had previously identified with. This union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s. Pietism, with its looser attitude toward confessional theology, had opened the churches to the possibility of uniting. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many Lutherans, called Old Lutherans formed free churches or emigrated to the United States and Australia, where they formed bodies that would later become the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church of Australia, respectively. (Many immigrants to America, who agreed with the union movement, formed German Evangelical Lutheran and Reformed congregations, later combined into the Evangelical Synod of North America, which is now a part of the United Church of Christ.)
Summer services are a feature of Laestadian Lutheran piety.
In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is heralded today by the Laestadian Lutheran Church as well as by several congregations within mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Church of Sweden. After encountering a Sami woman who experienced a conversion, Laestadius had a similar experience that "transformed his life and defined his calling". As such, Laestadius "spend the rest of his life advancing his idea of Lutheran pietism, focusing his energies on marginalized groups in the northernmost regions of the Nordic countries". Laestadius called on his followers to embrace their Lutheran identity and as a result, Laestadian Lutherans have remained a part of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the national Church in that country, with some Laestadian Lutherans being consecrated as bishops. In the United States, Laestadian Lutheran Churches were formed for Laestadian Pietists. Laestadian Lutherans observe the Lutheran sacraments, holding classical Lutheran theology on infant baptism and the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and also heavily emphasize Confession. Uniquely, Laestadian Lutherans "discourage watching television, attending movies, dancing, playing card games or games of chance, and drinking alcoholic beverages", as well as avoiding birth control—Laestadian Lutheran families usually have four to ten children. Laestadian Lutherans gather in a central location for weeks at a time for summer revival services in which many young adults find their future spouses.
R. J. Hollingdale, who translated Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra into English, argued that a number of the themes of the work (especially amor fati) originated in the Lutheran Pietism of Nietzsche's childhood – Nietzsche's father, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, was a Lutheran pastor who supported the Pietist movement.
In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience.
Pietistic Lutheran denominations
Pietistic Lutheranism influenced existing Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Norway and many Pietistic Lutherans have remained in them, though other Pietistic Lutherans have established their own Synods too. In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway, which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge. In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience.
Cross-denominational influence
Main article: Radical Pietism
Radical Pietism
Radical Pietism are those Christian Churches who decided to break with denominational Lutheranism in order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Churches in the Radical Pietist movement include the Mennonite Brethren Church, Community of True Inspiration (Inspirationalists), the Baptist General Conference, members of the International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches (such as the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Free Church), the Templers, the River Brethren (inclusive of the Brethren in Christ Church, the Calvary Holiness Church, the Old Order River Brethren and the United Zion Church), as well as the Schwarzenau Brethren (that include Old Order groups such as the Old Brethren German Baptist, Conservative groups such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, and mainline groups such as the Church of the Brethren).
Influence on the Methodists
As with Moravianism, Pietism was a major influence on John Wesley and others who began the Methodist movement in 18th-century Great Britain. John Wesley was influenced significantly by Moravians (e.g., Zinzendorf, Peter Boehler) and Pietists connected to Francke and Halle Pietism. The fruit of these Pietist influences can be seen in the modern American Methodists, especially those who are aligned with the Holiness movement.
Influence on religion in America
Pietism had an influence on religion in America, as many German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, New York, and other areas. Its influence can be traced in certain sectors of Evangelicalism. Balmer says that:
Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism.
Influence on science
The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between Protestant ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of Protestant Pietism and early experimental science. The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.
Impact on party voting in United States and Great Britain
Further information: Ethnocultural politics in the United States
In the United States, Richard L. McCormick says, "In the nineteenth century voters whose religious heritage was pietistic or evangelical were prone to support the Whigs and, later, the Republicans." Paul Kleppner generalizes, "the more pietistic the group's outlook the more intensely Republican its partisan affiliation." McCormick notes that the key link between religious values and politics resulted from the "urge of evangelicals and Pietists to 'reach out and purge the world of sin'". Pietism became influential among Scandinavian Lutherans; additionally it affected other denominations in the United States, such as the Northern Methodists, Northern Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, and some smaller groups. The great majority were based in the northern states; some of these groups in the South would rather support the Democrats.
In England in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Nonconformist Protestant denominations, such as the Methodists, Baptists and Congregationalists, formed the base of the Liberal Party. David Hempton states, "The Liberal Party was the main beneficiary of Methodist political loyalties."
See also
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Title page of the Operis de religione (1625) from Francisco Suárez.
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References
^ Backman, Milton Vaughn (1976). Christian Churches of America: Origins and Beliefs. Brigham Young University Press. p. 75. Pietistic Lutheranism was a form of belief and practice which emphasized experience in the Christian life and championed the importance of Christian action and growth in holiness.
^ "Pietism". Encyclopædia Britannica. It emphasized personal faith and sanctity against the main Lutheran church's perceived stress on doctrine and theology over Christian living.
^ a b c d Holmquist, June Drenning (1 January 1981). They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 306. ISBN 9780873511551.
^ a b c d e f Kivisto, Peter (16 October 2014). Religion and Immigration: Migrant Faiths in North America and Western Europe. Wiley. p. 109. ISBN 9780745686660.
^ a b Gritsch, Eric W. (1994). Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism. Fortress Press. ISBN 9781451407778.
^ a b c Tweton, D. Jerome (1988). The New Deal at the Grass Roots: Programs for the People in Otter Tail County, Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780873512336.
^ M, Eide, Øyvind (1929–1979). "Tumsa, Gudina". Dictionary of African Christian Biography. Retrieved 2022-03-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Granquist, Mark Alan (2015). Lutherans in America: A New History. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 9781451472288.
^ a b "Pietism". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
^ "Definition of pietism". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
^ "pietism". Lexico. Archived from the original on September 10, 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.
^ a b Dawn, Russell P. (15 March 2018). "Piety vs. Pietism". Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
^ Granquist, Mark A. (2015). Scandinavian Pietists: Spiritual Writings from 19th-Century Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. Paulist Press. p. 13. ISBN 9781587684982.
^ A discussion of some of the earlier pietist influence in the Evangelical and Reformed church can be found in Dunn et al., "A History of the Evangelical and Reformed Church" Christian Education Press, Philadelphia, 1962. Further commentary can be found by Carl Viehe under Pietism, Illinois Trails, Washington County.
^ Scherer, James A. (1993). "The Triumph of Confessionalism in Nineteenth-Century German Lutheran Missions" (PDF). Missio Apostolica. 2: 71–78. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 12, 2006. This is an extract from Scherer's 1968 Ph.D. thesis, "Mission and Unity in Lutheranism". Scherer was Professor of World Mission and Church History at the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago until his retirement.
^ a b Petersen, Wilhelm W. (2011). "Warm Winds From the South: The Spread of Pietism to Scandinavian Lutherans" (PDF). Bethany Lutheran Theological Seminary. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
^ a b Collins Winn, Christopher T.; Gerhz, Christopher; Holst, Eric; Carlson, G. William; Heide, Gail (25 October 2012). The Pietist Impulse in Christianity. Casemate Publishers. p. 200. ISBN 9780227680001.
^ a b Maurice Cranston (1982). Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754. University of Chicago Press.
^ Leo Damrosch (2005). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius. Mariner Books.
^ Gierl, Martin (1997). Pietismus und Aufklärung: theologische Polemik und die Kommunikationsreform der Wissenschaft am Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
^ Elgán, Elisabeth; Scobbie, Irene (17 September 2015). Historical Dictionary of Sweden. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 159. ISBN 9781442250710.
^ a b c Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 406. ISBN 9781442271593.
^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (28 February 1974). Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Hollingdale, R. J. Penguin Books Limited. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-14-190432-0.
^ Cimino, Richard (2003). Lutherans Today: American Lutheran Identity in the Twenty-First Century. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 9780802813657.
^ Shantz, Douglas H. (2013). An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe. JHU Press. ISBN 9781421408804.
^ Smith, James Ward; Jamison, Albert Leland (1969). Religion in American life. Princeton University Press.
^ Ratliff, Walter R. (2010). Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva. Walter Ratliff. ISBN 9781606081334.
^ Carter, Craig A. (2007). Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective. Brazos Press. ISBN 9781441201225.
^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598842043.
^ Randall Balmer (2002). The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 9780664224097.
^ Sztompka, 2003
^ Cohen, 1990
^ Richard L. McCormick (1988). The Party Period and Public Policy. Oxford UP. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-19-536434-7.
^ McCormick, p 48
^ Paul Kleppner, The Third Electoral System 1853-1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures (University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
^ Howard Martin (1996). Britain in the 19th Century. Nelson Thornes. p. 298. ISBN 9780174350620.
^ David Hempton (26 January 1996). Religion and Political Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the Decline of Empire. Cambridge UP. p. 37. ISBN 9780521479257.
See: "Six Principles of Pietism", based on Philip Jacob Spener's six proposals http://www.miamifirstbrethren.org/about-us
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pietism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pietism" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 593–594.
Further reading
Brown, Dale: Understanding Pietism, rev. ed. Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House, 1996.
Brunner, Daniel L. Halle Pietists in England: Anthony William Boehm and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus 29. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1993.
Gehrz, Christopher and Mark Pattie III. The Pietist Option: Hope for the Renewal of Christianity. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2017.
Olson, Roger E., Christian T. Collins Winn. Reclaiming Pietism: Retrieving an Evangelical Tradition (Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2015). xiii + 190 pp. online review
Shantz, Douglas H. An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
Stoeffler, F. Ernest. The Rise of Evangelical Pietism. Studies in the History of Religion 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965.
Stoeffler, F. Ernest. German Pietism During the Eighteenth Century. Studies in the History of Religion 24. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973.
Stoeffler, F. Ernest. ed.: Continental Pietism and Early American Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976.
Winn, Christian T. et al. eds. The Pietist Impulse in Christianity. Pickwick, 2012.
Yoder, Peter James. Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke. University Park: PSU Press, 2021.
Older works
Joachim Feller, Sonnet. In: Luctuosa desideria Quibus Martinum Bornium prosequebantur Quidam Patroni, Praeceptores atque Amici. Lipsiae , pp. –. (Facsimile in: Reinhard Breymayer (Ed.): Luctuosa desideria. Tübingen 2008, pp. 24–25.) Here for the first time the newly detected source. – Less exactly cf. Martin Brecht: Geschichte des Pietismus, vol. I, p. 4.
Johann Georg Walch, Historische und theologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche (1730);
Friedrich August Tholuck, Geschichte des Pietismus und des ersten Stadiums der Aufklärung (1865);
Heinrich Schmid, Die Geschichte des Pietismus (1863);
Max Goebel, Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der Rheinisch-Westfälischen Kirche (3 vols., 1849–1860).
The subject is dealt with at length in
Isaak August Dorner's and W Gass's Histories of Protestant theology.
Other works are:
Heinrich Heppe, Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformierten Kirche (1879), which is sympathetic;
Albrecht Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus (5 vols., 1880–1886), which is hostile; and
Eugen Sachsse, Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884).
See also
Friedrich Wilhelm Franz Nippold's article in Theol. Stud. und Kritiken (1882), pp. 347?392;
Hans von Schubert, Outlines of Church History, ch. xv. (Eng. trans., 1907); and
Carl Mirbt's article, "Pietismus," in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie für prot. Theologie u. Kirche, end of vol. xv.
The most extensive and current edition on Pietism is the four-volume edition in German, covering the entire movement in Europe and North America
Geschichte des Pietismus (GdP)Im Auftrag der Historischen Kommission zur Erforschung des Pietismus herausgegeben von Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gäbler und Hartmut Lehmann(English: On behalf of the Historical Commission for the Study of pietism edited by Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gaebler and Hartmut Lehmann)
Band 1: Der Pietismus vom siebzehnten bis zum frühen achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Johannes van den Berg, Klaus Deppermann, Johannes Friedrich Gerhard Goeters und Hans Schneider hg. von Martin Brecht. Goettingen 1993. / 584 p.
Band 2: Der Pietismus im achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Friedhelm Ackva, Johannes van den Berg, Rudolf Dellsperger, Johann Friedrich Gerhard Goeters, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Pentii Laasonen, Dietrich Meyer, Ingun Montgomery, Christian Peters, A. Gregg Roeber, Hans Schneider, Patrick Streiff und Horst Weigelt hg. von Martin Brecht und Klaus Deppermann. Goettingen 1995. / 826 p.
Band 3: Der Pietismus im neunzehnten und zwanzigsten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Gustav Adolf Benrath, Eberhard Busch, Pavel Filipi, Arnd Götzelmann, Pentii Laasonen, Hartmut Lehmann, Mark A. Noll, Jörg Ohlemacher, Karl Rennstich und Horst Weigelt unter Mitwirkung von Martin Sallmann hg. von Ulrich Gäbler. Goettingen 2000. / 607 p.
Band 4: Glaubenswelt und Lebenswelten des Pietismus. In Zusammenarbeit mit Ruth Albrecht, Martin Brecht, Christian Bunners, Ulrich Gäbler, Andreas Gestrich, Horst Gundlach, Jan Harasimovicz, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Peter Kriedtke, Martin Kruse, Werner Koch, Markus Matthias, Thomas Müller Bahlke, Gerhard Schäfer (†), Hans-Jürgen Schrader, Walter Sparn, Udo Sträter, Rudolf von Thadden, Richard Trellner, Johannes Wallmann und Hermann Wellenreuther hg. von Hartmut Lehmann. Goettingen 2004. / 709 p.
External links
New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IX: Pietism
After Three Centuries – The Legacy of Pietism by E.C. Fredrich
Literary Landmarks of Pietism by Martin O. Westerhaus
Pietism's World Mission Enterprise by Ernst H. Wendland
Old Apostolic Lutheran Church of America
The Evangelical Pietist Church of Chatfield
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/ˈpaɪ.ɪtɪzəm/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Lutheranism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"piety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piety"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Backman1976-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Protestantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Philipp Spener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Spener"},{"link_name":"quietistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism_(Christian_contemplation)"},{"link_name":"Hans Nielsen Hauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Nielsen_Hauge"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Peter Spaak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Spaak"},{"link_name":"Carl Olof Rosenius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Olof_Rosenius"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Katarina Asplund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katarina_Asplund"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Barbara von Krüdener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_von_Kr%C3%BCdener"},{"link_name":"denominational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denomination"},{"link_name":"evangelicalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism"},{"link_name":"interdenominational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdenominationalism"},{"link_name":"Lars Levi Laestadius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Levi_Laestadius"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Laestadianism"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holmquist1981-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"Eielsen Synod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eielsen_Synod"},{"link_name":"Association of Free Lutheran Congregations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Free_Lutheran_Congregations"},{"link_name":"Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haugean_movement"},{"link_name":"Hans Nielsen Hauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Nielsen_Hauge"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gritsch1994-5"},{"link_name":"Church of the Lutheran Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Lutheran_Brethren"},{"link_name":"personal conversion experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_again"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tweton1988-6"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Evangelical_Church_Mekane_Yesus"},{"link_name":"Presbyterian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian"},{"link_name":"Pentecostal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostal"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopians"},{"link_name":"denomination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denomination"},{"link_name":"Lutheran World Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_World_Federation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Radical Pietism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Pietism"},{"link_name":"separating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformity_to_the_world"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Granquist2015-8"},{"link_name":"Protestantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism"},{"link_name":"John Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley"},{"link_name":"Methodist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism"},{"link_name":"Alexander Mack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Mack"},{"link_name":"Anabaptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaptism"},{"link_name":"Schwarzenau Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary.com-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merriam_Webster-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dictionary.com-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lexico-11"}],"text":"Pietism (/ˈpaɪ.ɪtɪzəm/), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life.[1][2]Although the movement is aligned with Lutheranism, it has had a tremendous impact on Protestantism worldwide, particularly in North America and Europe. Pietism originated in modern Germany in the late 17th century with the work of Philipp Spener, a Lutheran theologian whose emphasis on personal transformation through spiritual rebirth and renewal, individual devotion, and piety laid the foundations for the movement. Although Spener did not directly advocate the quietistic, legalistic, and semi-separatist practices of Pietism, they were more or less involved in the positions he assumed or the practices which he encouraged.Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland, the rest of German-speaking Europe, and to Scandinavia and the Baltics, where it was heavily influential, leaving a permanent mark on the region's dominant Lutheranism, with figures like Hans Nielsen Hauge in Norway, Peter Spaak and Carl Olof Rosenius in Sweden, Katarina Asplund in Finland, and Barbara von Krüdener in the Baltics, and to the rest of Europe. It was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. There, it influenced Protestants of other ethnic and other (non-Lutheran) denominational backgrounds, contributing to the 18th-century foundation of evangelicalism, an interdenominational movement within Protestantism that today has some 300 million followers.In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.[3][4] The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway, which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge.[5] In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience.[6] The Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus, a Lutheran denomination with a largely Pietistic following with some Presbyterian and Pentecostal influence and primarily based in Ethiopia and among the Ethiopian diaspora, is the largest individual member Lutheran denomination within the Lutheran World Federation.[7]Whereas Pietistic Lutherans stayed within the Lutheran tradition, adherents of a related movement known as Radical Pietism believed in separating from the established Lutheran Churches.[8] Some of the theological tenets of Pietism also influenced other traditions of Protestantism, inspiring the Anglican priest John Wesley to begin the Methodist movement and Alexander Mack to begin the Anabaptist Schwarzenau Brethren movement.Pietism (in lower case spelling)[9] is also used to refer to an \"emphasis on devotional experience and practices\", or an \"affectation of devotion\",[10][9] \"pious sentiment, especially of an exaggerated or affected nature\",[11] not necessarily connected with Lutheranism or even Christianity.","title":"Pietism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conventicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventicle"},{"link_name":"Divine Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_Service_(Lutheran)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dawn2018-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dawn2018-12"},{"link_name":"sanctification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctification"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Granquist2015b-13"}],"text":"Pietistic Lutherans meet together in conventicles, \"apart from Divine Service in order to mutually encourage piety\".[12] They believe \"that any true Christian could point back in his or her life to an inner struggle with sin that culminated in a crisis and ultimately a decision to start a new, Christ-centered life.\"[12] Pietistic Lutherans emphasize following \"biblical divine commands of believers to live a holy life and to strive for holy living, or sanctification\".[13]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%BCnfbr%C3%BCderbild.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johann Michael Hahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Michael_Hahn"},{"link_name":"Gravois, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravois_Township,_St._Louis_County,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"German Evangelical Synod of North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Evangelical_Synod_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"Evangelical and Reformed Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_and_Reformed_Church"},{"link_name":"United Church of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Church in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Church_in_Germany"},{"link_name":"neo-Lutheran movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Lutheran Confessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Concord"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Catholicism"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"The \"Five Brothers of Württemberg Pietism\": Johannes Schnaitmann (1767–1847), Anton Egeler (1770–1850), Johann Martin Schäffer (1763–1851), Immanuel Gottlieb Kolb (1784–1859) and Johann Michael Hahn (1758–1819).Pietism did not die out in the 18th century, but was alive and active in the American Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenverein des Westens (German Evangelical Church Society of the West, based in Gravois, Missouri, later German Evangelical Synod of North America and still later the Evangelical and Reformed Church, a precursor of the United Church of Christ.) The church president from 1901 to 1914 was a pietist named Jakob Pister.[14] Some vestiges of Pietism were still present in 1957 at the time of the formation of the United Church of Christ. In the 21st century Pietism is still alive in groups inside the Evangelical Church in Germany. These groups are called Landeskirchliche Gemeinschaften and emerged in the second half of the 19th century in the so-called Gemeinschaftsbewegung.The 19th century saw a revival of confessional Lutheran doctrine, known as the neo-Lutheran movement. This movement focused on a reassertion of the identity of Lutherans as a distinct group within the broader community of Christians, with a renewed focus on the Lutheran Confessions as a key source of Lutheran doctrine. Associated with these changes was a renewed focus on traditional doctrine and liturgy, which paralleled the growth of Anglo-Catholicism in England.[15]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pietism.JPG"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen2011-16"},{"link_name":"conventicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventicles"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petersen2011-16"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CarlsonGehrz2012-17"},{"link_name":"Archbishop Erik Benzelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Benzelius_the_younger"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CarlsonGehrz2012-17"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheranism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Church of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Lars Levi Laestadius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Levi_Laestadius"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holmquist1981-3"}],"sub_title":"Scandinavia","text":"Pietistic Lutheran frugality, humility, restraint, sense of duty and order have been strong cultural and religious influences in Scandinavia.In Denmark, Pietistic Lutheranism became popular in 1703.[16] There, the faithful were organized into conventicles that \"met for prayer and Bible reading\".[16]Pietistic Lutheranism entered Sweden in the 1600s after the writings of Johann Arndt, Philipp Jakob Spener, and August Hermann Francke became popular.[17] Pietistic Lutheranism gained patronage under Archbishop Erik Benzelius, who encouraged the Pietistic Lutheran practices.[17]Laestadian Lutheranism, a form of Pietistic Lutheranism, continues to flourish in Scandinavia, where Church of Sweden priest Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded the revival in the 19th century.[3]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christian mystic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mysticism"},{"link_name":"Jakob Böhme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme"},{"link_name":"Johann Arndt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Arndt"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_M%C3%BCller_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"font","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismal_font"},{"link_name":"pulpit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulpit"},{"link_name":"confessional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(religion)"},{"link_name":"altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar"},{"link_name":"Johann Valentin Andrea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Valentin_Andrea"},{"link_name":"Theophilus Grossgebauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophil_Gro%C3%9Fgebauer"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"Sion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zion"}],"sub_title":"Forerunners","text":"As the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. Amongst them were the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme (Behmen); Johann Arndt, whose work, True Christianity, became widely known and appreciated; Heinrich Müller, who described the font, the pulpit, the confessional, and the altar as \"the four dumb idols of the Lutheran Church\"; the theologian Johann Valentin Andrea, court chaplain of the Landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to restore the Bible to its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus Grossgebauer (d. 1661) of Rostock, who from his pulpit and by his writings raised what he called \"the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion\".","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philipp_Jakob_Spener.jpg"},{"link_name":"Philipp Spener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Spener"},{"link_name":"Philipp Spener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Spener"},{"link_name":"Rappoltsweiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rappoltsweiler"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Waldensian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldensian"},{"link_name":"Jesuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Jean de Labadie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Labadie"},{"link_name":"Tübingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCbingen"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt"},{"link_name":"Lutheran orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament"},{"link_name":"orthodox Lutheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Orthodoxy"}],"sub_title":"Founding","text":"Philipp Spener (1635–1705), the \"Father of Pietism\", is considered the founder of the movement.The direct originator of the movement was Philipp Spener. Born at Rappoltsweiler in Alsace, now in France, on 13 January 1635, trained by a devout godmother who used books of devotion like Arndt's True Christianity, Spener was convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious reformation within German Lutheranism. He studied theology at Strasbourg, where the professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were more inclined to \"practical\" Christianity than to theological disputation. He afterwards spent a year in Geneva, and was powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesiastical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and the piety of the Waldensian professor Antoine Leger and the converted Jesuit preacher Jean de Labadie.During a stay in Tübingen, Spener read Grossgebauer's Alarm Cry, and in 1666 he entered upon his first pastoral charge at Frankfurt with a profound opinion that the Christian life within Evangelical Lutheranism was being sacrificed to zeal for rigid Lutheran orthodoxy. Pietism, as a distinct movement in the German Church, began with religious meetings at Spener's house (collegia pietatis) where he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the New Testament, and induced those present to join in conversation on religious questions. In 1675, Spener published his Pia desideria or Earnest Desire for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church, the title giving rise to the term \"Pietists\". This was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of \"Methodists\" somewhat later in England.In Pia desideria, Spener made six proposals as the best means of restoring the life of the church:The earnest and thorough study of the Bible in private meetings, ecclesiolae in ecclesia (\"little churches within the church\")\nThe Christian priesthood being universal, the laity should share in the spiritual government of the church\nA knowledge of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its indispensable sign and supplement\nInstead of merely didactic, and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a sympathetic and kindly treatment of them\nA reorganization of the theological training of the universities, giving more prominence to the devotional life\nA different style of preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implanting of Christianity in the inner or new man, the soul of which is faith, and its effects the fruits of lifeThis work produced a great impression throughout Germany. While large numbers of orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Spener's book, many other pastors immediately adopted Spener's proposals.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg"},{"link_name":"Haugean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haugean"},{"link_name":"Conventicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventicle"},{"link_name":"Dresden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden"},{"link_name":"Leipzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig"},{"link_name":"August Hermann Francke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Hermann_Francke"},{"link_name":"Halle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halle,_Saxony-Anhalt"},{"link_name":"German language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Christian Thomasius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Thomasius"},{"link_name":"University of Halle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Halle"},{"link_name":"Moravian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_Church"},{"link_name":"Count von Zinzendorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Ludwig_Zinzendorf"},{"link_name":"Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholom%C3%A4us_Ziegenbalg"},{"link_name":"Asceticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism"},{"link_name":"Valentin Ernst Löscher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Ernst_L%C3%B6scher"},{"link_name":"superintendent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superintendent_(ecclesiastical)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mose_Lambsen_fparm.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mose och Lambsens wisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mose_och_Lambsens_wisor"},{"link_name":"Revelation 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Revelation#Chapter_15"}],"sub_title":"Early leaders","text":"Haugean Pietist ConventicleIn 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In Leipzig, a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout application of the Bible. Three magistrates belonging to that society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke, subsequently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695), commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a practical and devotional character, and in the German language, which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen. The lectures aroused the ill-will of the other theologians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasius and Spener founded the new University of Halle. The theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new Pietistic Lutheran school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the Pietists' conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of heart and consequent holiness of life. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a gross simplification, stressing the need for the church and for sound theological underpinnings.Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through the whole of Middle and North Germany. Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic institutions founded at Halle, were the revival of the Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf, formerly a pupil in Francke's School for Young Noblemen in Halle, and the establishment of Protestant missions. In particular, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg (10 July 1682 – 23 February 1719) became the first Pietist missionary to India.Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world (see Asceticism). Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could teach theology. The whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to a new form of justification by works. Its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century; one leader was Valentin Ernst Löscher, superintendent at Dresden.Title page of the 1743 Mose och Lambsens wisor. This edition had 136 hymns, which were not numbered, although most had instructions as to which melody the text should be sung. For a complete list of hymns, see the Swedish article on Mose och Lambsens wisor. The title is a reference to Revelation 15:3, where those who triumph over the beast sing the songs of Moses and the Lamb.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cranston-18"},{"link_name":"consistory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistory_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Vevey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vevey"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cranston-18"},{"link_name":"disputation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disputation"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Establishment reaction","text":"Authorities within state-endorsed Churches were suspicious of pietist doctrine which they often viewed as a social danger, as it \"seemed either to generate an excess of evangelical fervor and so disturb the public tranquility or to promote a mysticism so nebulous as to obscure the imperatives of morality. A movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself\". While some pietists (such as Francis Magny) held that \"mysticism and the moral law went together\", for others (like his pupil Françoise-Louise de la Tour) \"pietist mysticism did less to reinforce the moral law than to take its place… the principle of 'guidance by inner light' was often a signal to follow the most intense of her inner sentiments… the supremacy of feeling over reason\".[18] Religious authorities could bring pressure on pietists, such as when they brought some of Magny's followers before the local consistory to answer questions about their unorthodox views[19] or when they banished Magny from Vevey for heterodoxy in 1713.[18] Likewise, pietism challenged the orthodoxy via new media and formats: Periodical journals gained importance versus the former pasquills and single thesis, traditional disputation was replaced by competitive debating, which tried to gain new knowledge instead of defending orthodox scholarship.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Hymnody","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Der_breite_und_der_schmale_Weg_2008.jpg"},{"link_name":"Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Dietrich Bonhoeffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer"},{"link_name":"Confessing Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confessing_Church"},{"link_name":"revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revelation"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Church of the Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_Union_(Evangelical_Christian_Church)"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Schism of the Old Lutherans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_Union_(Evangelical_Christian_Church)#Quarrels_over_the_union"},{"link_name":"Old Lutherans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Lutherans"},{"link_name":"free churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_church"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod"},{"link_name":"Lutheran Church of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Church_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Synod of North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Synod_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"United Church of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SUVISEURATELLTA_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Summer services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_services"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheran"},{"link_name":"Lars Levi Laestadius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Levi_Laestadius"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheran_Church"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"Church of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holmquist1981-3"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elg%C3%A1nScobbie2015-21"},{"link_name":"Sami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_people"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"national Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Church"},{"link_name":"bishops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadianism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"Lutheran sacraments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_sacraments"},{"link_name":"infant baptism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_baptism"},{"link_name":"real presence of Christ in the Eucharist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_presence_of_Christ_in_the_Eucharist"},{"link_name":"Confession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confession_(Lutheran_Church)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamport2017-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamport2017-22"},{"link_name":"summer revival services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_services"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamport2017-22"},{"link_name":"R. J. Hollingdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._J._Hollingdale"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche"},{"link_name":"Thus Spake Zarathustra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thus_Spake_Zarathustra"},{"link_name":"amor fati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amor_fati"},{"link_name":"Carl Ludwig Nietzsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Nietzsche"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nietzsche1974-23"},{"link_name":"Church of the Lutheran Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Lutheran_Brethren"},{"link_name":"personal conversion experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_again"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tweton1988-6"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cimino2003-24"}],"sub_title":"Later history","text":"The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866As a distinct movement, Pietism had its greatest strength by the middle of the 18th century; its very individualism in fact helped to prepare the way for the Enlightenment (Aufklärung), which took the church in an altogether different direction. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and not merely of the intellect.[citation needed]It likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Rudolf Sohm claimed that \"It was the last great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun by the Reformation; it was the completion and the final form of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men.\" Dietrich Bonhoeffer of the German Confessing Church framed the same characterization in less positive terms when he called Pietism the last attempt to save Christianity as a religion: Given that for him religion was a negative term, more or less an opposite to revelation, this constitutes a rather scathing judgment. Bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a \"desired piety\" in a person, as unbiblical.Pietism is considered the major influence that led to the creation of the \"Evangelical Church of the Union\" in Prussia in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite; they took the name \"Evangelical\" as a name both groups had previously identified with. This union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s. Pietism, with its looser attitude toward confessional theology, had opened the churches to the possibility of uniting. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many Lutherans, called Old Lutherans formed free churches or emigrated to the United States and Australia, where they formed bodies that would later become the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Lutheran Church of Australia, respectively. (Many immigrants to America, who agreed with the union movement, formed German Evangelical Lutheran and Reformed congregations, later combined into the Evangelical Synod of North America, which is now a part of the United Church of Christ.)Summer services are a feature of Laestadian Lutheran piety.In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is heralded today by the Laestadian Lutheran Church as well as by several congregations within mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and the Church of Sweden.[3][21] After encountering a Sami woman who experienced a conversion, Laestadius had a similar experience that \"transformed his life and defined his calling\".[4] As such, Laestadius \"spend the rest of his life advancing his idea of Lutheran pietism, focusing his energies on marginalized groups in the northernmost regions of the Nordic countries\".[4] Laestadius called on his followers to embrace their Lutheran identity and as a result, Laestadian Lutherans have remained a part of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the national Church in that country, with some Laestadian Lutherans being consecrated as bishops.[4] In the United States, Laestadian Lutheran Churches were formed for Laestadian Pietists.[4] Laestadian Lutherans observe the Lutheran sacraments, holding classical Lutheran theology on infant baptism and the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and also heavily emphasize Confession.[22] Uniquely, Laestadian Lutherans \"discourage watching television, attending movies, dancing, playing card games or games of chance, and drinking alcoholic beverages\", as well as avoiding birth control—Laestadian Lutheran families usually have four to ten children.[22] Laestadian Lutherans gather in a central location for weeks at a time for summer revival services in which many young adults find their future spouses.[22]R. J. Hollingdale, who translated Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra into English, argued that a number of the themes of the work (especially amor fati) originated in the Lutheran Pietism of Nietzsche's childhood – Nietzsche's father, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, was a Lutheran pastor who supported the Pietist movement.[23]In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience.[6][24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Church of Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Norway"},{"link_name":"Lars Levi Laestadius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Levi_Laestadius"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadian_Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Laestadian Lutheran Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Laestadianism"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holmquist1981-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kivisto2014-4"},{"link_name":"Eielsen Synod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eielsen_Synod"},{"link_name":"Association of Free Lutheran Congregations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Free_Lutheran_Congregations"},{"link_name":"Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haugean_movement"},{"link_name":"Hans Nielsen Hauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Nielsen_Hauge"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gritsch1994-5"},{"link_name":"Church of the Lutheran Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Lutheran_Brethren"},{"link_name":"personal conversion experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_again"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tweton1988-6"}],"text":"Pietistic Lutheranism influenced existing Lutheran denominations such as the Church of Norway and many Pietistic Lutherans have remained in them, though other Pietistic Lutherans have established their own Synods too. In the middle of the 19th century, Lars Levi Laestadius spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as Laestadian Lutheran theology, which is adhered to today by the Laestadian Lutheran Churches as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland.[3][4] The Eielsen Synod and Association of Free Lutheran Congregations are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway, which was spearheaded by Hans Nielsen Hauge.[5] In 1900, the Church of the Lutheran Brethren was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a personal conversion experience.[6]","title":"Pietistic Lutheran denominations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Cross-denominational influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christian Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_separatism"},{"link_name":"Lutheranism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"Mennonite Brethren Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mennonite_Brethren_Church"},{"link_name":"Community of True Inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_True_Inspiration"},{"link_name":"Baptist General Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist_General_Conference"},{"link_name":"International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_Free_Evangelical_Churches"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Covenant Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Covenant_Church"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Free Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_Free_Church"},{"link_name":"Templers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templers_(religious_believers)"},{"link_name":"River Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Brethren"},{"link_name":"Brethren in Christ Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brethren_in_Christ_Church"},{"link_name":"Calvary Holiness Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvary_Holiness_Church_(Philadelphia)"},{"link_name":"Old Order River Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Order_River_Brethren"},{"link_name":"United Zion Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Zion_Church"},{"link_name":"Schwarzenau Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren"},{"link_name":"Old Brethren German Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Brethren_German_Baptist"},{"link_name":"Dunkard Brethren Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkard_Brethren_Church"},{"link_name":"Church of the Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Brethren"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shantz2013-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SmithJamison1969-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ratliff2010-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carter2007-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MeltonBaumann2010-29"}],"sub_title":"Radical Pietism","text":"Radical Pietism are those Christian Churches who decided to break with denominational Lutheranism in order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Churches in the Radical Pietist movement include the Mennonite Brethren Church, Community of True Inspiration (Inspirationalists), the Baptist General Conference, members of the International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches (such as the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Free Church), the Templers, the River Brethren (inclusive of the Brethren in Christ Church, the Calvary Holiness Church, the Old Order River Brethren and the United Zion Church), as well as the Schwarzenau Brethren (that include Old Order groups such as the Old Brethren German Baptist, Conservative groups such as the Dunkard Brethren Church, and mainline groups such as the Church of the Brethren).[25][26][27][28][29]","title":"Cross-denominational influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moravianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_Church"},{"link_name":"John Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wesley"},{"link_name":"Methodist movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Moravians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravian_church"},{"link_name":"Zinzendorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinzendorf"},{"link_name":"Peter Boehler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Boehler"},{"link_name":"Holiness movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holiness_movement"}],"sub_title":"Influence on the Methodists","text":"As with Moravianism, Pietism was a major influence on John Wesley and others who began the Methodist movement in 18th-century Great Britain. John Wesley was influenced significantly by Moravians (e.g., Zinzendorf, Peter Boehler) and Pietists connected to Francke and Halle Pietism. The fruit of these Pietist influences can be seen in the modern American Methodists, especially those who are aligned with the Holiness movement.","title":"Cross-denominational influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Evangelicalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism"},{"link_name":"Presbyterianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianism"},{"link_name":"Puritanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritanism"},{"link_name":"charismatic movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charismatic_movement"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Influence on religion in America","text":"Pietism had an influence on religion in America, as many German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, New York, and other areas. Its influence can be traced in certain sectors of Evangelicalism. Balmer says that:Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism.[30]","title":"Cross-denominational influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Merton Thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_Thesis"},{"link_name":"experimental science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_science"},{"link_name":"Robert K. Merton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_K._Merton"},{"link_name":"Max Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"},{"link_name":"famous claim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism"},{"link_name":"Protestant ethic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_ethic"},{"link_name":"capitalist economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_economy"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sztompka2003-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohen1990-32"}],"text":"The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between Protestant ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of Protestant Pietism and early experimental science.[31] The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.[32]","title":"Influence on science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethnocultural politics in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocultural_politics_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Northern Methodists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church"},{"link_name":"Northern Baptists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Baptist_Churches_USA"},{"link_name":"Congregationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Presbyterians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"Disciples of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disciples_of_Christ"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Nonconformist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"Further information: Ethnocultural politics in the United StatesIn the United States, Richard L. McCormick says, \"In the nineteenth century voters whose religious heritage was pietistic or evangelical were prone to support the Whigs and, later, the Republicans.\" Paul Kleppner generalizes, \"the more pietistic the group's outlook the more intensely Republican its partisan affiliation.\"[33] McCormick notes that the key link between religious values and politics resulted from the \"urge of evangelicals and Pietists to 'reach out and purge the world of sin'\".[34] Pietism became influential among Scandinavian Lutherans; additionally it affected other denominations in the United States, such as the Northern Methodists, Northern Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, and some smaller groups. The great majority were based in the northern states; some of these groups in the South would rather support the Democrats.[35]In England in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Nonconformist Protestant denominations, such as the Methodists, Baptists and Congregationalists, formed the base of the Liberal Party.[36] David Hempton states, \"The Liberal Party was the main beneficiary of Methodist political loyalties.\"[37]","title":"Impact on party voting in United States and Great Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=44196"},{"link_name":"Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-08800-6.html"}],"text":"Brown, Dale: Understanding Pietism, rev. ed. Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House, 1996.\nBrunner, Daniel L. Halle Pietists in England: Anthony William Boehm and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus 29. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1993.\nGehrz, Christopher and Mark Pattie III. The Pietist Option: Hope for the Renewal of Christianity. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2017.\nOlson, Roger E., Christian T. Collins Winn. Reclaiming Pietism: Retrieving an Evangelical Tradition (Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2015). xiii + 190 pp. online review\nShantz, Douglas H. An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.\nStoeffler, F. Ernest. The Rise of Evangelical Pietism. Studies in the History of Religion 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965.\nStoeffler, F. Ernest. German Pietism During the Eighteenth Century. Studies in the History of Religion 24. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973.\nStoeffler, F. Ernest. ed.: Continental Pietism and Early American Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976.\nWinn, Christian T. et al. eds. The Pietist Impulse in Christianity. Pickwick, 2012.\nYoder, Peter James. Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke. University Park: PSU Press, 2021.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joachim Feller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Feller"},{"link_name":"Johann Georg Walch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Georg_Walch"},{"link_name":"Friedrich August Tholuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_August_Tholuck"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Schmid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heinrich_Schmid_(theologian)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Max Goebel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Goebel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Isaak August Dorner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaak_August_Dorner"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Heppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Heppe"},{"link_name":"Albrecht Ritschl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl"},{"link_name":"Eugen Sachsse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Sachsse"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Wilhelm Franz Nippold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Franz_Nippold"},{"link_name":"Hans von Schubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_von_Schubert&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Carl Mirbt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Mirbt"},{"link_name":"Hartmut Lehmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartmut_Lehmann"},{"link_name":"Ingun Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingun_Montgomery"},{"link_name":"Horst Weigelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horst_Weigelt"}],"sub_title":"Older works","text":"Joachim Feller, Sonnet. In: Luctuosa desideria Quibus […] Martinum Bornium prosequebantur Quidam Patroni, Praeceptores atque Amici. Lipsiae [1689], pp. [2]–[3]. (Facsimile in: Reinhard Breymayer (Ed.): Luctuosa desideria. Tübingen 2008, pp. 24–25.) Here for the first time the newly detected source. – Less exactly cf. Martin Brecht: Geschichte des Pietismus, vol. I, p. 4.\nJohann Georg Walch, Historische und theologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche (1730);\nFriedrich August Tholuck, Geschichte des Pietismus und des ersten Stadiums der Aufklärung (1865);\nHeinrich Schmid, Die Geschichte des Pietismus (1863);\nMax Goebel, Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der Rheinisch-Westfälischen Kirche (3 vols., 1849–1860).The subject is dealt with at length inIsaak August Dorner's and W Gass's Histories of Protestant theology.Other works are:Heinrich Heppe, Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformierten Kirche (1879), which is sympathetic;\nAlbrecht Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus (5 vols., 1880–1886), which is hostile; and\nEugen Sachsse, Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884).See alsoFriedrich Wilhelm Franz Nippold's article in Theol. Stud. und Kritiken (1882), pp. 347?392;\nHans von Schubert, Outlines of Church History, ch. xv. (Eng. trans., 1907); and\nCarl Mirbt's article, \"Pietismus,\" in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie für prot. Theologie u. Kirche, end of vol. xv.The most extensive and current edition on Pietism is the four-volume edition in German, covering the entire movement in Europe and North AmericaGeschichte des Pietismus (GdP)Im Auftrag der Historischen Kommission zur Erforschung des Pietismus herausgegeben von Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gäbler und Hartmut Lehmann(English: On behalf of the Historical Commission for the Study of pietism edited by Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gaebler and Hartmut Lehmann)\nBand 1: Der Pietismus vom siebzehnten bis zum frühen achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Johannes van den Berg, Klaus Deppermann, Johannes Friedrich Gerhard Goeters und Hans Schneider hg. von Martin Brecht. Goettingen 1993. / 584 p.\nBand 2: Der Pietismus im achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Friedhelm Ackva, Johannes van den Berg, Rudolf Dellsperger, Johann Friedrich Gerhard Goeters, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Pentii Laasonen, Dietrich Meyer, Ingun Montgomery, Christian Peters, A. Gregg Roeber, Hans Schneider, Patrick Streiff und Horst Weigelt hg. von Martin Brecht und Klaus Deppermann. Goettingen 1995. / 826 p.\nBand 3: Der Pietismus im neunzehnten und zwanzigsten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Gustav Adolf Benrath, Eberhard Busch, Pavel Filipi, Arnd Götzelmann, Pentii Laasonen, Hartmut Lehmann, Mark A. Noll, Jörg Ohlemacher, Karl Rennstich und Horst Weigelt unter Mitwirkung von Martin Sallmann hg. von Ulrich Gäbler. Goettingen 2000. / 607 p.\nBand 4: Glaubenswelt und Lebenswelten des Pietismus. In Zusammenarbeit mit Ruth Albrecht, Martin Brecht, Christian Bunners, Ulrich Gäbler, Andreas Gestrich, Horst Gundlach, Jan Harasimovicz, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Peter Kriedtke, Martin Kruse, Werner Koch, Markus Matthias, Thomas Müller Bahlke, Gerhard Schäfer (†), Hans-Jürgen Schrader, Walter Sparn, Udo Sträter, Rudolf von Thadden, Richard Trellner, Johannes Wallmann und Hermann Wellenreuther hg. von Hartmut Lehmann. Goettingen 2004. / 709 p.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The \"Five Brothers of Württemberg Pietism\": Johannes Schnaitmann (1767–1847), Anton Egeler (1770–1850), Johann Martin Schäffer (1763–1851), Immanuel Gottlieb Kolb (1784–1859) and Johann Michael Hahn (1758–1819).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/F%C3%BCnfbr%C3%BCderbild.jpg/220px-F%C3%BCnfbr%C3%BCderbild.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pietistic Lutheran frugality, humility, restraint, sense of duty and order have been strong cultural and religious influences in Scandinavia.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Pietism.JPG/170px-Pietism.JPG"},{"image_text":"Philipp Spener (1635–1705), the \"Father of Pietism\", is considered the founder of the movement.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Philipp_Jakob_Spener.jpg/170px-Philipp_Jakob_Spener.jpg"},{"image_text":"Haugean Pietist Conventicle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/A_Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg/220px-A_Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg"},{"image_text":"Title page of the 1743 Mose och Lambsens wisor. This edition had 136 hymns, which were not numbered, although most had instructions as to which melody the text should be sung. For a complete list of hymns, see the Swedish article on Mose och Lambsens wisor. The title is a reference to Revelation 15:3, where those who triumph over the beast sing the songs of Moses and the Lamb.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Mose_Lambsen_fparm.jpg/220px-Mose_Lambsen_fparm.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Broad and the Narrow Way, a popular German Pietist painting, 1866","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Der_breite_und_der_schmale_Weg_2008.jpg/170px-Der_breite_und_der_schmale_Weg_2008.jpg"},{"image_text":"Summer services are a feature of Laestadian Lutheran piety.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/SUVISEURATELLTA_2.jpg/220px-SUVISEURATELLTA_2.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Backman, Milton Vaughn (1976). Christian Churches of America: Origins and Beliefs. Brigham Young University Press. p. 75. Pietistic Lutheranism was a form of belief and practice which emphasized experience in the Christian life and championed the importance of Christian action and growth in holiness.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigham_Young_University_Press","url_text":"Brigham Young University Press"}]},{"reference":"\"Pietism\". Encyclopædia Britannica. It emphasized personal faith and sanctity against the main Lutheran church's perceived stress on doctrine and theology over Christian living.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pietism","url_text":"\"Pietism\""}]},{"reference":"Holmquist, June Drenning (1 January 1981). They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 306. ISBN 9780873511551.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780873511551","url_text":"9780873511551"}]},{"reference":"Kivisto, Peter (16 October 2014). Religion and Immigration: Migrant Faiths in North America and Western Europe. Wiley. p. 109. ISBN 9780745686660.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745686660","url_text":"9780745686660"}]},{"reference":"Gritsch, Eric W. (1994). Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism. Fortress Press. ISBN 9781451407778.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fortressintroduc0000grit","url_text":"Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451407778","url_text":"9781451407778"}]},{"reference":"Tweton, D. Jerome (1988). The New Deal at the Grass Roots: Programs for the People in Otter Tail County, Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 7. ISBN 9780873512336.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780873512336","url_text":"9780873512336"}]},{"reference":"M, Eide, Øyvind (1929–1979). \"Tumsa, Gudina\". Dictionary of African Christian Biography. Retrieved 2022-03-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/gudina-tumsa/","url_text":"\"Tumsa, Gudina\""}]},{"reference":"Granquist, Mark Alan (2015). Lutherans in America: A New History. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 9781451472288.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451472288","url_text":"9781451472288"}]},{"reference":"\"Pietism\". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 10 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/pietistic","url_text":"\"Pietism\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of pietism\". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 10 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pietist","url_text":"\"Definition of pietism\""}]},{"reference":"\"pietism\". Lexico. Archived from the original on September 10, 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210910192042/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/pietism","url_text":"\"pietism\""},{"url":"https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/pietism","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dawn, Russell P. (15 March 2018). \"Piety vs. Pietism\". Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. Retrieved 27 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://witness.lcms.org/2018/piety-vs-pietism/","url_text":"\"Piety vs. Pietism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod","url_text":"Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod"}]},{"reference":"Granquist, Mark A. (2015). Scandinavian Pietists: Spiritual Writings from 19th-Century Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland. Paulist Press. p. 13. ISBN 9781587684982.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781587684982","url_text":"9781587684982"}]},{"reference":"Scherer, James A. (1993). \"The Triumph of Confessionalism in Nineteenth-Century German Lutheran Missions\" (PDF). Missio Apostolica. 2: 71–78. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 12, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060112180934/http://www.lsfmissiology.org/Essays/SchererTriumphofConfessionalism.pdf","url_text":"\"The Triumph of Confessionalism in Nineteenth-Century German Lutheran Missions\""},{"url":"http://www.lsfmissiology.org/Essays/SchererTriumphofConfessionalism.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Petersen, Wilhelm W. (2011). \"Warm Winds From the South: The Spread of Pietism to Scandinavian Lutherans\" (PDF). Bethany Lutheran Theological Seminary. Retrieved 27 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.blts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/WWP-Pietism.pdf","url_text":"\"Warm Winds From the South: The Spread of Pietism to Scandinavian Lutherans\""}]},{"reference":"Collins Winn, Christopher T.; Gerhz, Christopher; Holst, Eric; Carlson, G. William; Heide, Gail (25 October 2012). The Pietist Impulse in Christianity. Casemate Publishers. p. 200. ISBN 9780227680001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780227680001","url_text":"9780227680001"}]},{"reference":"Maurice Cranston (1982). Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754. University of Chicago Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques:_The_Early_Life_and_Work_of_Jean-Jacques_Rousseau,_1712%E2%80%931754","url_text":"Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754"}]},{"reference":"Leo Damrosch (2005). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius. Mariner Books.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gierl, Martin (1997). Pietismus und Aufklärung: theologische Polemik und die Kommunikationsreform der Wissenschaft am Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts [Pietism and enlightenment, theological polemic and the reform of science communication end of the 17. century] (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Elgán, Elisabeth; Scobbie, Irene (17 September 2015). Historical Dictionary of Sweden. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 159. ISBN 9781442250710.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442250710","url_text":"9781442250710"}]},{"reference":"Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 406. ISBN 9781442271593.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442271593","url_text":"9781442271593"}]},{"reference":"Nietzsche, Friedrich (28 February 1974). Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Hollingdale, R. J. Penguin Books Limited. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-14-190432-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche","url_text":"Nietzsche, Friedrich"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=a9VxKgui0mEC&pg=PT30","url_text":"Thus Spoke Zarathustra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._J._Hollingdale","url_text":"Hollingdale, R. J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190432-0","url_text":"978-0-14-190432-0"}]},{"reference":"Cimino, Richard (2003). Lutherans Today: American Lutheran Identity in the Twenty-First Century. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 9780802813657.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802813657","url_text":"9780802813657"}]},{"reference":"Shantz, Douglas H. (2013). An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe. JHU Press. ISBN 9781421408804.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781421408804","url_text":"9781421408804"}]},{"reference":"Smith, James Ward; Jamison, Albert Leland (1969). Religion in American life. Princeton University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press","url_text":"Princeton University Press"}]},{"reference":"Ratliff, Walter R. (2010). Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva. Walter Ratliff. ISBN 9781606081334.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781606081334","url_text":"9781606081334"}]},{"reference":"Carter, Craig A. (2007). Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective. Brazos Press. ISBN 9781441201225.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441201225","url_text":"9781441201225"}]},{"reference":"Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598842043.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIO","url_text":"ABC-CLIO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598842043","url_text":"9781598842043"}]},{"reference":"Randall Balmer (2002). The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. vii–viii. ISBN 9780664224097.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=syUupeVJOz4C&pg=PR8","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780664224097","url_text":"9780664224097"}]},{"reference":"Richard L. McCormick (1988). The Party Period and Public Policy. Oxford UP. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-19-536434-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YjbNdKWKkoQC&pg=PA48","url_text":"The Party Period and Public Policy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536434-7","url_text":"978-0-19-536434-7"}]},{"reference":"Howard Martin (1996). Britain in the 19th Century. Nelson Thornes. p. 298. 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New York: Robert Appleton Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pietism","url_text":"\"Pietism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia","url_text":"Catholic Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Pietism\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 593–594.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pietism","url_text":"\"Pietism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_2
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The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2
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["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","3.1 Development","3.2 Pre-production","3.3 Filming","3.4 Special effects","4 Music","5 Release","5.1 Box office","5.2 Critical response","5.3 Home media","6 Spin-offs","7 Accolades","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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2012 American romantic fantasy film by Bill Condon
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2Theatrical release posterDirected byBill CondonScreenplay byMelissa RosenbergBased onBreaking Dawnby Stephenie MeyerProduced by
Wyck Godfrey
Karen Rosenfelt
Stephenie Meyer
Starring
Kristen Stewart
Robert Pattinson
Taylor Lautner
Billy Burke
Peter Facinelli
Elizabeth Reaser
Kellan Lutz
Nikki Reed
Jackson Rathbone
Ashley Greene
Michael Sheen
Dakota Fanning
CinematographyGuillermo NavarroEdited by
Virginia Katz
Ian Slater
Music byCarter BurwellProductioncompanies
Temple Hill Entertainment
Sunswept Entertainment
Distributed bySummit EntertainmentRelease dates
November 12, 2012 (2012-11-12) (Los Angeles premiere)
November 16, 2012 (2012-11-16)
(United States)Running time115 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishBudget$136 millionBox office$848.6 million
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 is a 2012 American romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon. It was written by Melissa Rosenberg, based on the 2008 novel Breaking Dawn by Stephenie Meyer. The sequel to The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011), it is the fifth and final installment in The Twilight Saga film series. The film stars Kristen Stewart, Robert Pattinson, and Taylor Lautner, reprising their roles as Bella Swan, Edward Cullen, and Jacob Black, respectively; Mackenzie Foy portrays Renesmee Cullen. The ensemble cast includes Billy Burke, Peter Facinelli, Elizabeth Reaser, Kellan Lutz, Nikki Reed, Jackson Rathbone, Ashley Greene, Michael Sheen, and Dakota Fanning.
Summit Entertainment announced that Breaking Dawn would be adapted into a two-part film on June 10, 2010. Principal photography for both parts began on November 1, 2010, and wrapped on April 22, 2011. The second part was shot in Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; and Vancouver, Canada.
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 premiered in Los Angeles on November 12, 2012, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 16, by Summit Entertainment. The film grossed $848.6 million worldwide, becoming the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012, the highest-grossing film of The Twilight Saga series, and the highest-grossing film released by Summit Entertainment, despite mixed reviews.
Plot
The film continues from the events of the previous film, as Bella, who has just given birth, awakens from her human-to-vampire transformation. After her vampire husband Edward Cullen helps her tame her initial thirst for blood, Bella is introduced to their daughter Renesmee. The rest of the Cullens and Bella's werewolf friend Jacob stay nearby, and when Jacob acts possessively towards Renesmee, Bella learns he has "imprinted" on her, a werewolf phenomenon that makes Jacob and Renesmee soul-mates.
Meanwhile, Bella's father, Charlie, has been trying to contact the Cullens for updates on Bella's health. Carlisle, the Cullen patriarch and a medical doctor, announces that they have to leave Forks, Washington, to protect their identities.
Jacob, desperate not to lose Renesmee, visits Charlie and tells him that Bella is alive and vaguely describes that she has transformed, revealing his wolf form to Charlie to persuade him to stop asking further questions. Charlie goes to the Cullen house to see Bella and meet Renesmee. He accepts that Bella is now recovered but somehow different, though he does not know what has changed or where Renesmee came from, instead accepting she is "adopted".
Several months pass with Carlisle monitoring Renesmee's rapid growth. The vampire Irina spots Renesmee in the forest and mistakenly assumes she is an "immortal child": a type of vampire transformed in childhood who, because it cannot be reasoned with or trained, sucks the blood out of humans uncontrollably. The creation of such children is outlawed by the vampire leadership, the Volturi, and anyone caught with one is executed on the spot. Irina reports the crime to the Volturi.
After Edward's sister Alice, who can see glimpses of the future, experiences a vision of the Volturi and Irina coming to kill the Cullens, she instructs the others to gather as many witnesses as they can to testify that Renesmee is not an immortal child.
As the Volturi serve punishments swiftly, the Cullens and their werewolf allies prepare for a possible battle. Bella soon realizes she has a special ability: a powerful mental shield that had protected her from Edward's mind-reading even when she was human, which she is taught to extend to protect others from vampire superpowers.
The army of the Volturi arrives in Forks, led by Aro, who can read people's minds by touching them. Seeing the Cullens alongside their witnesses and allies, the Volturi hesitate. The Cullens are able to prove to Aro that Renesmee is not an immortal child.
However, the Volturi are eager to subdue the Cullens to forcibly enlist their talented members, so they summarily execute Irina for her mistake to provoke the Cullens into battle. But before an all-out fight breaks out, Alice appears in time to give Aro her vision of the future if fighting ensues.
In Alice's violent vision, Carlisle, Aro, and several others on both sides are killed, including other Volturi, Cullens, and werewolves. Aro, despite being afraid of the vision, still wants to execute Renesmee as she might be a threat to the vampires' secrecy.
Alice reveals their final witness, a Mapuche man from South America, who is a half-human half-vampire, just like Renesmee. He proves that he is not a threat, supporting the notion that Renesmee is not one either. The Volturi unhappily leave, Aro concluding that there will be no battle today.
Back at the Cullen home, Alice glimpses the future, seeing Edward and Bella greeting Jacob and a fully matured Renesmee, also a couple, on a sun-dappled beach. Edward reads Alice's mind and feels relieved that Renesmee has Jacob to protect her.
Alone in their favorite meadow, Bella pushes her mental shield away and finally allows Edward to see into her mind, showing him every moment they have shared together in a montage. They kiss after Bella tells him, "nobody has ever loved anybody as much as I love you", and he romantically responds "with one exception".
Cast
Main articles: List of Twilight cast members and List of Twilight characters
Kristen Stewart as Bella Cullen
Robert Pattinson as Edward Cullen
Taylor Lautner as Jacob Black
Mackenzie Foy as Renesmee Cullen
Ashley Greene as Alice Cullen
Jackson Rathbone as Jasper Hale
Peter Facinelli as Carlisle Cullen
Elizabeth Reaser as Esme Cullen
Kellan Lutz as Emmett Cullen
Nikki Reed as Rosalie Hale
Billy Burke as Charlie Swan
Michael Sheen as Aro
Jamie Campbell Bower as Caius
Dakota Fanning as Jane
Christopher Heyerdahl as Marcus
Cameron Bright as Alec
Casey LaBow as Kate
MyAnna Buring as Tanya
Maggie Grace as Irina
Lee Pace as Garrett
Christian Camargo as Eleazar
Mía Maestro as Carmen
Noel Fisher as Vladimir
Guri Weinberg as Stefan
Joe Anderson as Alistair
Angela Sarafyan as Tia
Rami Malek as Benjamin
Daniel Cudmore as Felix
Judith Shekoni as Zafrina
Tracey Heggins as Senna
Charlie Bewley as Demetri
J. D. Pardo as Nahuel
Marisa Quinn as Huilen
Booboo Stewart as Seth Clearwater
Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater
Alex Rice as Sue Clearwater
Wendell Pierce as J. Jenks
Lateef Crowder as Santiago
Andrea Powell as Sasha
Billy Wagenseller as Vasilii
Toni Trucks as Mary
Andrea Gabriel as Kebi
Chaske Spencer as Sam Uley
Omar Metwally as Amun
Valorie Curry as Charlotte
Marlane Barnes as Maggie
Erik Odom as Peter
Lisa Howard as Siobhan
Bill Tangradi as Randall
Patrick Brennan as Liam
Amadou Ly as Henri
Janelle Froehlich as Yvette
Masami Kosaka as Toshiro
Gil Birmingham, Sarah Clarke, Michael Welch, Anna Kendrick, Christian Serratos, Justin Chon, Cam Gigandet, Edi Gathegi, Rachelle Lefevre, Kiowa Gordon, Tyson Houseman, Alex Meraz, Bronson Pelletier, Graham Greene, Tinsel Korey, Alex Rice, Xavier Samuel, Jodelle Ferland, Bryce Dallas Howard, and Carolina Virguez, from the previous films make archival cameo appearances during the pre-credits montage accompanied by a duet version of Christina Perri's "A Thousand Years" with Steve Kazee as the second voice.
Production
See also: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 § Production
Development
On June 10, 2010, Summit Entertainment announced that a two-part adaptation of the novel Breaking Dawn would start filming in November and made clear that all major actors would return for both parts.
Pre-production
By August 2010, screenwriter Melissa Rosenberg said that the scripts for Part 1 and 2 were 75 to 85 percent completed. She found the greatest challenge in writing the scripts to be the final sequence of Part 2, explaining, "The final battle sequence is a big challenge because it lasts 25 pages. It's almost an entire three-act story in and of itself. You have to track hundreds of characters. It's an enormous challenge to choreograph on the page and for Bill to choreograph on the stage." She had written various drafts of the scene but, at the time, hadn't revised or discussed them with Condon yet. She said, "That's the next big hurdle to sit down with the stunt coordinator and create the ballet. It's a lot of work. I'm exhausted, but we're intent on making them the best scripts yet." Producer Wyck Godfrey called Part 2 "an action film in terms of life-and-death stakes" and said that in Part 1 "there are the pangs of newlywed tension that occur that are relatable even in a fantasy film. Marriage is not quite the experience that they thought it was."
Godfrey considered releasing the second film in 3D to differentiate between the time before and after Bella becomes a vampire, an idea originally proposed for The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, but said that the decision was up to Condon. However, he said that if the second film were to be released in 3D, he would like to shoot it with the proper equipment in "real" 3D as was done with Avatar (2009), not convert it into 3D in post-production as was done with Clash of the Titans (2010).
Filming
Principal photography started on November 1, 2010, and wrapped on April 22, 2011, ending the franchise's three years of production since March 2008. Filming was shot on location in Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; and Vancouver, Canada. Filming also occurred at Raleigh Studios in Baton Rouge.
On the subject of the final day and her final moment as Bella, Stewart stated, "After that scene, my true final scene, I felt like I could shoot up into the night sky and every pore of my body would shoot light. I felt lighter than I've ever felt in my life."
In April 2012, the crew and some of the cast, including Pattinson and Stewart, returned for reshoots to pick up some additional shots for technical work. These re-shoots did not include any new scenes or dialogue.
Special effects
Tippett Studio first began working on the CGI (computer-generated imagery) wolves in February 2009 for The Twilight Saga: New Moon, and the look of the creatures has evolved, becoming more photo-real over the course of the saga, with the input of three different directors. "It's a subtle balance of just how anthropomorphic these wolves are," says Eric Leven. "Bill wanted to make sure that we had a sense of the human or the shapeshifter in there. Finding that balance of how much of a human performance versus an animal performance was important for Bill."
Leven adds, "Bill has always treated the wolves as characters and never as computer-generated things, and directs them in the same way he'd direct any actor. He would always give us direction like Sam should be angrier. It's the best way to work. His treating these creatures as characters, instead of just computer bits, was really great."
"Because we've been working on this franchise for such a prolonged period of time, we've been able to improve the look from show to show," comments Phil Tippett. "Wolves generally are pretty darn clean and since Bill wanted the wolves rangier, that means a lot more fur matting and clumping, like they've lived out in the woods. We edged towards something a bit more feral."
"However, there is also a balance between look and technology," adds Tippett. "The body count of the wolves escalates and because we're adding a great deal more hair to get the right texture, that fur really ups the rendering time. We've gone from four wolves to eight to twelve, to sixteen in Part 2. So we have to be very careful about that balance because it takes hundreds of hours to render each wolf."
Music
Main article: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (soundtrack)
It was revealed in January 2012 that the soundtrack for Part 2 had already started production. Confirmed for the soundtrack in advance were "Heart of Stone" by Iko, which plays when Edward and Bella are talking in the cottage after finding Alice's note and "Where I Come From" by Passion Pit, which will play when Bella wakes up from her transformation. The lead single from the soundtrack is "The Forgotten", performed by the American rock band Green Day. "A Thousand Years, Pt. 2" by the American singer Christina Perri is also featured on the soundtrack album.
Carter Burwell, the composer of Twilight and Breaking Dawn: Part 1, returned to score the final installment of the series.
Release
Box office
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 earned $292 million in North America and $537 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $829.6 million. The film is the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012, and the highest-grossing film of the Twilight series. It had a $340.9 million worldwide opening, which was the eighth-largest ever, the largest for the Twilight franchise, and the largest for a film released outside the summer period.
In North America, the film grossed $30.4 million in Thursday night and midnight showings, achieving the third-highest midnight gross and the highest midnight gross of the franchise. Breaking Dawn – Part 2 made $71.2 million on its opening day, which is the sixth-highest opening- and single-day gross as well as the third-highest of the franchise. For its opening weekend, the movie earned $141.1 million, which is the 13th-highest-grossing opening weekend of all time, the second-highest-grossing of the franchise, the third-largest November opening, and the fourth-largest opening of 2012. It retained first place in its second weekend by dropping 69.1% with a gross of $43.6 million over the three-day weekend and made a total of $64.4 million over the five-day Thanksgiving holiday weekend. In its third weekend, Breaking Dawn Part – 2 held onto the number one spot again by dropping 60.1% and grossing $17.4 million. It became the third-highest-grossing film of the franchise behind Eclipse and New Moon.
Outside North America, the film opened on Wednesday, November 14, 2012, in six countries earning $13.8 million. By Thursday, it had opened in 37 territories, earning $38.8 million. In all territories, it opened with similar or higher earnings than its immediate predecessor. Through its first Friday, it earned $91.0 million, after expanding to 61 territories. By the end of its opening weekend (Wednesday–Sunday), it scored a series-best $199.5 million opening from 61 territories on 12,812 screens. This is the eighth-largest opening outside North America and the largest 2012 opening. IMAX showings generated $3 million from 82 locations. The film's largest openings were recorded in the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($25.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($22.0 million), and France and the Maghreb region ($17.9 million). In Spain, it set a three-day opening-weekend record with $11.9 million. In total earnings, its three highest-grossing markets after North America are the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($57.9 million), Brazil ($54.2 million), and Russia and the CIS ($42.8 million).
Critical response
At Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 49% approval rating and an average score of 5.3/10 based on 200 reviews. The consensus states: "It's the most entertaining Twilight, but that's not enough to make Breaking Dawn Part 2 worth watching for filmgoers who don't already count themselves among the franchise converts." At Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics. Audiences polled on CinemaScore gave it an average rating of "A".
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The final installment of the immortal Bella/Edward romance will give its breathlessly awaiting international audience just what it wants". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said, "Breaking Dawn: Part 2 starts off slow but gathers momentum, and that's because, with Bella and Edward united against the Volturi, the picture has a real threat". Sara Stewart of the New York Post wrote, "Finally, someone took the source material at its terribly written word and stopped treating the whole affair so seriously". Justin Chang of Variety praised the performance of Stewart by saying, "No longer a mopey, lower-lip-biting emo girl, this Bella is twitchy, feral, formidable and fully energized, a goddess even among her exalted bloodsucker brethren". Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, "Despite the slow start Mr. Condon closes the series in fine, smooth style. He gives fans all the lovely flowers, conditioned hair and lightly erotic, dreamy kisses they deserve".
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying "its audience, which takes these films very seriously indeed, will drink deeply of its blood. The sensational closing sequence cannot be accused of leaving a single loophole, not even some of those we didn't know were there". He concluded by saying, "Breaking Dawn, Part 2 must be one of the more serious entries in any major movie franchise... it bit the bullet, and I imagine fans will be pleased." Helen O'Hara of Empire gave the film a mixed review and said, "Fans will be left on a high; other viewers will be confused but generally entertained by a saga whose romance is matched only by its weirdness".
Home media
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 2, 2013. As of June 1, 2014, Breaking Dawn: Part 2 has sold 4,810,249 DVDs along with 1,224,869 Blu-ray Discs for $71,418,469 and $24,472,107, respectively, totaling $99,195,325.
Spin-offs
In September 2016, Lionsgate co-chairman Patrick Wachsberger stated that a sequel was "a possibility", but would only go ahead if Stephenie Meyer wanted to do one. On August 8, 2017, Variety reported that Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer has interest in having spinoffs made for The Twilight Saga, and wants to create a writers' room to explore the idea.
Accolades
Year
Award
Category
Recipients
Result
Ref.
2013
Empire Cinemas Alternative Movie Awards
Best On-Screen Couple
Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson) and Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart)
Won
Best On-Screen Kiss
Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson) and Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart)
Won
Best Fight Scenes
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
Best Film Villain
Aro (Michael Sheen)
Won
Best Male Body
Jacob Black (Taylor Lautner)
Won
2013
Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Picture
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
Worst Actor
Robert Pattinson
Nominated
Worst Actress
Kristen Stewart(for Breaking Dawn – Pt. 2 and Snow White and the Huntsman)
Won
Worst Supporting Actor
Taylor Lautner
Won
Worst Supporting Actress
Ashley Greene
Nominated
Worst Screen Couple
Mackenzie Foy and Taylor Lautner
Won
Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart
Nominated
Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
Worst Director
Bill Condon
Won
Worst Screenplay
Melissa Rosenberg and Stephenie Meyer
Nominated
Worst Screen Ensemble
Entire cast of Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
2013
MTV Movie Awards
Best Shirtless Performance
Taylor Lautner
Won
2013
Moviefone Fonie Award
Most Extreme Role Adjustment
Kristen Stewart(for Breaking Dawn – Pt. 2 and On the Road)
Won
2013
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Movie Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won
2013
Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards
Favourite UK Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won
2013
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Movie Fan Following
Twihards
Won
2013
Richard Attenborough Film Award
British Performer of the Year
Robert Pattinson
Won
2013
Virgin Media Award
Hottest Movie Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won
Hottest Movie Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won
2013
Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress
Mackenzie Foy
Nominated
2013
Teen Choice Awards
Choice Movie: Romance Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won
Choice Movie: Scene Stealer
Kellan Lutz
Won
Choice Movie: Sci-Fi/Fantasy Actor
Taylor Lautner
Won
Choice Movie: Sci-Fi/Fantasy Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won
Choice Movie: Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
Choice Movie: Romance Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won
Choice Movie: Romance
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
See also
Vampire films
References
^ a b c "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Retrieved August 5, 2020.
^ "THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN - PART 2 (12A)". British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved April 30, 2015.
^ Lang, Brent (March 9, 2011). "The Secret Summit Prospectus: $1.2B Projected for 'Breaking Dawn'". The Wrap. Retrieved September 8, 2016.
^ a b "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 13, 2013.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 2 (PG-13)". Archived from the original on January 15, 2021.
^ Steve Weintraub (November 3, 2010). "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 Gets Released November 16, 2012". Collider.com.
^ a b "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Confirmed for Two Films". ComingSoon.net. June 11, 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
^ "'Breaking Dawn' Scribe Says She's Wrestling With 'Battle Scene'". MTV.
^ Orange, B. Alan (January 8, 2011). "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Story Split and Pregnancy Details". MovieWeb.
^ Jen Yamato (June 13, 2010). "Exclusive: 'Eclipse' Producer Wyck Godfrey on 3D, 'Breaking Dawn,' and More". FEARnet.com. Horror Entertainment, LLC. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved June 13, 2010.
^ Exclusive: Producer Wyck Godfrey on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, Breaking Dawn, Other Projects, Ultimate Twilight DVD Box Set. Collider. July 1, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2011.
^ Mike Scott (November 16, 2012). "'Twilight: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2' director Bill Condon ready to move onto other things". Nola.com. Retrieved October 5, 2020.
^ Lynn Hirschberg (September 1, 2011). "Woman on the Verge". W. Retrieved October 5, 2020.
^ Bill Condon (April 15, 2012). "A Production Update From Bill Condon". Facebook. Retrieved April 15, 2012.
^ Shawn Cauthen (November 2012). "Learn About All the Special Effects that went into THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN – PART 2". Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
^ Benson, Kirstin (January 30, 2012). "'Breaking Dawn: Part 2′ Soundtrack Started, Says Insider". www.hollywoodlife.com: Hollywood Life. Archived from the original on February 5, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
^ Sims, Andrew (July 12, 2012). "Passion Pit is first artist announced for 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2′ soundtrack". Hypable.
^ All Time Worldwide Opening Weekend Records at the Box Office
^ Ben Fritz (November 16, 2012). "Final 'Twilight' film grosses $30.4 million in late-night shows". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 16, 2012.
^ Fritz, Ben (July 20, 2012). "'Dark Knight Rises' collects $30.6 million from midnight screenings". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 16, 2012.
^ Pamela McClintock (November 16, 2012). "Box Office Report: 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million in Thursday Night Runs". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 16, 2012.
^ Ray Subers. "'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million from Midnight/Thursday Night Shows". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 16, 2012.
^ Ray Subers. "Friday Report: 'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Just Shy of Franchise Record". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 17, 2012.
^ Weekend Report: 'Breaking Dawn' Ends 'Twilight' Franchise on Strong Note
^ Box office report: 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' just misses 'Twilight' record with $141.3M, 'Lincoln' expands successfully
^ HIGHEST OPENING WEEKENDS Retrieved May 7, 2013
^ Twilight Opening Weekends
^ TOP OPENING WEEKENDS BY MONTH: November
^ Weekend Report: 'Breaking Dawn' Ends 'Twilight' Franchise on Strong Note
^ Weekend Report: 'Twilight,' Bond Dominate Fruitful Thanksgiving
^ Weekend Report: Holdovers Hang On, 'Killing' 'Soft' in Seventh
^ Franchises: Twilight Box Office Mojo, retrieved January 25, 2013
^ Finke, Nikki (November 18, 2012). "'Breaking Dawn 2′ Foreign's $199.6M Sets Twilight Saga Overseas Opening Record". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
^ Cunningham, Todd (November 17, 2012). "'Twilight: Breaking Dawn 2′ First Box-Office Bite Is $71M in U.S., $91M Overseas". The Wrap. Archived from the original on July 18, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2013.
^ "UPDATED: 'Breaking Dawn - Part 2' Passes $500 Million Overseas". Boxoffice.com. November 17, 2012. Retrieved November 2, 2013.
^ Subers, Ray (November 18, 2012). "Around-the-World Roundup: 'Breaking Dawn' Earns Massive $199.6 Million Overseas". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
^ Segers, Frank (November 18, 2012). "Foreign Box Office: Twilight's 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Launching the Biggest Foreign Opening of 2012". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
^ a b "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 (2012) - International Box Office Results". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
^ "'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Reaches $199.6 Million Overseas; $340.9 Million Worldwide". boxoffice.com. November 18, 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 (2012)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved March 31, 2021.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved November 23, 2012.
^ "'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Opens to Behemoth $340.9M Global Weekend ($141.3M Dom + $199.6M Intl): Twilight Saga Record Abroad; Holdover 'Skyfall' #2 & 'Lincoln' #3 Strong". November 18, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2". The Hollywood Reporter. November 13, 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ "Movie Review The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ "Good to the last bite!". New York Post. November 15, 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2". Variety. November 13, 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ Dargis, Manohla (November 15, 2012). "Infusing the Bloodline With a Problem Child". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (PG-13)". rogerebert.com. Retrieved December 1, 2012.
^ "Reviews: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2". Empire. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 Blu-ray". December 12, 2012.
^ "The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn, Part 2 (2012) - Financial Information".
^ "Lionsgate Co-Chairman: New Twilight Movie is a 'Possibility'". Screen Rant. September 26, 2016.
^ Lang, Brent (August 8, 2017). "Lionsgate Chief Says 'Hunger Games,' 'Twilight' Have ' More Stories to Tell'". Variety. Retrieved February 10, 2018.
^ "Empire Cinemas Alternative Movie Awards". EmpireCinemas.co.uk. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ "The 33rd Annual RAZZIE® Awards". Razzies.com. Archived from the original on February 27, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ "2013 MTV Movie Awards Winners". MTV.com. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
^ "The 1st Annual Fonie Awards". Moviefone.com. Archived from the original on April 3, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ "Kids' Choice Awards 2013". Nick.com. Archived from the original on March 25, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ "UK Kids' Choice Awards 2013". Nick.co.uk. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
^ "2013 People's Choice Awards". Entertainment Weekly. January 10, 2013.
^ "Robert Pattinson wins British Performer of The Year". BeTheRedCarpet.co.uk. February 4, 2013. Archived from the original on May 26, 2013. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
^ "Virgin Media Awards: The Winners". VirginMedia.com. February 12, 2013.
^ "The 34th Annual Young Artist Awards". YoungArtistAwards.org. March 31, 2013.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2.
Official website
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 at IMDb
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 at Metacritic
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 at Box Office Mojo
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 at Rotten Tomatoes
vteThe Twilight Saga by Stephenie MeyerStory booksMain novels
Twilight
New Moon
Eclipse
Breaking Dawn
Adaptations
Twilight: The Graphic Novel
New Moon: The Graphic Novel
Companionsand spin-offs
The Twilight Saga: The Official Illustrated Guide
The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner
Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined
Midnight Sun
Film seriesFeature films
Twilight
soundtrack
New Moon
soundtrack
Eclipse
soundtrack
Breaking Dawn: Part 1
soundtrack
Breaking Dawn: Part 2
soundtrack
Short films
The Mary Alice Brandon File
Cast and characters
Bella Swan
Edward Cullen
Jacob Black
Singles
"Decode"
"Spotlight"
"Meet Me on the Equinox"
"Possibility"
"Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)"
"Heavy in Your Arms"
"It Will Rain"
"A Thousand Years"
"The Forgotten"
Other
Twilight fandom
TwiCon
Scene It? Twilight
Related articles
Renesmee (given name)
Vampires Suck
Breaking Wind
Fifty Shades
Gabriel's Inferno
Beautiful Bastard
Category
vteFilms by Bill CondonDirected
Sister, Sister (1987, also wrote)
Murder 101 (TV, 1991)
Dead in the Water (TV, 1991)
Deadly Relations (TV, 1993)
Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995)
The Man Who Wouldn't Die (TV, 1995)
Gods and Monsters (1998, also wrote)
Kinsey (2004, also wrote)
Dreamgirls (2006, also wrote)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
The Fifth Estate (2013)
Mr. Holmes (2015)
Beauty and the Beast (2017)
The Good Liar (2019)
Kiss of the Spider Woman (TBA)
Written only
Strange Behavior (1981)
Strange Invaders (1983)
F/X2 (1991)
Chicago (2002)
Shortcut to Happiness (2007)
The Greatest Showman (2017)
Produced only
Come from Away (2021)
Awards for The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture1980s
Can't Stop the Music (1980)
Mommie Dearest (1981)
Inchon (1982)
The Lonely Lady (1983)
Bolero (1984)
Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)
Howard the Duck / Under the Cherry Moon (1986)
Leonard Part 6 (1987)
Cocktail (1988)
Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989)
1990s
The Adventures of Ford Fairlane / Ghosts Can't Do It (1990)
Hudson Hawk (1991)
Shining Through (1992)
Indecent Proposal (1993)
Color of Night (1994)
Showgirls (1995)
Striptease (1996)
The Postman (1997)
An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn (1998)
Wild Wild West (1999)
2000s
Battlefield Earth (2000)
Freddy Got Fingered (2001)
Swept Away (2002)
Gigli (2003)
Catwoman (2004)
Dirty Love (2005)
Basic Instinct 2 (2006)
I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
The Love Guru (2008)
Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009)
2010s
The Last Airbender (2010)
Jack and Jill (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
Movie 43 (2013)
Saving Christmas (2014)
Fantastic Four / Fifty Shades of Grey (2015)
Hillary's America: The Secret History of the Democratic Party (2016)
The Emoji Movie (2017)
Holmes & Watson (2018)
Cats (2019)
2020s
Absolute Proof (2020/21)
Diana: The Musical (2021)
Blonde (2022)
Winnie-the-Pooh: Blood and Honey (2023)
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Remake, Rip-off or Sequel1990s
Wyatt Earp (1994)
The Scarlet Letter (1995)
No Award (1996)
Speed 2: Cruise Control (1997)
The Avengers / Godzilla / Psycho (1998)
No Award (1999)
2000s
Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2 (2000)
Planet of the Apes (2001)
Swept Away (2002)
Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003)
Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed (2004)
Son of the Mask (2005)
Basic Instinct 2 / Little Man (2006)
Daddy Day Camp / I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008)
Land of the Lost (2009)
2010s
Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Jack and Jill (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
The Lone Ranger (2013)
Annie (2014)
Fantastic Four (2015)
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016)
Fifty Shades Darker (2017)
Holmes & Watson (2018)
Rambo: Last Blood (2019)
2020s
Dolittle (2020/21)
Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021)
Disney's Pinocchio (2022)
Winnie-the-Pooh: Blood and Honey (2023)
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Director1980s
Robert Greenwald – Xanadu (1980)
Michael Cimino – Heaven's Gate (1981)
Ken Annakin – The Pirate Movie / Terence Young – Inchon (1982)
Peter Sasdy – The Lonely Lady (1983)
John Derek – Bolero (1984)
Sylvester Stallone – Rocky IV (1985)
Prince – Under the Cherry Moon (1986)
Norman Mailer – Tough Guys Don't Dance / Elaine May – Ishtar (1987)
Blake Edwards – Sunset / Stewart Raffill – Mac and Me (1988)
William Shatner – Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989)
1990s
John Derek – Ghosts Can't Do It (1990)
Michael Lehmann – Hudson Hawk (1991)
David Seltzer – Shining Through (1992)
Jennifer Lynch – Boxing Helena (1993)
Steven Seagal – On Deadly Ground (1994)
Paul Verhoeven – Showgirls (1995)
Andrew Bergman – Striptease (1996)
Kevin Costner – The Postman (1997)
Gus Van Sant – Psycho (1998)
Barry Sonnenfeld – Wild Wild West (1999)
2000s
Roger Christian – Battlefield Earth (2000)
Tom Green – Freddy Got Fingered (2001)
Guy Ritchie – Swept Away (2002)
Martin Brest – Gigli (2003)
Pitof – Catwoman (2004)
John Asher – Dirty Love (2005)
M. Night Shyamalan – Lady in the Water (2006)
Chris Sivertson – I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
Uwe Boll – In the Name of the King, Postal, and Tunnel Rats (2008)
Michael Bay – Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009)
2010s
M. Night Shyamalan – The Last Airbender (2010)
Dennis Dugan – Jack and Jill and Just Go with It (2011)
Bill Condon – The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
Elizabeth Banks, Steven Brill, Steve Carr, Rusty Cundieff, James Duffy, Griffin Dunne, Peter Farrelly, Patrik Forsberg, Will Graham, James Gunn, Bob Odenkirk, Brett Ratner, and Jonathan van Tulleken – Movie 43 (2013)
Michael Bay – Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014)
Josh Trank – Fantastic Four (2015)
Dinesh D'Souza and Bruce Schooley – Hillary's America: The Secret History of the Democratic Party (2016)
Tony Leondis – The Emoji Movie (2017)
Etan Cohen – Holmes & Watson (2018)
Tom Hooper – Cats (2019)
2020s
Sia – Music (2020/21)
Christopher Ashley – Diana the Musical (2021)
Colson Baker and Mod Sun – Good Mourning (2022)
Rhys Frake-Waterfield – Winnie-the-Pooh: Blood and Honey (2023)
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress1980s
Brooke Shields – The Blue Lagoon (1980)
Bo Derek – Tarzan, the Ape Man / Faye Dunaway – Mommie Dearest (1981)
Pia Zadora – Butterfly (1982)
Pia Zadora – The Lonely Lady (1983)
Bo Derek – Bolero (1984)
Linda Blair – Night Patrol, Savage Island, and Savage Streets (1985)
Madonna – Shanghai Surprise (1986)
Madonna – Who's That Girl (1987)
Liza Minnelli – Arthur 2: On the Rocks and Rent-a-Cop (1988)
Heather Locklear – The Return of Swamp Thing (1989)
1990s
Bo Derek – Ghosts Can't Do It (1990)
Sean Young – A Kiss Before Dying (1991)
Melanie Griffith – Shining Through and A Stranger Among Us (1992)
Madonna – Body of Evidence (1993)
Sharon Stone – Intersection and The Specialist (1994)
Elizabeth Berkley – Showgirls (1995)
Demi Moore – The Juror and Striptease (1996)
Demi Moore – G.I. Jane (1997)
Spice Girls – Spice World (1998)
Heather Donahue – The Blair Witch Project (1999)
2000s
Madonna – The Next Best Thing (2000)
Mariah Carey – Glitter (2001)
Madonna – Swept Away / Britney Spears – Crossroads (2002)
Jennifer Lopez – Gigli (2003)
Halle Berry – Catwoman (2004)
Jenny McCarthy – Dirty Love (2005)
Sharon Stone – Basic Instinct 2 (2006)
Lindsay Lohan – I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
Paris Hilton – The Hottie and the Nottie (2008)
Sandra Bullock – All About Steve (2009)
2010s
Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis, Cynthia Nixon, and Sarah Jessica Parker – Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Adam Sandler (in drag) – Jack and Jill (2011)
Kristen Stewart – Snow White and the Huntsman and The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
Tyler Perry (in drag) – A Madea Christmas (2013)
Cameron Diaz – The Other Woman and Sex Tape (2014)
Dakota Johnson – Fifty Shades of Grey (2015)
Rebekah Turner – Hillary's America: The Secret History of the Democratic Party (2016)
Tyler Perry (in drag) – Boo 2! A Madea Halloween (2017)
Melissa McCarthy – The Happytime Murders and Life of the Party (2018)
Hilary Duff – The Haunting of Sharon Tate (2019)
2020s
Kate Hudson – Music (2020/21)
Jeanna de Waal – Diana: The Musical (2021)
Golden Raspberry Awards (for nominating Ryan Kiera Armstrong) (2022)
Megan Fox – Johnny & Clyde (2023)
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor1980s
John Adames – Gloria / Laurence Olivier – The Jazz Singer (1980)
Steve Forrest – Mommie Dearest (1981)
Ed McMahon – Butterfly (1982)
Jim Nabors – Stroker Ace (1983)
Brooke Shields (in a mustache) – Sahara (1984)
Rob Lowe – St. Elmo's Fire (1985)
Jerome Benton – Under the Cherry Moon (1986)
David Mendenhall – Over the Top (1987)
Dan Aykroyd – Caddyshack II (1988)
Christopher Atkins – Listen to Me (1989)
1990s
Donald Trump – Ghosts Can't Do It (1990)
Dan Aykroyd – Nothing but Trouble (1991)
Tom Selleck – Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992)
Woody Harrelson – Indecent Proposal (1993)
O. J. Simpson – Naked Gun 33+1⁄3: The Final Insult (1994)
Dennis Hopper – Waterworld (1995)
Marlon Brando – The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996)
Dennis Rodman – Double Team (1997)
Joe Eszterhas – An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn (1998)
Ahmed Best – Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999)
2000s
Barry Pepper – Battlefield Earth (2000)
Charlton Heston – Cats & Dogs, Planet of the Apes, and Town & Country (2001)
Hayden Christensen – Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002)
Sylvester Stallone – Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over (2003)
Donald Rumsfeld – Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)
Hayden Christensen – Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005)
M. Night Shyamalan – Lady in the Water (2006)
Eddie Murphy – Norbit (2007)
Pierce Brosnan – Mamma Mia! (2008)
Billy Ray Cyrus – Hannah Montana: The Movie (2009)
2010s
Jackson Rathbone – The Last Airbender and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2010)
Al Pacino – Jack and Jill (2011)
Taylor Lautner – The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
Will Smith – After Earth (2013)
Kelsey Grammer – The Expendables 3, Legends of Oz: Dorothy's Return, Think Like a Man Too, and Transformers: Age of Extinction (2014)
Eddie Redmayne – Jupiter Ascending (2015)
Jesse Eisenberg – Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016)
Mel Gibson – Daddy's Home 2 (2017)
John C. Reilly – Holmes & Watson (2018)
James Corden – Cats (2019)
2020s
Rudy Giuliani – Borat Subsequent Moviefilm: Delivery of Prodigious Bribe to American Regime for Make Benefit Once Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan (2020/21)
Jared Leto – House of Gucci (2021)
Tom Hanks – Elvis (2022)
Sylvester Stallone – Expend4bles (2023)
vteGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Combo1990s
Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt – Interview with the Vampire / Sylvester Stallone and Sharon Stone – The Specialist (1994)
Any combination of two people (or two body parts) – Showgirls (1995)
Demi Moore and Burt Reynolds – Striptease (1996)
Dennis Rodman and Jean-Claude Van Damme – Double Team (1997)
Leonardo DiCaprio and Leonardo DiCaprio (as twins) – The Man in the Iron Mask (1998)
Kevin Kline and Will Smith – Wild Wild West (1999)
2000s
John Travolta and anyone sharing the screen with him – Battlefield Earth (2000)
Tom Green and any animal he abuses – Freddy Got Fingered (2001)
Adriano Giannini and Madonna – Swept Away (2002)
Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez – Gigli (2003)
George W. Bush and either Condoleezza Rice or his pet goat – Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)
Will Ferrell and Nicole Kidman – Bewitched (2005)
Shawn Wayans and either Kerry Washington or Marlon Wayans – Little Man (2006)
Lindsay Lohan and Lindsay Lohan (as twins) – I Know Who Killed Me (2007)
Paris Hilton and either Christine Lakin or Joel David Moore – The Hottie and the Nottie (2008)
Sandra Bullock and Bradley Cooper – All About Steve (2009)
2010s
The entire cast of Sex and the City 2 (2010)
Adam Sandler and either Katie Holmes, Al Pacino or Adam Sandler – Jack and Jill / The entire cast of Jack and Jill (2011)
Mackenzie Foy and Taylor Lautner – The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 / The entire cast of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)
Jaden Smith and Will Smith on planet nepotism – After Earth (2013)
Kirk Cameron and his ego – Saving Christmas (2014)
Jamie Dornan and Dakota Johnson – Fifty Shades of Grey (2015)
Ben Affleck and Henry Cavill – Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016)
Any two obnoxious Emojis – The Emoji Movie (2017)
Donald Trump and "His Self Perpetuating Pettiness" – Death of a Nation and Fahrenheit 11/9 (2018)
Any two half-feline/half-human hairballs – Cats (2019)
2020s
Rudy Giuliani and his pants zipper – Borat Subsequent Moviefilm (2020)
LeBron James and any Warner cartoon character (or Time-Warner product) he dribbles on – Space Jam: A New Legacy (2021)
Tom Hanks and his latex-laden face (and ludicrous accent) – Elvis (2022)
Pooh and Piglet (as Blood-Thirsty Slasher/Killers) – Winnie-the-Pooh: Blood and Honey (2023)
Between 2010–2012, the category also included Worst Screen Ensemble.
vteTeen Choice Award for Choice Movie – Romance
50 First Dates (2004)
The Notebook (2005)
Just like Heaven (2006)
The Holiday (2007)
27 Dresses / What Happens in Vegas (2008)
Marley & Me / Twilight (2009)
Valentine's Day (2010)
Easy A (2011)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2012)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2013)
vteTeen Choice Award for Choice Movie – Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Avatar / The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2010)
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 (2011)
The Hunger Games (2012)
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2013)
The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2014)
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1 (2015)
Captain America: Civil War (2016)
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 / Beauty and the Beast (2017)
Black Panther / Coco (2018)
Aladdin (2019)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"romantic fantasy film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_fantasy_film"},{"link_name":"Bill Condon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Condon"},{"link_name":"Melissa Rosenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa_Rosenberg"},{"link_name":"Breaking Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_Dawn"},{"link_name":"Stephenie Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephenie_Meyer"},{"link_name":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_1"},{"link_name":"The Twilight Saga film series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga_(film_series)"},{"link_name":"Kristen Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Robert Pattinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pattinson"},{"link_name":"Taylor Lautner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Lautner"},{"link_name":"Bella Swan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Swan"},{"link_name":"Edward Cullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Jacob Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Black"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie Foy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_Foy"},{"link_name":"Renesmee Cullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Twilight_characters#Renesmee_Cullen"},{"link_name":"ensemble cast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_cast"},{"link_name":"Billy Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Burke_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Peter Facinelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Facinelli"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Reaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Reaser"},{"link_name":"Kellan Lutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellan_Lutz"},{"link_name":"Nikki Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikki_Reed"},{"link_name":"Jackson Rathbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Rathbone"},{"link_name":"Ashley Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Greene"},{"link_name":"Michael Sheen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sheen"},{"link_name":"Dakota Fanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_Fanning"},{"link_name":"Summit Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Principal photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_photography"},{"link_name":"Baton Rouge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baton_Rouge"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Collider-6"},{"link_name":"sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_in_film#Highest-grossing_films"}],"text":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 is a 2012 American romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon. It was written by Melissa Rosenberg, based on the 2008 novel Breaking Dawn by Stephenie Meyer. The sequel to The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 (2011), it is the fifth and final installment in The Twilight Saga film series. The film stars Kristen Stewart, Robert Pattinson, and Taylor Lautner, reprising their roles as Bella Swan, Edward Cullen, and Jacob Black, respectively; Mackenzie Foy portrays Renesmee Cullen. The ensemble cast includes Billy Burke, Peter Facinelli, Elizabeth Reaser, Kellan Lutz, Nikki Reed, Jackson Rathbone, Ashley Greene, Michael Sheen, and Dakota Fanning.Summit Entertainment announced that Breaking Dawn would be adapted into a two-part film on June 10, 2010. Principal photography for both parts began on November 1, 2010, and wrapped on April 22, 2011. The second part was shot in Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; and Vancouver, Canada.The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 premiered in Los Angeles on November 12, 2012, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 16, by Summit Entertainment.[6] The film grossed $848.6 million worldwide, becoming the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012, the highest-grossing film of The Twilight Saga series, and the highest-grossing film released by Summit Entertainment, despite mixed reviews.","title":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"previous film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_1"},{"link_name":"Bella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Swan"},{"link_name":"Renesmee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesmee_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Jacob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Black"},{"link_name":"Charlie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Swan_(Twilight)"},{"link_name":"Carlisle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Forks, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forks,_Washington"},{"link_name":"immortal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality"},{"link_name":"the Volturi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Volturi"},{"link_name":"Alice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Cullen_(Character)"},{"link_name":"Edward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Cullen"},{"link_name":"forcibly enlist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressment"},{"link_name":"summarily execute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summary_execution"},{"link_name":"Mapuche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapuche"},{"link_name":"montage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montage_(filmmaking)"}],"text":"The film continues from the events of the previous film, as Bella, who has just given birth, awakens from her human-to-vampire transformation. After her vampire husband Edward Cullen helps her tame her initial thirst for blood, Bella is introduced to their daughter Renesmee. The rest of the Cullens and Bella's werewolf friend Jacob stay nearby, and when Jacob acts possessively towards Renesmee, Bella learns he has \"imprinted\" on her, a werewolf phenomenon that makes Jacob and Renesmee soul-mates.Meanwhile, Bella's father, Charlie, has been trying to contact the Cullens for updates on Bella's health. Carlisle, the Cullen patriarch and a medical doctor, announces that they have to leave Forks, Washington, to protect their identities.Jacob, desperate not to lose Renesmee, visits Charlie and tells him that Bella is alive and vaguely describes that she has transformed, revealing his wolf form to Charlie to persuade him to stop asking further questions. Charlie goes to the Cullen house to see Bella and meet Renesmee. He accepts that Bella is now recovered but somehow different, though he does not know what has changed or where Renesmee came from, instead accepting she is \"adopted\".Several months pass with Carlisle monitoring Renesmee's rapid growth. The vampire Irina spots Renesmee in the forest and mistakenly assumes she is an \"immortal child\": a type of vampire transformed in childhood who, because it cannot be reasoned with or trained, sucks the blood out of humans uncontrollably. The creation of such children is outlawed by the vampire leadership, the Volturi, and anyone caught with one is executed on the spot. Irina reports the crime to the Volturi.After Edward's sister Alice, who can see glimpses of the future, experiences a vision of the Volturi and Irina coming to kill the Cullens, she instructs the others to gather as many witnesses as they can to testify that Renesmee is not an immortal child.As the Volturi serve punishments swiftly, the Cullens and their werewolf allies prepare for a possible battle. Bella soon realizes she has a special ability: a powerful mental shield that had protected her from Edward's mind-reading even when she was human, which she is taught to extend to protect others from vampire superpowers.The army of the Volturi arrives in Forks, led by Aro, who can read people's minds by touching them. Seeing the Cullens alongside their witnesses and allies, the Volturi hesitate. The Cullens are able to prove to Aro that Renesmee is not an immortal child.However, the Volturi are eager to subdue the Cullens to forcibly enlist their talented members, so they summarily execute Irina for her mistake to provoke the Cullens into battle. But before an all-out fight breaks out, Alice appears in time to give Aro her vision of the future if fighting ensues.In Alice's violent vision, Carlisle, Aro, and several others on both sides are killed, including other Volturi, Cullens, and werewolves. Aro, despite being afraid of the vision, still wants to execute Renesmee as she might be a threat to the vampires' secrecy.Alice reveals their final witness, a Mapuche man from South America, who is a half-human half-vampire, just like Renesmee. He proves that he is not a threat, supporting the notion that Renesmee is not one either. The Volturi unhappily leave, Aro concluding that there will be no battle today.Back at the Cullen home, Alice glimpses the future, seeing Edward and Bella greeting Jacob and a fully matured Renesmee, also a couple, on a sun-dappled beach. Edward reads Alice's mind and feels relieved that Renesmee has Jacob to protect her.Alone in their favorite meadow, Bella pushes her mental shield away and finally allows Edward to see into her mind, showing him every moment they have shared together in a montage. They kiss after Bella tells him, \"nobody has ever loved anybody as much as I love you\", and he romantically responds \"with one exception\".","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kristen Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Bella Cullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Robert Pattinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pattinson"},{"link_name":"Edward Cullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Taylor Lautner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Lautner"},{"link_name":"Jacob Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Black"},{"link_name":"Mackenzie Foy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_Foy"},{"link_name":"Ashley Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_Greene"},{"link_name":"Jackson Rathbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Rathbone"},{"link_name":"Peter Facinelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Facinelli"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Reaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Reaser"},{"link_name":"Kellan Lutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellan_Lutz"},{"link_name":"Nikki Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikki_Reed"},{"link_name":"Billy Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Burke_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Michael Sheen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sheen"},{"link_name":"Jamie Campbell Bower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_Campbell_Bower"},{"link_name":"Dakota Fanning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_Fanning"},{"link_name":"Christopher Heyerdahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Heyerdahl"},{"link_name":"Cameron Bright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Bright"},{"link_name":"Casey LaBow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_LaBow"},{"link_name":"MyAnna Buring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyAnna_Buring"},{"link_name":"Maggie Grace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maggie_Grace"},{"link_name":"Lee Pace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Pace"},{"link_name":"Christian Camargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Camargo"},{"link_name":"Mía Maestro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADa_Maestro"},{"link_name":"Noel Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_Fisher"},{"link_name":"Guri Weinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guri_Weinberg"},{"link_name":"Joe Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Anderson_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Angela Sarafyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Sarafyan"},{"link_name":"Rami Malek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Malek"},{"link_name":"Daniel Cudmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Cudmore"},{"link_name":"Judith Shekoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Shekoni"},{"link_name":"Charlie Bewley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Bewley"},{"link_name":"J. D. Pardo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._D._Pardo"},{"link_name":"Booboo Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booboo_Stewart"},{"link_name":"Julia Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Jones"},{"link_name":"Alex Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Rice"},{"link_name":"Wendell Pierce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell_Pierce"},{"link_name":"Lateef Crowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateef_Crowder"},{"link_name":"Toni Trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toni_Trucks"},{"link_name":"Chaske Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaske_Spencer"},{"link_name":"Omar Metwally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Metwally"},{"link_name":"Valorie Curry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valorie_Curry"},{"link_name":"Lisa Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Howard_(American_actress,_born_1975)"},{"link_name":"Patrick Brennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Brennan_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Amadou Ly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amadou_Ly"},{"link_name":"Gil Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Sarah Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Clarke"},{"link_name":"Michael Welch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Welch_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Anna Kendrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Kendrick"},{"link_name":"Christian Serratos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Serratos"},{"link_name":"Justin Chon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Chon"},{"link_name":"Cam Gigandet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_Gigandet"},{"link_name":"Edi Gathegi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edi_Gathegi"},{"link_name":"Rachelle Lefevre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachelle_Lefevre"},{"link_name":"Kiowa Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiowa_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Tyson Houseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Houseman"},{"link_name":"Alex Meraz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Meraz"},{"link_name":"Bronson Pelletier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronson_Pelletier"},{"link_name":"Graham Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Greene_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Tinsel Korey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinsel_Korey"},{"link_name":"Alex Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Rice"},{"link_name":"Xavier Samuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Samuel"},{"link_name":"Jodelle Ferland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodelle_Ferland"},{"link_name":"Bryce Dallas Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryce_Dallas_Howard"},{"link_name":"cameo appearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_appearances"},{"link_name":"Christina Perri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Perri"},{"link_name":"A Thousand Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Thousand_Years_(Christina_Perri_song)"},{"link_name":"Steve Kazee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Kazee"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BD2-7"}],"text":"Kristen Stewart as Bella Cullen\nRobert Pattinson as Edward Cullen\nTaylor Lautner as Jacob Black\nMackenzie Foy as Renesmee Cullen\nAshley Greene as Alice Cullen\nJackson Rathbone as Jasper Hale\nPeter Facinelli as Carlisle Cullen\nElizabeth Reaser as Esme Cullen\nKellan Lutz as Emmett Cullen\nNikki Reed as Rosalie Hale\nBilly Burke as Charlie Swan\nMichael Sheen as Aro\nJamie Campbell Bower as Caius\nDakota Fanning as Jane\nChristopher Heyerdahl as Marcus\nCameron Bright as Alec\nCasey LaBow as Kate\nMyAnna Buring as Tanya\nMaggie Grace as Irina\nLee Pace as Garrett\nChristian Camargo as Eleazar\nMía Maestro as Carmen\nNoel Fisher as Vladimir\nGuri Weinberg as Stefan\nJoe Anderson as Alistair\nAngela Sarafyan as Tia\nRami Malek as Benjamin\nDaniel Cudmore as Felix\nJudith Shekoni as Zafrina\nTracey Heggins as Senna\nCharlie Bewley as Demetri\nJ. D. Pardo as Nahuel\nMarisa Quinn as Huilen\nBooboo Stewart as Seth Clearwater\nJulia Jones as Leah Clearwater\nAlex Rice as Sue Clearwater\nWendell Pierce as J. Jenks\nLateef Crowder as Santiago\nAndrea Powell as Sasha\nBilly Wagenseller as Vasilii\nToni Trucks as Mary\nAndrea Gabriel as Kebi\nChaske Spencer as Sam Uley\nOmar Metwally as Amun\nValorie Curry as Charlotte\nMarlane Barnes as Maggie\nErik Odom as Peter\nLisa Howard as Siobhan\nBill Tangradi as Randall\nPatrick Brennan as Liam\nAmadou Ly as Henri\nJanelle Froehlich as Yvette\nMasami Kosaka as ToshiroGil Birmingham, Sarah Clarke, Michael Welch, Anna Kendrick, Christian Serratos, Justin Chon, Cam Gigandet, Edi Gathegi, Rachelle Lefevre, Kiowa Gordon, Tyson Houseman, Alex Meraz, Bronson Pelletier, Graham Greene, Tinsel Korey, Alex Rice, Xavier Samuel, Jodelle Ferland, Bryce Dallas Howard, and Carolina Virguez, from the previous films make archival cameo appearances during the pre-credits montage accompanied by a duet version of Christina Perri's \"A Thousand Years\" with Steve Kazee as the second voice.[7]","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 § Production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_1#Production"}],"text":"See also: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 § Production","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Summit Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Breaking Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_Dawn"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BD2-7"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"On June 10, 2010, Summit Entertainment announced that a two-part adaptation of the novel Breaking Dawn would start filming in November and made clear that all major actors would return for both parts.[7]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melissa Rosenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa_Rosenberg"},{"link_name":"Bill [Condon]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Condon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Wyck Godfrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyck_Godfrey"},{"link_name":"action film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_film"},{"link_name":"fantasy film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_film"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-D_film"},{"link_name":"The Twilight Saga: Eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Eclipse"},{"link_name":"Avatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(2009_film)"},{"link_name":"Clash of the Titans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clash_of_the_Titans_(2010_film)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yamato-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Pre-production","text":"By August 2010, screenwriter Melissa Rosenberg said that the scripts for Part 1 and 2 were 75 to 85 percent completed. She found the greatest challenge in writing the scripts to be the final sequence of Part 2, explaining, \"The final battle sequence is a big challenge because it lasts 25 pages. It's almost an entire three-act story in and of itself. You have to track [keep it all in one setting] hundreds of characters. It's an enormous challenge to choreograph on the page and for Bill [Condon] to choreograph on the stage.\" She had written various drafts of the scene but, at the time, hadn't revised or discussed them with Condon yet. She said, \"That's the next big hurdle to sit down with the stunt coordinator and create the ballet. It's a lot of work. I'm exhausted, but we're intent on making them the best scripts yet.\"[8] Producer Wyck Godfrey called Part 2 \"an action film in terms of life-and-death stakes\" and said that in Part 1 \"there are the pangs of newlywed tension that occur that are relatable even in a fantasy film. Marriage is not quite the experience that they thought it was.\"[9]Godfrey considered releasing the second film in 3D to differentiate between the time before and after Bella becomes a vampire, an idea originally proposed for The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, but said that the decision was up to Condon. However, he said that if the second film were to be released in 3D, he would like to shoot it with the proper equipment in \"real\" 3D as was done with Avatar (2009), not convert it into 3D in post-production as was done with Clash of the Titans (2010).[10][11]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the franchise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga_(film_series)"},{"link_name":"Baton Rouge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"Raleigh Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_Players_Film_Company"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Filming","text":"Principal photography started on November 1, 2010, and wrapped on April 22, 2011, ending the franchise's three years of production since March 2008. Filming was shot on location in Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; and Vancouver, Canada. Filming also occurred at Raleigh Studios in Baton Rouge.[12]On the subject of the final day and her final moment as Bella, Stewart stated, \"After that scene, my true final scene, I felt like I could shoot up into the night sky and every pore of my body would shoot light. I felt lighter than I've ever felt in my life.\"[13]In April 2012, the crew and some of the cast, including Pattinson and Stewart, returned for reshoots to pick up some additional shots for technical work. These re-shoots did not include any new scenes or dialogue.[14]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tippett Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tippett_Studio"},{"link_name":"computer-generated imagery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery"},{"link_name":"The Twilight Saga: New Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_New_Moon"},{"link_name":"Phil Tippett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Tippett"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Special effects","text":"Tippett Studio first began working on the CGI (computer-generated imagery) wolves in February 2009 for The Twilight Saga: New Moon, and the look of the creatures has evolved, becoming more photo-real over the course of the saga, with the input of three different directors. \"It's a subtle balance of just how anthropomorphic these wolves are,\" says Eric Leven. \"Bill [Condon] wanted to make sure that we had a sense of the human or the shapeshifter in there. Finding that balance of how much of a human performance versus an animal performance was important for Bill.\"Leven adds, \"Bill has always treated the wolves as characters and never as computer-generated things, and directs them in the same way he'd direct any actor. He would always give us direction like Sam should be angrier. It's the best way to work. His treating these creatures as characters, instead of just computer bits, was really great.\"\"Because we've been working on this franchise for such a prolonged period of time, we've been able to improve the look from show to show,\" comments Phil Tippett. \"Wolves generally are pretty darn clean and since Bill wanted the wolves rangier, that means a lot more fur matting and clumping, like they've lived out in the woods. We edged towards something a bit more feral.\"\"However, there is also a balance between look and technology,\" adds Tippett. \"The body count of the wolves escalates and because we're adding a great deal more hair to get the right texture, that fur really ups the rendering time. We've gone from four wolves to eight to twelve, to sixteen in Part 2. So we have to be very careful about that balance because it takes hundreds of hours to render each wolf.\"[15]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Breaking_Dawn_Part_2_Soundtrack-16"},{"link_name":"Iko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iko_(band)"},{"link_name":"Passion Pit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_Pit"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"The Forgotten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Forgotten_(Green_Day_song)"},{"link_name":"Green Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Day"},{"link_name":"Christina Perri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Perri"},{"link_name":"Carter Burwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Burwell"},{"link_name":"Twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight_(soundtrack)#Twilight:_The_Score"},{"link_name":"Breaking Dawn: Part 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_1_(soundtrack)#The_Twilight_Saga:_Breaking_Dawn_%E2%80%93_Part_1_(The_Score)"}],"text":"It was revealed in January 2012 that the soundtrack for Part 2 had already started production.[16] Confirmed for the soundtrack in advance were \"Heart of Stone\" by Iko, which plays when Edward and Bella are talking in the cottage after finding Alice's note and \"Where I Come From\" by Passion Pit, which will play when Bella wakes up from her transformation.[17] The lead single from the soundtrack is \"The Forgotten\", performed by the American rock band Green Day. \"A Thousand Years, Pt. 2\" by the American singer Christina Perri is also featured on the soundtrack album.Carter Burwell, the composer of Twilight and Breaking Dawn: Part 1, returned to score the final installment of the series.","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bom-4"},{"link_name":"sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_in_film"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"IMAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAX"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"CIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States"},{"link_name":"Maghreb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOM-ovrs-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BOM-ovrs-38"}],"sub_title":"Box office","text":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 earned $292 million in North America and $537 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $829.6 million.[4] The film is the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012, and the highest-grossing film of the Twilight series. It had a $340.9 million worldwide opening, which was the eighth-largest ever, the largest for the Twilight franchise, and the largest for a film released outside the summer period.[18]In North America, the film grossed $30.4 million in Thursday night and midnight showings, achieving the third-highest midnight gross[19][20] and the highest midnight gross of the franchise.[21][22] Breaking Dawn – Part 2 made $71.2 million on its opening day, which is the sixth-highest opening- and single-day gross as well as the third-highest of the franchise.[23] For its opening weekend, the movie earned $141.1 million,[24] which is the 13th-highest-grossing opening weekend of all time,[25][26] the second-highest-grossing of the franchise,[27] the third-largest November opening,[28] and the fourth-largest opening of 2012.[29] It retained first place in its second weekend by dropping 69.1% with a gross of $43.6 million over the three-day weekend and made a total of $64.4 million over the five-day Thanksgiving holiday weekend.[30] In its third weekend, Breaking Dawn Part – 2 held onto the number one spot again by dropping 60.1% and grossing $17.4 million.[31] It became the third-highest-grossing film of the franchise behind Eclipse and New Moon.[32]Outside North America, the film opened on Wednesday, November 14, 2012, in six countries earning $13.8 million. By Thursday, it had opened in 37 territories, earning $38.8 million. In all territories, it opened with similar or higher earnings than its immediate predecessor.[33] Through its first Friday, it earned $91.0 million, after expanding to 61 territories.[34][35] By the end of its opening weekend (Wednesday–Sunday), it scored a series-best $199.5 million opening from 61 territories on 12,812 screens. This is the eighth-largest opening outside North America and the largest 2012 opening.[36] IMAX showings generated $3 million from 82 locations.[37] The film's largest openings were recorded in the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($25.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($22.0 million), and France and the Maghreb region ($17.9 million).[38] In Spain, it set a three-day opening-weekend record with $11.9 million.[39] In total earnings, its three highest-grossing markets after North America are the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($57.9 million), Brazil ($54.2 million), and Russia and the CIS ($42.8 million).[38]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rottentomatoes.com-40"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"CinemaScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CinemaScore"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"The Hollywood Reporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"New York Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Post"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"emo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emo"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"Chicago Sun-Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rogerebert.com-48"},{"link_name":"Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_(film_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Critical response","text":"At Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 49% approval rating and an average score of 5.3/10 based on 200 reviews. The consensus states: \"It's the most entertaining Twilight, but that's not enough to make Breaking Dawn Part 2 worth watching for filmgoers who don't already count themselves among the franchise converts.\"[40] At Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on reviews from 31 critics.[41] Audiences polled on CinemaScore gave it an average rating of \"A\".[42]Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, \"The final installment of the immortal Bella/Edward romance will give its breathlessly awaiting international audience just what it wants\".[43] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said, \"Breaking Dawn: Part 2 starts off slow but gathers momentum, and that's because, with Bella and Edward united against the Volturi, the picture has a real threat\".[44] Sara Stewart of the New York Post wrote, \"Finally, someone took the source material at its terribly written word and stopped treating the whole affair so seriously\".[45] Justin Chang of Variety praised the performance of Stewart by saying, \"No longer a mopey, lower-lip-biting emo girl, this Bella is twitchy, feral, formidable and fully energized, a goddess even among her exalted bloodsucker brethren\".[46] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, \"Despite the slow start Mr. Condon closes the series in fine, smooth style. He gives fans all the lovely flowers, conditioned hair and lightly erotic, dreamy kisses they deserve\".[47]Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying \"its audience, which takes these films very seriously indeed, will drink deeply of its blood. The sensational closing sequence cannot be accused of leaving a single loophole, not even some of those we didn't know were there\". He concluded by saying, \"Breaking Dawn, Part 2 must be one of the more serious entries in any major movie franchise... it bit the bullet, and I imagine fans will be pleased.\"[48] Helen O'Hara of Empire gave the film a mixed review and said, \"Fans will be left on a high; other viewers will be confused but generally entertained by a saga whose romance is matched only by its weirdness\".[49]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Home media","text":"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 2, 2013.[50] As of June 1, 2014, Breaking Dawn: Part 2 has sold 4,810,249 DVDs along with 1,224,869 Blu-ray Discs for $71,418,469 and $24,472,107, respectively, totaling $99,195,325.[51]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lionsgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionsgate_Films"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Jon Feltheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Feltheimer"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"text":"In September 2016, Lionsgate co-chairman Patrick Wachsberger stated that a sequel was \"a possibility\", but would only go ahead if Stephenie Meyer wanted to do one.[52] On August 8, 2017, Variety reported that Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer has interest in having spinoffs made for The Twilight Saga, and wants to create a writers' room to explore the idea.[53]","title":"Spin-offs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Accolades"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Vampire films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_films"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)\". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Retrieved August 5, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://catalog.afi.com/Film/69094-THE-TWILIGHTSAGABREAKINGDAWN-PART2","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI_Catalog_of_Feature_Films","url_text":"AFI Catalog of Feature Films"}]},{"reference":"\"THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN - PART 2 (12A)\". British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved April 30, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/breaking-dawn-part-2-2012-0","url_text":"\"THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN - PART 2 (12A)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Board_of_Film_Classification","url_text":"British Board of Film Classification"}]},{"reference":"Lang, Brent (March 9, 2011). \"The Secret Summit Prospectus: $1.2B Projected for 'Breaking Dawn'\". The Wrap. Retrieved September 8, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thewrap.com/secret-summit-prospectus-breaking-dawn-projects-12b-revenue-25393/","url_text":"\"The Secret Summit Prospectus: $1.2B Projected for 'Breaking Dawn'\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=breakingdawn2.htm","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo","url_text":"Box Office Mojo"}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 2 (PG-13)\". Archived from the original on January 15, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210115183756/http://www.boxoffice.com/statistics/movies/the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2-2012","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 2 (PG-13)\""},{"url":"http://www.boxoffice.com/statistics/movies/the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2-2012","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Steve Weintraub (November 3, 2010). \"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 Gets Released November 16, 2012\". Collider.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collider.com/2010/08/03/the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2-release-date-november-16-2012-release-date","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 Gets Released November 16, 2012\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Confirmed for Two Films\". ComingSoon.net. June 11, 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=66978","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Confirmed for Two Films\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Breaking Dawn' Scribe Says She's Wrestling With 'Battle Scene'\". MTV.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mtv.com/news/culxsw/breaking-dawn-scribe-says-shes-wrestling-with-battle-scene","url_text":"\"'Breaking Dawn' Scribe Says She's Wrestling With 'Battle Scene'\""}]},{"reference":"Orange, B. Alan (January 8, 2011). \"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Story Split and Pregnancy Details\". MovieWeb.","urls":[{"url":"https://movieweb.com/the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-story-split-and-pregnancy-details/","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Story Split and Pregnancy Details\""}]},{"reference":"Jen Yamato (June 13, 2010). \"Exclusive: 'Eclipse' Producer Wyck Godfrey on 3D, 'Breaking Dawn,' and More\". FEARnet.com. Horror Entertainment, LLC. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved June 13, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111115040352/http://www.fearnet.com/blogs/eclipse/b19325_exclusive_eclipse_producer_wyck_godfrey.html","url_text":"\"Exclusive: 'Eclipse' Producer Wyck Godfrey on 3D, 'Breaking Dawn,' and More\""},{"url":"http://www.fearnet.com/blogs/eclipse/b19325_exclusive_eclipse_producer_wyck_godfrey.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Exclusive: Producer Wyck Godfrey on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, Breaking Dawn, Other Projects, Ultimate Twilight DVD Box Set. Collider. July 1, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://collider.com/twilight-producer-wyck-godfrey-interview-the-twilight-saga-eclipse-breaking-dawn-ultimate-twilight-dvd-blu-ray-box-set/35096/%E2%82%A0","url_text":"Exclusive: Producer Wyck Godfrey on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, Breaking Dawn, Other Projects, Ultimate Twilight DVD Box Set"}]},{"reference":"Mike Scott (November 16, 2012). \"'Twilight: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2' director Bill Condon ready to move onto other things\". Nola.com. Retrieved October 5, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nola.com/entertainment_life/movies_tv/twilight-breaking-dawn----part-2-director-bill-condon-ready-to-move-onto/article_6a88b004-1cb5-5fdb-a934-8b8b816398e8.html","url_text":"\"'Twilight: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2' director Bill Condon ready to move onto other things\""}]},{"reference":"Lynn Hirschberg (September 1, 2011). \"Woman on the Verge\". W. Retrieved October 5, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wmagazine.com/story/kristen-stewart-twilight-breaking-dawn-cover-story","url_text":"\"Woman on the Verge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_(magazine)","url_text":"W"}]},{"reference":"Bill Condon (April 15, 2012). \"A Production Update From Bill Condon\". Facebook. Retrieved April 15, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/notes/the-twilight-saga/a-production-update-from-bill-condon/10151493233770005","url_text":"\"A Production Update From Bill Condon\""}]},{"reference":"Shawn Cauthen (November 2012). \"Learn About All the Special Effects that went into THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN – PART 2\". Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130129000243/http://www.screenslam.com/blog/learn-about-all-the-special-effects-that-went-into-the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2/","url_text":"\"Learn About All the Special Effects that went into THE TWILIGHT SAGA: BREAKING DAWN – PART 2\""},{"url":"http://www.screenslam.com/blog/learn-about-all-the-special-effects-that-went-into-the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Benson, Kirstin (January 30, 2012). \"'Breaking Dawn: Part 2′ Soundtrack Started, Says Insider\". www.hollywoodlife.com: Hollywood Life. Archived from the original on February 5, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120205000054/http://www.hollywoodlife.com/2012/01/30/breaking-dawn-part-2-soundtrack-started/","url_text":"\"'Breaking Dawn: Part 2′ Soundtrack Started, Says Insider\""},{"url":"http://www.hollywoodlife.com/2012/01/30/breaking-dawn-part-2-soundtrack-started/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sims, Andrew (July 12, 2012). \"Passion Pit is first artist announced for 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2′ soundtrack\". Hypable.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hypable.com/2012/07/12/passion-pit-is-first-artist-announced-for-breaking-dawn-part-2-soundtrack/","url_text":"\"Passion Pit is first artist announced for 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2′ soundtrack\""}]},{"reference":"Ben Fritz (November 16, 2012). \"Final 'Twilight' film grosses $30.4 million in late-night shows\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 16, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-twilight-breaking-dawn-late-night-grosses-20121116,0,3577879.story","url_text":"\"Final 'Twilight' film grosses $30.4 million in late-night shows\""}]},{"reference":"Fritz, Ben (July 20, 2012). \"'Dark Knight Rises' collects $30.6 million from midnight screenings\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 16, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-midnight-dark-knight-rises-20120720,0,2133469.story","url_text":"\"'Dark Knight Rises' collects $30.6 million from midnight screenings\""}]},{"reference":"Pamela McClintock (November 16, 2012). \"Box Office Report: 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million in Thursday Night Runs\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 16, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/twilight-breaking-dawn-2-box-391396","url_text":"\"Box Office Report: 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million in Thursday Night Runs\""}]},{"reference":"Ray Subers. \"'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million from Midnight/Thursday Night Shows\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 16, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=3568&p=.htm","url_text":"\"'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Earns $30.4 Million from Midnight/Thursday Night Shows\""}]},{"reference":"Ray Subers. \"Friday Report: 'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Just Shy of Franchise Record\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 17, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=3569&p=.htm","url_text":"\"Friday Report: 'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Just Shy of Franchise Record\""}]},{"reference":"Finke, Nikki (November 18, 2012). \"'Breaking Dawn 2′ Foreign's $199.6M Sets Twilight Saga Overseas Opening Record\". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved November 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.deadline.com/2012/11/breaking-dawn-2-smashing-records-overseas-as-twilight-saga-takes-last-box-office-bite/","url_text":"\"'Breaking Dawn 2′ Foreign's $199.6M Sets Twilight Saga Overseas Opening Record\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood","url_text":"Deadline Hollywood"}]},{"reference":"Cunningham, Todd (November 17, 2012). \"'Twilight: Breaking Dawn 2′ First Box-Office Bite Is $71M in U.S., $91M Overseas\". The Wrap. Archived from the original on July 18, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thewrap.com/movies/article/twilight-breaking-dawn-2-first-box-office-bite-71m-us-91m-overseas-65576","url_text":"\"'Twilight: Breaking Dawn 2′ First Box-Office Bite Is $71M in U.S., $91M Overseas\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130718215828/https://www.thewrap.com/movies/article/twilight-breaking-dawn-2-first-box-office-bite-71m-us-91m-overseas-65576","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"UPDATED: 'Breaking Dawn - Part 2' Passes $500 Million Overseas\". Boxoffice.com. November 17, 2012. Retrieved November 2, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.boxoffice.com/latest-news/2012-11-17-international-breaking-dawn-part-2-boasts-388-million","url_text":"\"UPDATED: 'Breaking Dawn - Part 2' Passes $500 Million Overseas\""}]},{"reference":"Subers, Ray (November 18, 2012). \"Around-the-World Roundup: 'Breaking Dawn' Earns Massive $199.6 Million Overseas\". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved November 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://boxofficemojo.com/news/?id=3571&p=.htm","url_text":"\"Around-the-World Roundup: 'Breaking Dawn' Earns Massive $199.6 Million Overseas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_Mojo","url_text":"Box Office Mojo"}]},{"reference":"Segers, Frank (November 18, 2012). \"Foreign Box Office: Twilight's 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Launching the Biggest Foreign Opening of 2012\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/foreign-box-office-twilights-breaking-391798","url_text":"\"Foreign Box Office: Twilight's 'Breaking Dawn – Part 2' Launching the Biggest Foreign Opening of 2012\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 (2012) - International Box Office Results\". Box Office Mojo. 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Retrieved March 31, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/the_twilight_saga_breaking_dawn_part_2/","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 (2012)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes","url_text":"Rotten Tomatoes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fandango_Media","url_text":"Fandango Media"}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved November 23, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.metacritic.com/movie/the-twilight-saga-breaking-dawn---part-2","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic","url_text":"Metacritic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"\"'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Opens to Behemoth $340.9M Global Weekend ($141.3M Dom + $199.6M Intl): Twilight Saga Record Abroad; Holdover 'Skyfall' #2 & 'Lincoln' #3 Strong\". November 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2012/11/breaking-dawn-part-2-sells-out-showtimes-as-final-twilight-saga-releases-at-midnight-372186/","url_text":"\"'Breaking Dawn Part 2' Opens to Behemoth $340.9M Global Weekend ($141.3M Dom + $199.6M Intl): Twilight Saga Record Abroad; Holdover 'Skyfall' #2 & 'Lincoln' #3 Strong\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\". The Hollywood Reporter. November 13, 2012. Retrieved November 30, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movie/twilight-saga-breaking-dawn-part-2/review/389911","url_text":"\"The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2\""}]},{"reference":"\"Movie Review The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 30, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20620012,00.html","url_text":"\"Movie Review The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 (2012)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Good to the last bite!\". New York Post. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Rice_Rich
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Arnold Rice Rich
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["1 Career","2 Work","3 Personal life","4 References","5 External links"]
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American pathologist
Dr. Arnold Rice RichBorn(1893-03-28)March 28, 1893Birmingham, AlabamaDiedApril 17, 1968(1968-04-17) (aged 75)Baltimore, MarylandCitizenshipUnited States of AmericaAlma materUniversity of VirginiaJohns Hopkins Medical SchoolKnown forRich focus, Hamman-Rich syndromeScientific careerFieldsPathology
Arnold Rice Rich (March 28, 1893 – April 17, 1968) was an American pathologist.
Career
Born March 28, 1893, in Birmingham, Alabama, Rich attended the University of Virginia, majoring in biology, and then the Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore, Maryland, from which he received his M.D. degree in 1919. He remained associated with Hopkins the rest of his career. He was appointed Chairman of the Department of Pathology and pathologist-in-chief of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1944, until he retired in 1958.
Work
Rich had broad interests in medicine. Among his many contributions, he classified jaundice, helped understand the formation of bile pigment, studied the relationship between hypersensitivity and immunity, especially in tuberculosis (on which he was one of the reigning experts) and discovered the phagocytic function of the Gaucher cell, the hallmark of Gaucher's disease.
A number of diseases or conditions are named after Rich, including:
Hamman-Rich syndrome and the
Rich focus
Personal life
Rich was Jewish. His father Samuel Rice was an Ashkenazi immigrant from Košice in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (present day Slovakia), while his mother was a Sephardi Jew from Vicksburg, Mississippi. Samuel Rice owned a successful shoe store in Birmingham. In 1925 Arnold married the pianist and composer Helen Jones. They had two daughters: the poet Adrienne Rich (1929-2012 ) and the writer Cynthia Rich (1933- ). Arnold Rice Rich died April 17, 1968, in Baltimore, Maryland.
References
^ Langdell, Cheri Colby (2004). Adrienne Rich: the moment of change. Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. p. 20. ISBN 9780313316050.
^ "Split at the Root: An Essay on Jewish Identity" (PDF). Baruch College. Retrieved 2022-03-26.
External links
Brief biography of Rich in WhoNamedIt?
Arnold Rice Rich, A Biographical Memoir by Ella H. Oppenheimer
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Other
SNAC
IdRef
This biographical article related to a physician in the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pathologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology"}],"text":"Arnold Rice Rich (March 28, 1893 – April 17, 1968) was an American pathologist.","title":"Arnold Rice Rich"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Birmingham, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"University of Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins Medical School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Medical_School"},{"link_name":"Baltimore, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"M.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine"}],"text":"Born March 28, 1893, in Birmingham, Alabama, Rich attended the University of Virginia, majoring in biology, and then the Johns Hopkins Medical School in Baltimore, Maryland, from which he received his M.D. degree in 1919. He remained associated with Hopkins the rest of his career. He was appointed Chairman of the Department of Pathology and pathologist-in-chief of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1944, until he retired in 1958.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"jaundice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaundice"},{"link_name":"bile pigment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bile_pigment"},{"link_name":"hypersensitivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersensitivity"},{"link_name":"immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"phagocytic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytic"},{"link_name":"Gaucher's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaucher%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"Hamman-Rich syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamman-Rich_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Rich focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rich_focus"}],"text":"Rich had broad interests in medicine. Among his many contributions, he classified jaundice, helped understand the formation of bile pigment, studied the relationship between hypersensitivity and immunity, especially in tuberculosis (on which he was one of the reigning experts) and discovered the phagocytic function of the Gaucher cell, the hallmark of Gaucher's disease.A number of diseases or conditions are named after Rich, including:Hamman-Rich syndrome and the\nRich focus","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ashkenazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews"},{"link_name":"Košice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice"},{"link_name":"Sephardi Jew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jews"},{"link_name":"Vicksburg, Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicksburg,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Adrienne Rich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrienne_Rich"}],"text":"Rich was Jewish.[1] His father Samuel Rice was an Ashkenazi immigrant from Košice in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (present day Slovakia), while his mother was a Sephardi Jew from Vicksburg, Mississippi. Samuel Rice owned a successful shoe store in Birmingham.[2] In 1925 Arnold married the pianist and composer Helen Jones. They had two daughters: the poet Adrienne Rich (1929-2012 ) and the writer Cynthia Rich (1933- ). Arnold Rice Rich died April 17, 1968, in Baltimore, Maryland.","title":"Personal life"}]
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[{"reference":"Langdell, Cheri Colby (2004). Adrienne Rich: the moment of change. Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. p. 20. ISBN 9780313316050.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313316050","url_text":"9780313316050"}]},{"reference":"\"Split at the Root: An Essay on Jewish Identity\" (PDF). Baruch College. Retrieved 2022-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.baruch.cuny.edu/eng2100fall19/files/2019/11/rich-split-at-the-root.pdf","url_text":"\"Split at the Root: An Essay on Jewish Identity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_College","url_text":"Baruch College"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://blogs.baruch.cuny.edu/eng2100fall19/files/2019/11/rich-split-at-the-root.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Split at the Root: An Essay on Jewish Identity\""},{"Link":"http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2547.html","external_links_name":"Brief biography of Rich"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061205213532/http://www.whonamedit.com/index.cfm","external_links_name":"WhoNamedIt?"},{"Link":"http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/rich-arnold.pdf","external_links_name":"Arnold Rice Rich, A Biographical Memoir by Ella H. Oppenheimer"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1843887/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000122824930","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/84860184","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjXg4j4x3WPgBW3YpBQMP","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012329514005171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no95030577","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20040154907&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w60h13js","external_links_name":"SNAC"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/134259440","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arnold_Rice_Rich&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oliver_Halstead_Pitney
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John Oliver Halstead Pitney
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["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Personal life and death","4 References"]
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American lawyer
John Oliver Halstead PitneyBorn(1860-04-14)April 14, 1860Morristown, New Jersey, U.S.DiedOctober 6, 1928(1928-10-06) (aged 68)Newark, New Jersey, U.S.EducationPrinceton UniversityKnown forFounder of Pitney Hardin
John Oliver Halstead Pitney (April 14, 1860 – October 6, 1928) was an American lawyer from New Jersey.
Early life and education
Born in Morristown, New Jersey to Henry Cooper and Sarah Louise (Halsted) Pitney, Pitney was "a member of one of New Jersey's oldest families", described by Kim Isaac Eisler as a New Jersey blue-blood. His great-grandfather Henry Cooper Pitney served in the American Revolutionary War. Pitney's father and his older brother Mahlon Pitney were also lawyers; Mahlon eventually served on the United States Supreme Court.
Pitney attended the Morris Academy, and received a B.A. from Princeton University in 1881 followed by an M.A. from the same institution in 1884. He was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. He read law under his father and gained admission to the bar in New Jersey at the June term of 1884 as an attorney, and three years later as a counselor.
Career
Establishing himself in Newark, he partnered with Frederick H. Heese for the first ten years of his practice. In 1902, he and John R. Hardin founded the law firm of Pitney & Hardin, later Pitney Hardin and Ward, in Newark; his brother Mahlon also worked at the firm for a time, and has sometimes been incorrectly credited as a founder. According to Eisler, the firm's clients included "some of the most notoriously antilabor corporations in the state", and because of its strike-breaking work it was known in the labor movement as "Pluck'em, Hook'em and Sink'em".
Pitney was elected to the Board of the United Electric Company of New Jersey in March 1901 and also served at various times as a director of the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company and the American Insurance Company and a Trustee of Princeton University. He was described as "an earnest Republican" who refused official positions on grounds of lack of time; beginning in August 1917, he served as Chairman of the District Board for the Second Division of New Jersey under the War Department's administration of the Selective Service Law.
Pitney published a book about the history of his family in 1925. The University of Chicago holds a letter to Pitney from William Howard Taft, accepting an invitation to attend a celebration of the birth of George Washington.
Personal life and death
On January 16, 1890, Pitney married Roberta A. Ballantine of Newark. They had two children, John B., born in 1892, and Robert H., born in 1907.
Pitney died of a heart attack at his home in Newark at the age of 68, following a period of poor health.
References
^ a b c d e Kim Isaac Eisler (2003). The Last Liberal: Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. and the Decisions That Transformed America. Beard Books. pp. 32–35, 38, 52–53. ISBN 9781587982712. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2020-10-18. It is often reported that Pitney, Hardin & Ward, now located in Morristown, New Jersey, was founded by one Supreme Court justice and produced another. But it is not true. Mahlon Pitney had little to do with the firm. It was Mahlon's brother, John, who built up the law firm that later became known as Pitney, Hardin Ward & Brennan.
^ a b c d e f g John James Scannell, William Edgar Sackett, Scannell's New Jersey's First Citizens and State Guide (1919), p. 365.
^ a b "John O. H. Pitney Dies", Brooklyn Times Union (October 7, 1928), p. 57.
^ a b "Pitney Family History". 18 February 2015. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
^ a b "Pitney Farm History". New Jersey Hills. 2015-02-15. Archived from the original on 2020-10-22. Retrieved 2020-10-29. This limited edition volume published by John O.H. Pitney in 1925 as a family history was provided to us by Erik Sletteland, Duncan Pitney's stepson who moved to the farm in the early 1960s.
^ a b "John Pitney dies of heart attack", The Daily Record (October 6, 1928), p. 1.
^ "The Phi Beta Kappa Key, Vol. 7, No. 9 (October, 1930)" (PDF). The Phi Beta Kappa Society. October 1930. p. 606. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
^ William Starr Myers (2000) . "Prominent Families of New Jersey". Vol. 1. Baltimore: Clearfield. p. 1. ISBN 9780806350363. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-29.
^ "United Electric Co. of New Jersey". The New York Times. Newark, New Jersey. 1901-03-30. p. 5. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-29. John O. H. Pitney was elected to fill a vacancy in the board.
^ William Howard Taft (1914-12-24). "William Howard Taft". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Detail from William Howard Taft to John O. H. Pitney, 24 December 1914, United States Supreme Court: Portraits and Autographs, D'Angelo Law Library Rare Book Room, University of Chicago Library.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamJBrennan-1"}],"text":"John Oliver Halstead Pitney (April 14, 1860 – October 6, 1928) was an American lawyer from New Jersey.[1]","title":"John Oliver Halstead Pitney"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Morristown, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morristown,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times_Union_Obit-3"},{"link_name":"Kim Isaac Eisler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Isaac_Eisler"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamJBrennan-1"},{"link_name":"Henry Cooper Pitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Cooper_Pitney&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"American Revolutionary War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pitneyfarm-4"},{"link_name":"Mahlon Pitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pitneyfarm-4"},{"link_name":"United States Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamJBrennan-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newjerseyhills2015-02-15-5"},{"link_name":"B.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"M.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Daily_Record_Obit-6"},{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PhiBetaKappa-7"},{"link_name":"read law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read_law"},{"link_name":"admission to the bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"}],"text":"Born in Morristown, New Jersey to Henry Cooper and Sarah Louise (Halsted) Pitney,[2] Pitney was \"a member of one of New Jersey's oldest families\",[3] described by Kim Isaac Eisler as a New Jersey blue-blood.[1] His great-grandfather Henry Cooper Pitney served in the American Revolutionary War.[4] Pitney's father and his older brother Mahlon Pitney were also lawyers;[4] Mahlon eventually served on the United States Supreme Court.[1][5]Pitney attended the Morris Academy, and received a B.A. from Princeton University in 1881 followed by an M.A. from the same institution in 1884.[6] He was a member of Phi Beta Kappa.[7] He read law under his father and gained admission to the bar in New Jersey at the June term of 1884 as an attorney, and three years later as a counselor.[2]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"Pitney & Hardin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitney_%26_Hardin"},{"link_name":"Newark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prominent-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamJBrennan-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamJBrennan-1"},{"link_name":"United Electric Company of New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Electric_Company_of_New_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes1901-03-30-9"},{"link_name":"Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_Benefit_Life_Insurance_Company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newjerseyhills2015-02-15-5"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"William Howard Taft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHTaftSig-10"}],"text":"Establishing himself in Newark, he partnered with Frederick H. Heese for the first ten years of his practice.[2] In 1902, he and John R. Hardin founded the law firm of Pitney & Hardin, later Pitney Hardin and Ward, in Newark;[8] his brother Mahlon also worked at the firm for a time, and has sometimes been incorrectly credited as a founder.[1] According to Eisler, the firm's clients included \"some of the most notoriously antilabor corporations in the state\", and because of its strike-breaking work it was known in the labor movement as \"Pluck'em, Hook'em and Sink'em\".[1]Pitney was elected to the Board of the United Electric Company of New Jersey in March 1901[9] and also served at various times as a director of the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company and the American Insurance Company and a Trustee of Princeton University.[2] He was described as \"an earnest Republican\" who refused official positions on grounds of lack of time;[2] beginning in August 1917, he served as Chairman of the District Board for the Second Division of New Jersey under the War Department's administration of the Selective Service Law.[2]Pitney published a book about the history of his family in 1925.[5] The University of Chicago holds a letter to Pitney from William Howard Taft, accepting an invitation to attend a celebration of the birth of George Washington.[10]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scannell-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times_Union_Obit-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Daily_Record_Obit-6"}],"text":"On January 16, 1890, Pitney married Roberta A. Ballantine of Newark. They had two children, John B., born in 1892, and Robert H., born in 1907.[2]Pitney died of a heart attack at his home in Newark at the age of 68,[3] following a period of poor health.[6]","title":"Personal life and death"}]
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[{"reference":"Kim Isaac Eisler (2003). The Last Liberal: Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. and the Decisions That Transformed America. Beard Books. pp. 32–35, 38, 52–53. ISBN 9781587982712. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2020-10-18. It is often reported that Pitney, Hardin & Ward, now located in Morristown, New Jersey, was founded by one Supreme Court justice and produced another. But it is not true. Mahlon Pitney had little to do with the firm. It was Mahlon's brother, John, who built up the law firm that later became known as Pitney, Hardin Ward & Brennan.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Isaac_Eisler","url_text":"Kim Isaac Eisler"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kKhAkSaXMFoC&q=%22Day%2C+Berry+and+Howard%22+OR+%22Day+Pitney%22+OR+%22Pitney+Hardin%22&pg=PA34","url_text":"The Last Liberal: Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. and the Decisions That Transformed America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beard_Books&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Beard Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781587982712","url_text":"9781587982712"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201023021836/https://books.google.ca/books?id=kKhAkSaXMFoC&pg=PA34&dq=%22Day,+Berry+and+Howard%22+OR+%22Day+Pitney%22+OR+%22Pitney+Hardin%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwijo4PHh8LsAhUHheAKHTrZA4sQ6AEwBHoECCoQAg#v=onepage&q=%22Day%2C%20Berry%20and%20Howard%22%20OR%20%22Day%20Pitney%22%20OR%20%22Pitney%20Hardin%22&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Pitney Family History\". 18 February 2015. Retrieved 2020-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://pitneyfarm.org/about-pitney/pitney-family-history/","url_text":"\"Pitney Family History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pitney Farm History\". New Jersey Hills. 2015-02-15. Archived from the original on 2020-10-22. Retrieved 2020-10-29. This limited edition volume published by John O.H. Pitney in 1925 as a family history was provided to us by Erik Sletteland, Duncan Pitney's stepson who moved to the farm in the early 1960s.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newjerseyhills.com/pitney-farm-history/pdf_28a75e90-f305-5ff8-a92d-97d66f8b9c18.html","url_text":"\"Pitney Farm History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Jersey_Hills&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"New Jersey Hills"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201022021747/https://pitneyfarm.org/about-pitney/pitney-family-history/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Phi Beta Kappa Key, Vol. 7, No. 9 (October, 1930)\" (PDF). The Phi Beta Kappa Society. October 1930. p. 606. Retrieved 2020-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/42914277.pdf#page=9","url_text":"\"The Phi Beta Kappa Key, Vol. 7, No. 9 (October, 1930)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phi_Beta_Kappa_Society","url_text":"The Phi Beta Kappa Society"}]},{"reference":"William Starr Myers (2000) [1945]. \"Prominent Families of New Jersey\". Vol. 1. Baltimore: Clearfield. p. 1. ISBN 9780806350363. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qG_5K_s3a-gC&q=%22John+Oliver+Halstead+Pitney%22+OR+%22John+Pitney%22++OR+%22John+O.H.+Pitney%22+++OR+%22John+O.+H.+Pitney%22+%22new+jersey%22&pg=PA1","url_text":"\"Prominent Families of New Jersey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806350363","url_text":"9780806350363"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201029212407/https://books.google.ca/books?id=qG_5K_s3a-gC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=%22John+Oliver+Halstead+Pitney%22+OR+%22John+Pitney%22++OR+%22John+O.H.+Pitney%22+++OR+%22John+O.+H.+Pitney%22+%22new+jersey%22&source=bl&ots=nOw4va7-8H&sig=ACfU3U1CAcYKzq5yUYese0hoejPZ3t8UsQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjUkp2fsNrsAhXDbc0KHdkYBHEQ6AEwGHoECF8QAg","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"United Electric Co. of New Jersey\". The New York Times. Newark, New Jersey. 1901-03-30. p. 5. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Retrieved 2020-10-29. John O. H. Pitney was elected to fill a vacancy in the board.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1901/03/30/archives/united-electric-co-of-new-jersey.html","url_text":"\"United Electric Co. of New Jersey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey","url_text":"Newark, New Jersey"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201029212406/https://www.nytimes.com/1901/03/30/archives/united-electric-co-of-new-jersey.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"William Howard Taft (1914-12-24). \"William Howard Taft\". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 2020-10-29. Detail from William Howard Taft to John O. H. Pitney, 24 December 1914, United States Supreme Court: Portraits and Autographs, D'Angelo Law Library Rare Book Room, University of Chicago Library.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft","url_text":"William Howard Taft"},{"url":"https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/collex/exhibits/united-states-supreme-court-portraits-and-autographs/william-howard-taft/","url_text":"\"William Howard Taft\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago","url_text":"University of Chicago"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201029212101/https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/collex/exhibits/united-states-supreme-court-portraits-and-autographs/william-howard-taft/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto
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Battle of Lepanto
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["1 Background","2 Deployment and order of battle","3 Battle","4 Aftermath","5 Legacy","5.1 Accounts","5.2 Commemoration","5.3 Paintings","5.4 Sculpture","5.5 Poetry and fiction","6 See also","7 References","8 Bibliography","9 External links"]
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Coordinates: 38°15′N 21°15′E / 38.250°N 21.250°E / 38.250; 21.250
1571 naval battle of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars
This article is about the 1571 battle. For other uses, see Battle of Lepanto (disambiguation).
Battle of LepantoPart of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars and Fourth Ottoman–Venetian WarThe Battle of Lepanto, Laureys a CastroDate7 October 1571LocationGulf of Patras, Ionian Sea38°15′N 21°15′E / 38.250°N 21.250°E / 38.250; 21.250Result
Holy League victoryBelligerents
Holy League：
Republic of Venice
Spanish Empire
Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom of Sardinia
Duchy of Parma
Republic of Genoa Duchy of Savoy Grand Duchy of Tuscany Order of St. John Papal States Greek rebels
Ottoman Empire
Regency of AlgiersCommanders and leaders
John of Austria Álvaro de Bazán Luis de Requesens Carlo d'Aragona Tagliavia Sebastiano Venier Agostino Barbarigo † Gianandrea Doria Marcantonio Colonna
Ali Pasha † Mahomet Sirocco † OcchialiStrength
65,000 men:
30,000 sailors and oarsmen
35,000 soldiers
206 galleys 6 galleasses
67,000 men:
37,000 sailors and oarsmen
30,000 soldiers
222 galleys 56 galliotsCasualties and losses
7,500–10,000 killed and 15,000 wounded 13 galleys sunk or destroyed
20,000–25,000 killed 117 galleys captured 20 galliots captured 50 galleys and galliots sunk or destroyed
15,000 Christian slaves freedclass=notpageimage| Location within GreeceShow map of GreeceBattle of Lepanto (Peloponnese)Show map of Peloponnese
vteOttoman–Habsburg warsHungary and the Balkans
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vteFourth Ottoman–Venetian War
Nicosia (1570)
Famagusta (1570–71)
Lepanto (1571)
Navarino;(1572)
The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic states arranged by Pope Pius V, inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras. The Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto (the Venetian name of ancient Naupactus – Greek Ναύπακτος, Turkish İnebahtı) when they met the fleet of the Holy League which was sailing east from Messina, Sicily.
The fleet of the Holy League consisted of 109 galleys and six galleasses from the Republic of Venice, 49 galleys from the Spanish Empire, 27 galleys from the Republic of Genoa, seven galleys from the Papal States, five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys from the Duchy of Savoy, three galleys from the Knights of Malta and some private ships. John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division along with Papal captain Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 222 galleys and 56 galliots and was led by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha, Mahomet Sirocco and Occhiali.
In the history of naval warfare, Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels, namely the galleys and galleasses which were the direct descendants of ancient trireme warships. The battle was in essence an "infantry battle on floating platforms". It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than 450 warships. Over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the "Age of Sail".
The victory of the Holy League is of great importance in the history of Europe and of the Ottoman Empire, with the Ottoman fleet almost completely destroyed and marking the turning-point of Ottoman military expansion into the Mediterranean, although the Ottoman wars in Europe would continue for another century. It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis, both for tactical parallels and for its crucial importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. It was also of great symbolic importance in a period when Europe was torn by its own wars of religion following the Protestant Reformation. Pope Pius V instituted the feast of Our Lady of Victory, and Philip II of Spain used the victory to strengthen his position as the "Most Catholic King" and defender of Christendom against Muslim incursion. Historian Paul K. Davis writes that
More than a military victory, Lepanto was a moral one. For decades, the Ottoman Turks had terrified Europe, and the victories of Suleiman the Magnificent caused Christian Europe serious concern. The defeat at Lepanto further exemplified the rapid deterioration of Ottoman might under Selim II, and Christians rejoiced at this setback for the Ottomans. The mystique of Ottoman power was tarnished significantly by this battle, and Christian Europe was heartened.
Background
Main articles: Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) and Holy League (1571)
Battle of Lepanto from Famous Sea Fights by John R. Hale
The banner of the Holy League, flown by John of Austria on his flagship Real. It is made of blue damask interwoven with gold thread, of a length of 7.3 m and a width of 4.4 m at the hoist. It displays the crucified Christ above the coats of arms of Pius V, of Venice, of Charles V, and of John of Austria. The coats of arms are linked by chains symbolizing the alliance.
The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope Pius V to rescue the Venetian colony of Famagusta on the island of Cyprus, which was being besieged by the Turks in early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and other Venetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570. On 1 August the Venetians surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha had lost some 50,000 men in the siege and broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians, and had Marco Antonio Bragadin flayed alive.
The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice, the Spanish Empire (including the Kingdom of Naples, the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia as part of the Spanish possessions), the Papal States, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchies of Savoy, Urbino and Tuscany, the Knights Hospitaller, and others.
The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by Philip II of Spain) on 14 August 1571, where it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria.
All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the Mediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Europe itself. Spain was the largest financial contributor, though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of their galleys for Spain's own wars against the nearby sultanates of the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strength for the benefit of Venice. The combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with
Marcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the main force from Venice under Sebastiano Venier, later Doge of Venice, in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily.
Deployment and order of battle
Further information: Battle of Lepanto order of battle
Order of battle of the two fleets, with an allegory of the three powers of the Holy League in the foreground, fresco by Giorgio Vasari (1572, Sala Regia)
The Christian fleet consisted of 206 galleys and six galleasses (large new galleys with substantial artillery, developed by the Venetians). John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division, with his principal deputies and counselors being the Roman Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria. The Republic of Venice contributed 109 galleys and six galleasses, 49 galleys came from the Spanish Empire (including 26 from the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, and other Italian territories), 27 galleys of the Genoese fleet, seven galleys from the Papal States, five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys each from the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privately owned galleys in Spanish service. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried approximately 30,000 fighting troops: 7,000 Spanish Empire regular infantry of excellent quality, (4,000 of the Spanish Empire's troops were drawn from the Kingdom of Naples, mostly Calabria), 7,000 Germans, 6,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay, all good troops, in addition to 5,000 professional Venetian soldiers. A significant number of Greeks also participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League with three Venetian galleys commanded by Greek captains. The historian George Finlay estimated that over 25,000 Greeks fought on the side of the Holy League during the battle (both as soldiers and sailors/oarsmen) and stated that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any other nation engaged".
Oarsmen were mainly drawn from local Greek populations, who were experienced in maritime affairs, although there were some Venetian oarsmen as well. Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior to enslaved or imprisoned oarsmen, but the former were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts, and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs. The Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and able to bear arms, adding to the fighting power of their ships, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons.
Depiction of the Ottoman Navy, detail from the painting by Tommaso Dolabella (1632)
Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral (Kapudan-i Derya), supported by the corsairs Mehmed Sirocco (Mehmed Şuluk) of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were significantly deficient in their elite corps of janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves, many of them Christians who had been captured in previous conquests and engagements. The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire—mainly Greeks (according to Finlay, around 5,000), Berbers, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 25,000 soldiers from the Ottoman Empire as well as a few thousand from their North African allies.
While soldiers on board the ships were roughly matched in numbers, an advantage for the Christians was the numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships. It is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition. The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared composite bowmen.
The Christian fleet started from Messina on 16 September, crossing the Adriatic and creeping along the coast, arriving at the group of rocky islets lying just north of the opening of the Gulf of Corinth on 6 October. Serious conflict had broken out between Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence. Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia (then also called Val d'Alessandria), where they remained for a while.
Early on 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from Selim II to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League. On the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north–south line:
At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support.
The Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in his Real, along with Marcantonio Colonna commanding the papal flagship, Venier commanding the Venetian flagship, Paolo Giordano I Orsini and Pietro Giustiniani, prior of Messina, commanding the flagship of the Knights of Malta.
The Right Division to the south consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of admiral Andrea Doria.
A reserve division was stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed, commanded by Álvaro de Bazán, the Marquis of Santa Cruz.
One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto (1851 drawing, after a 1570s painting)
The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and two galliots on its right under Mehmed Siroco, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the south offshore under Uluç Ali. A small reserve consisted of eight galleys, 22 galliots, and 64 fustas, behind the centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley slaves, "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you." John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew, "There is no paradise for cowards."
Battle
The lookout on the Real sighted the Turkish van at dawn of 7 October. Don Juan called a council of war and decided to offer battle. He travelled through his fleet in a swift sailing vessel, exhorting his officers and men to do their utmost. The Sacrament was administered to all, the galley slaves were freed from their chains, and the standard of the Holy League was raised to the truck of the flagship.
Plan of the Battle (formation of the fleets just before contact)
The wind was at first against the Christians, and it was feared that the Turks would be able to make contact before a line of battle could be formed. But around noon, shortly before contact, the wind shifted to favour the Christians, enabling most of the squadrons to reach their assigned position before contact. Four galeasses stationed in front of the Christian battle line opened fire at close quarters at the foremost Turkish galleys, confusing their battle array in the crucial moment of contact. Around noon, first contact was made between the squadrons of Barbarigo and Sirocco, close to the northern shore of the Gulf. Barbarigo had attempted to stay so close to the shore as to prevent Sirocco from surrounding him, but Sirocco, knowing the depth of the waters, managed to still insert galleys between Barbarigo's line and the coast. In the ensuing mêlée, the ships came so close to each other as to form an almost continuous platform of hand-to-hand fighting in which both leaders were killed. The Christian galley slaves freed from the Turkish ships were supplied with arms and joined in the fighting, turning the battle in favour of the Christian side.
Fresco in the Vatican's Gallery of Maps
Meanwhile, the centres clashed with such force that Ali Pasha's galley drove into the Real as far as the fourth rowing bench, and hand-to-hand fighting commenced around the two flagships, between the Spanish Tercio infantry and the Turkish janissaries. When the Real was nearly taken, Colonna came alongside, with the bow of his galley, and mounted a counter-attack. With the help of Colonna, the Turks were pushed off the Real and the Turkish flagship was boarded and swept. The entire crew of Ali Pasha's flagship was killed, including Ali Pasha himself. The banner of the Holy League was hoisted on the captured ship, breaking the morale of the Turkish galleys nearby. After two hours of fighting, the Turks were beaten left and centre, although fighting continued for another two hours. A flag taken at Lepanto by the Knights of Saint Stephen, said to be the standard of the Turkish commander, is still on display, in the Church of the seat of the Order in Pisa.
On the Christian right, the situation was different, as Doria continued sailing towards the south instead of taking his assigned position. He would explain his conduct after the battle by saying that he was trying to prevent an enveloping manoeuvre by the Turkish left. But Doria's captains were enraged, interpreting their commander's signals as a sign of treachery. When Doria had opened a wide gap with the Christian centre, Uluç Ali swung around and fell on Colonna's southern flank, with Doria too far away to interfere. Ali attacked a group of some fifteen galleys around the flagship of the Knights of Malta, threatening to break into the Christian centre and still turn the tide of the battle. This was prevented by the arrival of the reserve squadron commanded by Bazán. Uluç Ali was forced to retreat, escaping the battle with the captured flag of the Knights of Malta.
Isolated fighting continued until the evening. Even after the battle had clearly turned against the Turks, groups of janissaries kept fighting to the last. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ran out of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemons at their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenes of laughter among the general misery of battle. Many Greek rowers serving on Turkish galleys managed to seize them with mutiny and deliver them in time to the Christian allies. At the end of the battle, the Christians had taken 117 galleys and 20 galliots, and sunk or destroyed some 50 other ships. Around ten thousand Turks were taken prisoner, and many thousands of Christian slaves were rescued. The Christian side suffered around 7,500 deaths, the Turkish side about 30,000.
Aftermath
Further information: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire
The Victors of Lepanto, John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna and Sebastiano Venier (anonymous oil painting, c. 1575, formerly in Ambras Castle, now Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century. However, the Holy League failed to capitalize on the victory, and while the Ottoman defeat has often been cited as the historical turning-point initiating the eventual stagnation of Ottoman territorial expansion, this was by no means an immediate consequence. The Christian victory at Lepanto confirmed the de facto division of the Mediterranean, with the eastern half under firm Ottoman control and the western under the Spanish Crown and their Italian allies. The battle halted the Ottoman encroachment on Italian territories, but the Holy League did not regain any territories that had been lost to the Ottomans prior to Lepanto. Historian Paul K. Davis sums up the importance of Lepanto this way: "This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans' expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining Western dominance, and confidence grew in the West that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten."
The Ottomans were quick to rebuild their navy. By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys, 8 galleasses, and in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean. With this new fleet the Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean. Sultan Selim II's Chief Minister, the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, even boasted to the Venetian emissary Marcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumph at Lepanto caused no lasting harm to the Ottoman Empire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in the same year was a significant blow, saying that:
You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know the difference between your loss and ours. In wrestling Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.
In 1572, the allied Christian fleet resumed operations and faced a renewed Ottoman navy of 200 vessels under Kılıç Ali Pasha, but the Ottoman commander actively avoided engaging the allied fleet and headed for the safety of the fortress of Modon. The arrival of the Spanish squadron of 55 ships evened the numbers on both sides and opened the opportunity for a decisive blow, but friction among the Christian leaders and the reluctance of Don Juan squandered the opportunity.
Pius V died on 1 May 1572. The diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to unravel. In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don Juan attacked and took Tunis, only for it to be retaken by the Ottomans in 1574. Venice, fearing the loss of its Dalmatian possessions and a possible invasion of Friuli, and eager to cut its losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated unilateral negotiations with the Porte.
Jacopo Ligozzi, The Return of the Knights of Saint Stephen from the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1610, Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, Pisa)
The Holy League was disbanded with the peace treaty of 7 March 1573, which concluded the War of Cyprus. Venice was forced to accept loser's terms in spite of the victory at Lepanto. Cyprus was formally ceded to the Ottoman Empire, and Venice agreed to pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats. In addition, the border between the two powers in Dalmatia was modified by the Turkish occupation of small but important parts of the hinterland that included the most fertile agricultural areas near the cities, with adverse effects on the economy of the Venetian cities in Dalmatia. Peace would hold between the two states until the Cretan War of 1645.
In 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish-supported Hafsid dynasty, which had been re-installed after John of Austria's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before. Thanks to the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance, the Ottomans were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1576, the Ottomans assisted in Abdul Malik's capture of Fez – this reinforced the Ottoman indirect conquests in Morocco that had begun under Suleiman the Magnificent. The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire southern coast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Greece under Ottoman authority, with the exceptions of the Spanish-controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta. But after 1580, the Ottoman Empire could no longer compete with the advances of European navies, especially following the development of the galleon and line of battle tactics.
Legacy
Accounts
Giovanni Pietro Contarini's History of the Events, which occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle against the Turks was published in 1572, a few months after Lepanto. It was the first comprehensive account of the war, and the only one to attempt a concise but complete overview of its course and the Holy League's triumph. Contarini's account went beyond effusive praise and mere factual reporting to examine the meaning and importance of these events. It is also the only full historical account by an immediate commentator, blending his straightforward narrative with keen and consistent reflections on the political philosophy of conflict in the context of the Ottoman–Catholic confrontation in the early modern Mediterranean.
Commemoration
Battle of Lepanto by Martin Rota, 1572 print, Venice
The Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room. Pope Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary. Dominican friar Juan Lopez in his 1584 book on the rosary states that the feast of the rosary was offered "in memory and in perpetual gratitude of the miraculous victory that the Lord gave to his Christian people that day against the Turkish armada". A piece of commemorative music composed after the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis (Song of Moses Exodus 15) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas by the Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de las Infantas. The other piece of music is Jacobus de Kerle's "Cantio octo vocum de sacro foedere contra Turcas" 1572 (Song in Eight Voices on the Holy League Against the Turks), in the opinion of Pettitt (2006) an "exuberantly militaristic" piece celebrating the victory. There were celebrations and festivities with triumphs and pageants at Rome and Venice with Turkish slaves in chains.
Paintings
Felipe II offers Prince Fernando to Victory by Titian, c. 1572–1575, Museo del Prado, Madrid
There are many pictorial representations of the battle. Prints of the order of battle appeared in Venice and Rome in 1571, and numerous paintings were commissioned, including one in the Doge's Palace, Venice, by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. Titian painted the battle in the background of an allegorical work showing Philip II of Spain holding his infant son, Don Fernando, his male heir born shortly after the victory, on 4 December 1571. An angel descends from heaven bearing a palm branch with a motto for Fernando, who is held up by Philip: "Majora tibi" (may you achieve greater deeds; Fernando died as a child, in 1578).
The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1572, oil on canvas, 169 x 137 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice) is a painting by Paolo Veronese. The lower half of the painting shows the events of the battle, whilst at the top a female personification of Venice is presented to the Virgin Mary, with Saint James Major (patron of Spain), Saint Peter (patron of the Papal States), Saint Justina (patron of Padua), Saint Mark (patron of Venice), and a group of angels in attendance.
A painting by Wenceslas Cobergher, dated to the end of the 16th century, now in San Domenico Maggiore, shows what is interpreted as a victory procession in Rome on the return of admiral Colonna. On the stairs of Saint Peter's Basilica, Pius V is visible in front of a kneeling figure, identified as Marcantonio Colonna returning the standard of the Holy League to the pope. On high is the Madonna and child with victory palms.
Tommaso Dolabella painted his The Battle of Lepanto in c. 1625–1630 on the commission of Stanisław Lubomirski, commander of the Polish left wing in the Battle of Khotyn (1621). The monumental painting (3.05 m × 6.35 m) combines the Polish victory procession following this battle with the backdrop of the Battle of Lepanto. It was later owned by the Dominicans of Poznań and since 1927 has been on display in Wawel Castle, Kraków.
The Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna (1887) is displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid.
The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese (c. 1572, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice
The Battle of Lepanto by Andrea Vicentino (c. 1571-1600), Museo Correr, Venice
The Battle of Lepanto by Andrea Vicentino (c. 1600, Doge's Palace, Venice)
The Battle of Lepanto by Tommaso Dolabella (c. 1625–1630, Wawel Castle, Kraków)
The Battle of Lepanto by Andries van Eertvelt (1640)
The Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna (1887, Spanish Senate, Madrid)
The Battle of Lepanto by Tintoretto
The Battle of Lepanto by anonymous
The Battle of Lepanto by Giorgio Vasari
Sculpture
Monument to John of Austria in Messina
The statue of John of Austria in Messina was erected by decision of the city's Senate in 1571, as John had returned to Messina after the battle. It was sculpted by Andrea Calamech and dedicated in 1572.
Poetry and fiction
There was an immediate poetical response to the victory at Lepanto. In Italy alone 233 titles of sonnets, madrigals and poems were printed between 1571 and 1573, some of these including writing in dialect or Latin.
This was replicated by the Spanish response, with poems in Catalan and the Mallorcan dialect and full scale epics by Juan Latino (Austriados libri duo 1573), Jerónimo Corte-Real ( Austriada ou Felicissima Victoria, 1578) and es:Juan Rufo (La Austriada, 1586). Though these longer works have, in the words of a later critic, "not unjustly been consigned to that oblivion which few epics have escaped", there was also a Spanish ballad which retained its popularity and was translated into English by Thomas Rodd in 1818.
The most popular British poem on the subject was The Lepanto by King James VI of Scotland. Written in fourteeners about 1585, its thousand lines were ultimately collected in His Maiesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres (1591), then published separately in 1603 after James had become king of England too. There were also translations in other languages, including into Dutch as Den Slach van Lepanten (1593) by Abraham van der Myl. La Lepanthe, the French version by Du Bartas, accompanied James' 1591 edition; a Latin version, the Naupactiados Metaphrasis by Thomas Murray (1564–1623), followed a year after James' 1603 publication.
The royal connection ensured that the battle was featured in Stuart aquatic pageants representing sea battles between Christians and Turks well into the reign. And in 1632 the story of the battle was retold in couplets in Abraham Holland's Naumachia.
Centuries later G. K. Chesterton revisited the conflict in his lively narrative poem Lepanto, first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provided a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria, then closed with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes, who also fought in the battle, with the "lean and foolish knight" he would later immortalise in Don Quixote.
At the start of the 20th century too, Emilio Salgari devoted his historical novel, Il Leone di Damasco ("The Lion of Damascus", 1910), to the Battle of Lepanto, which was eventually to be adapted to film by Corrado D'Errico in 1942.
In 1942 as well, English author Elizabeth Goudge has a character in her war-time novel, The Castle on the Hill (1942), recall the leading role of John of Austria in the battle and the presence of Cervantes there. Much as combatants had appropriated Chesterton's poem to the circumstances of World War I, Goudge harnessed that ancient incident to British resistance to Nazi Germany during World War II.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Lepanto.
Lepanto (poem)
Battle of Zonchio (1499)
Battle of Preveza (1538)
Battle of Djerba (1560)
Siege of Malta (1565)
Papal Navy
References
^ John F. Guilmartin (1974), pp. 253–255
^ Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. pp. 20–23. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
^ Fernandez de la Puente y Acevedo, José (1853). Memoria histórico-crítica del célebre combate naval y victoria de Lepanto. Madrid, Spain: Real Academia de la Historia. p. 35.
^ a b c d Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, pp. 87–88
^ name=Nolan>Nolan, Cathal (2006). The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 529.
^ a b c Tucker 2010, p. 178.
^ name="ReferenceA">Confrontation at Lepanto by T. C. F. Hopkins, intro
^ a b William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of Sea Power, 1920, p. 107.
^ a b Davis 1999, p. 195.
^ Hanson 2010, p. 96.
^ William Stevens, History of Sea Power (1920), p. 83.
^ Beaton, Roderick (2021). The Greeks: A Global History (1st ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 368. ISBN 9781541618299.
^ See e.g. William Stevens, History of Sea Power (1920), p. 83; Frederick A. de Armas, Cervantes, Raphael and the Classics (1998), p. 87.
^ His efforts to finance the Holy League against the Ottomans earned Philip II, the "Most Catholic King", his place as "champion of Catholicism throughout Europe, a role that led him to spectacular victories and equally spectacular defeats. Spain's leadership of a 'holy league' against Turkish enroachments in the Mediterranean resulted in a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Philip's greatest misfortunes came from his attempts to crush the revolt in the Netherlands and his tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth of England."Jackson J. Spielvogel (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume II: Since 1500 (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 253. ISBN 9781133607939.
^ Davis 1999, p. 199.
^ The image shown is a reproduction of an 1888 watercolour drawn from a copy of the banner in the Museo Naval in Madrid. The original is kept in the Museo de Santa Cruz in Toledo. The banner was given to Toledo Cathedral in 1616. It was moved to the Museo de Santa Cruz in 1961. F. Javier Campos y Fernández de Sevilla, "CERVANTES, LEPANTO Y EL ESCORIAL"
^ Goffman (2002), p. 158
^ Carrabine, Eamonn (2018-04-03). "Reading a "Titian": Visual Methods and the Limits of Interpretation". Deviant Behavior. 39 (4): 525–538. doi:10.1080/01639625.2017.1407113. ISSN 0163-9625. S2CID 148665399.
^ Hopkins 2006, pp. 59–60.
^ Savona-Ventura, Charles (Nov 2015). "The Order of St. Lazarus in the Battle of Lepanto, October 1571". Sancti Lazari Ordinis Academia Internationalis.
^ Stevens (1942), p. 61
^ Setton (1984), p. 1047. Meyer Setton, Kenneth: The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, Vol. IV. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984. ISBN 978-0-87169-162-0, p. 1047.
^ Archer et al. 2002, p. 258.
^ Rick Scorza, "Vasari's Lepanto Frescoes: Apparati, Medals, Prints and the Celebration of Victory", Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 75 (2012), 141–200
^ Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle Of The Renaissance. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
^ Stevens (1942), pp. 66–69
^ ISBN 1861899467, p. 70
^ a b ISBN 0-306-81544-3, p. 263
^ Stevens (1942), p. 67
^ Gregory Hanlon. "The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800." Routledge: 1997. Page 22.
^ a b Setton (1984), p. 1026
^ Konstam (2003), p. 20
^ a b Yildirim, Onur (2007). "The Battle of Lepanto and Its Impact on Ottoman History and Historiography" (PDF). Mediterraneo in Armi (Secc. XV-XVIII). 2: 537–538. ISSN 1828-1818.
^ a b Brewer, David (2012). Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-85772-167-9.
^ a b c John F. Guilmartin (1974), pp. 222–25
^ The first regularly sanctioned use of convicts as oarsmen on Venetian galleys did not occur until 1549. re Tenenti, Cristoforo da Canal, pp. 83, 85. See Tenenti, Piracy and the Decline of Venice (Berkeley, 1967), pp. 124–25, for Cristoforo da Canal's comments on the tactical effectiveness of free oarsmen c. 1587 though he was mainly concerned with their higher cost. Ismail Uzuncarsili, Osmanli Devletenin Merkez ve Bahriye Teskilati (Ankara, 1948), p. 482, cites a squadron of 41 Ottoman galleys in 1556 of which the flagship and two others were rowed by Azabs, salaried volunteer light infantrymen, three were rowed by slaves and the remaining 36 were rowed by salaried mercenary Greek oarsmen.
^ Konstam (2003), pp. 20–21
^ Stevens (1942), p. 63
^ ISBN 0-306-81544-3, p. 264
^ John Keegan, A History of Warfare (1993), p. 337.
^ a b William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of Sea Power, 1920, p. 103.
^ Glete, Jan: Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe. Routledge. 2000. p. 105. Retrieved from Ebrary.
^ Stevens (1942), p. 64
^ after a figure from William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of Sea Power, 1920, p. 106.
^ William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of Sea Power, 1920, p. 104.
^ William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of Sea Power, 1920, pp. 105–06.
^ "Restauro delle Bandiere della Chiesa Nazionale dei Cavalieri di S.Stefano". fondazionecaripisa.it. 2000-06-20. Archived from the original on 2007-03-02.
^ "Prede di guerra". www.navigationdusavoir.net. Archived from the original on 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2009-03-19.
^ Davis 2009, p. 94.
^ Hasiotis, Ioannis; Guirao, Motos (2008). Tendiendo Puentes en el Mediterráneo: Estudios Sobre las Relaciones Hispano-Griegas (ss. XV-XIX) (in Spanish). Granada: Centro de Estudios Bizantinos, Neogriegos y Chipriotas, University of Granada. p. 51. ISBN 978-84-95905-28-4.
^ Wheatcroft 2004, pp. 33–34
^ Abulafia 2012, p. 451.
^ Davis 1999, p. 194.
^ Keegan, A History of Warfare (1993), p. 337.
^ J. Norwich, A History of Venice, 490
^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, 272
^ Wheatcroft 2004, p. 34
^ Guilmartin, John F. (2003). Galleons and Galleys: Gunpowder and the Changing Face of Warfare at Sea, 1300–1650. Cassell. pp. 149–50.
^
Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. p. 161.
Setton, Kenneth M. (1984). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. IV: The Sixteenth Century. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. pp. 1093–95. ISBN 9780871691149.
^ Raukar, Tomislav (November 1977). "Venecija i ekonomski razvoj Dalmacije u XV i XVI stoljeću". Journal – Institute of Croatian History (in Croatian). 10 (1). Zagreb, Croatia: Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb: 221. ISSN 0353-295X. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
^ Finkel (2006), p. 222
^ "After 1580, there was a growing distaste for maritime ventures; the Ottoman fleet lay rotting in the still waters of the Horn." Roger Crowley, "Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world", publisher Random House, 2008, p. 287.
^ Contarini, Giovanni Pietro (2019) . From Cyprus to Lepanto: History of the Events, which Occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought Against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle Against the Turks. Translated by Petkov, Kiril. Italica Press. ISBN 978-1-59910-383-9.
^ Badde, Paul (2005). Maria von Guadalupe. Wie das Erscheinen der Jungfrau Weltgeschichte schrieb. ISBN 3-548-60561-3.
^ Alban Butler, Butler's Lives Of The Saints (1999), p. 222. See also EWTN on Battle of Lepanto (1571) .
^ Libro en que se tratea de la importancia y exercicio del santo rosario, Zaragoza: Domingo Portonariis y Ursino (1584), cited after Lorenzo F. Candelaria, The Rosary Cantoral: Ritual and Social Design in a Chantbook from Early Renaissance Toledo, University Rochester Press (2008), p. 109.
^ Stevenson, R. Chapter 'Other church masters' section 14. 'Infantas' in Spanish Cathedral Music in the Golden Age pp. 316–18.
^ Stephen Pettitt, 'Classical: New Releases: Jacobus De Kerle: Da Pacem Domine', Sunday Times, Jan 2006.
^ See Rick Scorza's article in The Slave in European Art: From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem, ed Elizabeth McGrath and Jean Michel Massing, London (The Warburg Institute) and Turin 2012.
^ anonymous chalcography, 1571, Museo Civico Correr, Museo di Storia Navale, Venice; Vero retratto del armata Christiana et Turchesca in ordinanza dove li nostri ebero la gloriosa vitoria tra Lepanto , 1571; Il vero ordine et modo tenuto dalle Chistiana et turchescha nella bataglia, che fu all. 7. Ottobrio , Venice 1571, Museo di Storia Navale, Venice; Agostino Barberigo, L' ultimo Et vero Ritrato Di la vitoria de L'armata Cristiana de la santissima liga Contre a L'armata Turcheschà , 1571. Antonio Lafreri, L’ordine tenuto dall’armata della santa Lega Christiana contro il Turcho , n'e seguita la felicissima Vittoria li sette d'Ottobre MDLXXI , Rome, 1571 (bnf.fr). Bernhard Jobin, Mercklicher Schiffstreit /und Schlachtordnung beyder Christlichjen / und Türckischen Armada / wie sich die jüngst den 7. Oktob. 71. Jar verloffen / eigentlich fürgerissen / und warhafftig beschrieben,
Strasbourg, 1572; cited after Rudolph (2012).
^ Robert Enggass and Jonathan Brown, Italian and Spanish Art, 1600–1750: Sources and Documents (1992), p. 213.
^ Flemish Masters and Other Artists: Foreign Artists from the Heritage of the Fondo Edifici Di Culto Del Ministero Dell'interno (2008), p. 83.
^ Anna Misiag-Bochenska, Historia obrazu Tomasza Dolabelli " Bitwa pod Lepanto " ", Nautologia 3.1/2 (1968/9), 64–65.
Krystyna Fabijańska-Przybytko, Morze w malarstwie polskim (1990), p. 104. Gino Benzoni, Il Mediterraneo Nella Seconda Metà Del '500 Alla Luce Di Lepanto (1974), p. 31.
^ Emma Grootveld, Trumpets of Lepanto. Italian narrative poetry (1571–1650) on the war of Cyprus, KU Leuven & University of Ghent 2017, p.7 ff
^ William Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria: Or Passages from the History of the Sixteenth Century, Longmans 1883, Vol. 1, pp.454–6
^ Google Books
^ Astrid Stilma, The Writings of King James VI & I and their Interpretation in the Low Countries, Routledge 2016,
^ Dana F. Sutton, University of California hypertext edition
^ David M. Bergeron, "Are we turned Turks?": English Pageants and the Stuart Court, Comparative Drama: Vol. 44.3 (2010)
^ text online
^ D'Errico, Corrado. "Il Leone Di Damasco". www.imdb.com. IMDb. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
^ Luke J. Foster, "Tilting After the Trenches: The Quixotic Return of Heroism in G.K. Chesterton's Modernism", Columbia University Department of English & Comparative Literature 2015, p.2
^ Goudge, Elizabeth (2019). "V". The Castle on the Hill. Hachette UK. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9781529378139.
Bibliography
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Anderson, R. C. Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853, (2006), ISBN 1-57898-538-2
Archer, Christon; Ferris, John R.; Herwig, Holger H.; Travers, Timothy H.E. (2002). World History of Warfare. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-80321-941-0.
Beeching, Jack. The Galleys at Lepanto, Hutchinson, London, 1982; ISBN 0-09-147920-7
Bicheno, Hugh. Crescent and Cross: The Battle of Lepanto 1571, pbk., Phoenix, London, 2004, ISBN 1-84212-753-5
Capponi, Niccolò (2006). Victory of the West:The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81544-3.
Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II. (vol 2 1972), the classic history by the leader of the French Annales School; excerpt and text search vol 2 pp 1088–1142
Chesterton, G. K. Lepanto with Explanatory Notes and Commentary, Dale Ahlquist, ed. (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2003). ISBN 1-58617-030-9
Clissold, Stephen (1966). A short history of Yugoslavia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04676-9.
Cakir, İbrahim Etem, "Lepanto War and Some Informatıon on the Reconstructıon of The Ottoman Fleet", Turkish Studies – International Periodical For The Language Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Volume 4/3 Spring 2009, pp. 512–31
Contarini, Giovanni Pietro. Kiril Petkov, ed and trans. From Cyprus to Lepanto: History of the Events, Which Occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle against the Turks. Italica Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1-59910-381-5 ISBN 978-1-59910-382-2
Cook, M.A. (ed.), "A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730", Cambridge University Press, 1976; ISBN 0-521-20891-2
Crowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world, Random House, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4000-6624-7
Currey, E. Hamilton, "Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean", John Murrey, 1910
Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19514-366-9.
Davis, Robert C. (2009). Holy War and Human Bondage. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-27598-950-7.
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Hanson, Victor D. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power, Anchor Books, 2001. Published in the UK as Why the West has Won, Faber and Faber, 2001. ISBN 0-571-21640-4. Includes a chapter about the battle of Lepanto
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Library resources about Battle of Lepanto
Online books
Resources in your library
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External links
Battle of Lepanto, In Our Time episode, hosted by Melvin Bragg, 12 November 2015, with guests Noel Malcolm, Diarmaid MacCulloch, and Kate Fleet.
(in Spanish) Julián Jaramillo, La batalla de Lepanto (historia-maritima.blogspot.com, 2012).
Henry Zaidan, 57 Paintings of The Naval Battle of Lepanto, 1571. Christian forces of the Holy League and the Ottoman Turks (myartblogcollection.blogspot.com, 2016)
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Fidonisi
Modernization(1789–1908)Land battles
Focșani
Rymnik
Giurgiu
Izmail
Măcin
Shubra Khit
Pyramids
1st Acre
Mount Tabor
Abukir
Heliopolis
Derna
Arpachai
Batin
Slobozia
Al-Safra
Jeddah
Čegar
Alamana
Gravia
Erzurum
Valtetsi
Doliana
Lalas
Drăgășani
Sculeni
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Peta
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Karpenisi
Arachova
Kamatero
Phaleron
Petra
2nd Kars
Varna
Akhaltsikhe
Kulevicha
Algiers
2nd Acre
Hims
Konya
Nezib
Akhaltsikhe
Başgedikler
Kurekdere
Oltenița
Eupatoria
Chernaya
3rd Kars
Al-Hasa
Kızıl Tepe
Shipka Pass
Plevna
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4th Kars
Philippopolis
Taşkesen
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Ulcinj
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Velestino
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Naval battles
Andros
2nd Kerch Strait
Tendra
Kaliakra
5th Dardanelles
6th Dardanelles
Athos
Algiers
Nauplia
Samos
Gerontas
Navarino
Sinop
For 20th-century battles before 1914 see List of Ottoman battles in the 20th century
For the battles during World War I see List of Ottoman battles in World War I
Ottoman victories are in italics.
vteSpanish EmpireTimeline–immersed
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vteBarbary CorsairsTerritories
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Diplomacy
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Conflicts16th century
Ottoman raid on the Balearic Islands (1501)
Capture of Algiers (1516)
Fall of Tlemcen (1518)
Battle of Pianosa (1519)
Siege of Rhodes (1522)
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Ottoman wintering in Toulon (1543-1544)
Capture of Mahdiye (1550)
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Expedition to Mostaganem (1558)
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Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir (1563)
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Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–71)
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Conquest of Tunis (1574)
Sack of Sori (1584)
17th century
Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609)
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Dutch-Barbary War (1618–22)
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|
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Celidonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)"},{"link_name":"Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%931573)"},{"link_name":"Nicosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Nicosia"},{"link_name":"Famagusta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Famagusta"},{"link_name":"Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Navarino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Navarino_(1572)"},{"link_name":"naval engagement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_warfare"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)"},{"link_name":"Catholic states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_state"},{"link_name":"Pope Pius V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_V"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Patras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Patras"},{"link_name":"Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naupactus"},{"link_name":"Venetian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_language"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language"},{"link_name":"Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina,_Italy"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis1999195-9"},{"link_name":"galleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleys"},{"link_name":"galleasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleasses"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"galleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley"},{"link_name":"Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Republic of Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"Order of Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Knights of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis1999195-9"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Philip II of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Pope Pius V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_V"},{"link_name":"Marcantonio Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcantonio_Colonna"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Venier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Venier"},{"link_name":"Agostino Barbarigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Barbarigo_(admiral)"},{"link_name":"Gianandrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianandrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"galliots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galliot"},{"link_name":"Müezzinzade Ali Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCezzinzade_Ali_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Mahomet Sirocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahomet_Sirocco"},{"link_name":"Occhiali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occhiali"},{"link_name":"naval warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_warfare"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson201096-10"},{"link_name":"galleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley"},{"link_name":"galleasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleass"},{"link_name":"trireme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trireme"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens83-11"},{"link_name":"largest naval battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_naval_battle_in_history"},{"link_name":"galleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleon"},{"link_name":"line of battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_battle"},{"link_name":"Age of Sail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Sail"},{"link_name":"turning-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stagnation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ottoman wars in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Battle of Salamis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"wars of religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_wars_of_religion"},{"link_name":"Protestant Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Our Lady of Victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Victory"},{"link_name":"Most Catholic King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs"},{"link_name":"Christendom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendom"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Suleiman the Magnificent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent"},{"link_name":"Selim II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_II"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis1999199-15"}],"text":"1571 naval battle of the Ottoman–Habsburg warsThis article is about the 1571 battle. For other uses, see Battle of Lepanto (disambiguation).vteOttoman–Habsburg warsHungary and the Balkans\nMohács (1526)\nHungarian campaign (1527–28)\nHundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War (1527-1593)\nHungary (1529)\nVienna (1529)\nLittle Wars in Hungary \n(1529–1533) (1540–1547) (1551–1562) (1565–1568)\nLong War (1593–1606)\nBocskai uprising (1604–1606)\nAustro-Turkish War (1663–64)\nGreat Turkish War (1683–1699)\nAustro-Turkish War (1716–1718)\nRusso-Turkish War (1735–1739)\nAustro-Turkish War (1788–91)\nMediterranean\n\nCephalonia (1500)\nBalearics (1501)\n1st Algiers (1516)\nTlemcen (1518)\n2nd Algiers (1519)\n3rd Algiers (1529)\nFormentera (1529)\nCherchell (1531)\nCoron (1532-1534)\n1st Tunis (1534)\n2nd Tunis (1535)\nMahón (1535)\nPreveza (1538)\nCastelnuovo (1539)\nGirolata (1540)\nAlborán (1540)\n4th Algiers (1541)\nNice (1543)\n1st Mostaganem (1543)\nLipari (1544)\nNaples (1544)\n2st Mostaganem (1547)\nCullera (1550)\nMahdia (1550)\n1st Gozo (1551)\nTripoli (1551)\nPonza (1552)\nCorsica (1553-1559)\nViste (1554)\nBéjaïa (1555)\nOran (1556)\nBalearics (1558)\n3rd Mostaganem (1558)\nDjerba (1560)\nOrán and Mers-el-Kébir (1563)\nPeñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1563)\nGranada (1563)\nMalta (1565)\n3rd Tunis (1569)\n2nd Gozo (1570)\nLepanto (1571)\nNavarino (1572)\n4th Tunis (1573)\n5th Tunis (1574)\nSori (1584)\nCanary Islands (1585)\nChios (1599)\nHammamet (1605)\nCape Corvo (1613)\nMalta (1614)\nCape Celidonia (1616)vteFourth Ottoman–Venetian War\nNicosia (1570)\nFamagusta (1570–71)\nLepanto (1571)\nNavarino;(1572)The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic states arranged by Pope Pius V, inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras. The Ottoman forces were sailing westward from their naval station in Lepanto (the Venetian name of ancient Naupactus – Greek Ναύπακτος, Turkish İnebahtı) when they met the fleet of the Holy League which was sailing east from Messina, Sicily.[9]The fleet of the Holy League consisted of 109 galleys and six galleasses from the Republic of Venice, 49 galleys from the Spanish Empire, 27 galleys from the Republic of Genoa, seven galleys from the Papal States, five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys from the Duchy of Savoy, three galleys from the Knights of Malta and some private ships.[9] John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division along with Papal captain Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria. The Ottoman fleet consisted of 222 galleys and 56 galliots and was led by Müezzinzade Ali Pasha, Mahomet Sirocco and Occhiali.In the history of naval warfare, Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought almost entirely between rowing vessels,[10] namely the galleys and galleasses which were the direct descendants of ancient trireme warships. The battle was in essence an \"infantry battle on floating platforms\".[11] It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than 450 warships. Over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the \"Age of Sail\".The victory of the Holy League is of great importance in the history of Europe and of the Ottoman Empire, with the Ottoman fleet almost completely destroyed and marking the turning-point of Ottoman military expansion into the Mediterranean, although the Ottoman wars in Europe would continue for another century.[12] It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis, both for tactical parallels and for its crucial importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion.[13] It was also of great symbolic importance in a period when Europe was torn by its own wars of religion following the Protestant Reformation. Pope Pius V instituted the feast of Our Lady of Victory, and Philip II of Spain used the victory to strengthen his position as the \"Most Catholic King\" and defender of Christendom against Muslim incursion.[14] Historian Paul K. Davis writes thatMore than a military victory, Lepanto was a moral one. For decades, the Ottoman Turks had terrified Europe, and the victories of Suleiman the Magnificent caused Christian Europe serious concern. The defeat at Lepanto further exemplified the rapid deterioration of Ottoman might under Selim II, and Christians rejoiced at this setback for the Ottomans. The mystique of Ottoman power was tarnished significantly by this battle, and Christian Europe was heartened.[15]","title":"Battle of Lepanto"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/famous_seafights_0905_librivox/famousseafights_00_hale.mp3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Estandarte_Liga_Santa.gif"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Pope Pius V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_V"},{"link_name":"Venetian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Famagusta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famagusta"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"was being besieged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Famagusta"},{"link_name":"Nicosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicosia"},{"link_name":"Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lala_Kara_Mustafa_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Marco Antonio Bragadin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Antonio_Bragadin"},{"link_name":"flayed alive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flayed_alive"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"Habsburg monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_and_Corsica"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"Republic of Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Urbino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Urbino"},{"link_name":"Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Knights Hospitaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins200659%E2%80%9360-19"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Ottoman navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Barbary Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbary_Coast"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton1984-22"},{"link_name":"Marcantonio Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcantonio_Colonna"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Venier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Venier"},{"link_name":"Doge of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doge_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2002258-23"}],"text":"Battle of Lepanto from Famous Sea Fights by John R. HaleThe banner of the Holy League, flown by John of Austria on his flagship Real. It is made of blue damask interwoven with gold thread, of a length of 7.3 m and a width of 4.4 m at the hoist. It displays the crucified Christ above the coats of arms of Pius V, of Venice, of Charles V, and of John of Austria. The coats of arms are linked by chains symbolizing the alliance.[16]The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope Pius V to rescue the Venetian colony of Famagusta on the island of Cyprus, which was being besieged by the Turks in early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and other Venetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570. On 1 August the Venetians surrendered after being reassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However, the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha had lost some 50,000 men in the siege and broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians, and had Marco Antonio Bragadin flayed alive.[17][18]The members of the Holy League were the Republic of Venice, the Spanish Empire (including the Kingdom of Naples, the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia as part of the Spanish possessions), the Papal States, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchies of Savoy, Urbino and Tuscany, the Knights Hospitaller, and others.[19]The banner for the fleet, blessed by the Pope, reached the Kingdom of Naples (then ruled by Philip II of Spain) on 14 August 1571, where it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria.[20]All members of the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a significant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in the Mediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Europe itself. Spain was the largest financial contributor, though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of their galleys for Spain's own wars against the nearby sultanates of the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strength for the benefit of Venice.[21][22] The combined Christian fleet was placed under the command of John of Austria with \nMarcantonio Colonna as his principal deputy. The various Christian contingents met the main force from Venice under Sebastiano Venier, later Doge of Venice, in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily.[23]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Lepanto order of battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_order_of_battle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg"},{"link_name":"Giorgio Vasari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari"},{"link_name":"Sala Regia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sala_Regia_(Vatican)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_artillery"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Venier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Venier"},{"link_name":"Agostino Barbarigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Barbarigo"},{"link_name":"Gianandrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gianandrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens67-26"},{"link_name":"Genoese fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoese_navy"},{"link_name":"Order of Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISBN|0-306-81544-3-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Setton-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Holy League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1571)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"George Finlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Finlay"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guilmartin_222-225-35"},{"link_name":"enslaved or imprisoned oarsmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley_slave"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guilmartin_222-225-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lepanto_f1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy"},{"link_name":"Ali Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCezzinzade_Ali_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Kapudan-i Derya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapudan-i_Derya"},{"link_name":"Mehmed Sirocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_Siroco"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Uluç Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali_Reis"},{"link_name":"galliots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galiot"},{"link_name":"janissaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guilmartin_222-225-35"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"Berbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers"},{"link_name":"Syrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Egyptians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptians"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens63-38"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISBN|0-306-81544-3-28"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_87-88-4"},{"link_name":"arquebusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arquebusier"},{"link_name":"musketeer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musketeer"},{"link_name":"composite bowmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_bow"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Adriatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic"},{"link_name":"the group of rocky islets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinades"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Corinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Corinth"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens103-41"},{"link_name":"Sami, Cephalonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami,_Cephalonia"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Patras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Patras"},{"link_name":"Selim II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_II"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Agostino Barbarigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Barbarigo_(admiral)"},{"link_name":"Marco Querini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Querini&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Antonio da Canale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_da_Canale&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_(galley)"},{"link_name":"Paolo Giordano I Orsini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Giordano_I_Orsini"},{"link_name":"Knights of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Andrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Andrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"Andrea Doria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Doria"},{"link_name":"Álvaro de Bazán, the Marquis of Santa Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_1st_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:One_of_the_Venetian_Galleasses_at_Lepanto_-_Pg_74.jpg"},{"link_name":"Uluç Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali"},{"link_name":"fustas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusta"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens64-43"}],"text":"Further information: Battle of Lepanto order of battleOrder of battle of the two fleets, with an allegory of the three powers of the Holy League in the foreground, fresco by Giorgio Vasari (1572, Sala Regia)[24]The Christian fleet consisted of 206 galleys and six galleasses (large new galleys with substantial artillery, developed by the Venetians). John of Austria, half-brother of Philip II of Spain, was named by Pope Pius V as overall commander of the fleet and led the centre division, with his principal deputies and counselors being the Roman Marcantonio Colonna and the Venetian Sebastiano Venier; the wings were commanded by the Venetian Agostino Barbarigo and the Genoese Gianandrea Doria.[25][26] The Republic of Venice contributed 109 galleys and six galleasses, 49 galleys came from the Spanish Empire (including 26 from the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily, and other Italian territories), 27 galleys of the Genoese fleet, seven galleys from the Papal States, five galleys from the Order of Saint Stephen and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, three galleys each from the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privately owned galleys in Spanish service. This fleet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000 sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried approximately 30,000[27][28] fighting troops: 7,000 Spanish Empire regular infantry of excellent quality,[29] (4,000 of the Spanish Empire's troops were drawn from the Kingdom of Naples, mostly Calabria),[30] 7,000 Germans,[31] 6,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay, all good troops,[31] in addition to 5,000 professional Venetian soldiers.[32] A significant number of Greeks also participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League with three Venetian galleys commanded by Greek captains.[33] The historian George Finlay estimated that over 25,000 Greeks fought on the side of the Holy League during the battle (both as soldiers and sailors/oarsmen) and stated that their numbers \"far exceeded that of the combatants of any other nation engaged\".[34]Oarsmen were mainly drawn from local Greek populations, who were experienced in maritime affairs,[33] although there were some Venetian oarsmen as well.[35] Free oarsmen were generally acknowledged to be superior to enslaved or imprisoned oarsmen, but the former were gradually replaced in all galley fleets (including those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th century by cheaper slaves, convicts, and prisoners-of-war owing to rapidly rising costs.[36] The Venetian oarsmen were mainly free citizens and able to bear arms, adding to the fighting power of their ships, whereas convicts were used to row many of the galleys in other Holy League squadrons.[35]Depiction of the Ottoman Navy, detail from the painting by Tommaso Dolabella (1632)Ali Pasha, the Ottoman admiral (Kapudan-i Derya), supported by the corsairs Mehmed Sirocco (Mehmed Şuluk) of Alexandria and Uluç Ali, commanded an Ottoman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots, and some smaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experienced crews of sailors but were significantly deficient in their elite corps of janissaries. The number of oarsmen was about 37,000, virtually all of them slaves,[37] many of them Christians who had been captured in previous conquests and engagements.[35] The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experienced sailors—generally drawn from the maritime nations of the Ottoman Empire—mainly Greeks (according to Finlay, around 5,000[34]), Berbers, Syrians, and Egyptians—and 25,000 soldiers from the Ottoman Empire as well as a few thousand from their North African allies.[38][28]While soldiers on board the ships were roughly matched in numbers,[39] an advantage for the Christians was the numerical superiority in guns and cannon aboard their ships. It is estimated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turks had only 750 with insufficient ammunition.[4] The Christians embarked with their much improved arquebusier and musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in their greatly feared composite bowmen.[40]The Christian fleet started from Messina on 16 September, crossing the Adriatic and creeping along the coast, arriving at the group of rocky islets lying just north of the opening of the Gulf of Corinth on 6 October. Serious conflict had broken out between Venetian and Spanish soldiers, and Venier enraged Don Juan by hanging a Spanish soldier for impudence.[41] Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and, on 6 October, reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia (then also called Val d'Alessandria), where they remained for a while.Early on 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf of Patras, where they encountered the Ottoman fleet. While neither fleet had immediate strategic resources or objectives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman fleet had an express order from Selim II to fight, and John of Austria found it necessary to attack in order to maintain the integrity of the expedition in the face of personal and political disagreements within the Holy League.[42] On the morning of 7 October, after the decision to offer battle was made, the Christian fleet formed up in four divisions in a north–south line:At the northern end, closest to the coast, was the Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led by Agostino Barbarigo, with Marco Querini and Antonio da Canale in support.\nThe Centre Division consisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in his Real, along with Marcantonio Colonna commanding the papal flagship, Venier commanding the Venetian flagship, Paolo Giordano I Orsini and Pietro Giustiniani, prior of Messina, commanding the flagship of the Knights of Malta.\nThe Right Division to the south consisted of another 53 galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of admiral Andrea Doria.\nA reserve division was stationed behind (that is, to the west of) the main fleet, to lend support wherever it might be needed, commanded by Álvaro de Bazán, the Marquis of Santa Cruz.One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto (1851 drawing, after a 1570s painting)The Ottoman fleet consisted of 57 galleys and two galliots on its right under Mehmed Siroco, 61 galleys and 32 galliots in the centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about 63 galleys and 30 galliots in the south offshore under Uluç Ali. A small reserve consisted of eight galleys, 22 galliots, and 64 fustas, behind the centre body. Ali Pasha is supposed to have told his Christian galley slaves, \"If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you.\" John of Austria, more laconically, warned his crew, \"There is no paradise for cowards.\"[43]","title":"Deployment and order of battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sacrament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessed_Sacrament"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens103-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_of_the_Battle_of_Lepanto.png"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens104-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fernando_Bertelli,_Die_Seeschlacht_von_Lepanto,_Venedig_1572,_Museo_Storico_Navale_(550x500).jpg"},{"link_name":"Gallery of Maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gallery_of_Maps"},{"link_name":"Spanish Tercio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Tercio"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens105-46"},{"link_name":"Knights of Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"Pisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Uluç Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulu%C3%A7_Ali"},{"link_name":"Knights of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis200994-49"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_87-88-4"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stevens107-8"}],"text":"The lookout on the Real sighted the Turkish van at dawn of 7 October. Don Juan called a council of war and decided to offer battle. He travelled through his fleet in a swift sailing vessel, exhorting his officers and men to do their utmost. The Sacrament was administered to all, the galley slaves were freed from their chains, and the standard of the Holy League was raised to the truck of the flagship.[41]Plan of the Battle (formation of the fleets just before contact)[44]The wind was at first against the Christians, and it was feared that the Turks would be able to make contact before a line of battle could be formed. But around noon, shortly before contact, the wind shifted to favour the Christians, enabling most of the squadrons to reach their assigned position before contact. Four galeasses stationed in front of the Christian battle line opened fire at close quarters at the foremost Turkish galleys, confusing their battle array in the crucial moment of contact. Around noon, first contact was made between the squadrons of Barbarigo and Sirocco, close to the northern shore of the Gulf. Barbarigo had attempted to stay so close to the shore as to prevent Sirocco from surrounding him, but Sirocco, knowing the depth of the waters, managed to still insert galleys between Barbarigo's line and the coast. In the ensuing mêlée, the ships came so close to each other as to form an almost continuous platform of hand-to-hand fighting in which both leaders were killed. The Christian galley slaves freed from the Turkish ships were supplied with arms and joined in the fighting, turning the battle in favour of the Christian side.[45]Fresco in the Vatican's Gallery of MapsMeanwhile, the centres clashed with such force that Ali Pasha's galley drove into the Real as far as the fourth rowing bench, and hand-to-hand fighting commenced around the two flagships, between the Spanish Tercio infantry and the Turkish janissaries. When the Real was nearly taken, Colonna came alongside, with the bow of his galley, and mounted a counter-attack. With the help of Colonna, the Turks were pushed off the Real and the Turkish flagship was boarded and swept. The entire crew of Ali Pasha's flagship was killed, including Ali Pasha himself. The banner of the Holy League was hoisted on the captured ship, breaking the morale of the Turkish galleys nearby. After two hours of fighting, the Turks were beaten left and centre, although fighting continued for another two hours.[46] A flag taken at Lepanto by the Knights of Saint Stephen, said to be the standard of the Turkish commander, is still on display, in the Church of the seat of the Order in Pisa.[47][48]On the Christian right, the situation was different, as Doria continued sailing towards the south instead of taking his assigned position. He would explain his conduct after the battle by saying that he was trying to prevent an enveloping manoeuvre by the Turkish left. But Doria's captains were enraged, interpreting their commander's signals as a sign of treachery. When Doria had opened a wide gap with the Christian centre, Uluç Ali swung around and fell on Colonna's southern flank, with Doria too far away to interfere. Ali attacked a group of some fifteen galleys around the flagship of the Knights of Malta, threatening to break into the Christian centre and still turn the tide of the battle. This was prevented by the arrival of the reserve squadron commanded by Bazán. Uluç Ali was forced to retreat, escaping the battle with the captured flag of the Knights of Malta.[49]Isolated fighting continued until the evening. Even after the battle had clearly turned against the Turks, groups of janissaries kept fighting to the last. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ran out of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemons at their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenes of laughter among the general misery of battle.[4] Many Greek rowers serving on Turkish galleys managed to seize them with mutiny and deliver them in time to the Christian allies.[50] At the end of the battle, the Christians had taken 117 galleys and 20 galliots, and sunk or destroyed some 50 other ships. Around ten thousand Turks were taken prisoner, and many thousands of Christian slaves were rescued. The Christian side suffered around 7,500 deaths, the Turkish side about 30,000.[8]","title":"Battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victors_of_Lepanto.jpg"},{"link_name":"John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Marcantonio Colonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcantonio_Colonna"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Venier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Venier"},{"link_name":"Ambras Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambras_Castle"},{"link_name":"Kunsthistorisches Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2012451-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavis1999194-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fleet-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kinross272-56"},{"link_name":"Sultan Selim II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_II"},{"link_name":"Grand Vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_grand_viziers"},{"link_name":"Sokollu Mehmed Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Marcantonio Barbaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcantonio_Barbaro"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Kılıç Ali Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7_Ali_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Modon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methoni,_Messenia"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis"},{"link_name":"retaken by the Ottomans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)"},{"link_name":"Friuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friuli"},{"link_name":"Porte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublime_Porte"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chiesa_di_Santo_Stefano_Pisa,_Jacopo_Ligozzi,_il_ritorno_dei_Cavalieri_di_Santo_Stefano_da_Lepanto.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jacopo Ligozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacopo_Ligozzi"},{"link_name":"Knights of Saint Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Stephen"},{"link_name":"Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, Pisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Stefano_dei_Cavalieri,_Pisa"},{"link_name":"War of Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_War_(1570%E2%80%9373)"},{"link_name":"ceded to the Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_under_the_Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"ducats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducat"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Cretan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_War_(1645%E2%80%931669)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"retook the strategic city of Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)"},{"link_name":"Hafsid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafsid"},{"link_name":"Franco-Ottoman alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ottoman_alliance"},{"link_name":"Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Suleiman the Magnificent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent"},{"link_name":"Straits of Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straits_of_Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"Oran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oran"},{"link_name":"Melilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melilla"},{"link_name":"Ceuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"Further information: Territorial evolution of the Ottoman EmpireThe Victors of Lepanto, John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna and Sebastiano Venier (anonymous oil painting, c. 1575, formerly in Ambras Castle, now Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)The engagement was a significant defeat for the Ottomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the fifteenth century.[51] However, the Holy League failed to capitalize on the victory, and while the Ottoman defeat has often been cited as the historical turning-point initiating the eventual stagnation of Ottoman territorial expansion, this was by no means an immediate consequence. The Christian victory at Lepanto confirmed the de facto division of the Mediterranean, with the eastern half under firm Ottoman control and the western under the Spanish Crown and their Italian allies. The battle halted the Ottoman encroachment on Italian territories, but the Holy League did not regain any territories that had been lost to the Ottomans prior to Lepanto.[52] Historian Paul K. Davis sums up the importance of Lepanto this way: \"This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans' expansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintaining Western dominance, and confidence grew in the West that Turks, previously unstoppable, could be beaten.\"[53]The Ottomans were quick to rebuild their navy.[54] By 1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150 galleys, 8 galleasses, and in total 250 ships had been built, including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen in the Mediterranean.[55] With this new fleet the Ottoman Empire was able to reassert its supremacy in the Eastern Mediterranean.[56] Sultan Selim II's Chief Minister, the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, even boasted to the Venetian emissary Marcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumph at Lepanto caused no lasting harm to the Ottoman Empire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in the same year was a significant blow, saying that:You come to see how we bear our misfortune. But I would have you know the difference between your loss and ours. In wrestling Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.[57]In 1572, the allied Christian fleet resumed operations and faced a renewed Ottoman navy of 200 vessels under Kılıç Ali Pasha, but the Ottoman commander actively avoided engaging the allied fleet and headed for the safety of the fortress of Modon. The arrival of the Spanish squadron of 55 ships evened the numbers on both sides and opened the opportunity for a decisive blow, but friction among the Christian leaders and the reluctance of Don Juan squandered the opportunity.[58]Pius V died on 1 May 1572. The diverging interests of the League members began to show, and the alliance began to unravel. In 1573, the Holy League fleet failed to sail altogether; instead, Don Juan attacked and took Tunis, only for it to be retaken by the Ottomans in 1574. Venice, fearing the loss of its Dalmatian possessions and a possible invasion of Friuli, and eager to cut its losses and resume the trade with the Ottoman Empire, initiated unilateral negotiations with the Porte.[59]Jacopo Ligozzi, The Return of the Knights of Saint Stephen from the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1610, Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, Pisa)The Holy League was disbanded with the peace treaty of 7 March 1573, which concluded the War of Cyprus. Venice was forced to accept loser's terms in spite of the victory at Lepanto. Cyprus was formally ceded to the Ottoman Empire, and Venice agreed to pay an indemnity of 300,000 ducats. In addition, the border between the two powers in Dalmatia was modified by the Turkish occupation of small but important parts of the hinterland that included the most fertile agricultural areas near the cities, with adverse effects on the economy of the Venetian cities in Dalmatia.[60] Peace would hold between the two states until the Cretan War of 1645.[61]In 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategic city of Tunis from the Spanish-supported Hafsid dynasty, which had been re-installed after John of Austria's forces reconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before. Thanks to the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance, the Ottomans were able to resume naval activity in the western Mediterranean. In 1576, the Ottomans assisted in Abdul Malik's capture of Fez – this reinforced the Ottoman indirect conquests in Morocco that had begun under Suleiman the Magnificent. The establishment of Ottoman suzerainty over the area placed the entire southern coast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar to Greece under Ottoman authority, with the exceptions of the Spanish-controlled trading city of Oran and strategic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta. But after 1580, the Ottoman Empire could no longer compete with the advances of European navies, especially following the development of the galleon and line of battle tactics.[62]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Accounts","text":"Giovanni Pietro Contarini's History of the Events, which occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle against the Turks was published in 1572, a few months after Lepanto. It was the first comprehensive account of the war, and the only one to attempt a concise but complete overview of its course and the Holy League's triumph. Contarini's account went beyond effusive praise and mere factual reporting to examine the meaning and importance of these events. It is also the only full historical account by an immediate commentator, blending his straightforward narrative with keen and consistent reflections on the political philosophy of conflict in the context of the Ottoman–Catholic confrontation in the early modern Mediterranean.[63]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_by_Martin_Rota.jpg"},{"link_name":"Martin Rota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Rota"},{"link_name":"Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary_in_Roman_Catholicism"},{"link_name":"intercession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercession"},{"link_name":"Rosary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosary"},{"link_name":"Our Lady of Guadalupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Pope Pius V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Pius_V"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Our Lady of the Rosary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_the_Rosary"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Song of Moses Exodus 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_of_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"Fernando de las Infantas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_de_las_Infantas"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Jacobus de Kerle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_de_Kerle"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"sub_title":"Commemoration","text":"Battle of Lepanto by Martin Rota, 1572 print, VeniceThe Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary, whose intercession with God they had implored for victory through the use of the Rosary. Andrea Doria had kept a copy of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain in his ship's state room.[64] Pope Pius V instituted a new Catholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commemorate the battle, which is now celebrated by the Catholic Church as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary.[65] Dominican friar Juan Lopez in his 1584 book on the rosary states that the feast of the rosary was offered \"in memory and in perpetual gratitude of the miraculous victory that the Lord gave to his Christian people that day against the Turkish armada\".[66] A piece of commemorative music composed after the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis (Song of Moses Exodus 15) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas by the Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de las Infantas.[67] The other piece of music is Jacobus de Kerle's \"Cantio octo vocum de sacro foedere contra Turcas\" 1572 (Song in Eight Voices on the Holy League Against the Turks), in the opinion of Pettitt (2006) an \"exuberantly militaristic\" piece celebrating the victory.[68] There were celebrations and festivities with triumphs and pageants at Rome and Venice with Turkish slaves in chains.[69]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Museo del Prado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_del_Prado"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Doge's Palace, Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace,_Venice"},{"link_name":"Andrea Vicentino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Vicentino"},{"link_name":"Tintoretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Don Fernando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand,_Prince_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Gallerie dell'Accademia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallerie_dell%27Accademia"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"Paolo Veronese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Veronese"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Mary"},{"link_name":"Saint James Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Saint Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Peter"},{"link_name":"Saint Justina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justina_of_Padua"},{"link_name":"Saint Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mark"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Wenceslas Cobergher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wenceslas_Cobergher"},{"link_name":"San Domenico Maggiore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Domenico_Maggiore"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Tommaso Dolabella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Dolabella"},{"link_name":"Stanisław Lubomirski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Lubomirski_(1583%E2%80%931649)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Khotyn (1621)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khotyn_(1621)"},{"link_name":"Poznań","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84"},{"link_name":"Wawel Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawel_Castle"},{"link_name":"Kraków","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"The Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_Lepanto_(Luna_painting)"},{"link_name":"Juan Luna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Luna"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:(Venice)_Allegoria_della_battaglia_di_Lepanto_-_Gallerie_Accademia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Paolo Veronese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Veronese"},{"link_name":"Gallerie dell'Accademia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallerie_dell%27Accademia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:(Venice)_Battaglia_di_Lepanto_-_Andrea_Vicentino_-_Correr_Museum.jpg"},{"link_name":"Andrea Vicentino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Vicentino"},{"link_name":"Museo Correr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Correr"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1595-1605_Andrea_Vicentino.jpg"},{"link_name":"Andrea Vicentino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Vicentino"},{"link_name":"Doge's Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lepanto_Dolabella.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tommaso Dolabella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommaso_Dolabella"},{"link_name":"Wawel Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawel_Castle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27The_Battle_of_Lepanto%27,_painting_by_Andries_van_Eertvelt.jpg"},{"link_name":"Andries van Eertvelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries_van_Eertvelt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Battle_of_Lepanto_of_1571_full_version_by_Juan_Luna.jpg"},{"link_name":"Juan Luna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Luna"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battaglia_di_Lepanto.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tintoretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naval_Battle_of_Lepanto.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giorgio_vasari_e_aiuti,_la_battaglia_di_lepanto,_1572-73,_03.jpg"},{"link_name":"Giorgio Vasari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari"}],"sub_title":"Paintings","text":"Felipe II offers Prince Fernando to Victory by Titian, c. 1572–1575, Museo del Prado, MadridThere are many pictorial representations of the battle. Prints of the order of battle appeared in Venice and Rome in 1571,[70] and numerous paintings were commissioned, including one in the Doge's Palace, Venice, by Andrea Vicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, which replaced Tintoretto's Victory of Lepanto, destroyed by fire in 1577. Titian painted the battle in the background of an allegorical work showing Philip II of Spain holding his infant son, Don Fernando, his male heir born shortly after the victory, on 4 December 1571. An angel descends from heaven bearing a palm branch with a motto for Fernando, who is held up by Philip: \"Majora tibi\" (may you achieve greater deeds; Fernando died as a child, in 1578).[71]The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1572, oil on canvas, 169 x 137 cm, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice) is a painting by Paolo Veronese. The lower half of the painting shows the events of the battle, whilst at the top a female personification of Venice is presented to the Virgin Mary, with Saint James Major (patron of Spain), Saint Peter (patron of the Papal States), Saint Justina (patron of Padua), Saint Mark (patron of Venice), and a group of angels in attendance.[citation needed]A painting by Wenceslas Cobergher, dated to the end of the 16th century, now in San Domenico Maggiore, shows what is interpreted as a victory procession in Rome on the return of admiral Colonna. On the stairs of Saint Peter's Basilica, Pius V is visible in front of a kneeling figure, identified as Marcantonio Colonna returning the standard of the Holy League to the pope. On high is the Madonna and child with victory palms.[72]Tommaso Dolabella painted his The Battle of Lepanto in c. 1625–1630 on the commission of Stanisław Lubomirski, commander of the Polish left wing in the Battle of Khotyn (1621). The monumental painting (3.05 m × 6.35 m) combines the Polish victory procession following this battle with the backdrop of the Battle of Lepanto. It was later owned by the Dominicans of Poznań and since 1927 has been on display in Wawel Castle, Kraków.[73]The Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna (1887) is displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid.The Allegory of the Battle of Lepanto by Paolo Veronese (c. 1572, Gallerie dell'Accademia, Venice\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Andrea Vicentino (c. 1571-1600), Museo Correr, Venice\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Andrea Vicentino (c. 1600, Doge's Palace, Venice)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Tommaso Dolabella (c. 1625–1630, Wawel Castle, Kraków)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Andries van Eertvelt (1640)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Juan Luna (1887, Spanish Senate, Madrid)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Tintoretto\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by anonymous\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Battle of Lepanto by Giorgio Vasari","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Messina,_monumento_a_giovanni_d%27austria_(1572)_vincitore_di_lepanto,_01.JPG"},{"link_name":"Monument to John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria_(Messina)"},{"link_name":"Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina"},{"link_name":"statue of John of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Austria_(Messina)"},{"link_name":"Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messina"},{"link_name":"Andrea Calamech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Calamech"}],"sub_title":"Sculpture","text":"Monument to John of Austria in MessinaThe statue of John of Austria in Messina was erected by decision of the city's Senate in 1571, as John had returned to Messina after the battle. It was sculpted by Andrea Calamech and dedicated in 1572.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Catalan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_language"},{"link_name":"Juan Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Latino"},{"link_name":"Jerónimo Corte-Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Corte-Real"},{"link_name":"es:Juan Rufo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Rufo"},{"link_name":"Spanish ballad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_(music)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Rodd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Rodd"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"James VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_VI"},{"link_name":"fourteeners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteener_(poetry)"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Du Bartas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_de_Salluste_Du_Bartas"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Abraham Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Holland"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"G. K. Chesterton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._K._Chesterton"},{"link_name":"Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepanto_(poem)"},{"link_name":"Miguel de Cervantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes"},{"link_name":"Don Quixote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Quixote"},{"link_name":"Emilio Salgari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_Salgari"},{"link_name":"Corrado D'Errico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrado_D%27Errico"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Goudge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Goudge"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Poetry and fiction","text":"There was an immediate poetical response to the victory at Lepanto. In Italy alone 233 titles of sonnets, madrigals and poems were printed between 1571 and 1573, some of these including writing in dialect or Latin.[74]This was replicated by the Spanish response, with poems in Catalan and the Mallorcan dialect and full scale epics by Juan Latino (Austriados libri duo 1573), Jerónimo Corte-Real ( Austriada ou Felicissima Victoria, 1578) and es:Juan Rufo (La Austriada, 1586). Though these longer works have, in the words of a later critic, \"not unjustly been consigned to that oblivion which few epics have escaped\", there was also a Spanish ballad which retained its popularity and was translated into English by Thomas Rodd in 1818.[75]The most popular British poem on the subject was The Lepanto by King James VI of Scotland. Written in fourteeners about 1585, its thousand lines were ultimately collected in His Maiesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres (1591),[76] then published separately in 1603 after James had become king of England too. There were also translations in other languages, including into Dutch as Den Slach van Lepanten (1593) by Abraham van der Myl.[77] La Lepanthe, the French version by Du Bartas, accompanied James' 1591 edition; a Latin version, the Naupactiados Metaphrasis by Thomas Murray (1564–1623), followed a year after James' 1603 publication.[78]The royal connection ensured that the battle was featured in Stuart aquatic pageants representing sea battles between Christians and Turks well into the reign.[79] And in 1632 the story of the battle was retold in couplets in Abraham Holland's Naumachia.[80]Centuries later G. K. Chesterton revisited the conflict in his lively narrative poem Lepanto, first published in 1911 and republished many times since. It provided a series of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle, particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juan of Austria, then closed with verses linking Miguel de Cervantes, who also fought in the battle, with the \"lean and foolish knight\" he would later immortalise in Don Quixote.At the start of the 20th century too, Emilio Salgari devoted his historical novel, Il Leone di Damasco (\"The Lion of Damascus\", 1910), to the Battle of Lepanto, which was eventually to be adapted to film by Corrado D'Errico in 1942.[81]In 1942 as well, English author Elizabeth Goudge has a character in her war-time novel, The Castle on the Hill (1942), recall the leading role of John of Austria in the battle and the presence of Cervantes there. Much as combatants had appropriated Chesterton's poem to the circumstances of World War I,[82] Goudge harnessed that ancient incident to British resistance to Nazi Germany during World War II.[83]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abulafia, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Abulafia"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19931-599-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19931-599-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-57898-538-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57898-538-2"},{"link_name":"World History of 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Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/6004216/Costruendo_un_luogo_della_memoria_Lepanto_Storia_di_Venezia_-_Rivista_1_2003_65-88"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89673-100-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89673-100-6"},{"link_name":"J. P. Jurien de la Gravière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Jurien_de_La_Gravi%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"La Guerre de Chypre et la Bataille de Lépante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bub_gb_CHDPAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"Luis Coloma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Coloma"},{"link_name":"online transcription of pp. 265–71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//nobility.org/2010/10/07/short-stories-on-honor-chivalry-and-the-world-of-nobility%E2%80%94no-14/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120618155750/http://nobility.org/2010/10/07/short-stories-on-honor-chivalry-and-the-world-of-nobility%E2%80%94no-14/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"The Battle that Saved the Christian West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161128195358/http://www.catholic.com/magazine/articles/the-battle-that-saved-the-christian-west"},{"link_name":"\"Die Ordnung der Schlacht und die Ordnung der Erinnerung\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.uni-regensburg.de/philosophie-kunst-geschichte-gesellschaft/neuere-geschichte/medien/lepanto.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20201116030812/https://www.uni-regensburg.de/philosophie-kunst-geschichte-gesellschaft/neuere-geschichte/medien/lepanto.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"\"The Tactics of the Battle of Lepanto Clarified: The Impact of Social, Economic, and Political Factors on Sixteenth Century Galley Warfare\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.angelfire.com/ga4/guilmartin.com/Lepanto.html"},{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Online books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Battle+of+Lepanto&library=OLBP"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Battle+of+Lepanto"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Battle+of+Lepanto&library=0CHOOSE0"}],"text":"Abulafia, David (2012). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-19931-599-4.\nAnderson, R. C. Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853, (2006), ISBN 1-57898-538-2\nArcher, Christon; Ferris, John R.; Herwig, Holger H.; Travers, Timothy H.E. (2002). World History of Warfare. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-80321-941-0.\nBeeching, Jack. The Galleys at Lepanto, Hutchinson, London, 1982; ISBN 0-09-147920-7\nBicheno, Hugh. Crescent and Cross: The Battle of Lepanto 1571, pbk., Phoenix, London, 2004, ISBN 1-84212-753-5\nCapponi, Niccolò (2006). Victory of the West:The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81544-3.\nBraudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II. (vol 2 1972), the classic history by the leader of the French Annales School; excerpt and text search vol 2 pp 1088–1142\nChesterton, G. K. Lepanto with Explanatory Notes and Commentary, Dale Ahlquist, ed. (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2003). ISBN 1-58617-030-9\nClissold, Stephen (1966). A short history of Yugoslavia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04676-9.\nCakir, İbrahim Etem, \"Lepanto War and Some Informatıon on the Reconstructıon of The Ottoman Fleet\", Turkish Studies – International Periodical For The Language Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, Volume 4/3 Spring 2009, pp. 512–31\nContarini, Giovanni Pietro. Kiril Petkov, ed and trans. From Cyprus to Lepanto: History of the Events, Which Occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle against the Turks. Italica Press, 2019. ISBN 978-1-59910-381-5 ISBN 978-1-59910-382-2\nCook, M.A. (ed.), \"A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730\", Cambridge University Press, 1976; ISBN 0-521-20891-2\nCrowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world, Random House, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4000-6624-7\nCurrey, E. Hamilton, \"Sea-Wolves of the Mediterranean\", John Murrey, 1910\nDavis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19514-366-9.\nDavis, Robert C. (2009). Holy War and Human Bondage. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-27598-950-7.\nGuilmartin, John F. (1974) Gunpowder & Galleys: Changing Technology & Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century. Cambridge University Press, London. ISBN 0-521-20272-8.\nGuilmartin, John F. (2003). Galleons and Galleys: Gunpowder and the Changing Face of Warfare at Sea, 1300–1650. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35263-2.\nHanson, Victor D. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power, Anchor Books, 2001. Published in the UK as Why the West has Won, Faber and Faber, 2001. ISBN 0-571-21640-4. Includes a chapter about the battle of Lepanto\nHanson, Victor Davis (2010). The Father of Us All: War and History, Ancient and Modern. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-60819-410-0.\nHattendorf, John B., ed. (2013). Naval Policy and Strategy in the Mediterranean: Past, Present and Future. Frank Cass.\nHess, Andrew C. \"The Battle of Lepanto and Its Place in Mediterranean History\", Past and Present, No. 57. (Nov., 1972), pp. 53–73\nHopkins, T.C.F. (2006). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom vs. Islam. New York: Forge Books. ISBN 978-0-76530-539-8.\nKonstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance. Osprey Publishing, Oxford. 2003. ISBN 1-84176-409-4\nStevens, William Oliver and Allan Westcott (1942). A History of Sea Power. Doubleday.\nHarbottle's Dictionary of Battles, third revision by George Bruce, 1979\nParker, Geoffrey (1996) The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800. (second edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-47426-4\nStouraiti, Anastasia, 'Costruendo un luogo della memoria: Lepanto', Storia di Venezia – Rivista 1 (2003), 65–88.\nTucker, Spencer C. (2010). \"Battle of Lepanto\". Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. pp. 175–178.\nWarner, Oliver Great Sea Battles (1968) has \"Lepanto 1571\" as its opening chapter. ISBN 0-89673-100-6\nThe New Cambridge Modern History, Volume I – The Renaissance 1493–1520, edited by G. R. Potter, Cambridge University Press 1964\nWheatcroft, Andrew (2004). Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. Penguin Books.\nJ. P. Jurien de la Gravière, La Guerre de Chypre et la Bataille de Lépante (1888).\nLuis Coloma, The Story of Don John of Austria, trans. Lady Moreton, New York: John Lane Company, 1912 (online transcription of pp. 265–71 Archived 2012-06-18 at the Wayback Machine).\nChristopher Check, The Battle that Saved the Christian West, This Rock 18.3 (March 2007).\nLepanto – Rudolph, Harriet, \"Die Ordnung der Schlacht und die Ordnung der Erinnerung\" Archived 2020-11-16 at the Wayback Machine in: Militärische Erinnerungskulturen vom 14. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (2012), 101–28.\nGuilmartin, John F. \"The Tactics of the Battle of Lepanto Clarified: The Impact of Social, Economic, and Political Factors on Sixteenth Century Galley Warfare\", in Craig L. Symonds (ed.), New Aspects of Naval History: Selected Papers Presented at the Fourth Naval History Symposium, United States Naval Academy 25–26 October 1979, Annapolis, Maryland: the United States Naval Institute (1981), 41–65.\n\n\nLibrary resources about Battle of Lepanto \n\nOnline books\nResources in your library\nResources in other libraries","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Battle of Lepanto from Famous Sea Fights by John R. Hale"},{"image_text":"The banner of the Holy League, flown by John of Austria on his flagship Real. It is made of blue damask interwoven with gold thread, of a length of 7.3 m and a width of 4.4 m at the hoist. It displays the crucified Christ above the coats of arms of Pius V, of Venice, of Charles V, and of John of Austria. The coats of arms are linked by chains symbolizing the alliance.[16]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Estandarte_Liga_Santa.gif/220px-Estandarte_Liga_Santa.gif"},{"image_text":"Order of battle of the two fleets, with an allegory of the three powers of the Holy League in the foreground, fresco by Giorgio Vasari (1572, Sala Regia)[24]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg/220px-Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg"},{"image_text":"Depiction of the Ottoman Navy, detail from the painting by Tommaso Dolabella (1632)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Lepanto_f1.jpg/220px-Lepanto_f1.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of the Venetian Galleasses at Lepanto (1851 drawing, after a 1570s painting)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/One_of_the_Venetian_Galleasses_at_Lepanto_-_Pg_74.jpg/220px-One_of_the_Venetian_Galleasses_at_Lepanto_-_Pg_74.jpg"},{"image_text":"Plan of the Battle (formation of the fleets just before contact)[44]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Plan_of_the_Battle_of_Lepanto.png/300px-Plan_of_the_Battle_of_Lepanto.png"},{"image_text":"Fresco in the Vatican's Gallery of Maps","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Fernando_Bertelli%2C_Die_Seeschlacht_von_Lepanto%2C_Venedig_1572%2C_Museo_Storico_Navale_%28550x500%29.jpg/220px-Fernando_Bertelli%2C_Die_Seeschlacht_von_Lepanto%2C_Venedig_1572%2C_Museo_Storico_Navale_%28550x500%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Victors of Lepanto, John of Austria, Marcantonio Colonna and Sebastiano Venier (anonymous oil painting, c. 1575, formerly in Ambras Castle, now Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Victors_of_Lepanto.jpg/300px-Victors_of_Lepanto.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jacopo Ligozzi, The Return of the Knights of Saint Stephen from the Battle of Lepanto (c. 1610, Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, Pisa)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Chiesa_di_Santo_Stefano_Pisa%2C_Jacopo_Ligozzi%2C_il_ritorno_dei_Cavalieri_di_Santo_Stefano_da_Lepanto.jpg/220px-Chiesa_di_Santo_Stefano_Pisa%2C_Jacopo_Ligozzi%2C_il_ritorno_dei_Cavalieri_di_Santo_Stefano_da_Lepanto.jpg"},{"image_text":"Battle of Lepanto by Martin Rota, 1572 print, Venice","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Battle_of_Lepanto_by_Martin_Rota.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Lepanto_by_Martin_Rota.jpg"},{"image_text":"Felipe II offers Prince Fernando to Victory by Titian, c. 1572–1575, Museo del Prado, Madrid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg/220px-Felipe_IV_offers_Ferdinand_to_Glory.jpg"},{"image_text":"Monument to John of Austria in Messina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Messina%2C_monumento_a_giovanni_d%27austria_%281572%29_vincitore_di_lepanto%2C_01.JPG/220px-Messina%2C_monumento_a_giovanni_d%27austria_%281572%29_vincitore_di_lepanto%2C_01.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Battle of Lepanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Battle_of_Lepanto"},{"title":"Lepanto (poem)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepanto_(poem)"},{"title":"Battle of Zonchio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zonchio"},{"title":"Battle of Preveza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza"},{"title":"Battle of Djerba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba"},{"title":"Siege of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta"},{"title":"Papal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_Navy"}]
|
[{"reference":"Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. pp. 20–23. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. Retrieved August 29, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Konstam","url_text":"Konstam, Angus"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xloOS43F-X8C&pg=PA23","url_text":"Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle of the Renaissance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-409-4","url_text":"1-84176-409-4"}]},{"reference":"Fernandez de la Puente y Acevedo, José (1853). Memoria histórico-crítica del célebre combate naval y victoria de Lepanto. Madrid, Spain: Real Academia de la Historia. p. 35.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Nolan, Cathal (2006). The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 529.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Beaton, Roderick (2021). The Greeks: A Global History (1st ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 368. ISBN 9781541618299.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick_Beaton","url_text":"Beaton, Roderick"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781541618299","url_text":"9781541618299"}]},{"reference":"Jackson J. Spielvogel (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume II: Since 1500 (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 253. ISBN 9781133607939.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=APlvG4Ur6TwC&pg=PA293","url_text":"Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume II: Since 1500"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781133607939","url_text":"9781133607939"}]},{"reference":"Carrabine, Eamonn (2018-04-03). \"Reading a \"Titian\": Visual Methods and the Limits of Interpretation\". Deviant Behavior. 39 (4): 525–538. doi:10.1080/01639625.2017.1407113. ISSN 0163-9625. S2CID 148665399.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01639625.2017.1407113","url_text":"\"Reading a \"Titian\": Visual Methods and the Limits of Interpretation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01639625.2017.1407113","url_text":"10.1080/01639625.2017.1407113"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0163-9625","url_text":"0163-9625"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148665399","url_text":"148665399"}]},{"reference":"Savona-Ventura, Charles (Nov 2015). \"The Order of St. Lazarus in the Battle of Lepanto, October 1571\". Sancti Lazari Ordinis Academia Internationalis.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/47341","url_text":"\"The Order of St. Lazarus in the Battle of Lepanto, October 1571\""}]},{"reference":"Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle Of The Renaissance. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. Retrieved August 29, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Konstam","url_text":"Konstam, Angus"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xloOS43F-X8C&pg=PA23","url_text":"Lepanto 1571: The Greatest Naval Battle Of The Renaissance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom","url_text":"United Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osprey_Publishing","url_text":"Osprey Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84176-409-4","url_text":"1-84176-409-4"}]},{"reference":"Yildirim, Onur (2007). \"The Battle of Lepanto and Its Impact on Ottoman History and Historiography\" (PDF). Mediterraneo in Armi (Secc. XV-XVIII). 2: 537–538. ISSN 1828-1818.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.storiamediterranea.it/public/md1_dir/b700.pdf","url_text":"\"The Battle of Lepanto and Its Impact on Ottoman History and Historiography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1828-1818","url_text":"1828-1818"}]},{"reference":"Brewer, David (2012). Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-85772-167-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eBCMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92","url_text":"Greece, the Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-167-9","url_text":"978-0-85772-167-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Restauro delle Bandiere della Chiesa Nazionale dei Cavalieri di S.Stefano\". fondazionecaripisa.it. 2000-06-20. Archived from the original on 2007-03-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070302011047/http://www.fondazionecaripisa.it/index.php?id=20&lang=it","url_text":"\"Restauro delle Bandiere della Chiesa Nazionale dei Cavalieri di S.Stefano\""},{"url":"http://www.fondazionecaripisa.it/index.php?id=20&lang=it","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Prede di guerra\". www.navigationdusavoir.net. Archived from the original on 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2009-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090107055534/http://www.navigationdusavoir.net/PortalPisa/PercorsiDidattici/percorso6/scheda_predediguerra.html","url_text":"\"Prede di guerra\""},{"url":"http://www.navigationdusavoir.net/PortalPisa/PercorsiDidattici/percorso6/scheda_predediguerra.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hasiotis, Ioannis; Guirao, Motos (2008). Tendiendo Puentes en el Mediterráneo: Estudios Sobre las Relaciones Hispano-Griegas (ss. XV-XIX) (in Spanish). Granada: Centro de Estudios Bizantinos, Neogriegos y Chipriotas, University of Granada. p. 51. ISBN 978-84-95905-28-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IeY_AQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Tendiendo Puentes en el Mediterráneo: Estudios Sobre las Relaciones Hispano-Griegas (ss. XV-XIX)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-95905-28-4","url_text":"978-84-95905-28-4"}]},{"reference":"Guilmartin, John F. (2003). Galleons and Galleys: Gunpowder and the Changing Face of Warfare at Sea, 1300–1650. Cassell. pp. 149–50.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. p. 161.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Setton, Kenneth M. (1984). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. IV: The Sixteenth Century. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. pp. 1093–95. ISBN 9780871691149.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_DUwLAAAAIAAJ#page/n537/mode/2up","url_text":"The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. IV: The Sixteenth Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871691149","url_text":"9780871691149"}]},{"reference":"Raukar, Tomislav (November 1977). \"Venecija i ekonomski razvoj Dalmacije u XV i XVI stoljeću\". Journal – Institute of Croatian History (in Croatian). 10 (1). Zagreb, Croatia: Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb: 221. ISSN 0353-295X. Retrieved 2012-07-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=86538&lang=en","url_text":"\"Venecija i ekonomski razvoj Dalmacije u XV i XVI stoljeću\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Philosophy,_Zagreb","url_text":"Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0353-295X","url_text":"0353-295X"}]},{"reference":"Contarini, Giovanni Pietro (2019) [1572]. From Cyprus to Lepanto: History of the Events, which Occurred from the Beginning of the War Brought Against the Venetians by Selim the Ottoman, to the Day of the Great and Victorious Battle Against the Turks. Translated by Petkov, Kiril. Italica Press. ISBN 978-1-59910-383-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59910-383-9","url_text":"978-1-59910-383-9"}]},{"reference":"Badde, Paul (2005). Maria von Guadalupe. Wie das Erscheinen der Jungfrau Weltgeschichte schrieb. ISBN 3-548-60561-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-548-60561-3","url_text":"3-548-60561-3"}]},{"reference":"D'Errico, Corrado. \"Il Leone Di Damasco\". www.imdb.com. IMDb. Retrieved 8 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0033825/","url_text":"\"Il Leone Di Damasco\""}]},{"reference":"Goudge, Elizabeth (2019). \"V\". The Castle on the Hill. Hachette UK. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9781529378139.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TaR1DwAAQBAJ&dq=Lepanto+%22The+Castle+on+the+Hill%22&pg=PT93","url_text":"\"V\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781529378139","url_text":"9781529378139"}]},{"reference":"Abulafia, David (2012). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-19931-599-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Abulafia","url_text":"Abulafia, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19931-599-4","url_text":"978-0-19931-599-4"}]},{"reference":"Archer, Christon; Ferris, John R.; Herwig, Holger H.; Travers, Timothy H.E. (2002). World History of Warfare. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-80321-941-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryofwa00arch","url_text":"World History of Warfare"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80321-941-0","url_text":"978-0-80321-941-0"}]},{"reference":"Capponi, Niccolò (2006). Victory of the West:The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81544-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/victoryofwestgre00nicc","url_text":"Victory of the West:The Great Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lepanto"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81544-3","url_text":"0-306-81544-3"}]},{"reference":"Clissold, Stephen (1966). A short history of Yugoslavia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04676-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofyu0000clis","url_text":"A short history of Yugoslavia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-04676-9","url_text":"0-521-04676-9"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19514-366-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19514-366-9","url_text":"978-0-19514-366-9"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Robert C. (2009). Holy War and Human Bondage. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-27598-950-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-27598-950-7","url_text":"978-0-27598-950-7"}]},{"reference":"Guilmartin, John F. (2003). Galleons and Galleys: Gunpowder and the Changing Face of Warfare at Sea, 1300–1650. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35263-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-35263-2","url_text":"0-304-35263-2"}]},{"reference":"Hanson, Victor Davis (2010). The Father of Us All: War and History, Ancient and Modern. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-60819-410-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fatherofusallwar00hans","url_text":"The Father of Us All: War and History, Ancient and Modern"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60819-410-0","url_text":"978-1-60819-410-0"}]},{"reference":"Hattendorf, John B., ed. (2013). Naval Policy and Strategy in the Mediterranean: Past, Present and Future. Frank Cass.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hopkins, T.C.F. (2006). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom vs. Islam. New York: Forge Books. ISBN 978-0-76530-539-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-76530-539-8","url_text":"978-0-76530-539-8"}]},{"reference":"Stevens, William Oliver and Allan Westcott (1942). A History of Sea Power. Doubleday.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Tucker, Spencer C. (2010). \"Battle of Lepanto\". Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. pp. 175–178.","urls":[]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarocco_Bolognese
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Tarocco Bolognese
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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62-suit deck of tarot cards
Modern cards by Dal Negro.
The Tarocco Bolognese is a tarot deck found in Bologna and is used to play tarocchini. It is a 62 card Italian suited deck which influenced the development of the Tarocco Siciliano and the obsolete Minchiate deck.
The earliest mention of tarocchi in connection to Bologna was in 1442 when a Bolognese merchant sold two decks of trionfi in the city of Ferrara. The earliest known mention of trionfi in Bologna itself dates to 1459. Local tradition dating from at least the 17th century, ascribes the invention of tarot to Prince Francesco Antelminelli Castracani Fibbia (1360-1419), great-grandson of Castruccio Castracani. This is one of the oldest decks in continual use, dating back to at least the 15th century. The oldest surviving uncut sheets, dating from the late 15th or early 16th century, are held in the Rothschild Collection in the Louvre and in the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts.
It is an expansion of the pre-existing Bolognese deck by adding queens, the Fool, and an extra suit of 21 trumps. The regular and tarot decks began to diverge during the 16th century. The Tarocco set removed ranks 2 to 5 bringing down the number of cards from 78 to the present 62 perhaps to simplify the game. The regular set removed ranks 8, 9, and 10 to create the 40-card pack as they are not needed to play Primiera. All ranks that they share in common appear very similar but are not identical.
The tarocco deck then underwent a few more modifications. The imperial and papal trumps, having been of equal rank, were converted to four moors, two of which are identical, in 1725. Later in that century the face cards and trumps became reversible and most trumps added Arabic numerals. None of the cards are labelled and only trumps 5 to 16 are numbered.
Historically, this deck and its games have been confined to the city of Bologna yet there are decks in France and Belgium that show traces of designs borrowed from the Tarocco Bolognese. There are also tarot games played in present-day Piedmont that show the influence of tarocchini. In most games played with the Tarocco Piemontese, players treat trump 20 higher than 21 reflecting that the Angel outranks the World in Bolognese games. There are also regional games in Piedmont where pip cards are removed and the imperial and papal trumps are treated equally. The only surviving record of a tarot game being played in Ferrara showed it to be a three-player tarocchini game. The Tarocco Bolognese is also the earliest tarot deck to be used in cartomancy, predating de Gébelin and Etteilla by at least thirty years. Due to similarities in Bolognese cartomancy and Etteilla's system, it is possible the latter learned it from some Italian source (he claimed to have been taught by a Piedmontese man named Alexis). Unlike cartomantic traditions elsewhere, Bolognese practitioners have always used the same deck as local players instead of inventing dedicated decks and do not make a pretense of a mystical origin of their pack.
The hierarchy of cards in the long suits (swords and batons) goes from King (highest), Queen, Knight, Knave, 10 to 6, and Ace (lowest). For the round suits of cups and coins it is King (highest), Queen, Knight, Knave, Ace, and 6 to 10 (lowest).
17th-century portrait of Francesco Fibbia with some cards.
The trump cards are as follows:
Trump
Name of the card
(20)
Angel (Angelo)
(19)
World (Mondo)
(18)
Sun (Sole)
(17)
Moon (Luna)
16
Star (Stella)
15
Lightning (Saetta)
14
Devil (Diavolo)
13
Death (Morte)
12
Traitor (Traditore)
11
Old man (Vecchio)
10
Wheel (Roda)
9
Strength (Forza)
8
Justice (Giusta)
7
Temperance (Tempra)
6
Chariot (Carro)
5
Love (Amore)
(1=4)
four Moors (Moretti)
(0)
Magician (Begato)
References
^ a b Dummett, Michael (1980). The Game of Tarot. London: Duckworth. pp. 334, 387–434.
^ Pollett, Andrea. Birth of regional tarots at Andy's Playing Cards. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
^ Caldwell, Ross G. R. (2007). "Giovanni del Ponte and the dating of the Rothschild cards in the Louvre". The Playing-Card. 36 (1): 51–54.
^ Vitali, Andrea. The Prince, Inventor of the Ludus Triumphorum at Le Tarot Cultural Association. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
^ Mann, Sylvia (1990). All Cards on the Table. Leinfelden: Deutsches Spielkarten-Museum. pp. 22–31.
^ Tarocco Bolognese pattern sheet at the International Playing-Card Society. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
^ Zorli, Girolamo. Cardano's Primero Game at TreTre (archived). Retrieved 18 January 2016.
^ Primiera deck at Alta Carta. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
^ Starna, Domenico. Tarocco Bolognese at the World Web Playing Card Museum. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
^ McLeod, John (1982). "Piedmontese Tarocchi with 54 cards - A Link between Bologna and Belgium?". The Playing-Card. 10 (4): 109–117.
^ Zorli, Girolamo (2007). "A tarocchini terziglio in 1550 Ferrara". The Playing-Card. 36 (2): 84.
^ Pratesi, Franco (1989). "Italian Cards: New Discoveries, no. 9". The Playing-Card. 17 (4): 136–145.
^ Dummett, Michael (2003). "Tarot Cartomancy in Bologna". The Playing-Card. 32 (2): 79–88.
^ McLeod, John. Rules for Ottocento at pagat.com. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
External links
Accademia del Tarocchino Bolognese: Organizer of official tarocchini tournaments
17th century cards at the Bibliothèque nationale de France
vteTarot and Tarock card gamesType I / II(Fool as an excuse)
Minchiate
Tarocchini
Danish Tarok
Droggn
French Tarot
Grosstarock
Scarto
Taroc l'Hombre
Troccas
Troggu (hybrid type II/III)
Type III(Fool as highest trump)
Cego
Dreierles
Dreiertarock
Galician Tarok
Hungarian Tarokk
Husarln
Illustrated Tarock
Königrufen
Kosakeln
Neunzehnerrufen
Point Tarock
Strohmandeln
Tapp Tarock
Troggu
Viennese Grosstarock
Zwanzigerrufen
Related games
Bauerntarock
Bavarian Tarock / Haferltarock
Dapp
Dobbm
Frog
German Tarok
Six-bid solo
Tapp
Württemberg Tarock
(all played with 36-card French or German packs)
Suits
French:
♣Clubs
♠Spades
♥Hearts
♦Diamonds
German:
Acorns
Leaves
Hearts
Bells
Packs (French suits)
Industrie und Glück
Bourgeois Tarot (Tarot Nouveau, Black Forest Cego)
Animal tarot (Adler Cego, Bavarian Animal Tarot, Belgian Animal Tarot, Danish Animal Tarot, etc.)
Packs (Latin suits)
Bolognese
Marseilles (Cartes de Suisses, Flemish Tarot, Piemontese, Besançon, Swiss)
Minchiate
Siciliano
Tarot de Besançon
Related articles
Playing card
Trick-taking game
Trionfi
Trull (Sküs, Mond and Pagat)
Category
WikiProject Card Games
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tarocco_Bolognese.png"},{"link_name":"Dal Negro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dal_Negro"},{"link_name":"tarot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarot"},{"link_name":"Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna"},{"link_name":"tarocchini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarocchini"},{"link_name":"Italian suited deck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_playing_cards"},{"link_name":"Tarocco Siciliano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarocco_Siciliano"},{"link_name":"Minchiate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minchiate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Game-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"trionfi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trionfi_(cards)"},{"link_name":"Ferrara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrara"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caldwell-3"},{"link_name":"Castruccio Castracani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castruccio_Castracani"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Rothschild Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_James_de_Rothschild"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_Beaux-Arts"},{"link_name":"queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(playing_card)"},{"link_name":"the Fool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fool_(tarot_card)"},{"link_name":"trumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trump_(card_games)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mann-5"},{"link_name":"removed ranks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripped_deck"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Game-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Primiera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primero"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"face cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_cards"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Link-10"},{"link_name":"Tarocco Piemontese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarocco_Piemontese"},{"link_name":"the Angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgement_(Tarot_card)"},{"link_name":"the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(Tarot_card)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zorli-11"},{"link_name":"cartomancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartomancy"},{"link_name":"de Gébelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Court_de_G%C3%A9belin"},{"link_name":"Etteilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etteilla"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pratesi-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cartomancy-13"},{"link_name":"Piedmontese man named Alexis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius_Pedemontanus"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prince-castracani-fibbia.jpg"}],"text":"Modern cards by Dal Negro.The Tarocco Bolognese is a tarot deck found in Bologna and is used to play tarocchini. It is a 62 card Italian suited deck which influenced the development of the Tarocco Siciliano and the obsolete Minchiate deck.[1][2]The earliest mention of tarocchi in connection to Bologna was in 1442 when a Bolognese merchant sold two decks of trionfi in the city of Ferrara.[3] The earliest known mention of trionfi in Bologna itself dates to 1459. Local tradition dating from at least the 17th century, ascribes the invention of tarot to Prince Francesco Antelminelli Castracani Fibbia (1360-1419), great-grandson of Castruccio Castracani.[4] This is one of the oldest decks in continual use, dating back to at least the 15th century. The oldest surviving uncut sheets, dating from the late 15th or early 16th century, are held in the Rothschild Collection in the Louvre and in the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts.It is an expansion of the pre-existing Bolognese deck by adding queens, the Fool, and an extra suit of 21 trumps.[5] The regular and tarot decks began to diverge during the 16th century. The Tarocco set removed ranks 2 to 5 bringing down the number of cards from 78 to the present 62 perhaps to simplify the game.[1][6] The regular set removed ranks 8, 9, and 10 to create the 40-card pack as they are not needed to play Primiera.[7][8] All ranks that they share in common appear very similar but are not identical.The tarocco deck then underwent a few more modifications. The imperial and papal trumps, having been of equal rank, were converted to four moors, two of which are identical, in 1725.[9] Later in that century the face cards and trumps became reversible and most trumps added Arabic numerals. None of the cards are labelled and only trumps 5 to 16 are numbered.Historically, this deck and its games have been confined to the city of Bologna yet there are decks in France and Belgium that show traces of designs borrowed from the Tarocco Bolognese. There are also tarot games played in present-day Piedmont that show the influence of tarocchini.[10] In most games played with the Tarocco Piemontese, players treat trump 20 higher than 21 reflecting that the Angel outranks the World in Bolognese games. There are also regional games in Piedmont where pip cards are removed and the imperial and papal trumps are treated equally. The only surviving record of a tarot game being played in Ferrara showed it to be a three-player tarocchini game.[11] The Tarocco Bolognese is also the earliest tarot deck to be used in cartomancy, predating de Gébelin and Etteilla by at least thirty years.[12][13] Due to similarities in Bolognese cartomancy and Etteilla's system, it is possible the latter learned it from some Italian source (he claimed to have been taught by a Piedmontese man named Alexis). Unlike cartomantic traditions elsewhere, Bolognese practitioners have always used the same deck as local players instead of inventing dedicated decks and do not make a pretense of a mystical origin of their pack.The hierarchy of cards in the long suits (swords and batons) goes from King (highest), Queen, Knight, Knave, 10 to 6, and Ace (lowest). For the round suits of cups and coins it is King (highest), Queen, Knight, Knave, Ace, and 6 to 10 (lowest).[14]17th-century portrait of Francesco Fibbia with some cards.The trump cards are as follows:","title":"Tarocco Bolognese"}]
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[{"image_text":"Modern cards by Dal Negro.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Tarocco_Bolognese.png/300px-Tarocco_Bolognese.png"},{"image_text":"17th-century portrait of Francesco Fibbia with some cards.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Prince-castracani-fibbia.jpg/220px-Prince-castracani-fibbia.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Dummett, Michael (1980). The Game of Tarot. London: Duckworth. pp. 334, 387–434.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Caldwell, Ross G. R. (2007). \"Giovanni del Ponte and the dating of the Rothschild cards in the Louvre\". The Playing-Card. 36 (1): 51–54.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playing-Card","url_text":"The Playing-Card"}]},{"reference":"Mann, Sylvia (1990). All Cards on the Table. Leinfelden: Deutsches Spielkarten-Museum. pp. 22–31.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McLeod, John (1982). \"Piedmontese Tarocchi with 54 cards - A Link between Bologna and Belgium?\". The Playing-Card. 10 (4): 109–117.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McLeod_(card_game_researcher)","url_text":"McLeod, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playing-Card","url_text":"The Playing-Card"}]},{"reference":"Zorli, Girolamo (2007). \"A tarocchini terziglio in 1550 Ferrara\". The Playing-Card. 36 (2): 84.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playing-Card","url_text":"The Playing-Card"}]},{"reference":"Pratesi, Franco (1989). \"Italian Cards: New Discoveries, no. 9\". The Playing-Card. 17 (4): 136–145.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Pratesi","url_text":"Pratesi, Franco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playing-Card","url_text":"The Playing-Card"}]},{"reference":"Dummett, Michael (2003). \"Tarot Cartomancy in Bologna\". The Playing-Card. 32 (2): 79–88.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett","url_text":"Dummett, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Playing-Card","url_text":"The Playing-Card"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://l-pollett.tripod.com/cards14.htm","external_links_name":"Birth of regional tarots"},{"Link":"http://letarot.it/page.aspx?id=107&lng=ENG","external_links_name":"The Prince, Inventor of the Ludus Triumphorum"},{"Link":"http://i-p-c-s.org/pattern/ps-11.html","external_links_name":"Tarocco Bolognese pattern sheet"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180218210417/http://www.tretre.it/menu/accademia-del-tre/documenti-e-articoli/cardans-primero-game-1530-ca/","external_links_name":"Cardano's Primero Game"},{"Link":"http://www.altacarta.com/english/collect/suits/italian/bologna.html","external_links_name":"Primiera deck"},{"Link":"http://a.trionfi.eu/WWPCM/decks06/d04910/d04910.htm","external_links_name":"Tarocco Bolognese"},{"Link":"http://www.pagat.com/tarot/ottocen.html","external_links_name":"Rules for Ottocento"},{"Link":"http://www.tarocchinobolognese.it/","external_links_name":"Accademia del Tarocchino Bolognese"},{"Link":"http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b105109607?rk=21459;2","external_links_name":"17th century cards"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_black_hole
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Binary black hole
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["1 Occurrence","2 Final-parsec problem","3 Lifecycle","3.1 Inspiral","3.2 Merger","3.3 Ringdown","4 Observation","5 Dynamics modelling","6 Shape","7 Black-hole merger recoil","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
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System consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other
Computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown. The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as space-time itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.
A binary black hole (BBH), or black hole binary, is a system consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other. Like black holes themselves, binary black holes are often divided into stellar binary black holes, formed either as remnants of high-mass binary star systems or by dynamic processes and mutual capture; and binary supermassive black holes, believed to be a result of galactic mergers.
For many years, proving the existence of binary black holes was made difficult because of the nature of black holes themselves and the limited means of detection available. However, in the event that a pair of black holes were to merge, an immense amount of energy should be given off as gravitational waves, with distinctive waveforms that can be calculated using general relativity. Therefore, during the late 20th and early 21st century, binary black holes became of great interest scientifically as a potential source of such waves and a means by which gravitational waves could be proven to exist. Binary black hole mergers would be one of the strongest known sources of gravitational waves in the universe, and thus offer a good chance of directly detecting such waves. As the orbiting black holes give off these waves, the orbit decays, and the orbital period decreases. This stage is called binary black hole inspiral. The black holes will merge once they are close enough. Once merged, the single hole settles down to a stable form, via a stage called ringdown, where any distortion in the shape is dissipated as more gravitational waves. In the final fraction of a second the black holes can reach extremely high velocity, and the gravitational wave amplitude reaches its peak.
The existence of stellar-mass binary black holes (and gravitational waves themselves) was finally confirmed when LIGO detected GW150914 (detected September 2015, announced February 2016), a distinctive gravitational wave signature of two merging stellar-mass black holes of around 30 solar masses each, occurring about 1.3 billion light-years away. In its final 20 ms of spiraling inward and merging, GW150914 released around 3 solar masses as gravitational energy, peaking at a rate of 3.6×1049 watts – more than the combined power of all light radiated by all the stars in the observable universe put together. Supermassive binary black hole candidates have been found, but not yet categorically proven.
Occurrence
Stellar-mass binary black holes have been demonstrated to exist, by the first detection of a black-hole merger event GW150914 by LIGO.
In this visualization a binary system containing two supermassive black holes and their accretion disks is initially viewed from above. After about 25 seconds, the camera tips close to the orbital plane to reveal the most dramatic distortions produced by their gravity. The different colors of the accretion disks make it easier to track where light from each black hole turns up.
Supermassive black-hole (SMBH) binaries are believed to form during galaxy mergers. Some likely candidates for binary black holes are galaxies with double cores still far apart. An example active double nucleus is NGC 6240. Much closer black-hole binaries are likely in single-core galaxies with double emission lines. Examples include SDSS J104807.74+005543.5 and EGSD2 J142033.66 525917.5. Other galactic nuclei have periodic emissions suggesting large objects orbiting a central black hole, for example, in OJ287.
Measurements of the peculiar velocity of the mobile SMBH in the galaxy J0437+2456 indicate that it is a promising candidate for hosting either a recoiling or binary SMBH, or an ongoing galaxy merger.
The quasar PKS 1302-102 appears to have a binary black hole with an orbital period of 1900 days.
Final-parsec problem
When two galaxies collide, the supermassive black holes at their centers are very unlikely to hit head-on and would most likely shoot past each other on hyperbolic trajectories, unless some mechanism brings them together. The most important mechanism is dynamical friction, which transfers kinetic energy from the black holes to nearby matter. As a black hole passes a star, the gravitational slingshot accelerates the star while decelerating the black hole.
This slows the black holes enough that they form a bound binary system, and further dynamical friction steals orbital energy from the pair until they are orbiting within a few parsecs of each other. However, this process also ejects matter from the orbital path, and as the orbits shrink, the volume of space the black holes pass through reduces, until there is so little matter remaining that it could not cause a merger within the age of the universe.
Gravitational waves can cause significant loss of orbital energy, but not until the separation shrinks to a much smaller value, roughly 0.01–0.001 parsec.
Nonetheless, supermassive black holes appear to have merged, and what appears to be a pair in this intermediate range has been observed in PKS 1302-102. The question of how this happens is the "final-parsec problem".
A number of solutions to the final-parsec problem have been proposed. Most involve mechanisms to bring additional matter, either stars or gas, close enough to the binary pair to extract energy from the binary and cause it to shrink. If enough stars pass close by to the orbiting pair, their gravitational ejection can bring the two black holes together in an astronomically plausible time.
One mechanism that is known to work, although infrequently, is a third supermassive black hole from a second galactic collision. With three black holes in close proximity, the orbits are chaotic and allow three additional energy loss mechanisms:
The black holes orbit through a substantially larger volume of the galaxy, interacting with (and losing energy to) a much greater amount of matter.
The orbits can become highly eccentric, allowing energy loss by gravitational radiation at the point of closest approach.
Two of the black holes can transfer energy to the third, possibly ejecting it.
Lifecycle
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Inspiral
The first stage of the life of a binary black hole is the inspiral, a gradually shrinking orbit. The first stages of the inspiral take a very long time, as the gravitational waves emitted are very weak when the black holes are distant from each other. In addition to the orbit shrinking due to the emission of gravitational waves, extra angular momentum may be lost due to interactions with other matter present, such as other stars.
As the black holes’ orbit shrinks, the speed increases, and gravitational wave emission increases. When the black holes are close the gravitational waves cause the orbit to shrink rapidly.
The last stable orbit or innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) is the innermost complete orbit before the transition from inspiral to merger.
Merger
This is followed by a plunging orbit, in which the two black holes meet, followed by the merger. Gravitational wave emission peaks at this time.
Ringdown
Immediately following the merger, the now single black hole will “ring”. This ringing is damped in the next stage, called the ringdown, by the emission of gravitational waves. The ringdown phase starts when the black holes approach each other within the photon sphere. In this region most of the emitted gravitational waves go towards the event horizon, and the amplitude of those escaping reduces. Remotely detected gravitational waves have an oscillation with fast-reducing amplitude, as echos of the merger event result from tighter and tighter spirals around the resulting black hole.
Observation
The first observation of stellar-mass binary black holes merging, GW150914, was performed by the LIGO detector. As observed from Earth, a pair of black holes with estimated masses around 36 and 29 times that of the Sun spun into each other and merged to form an approximately 62-solar-mass black hole on 14 September 2015, at 09:50 UTC. Three solar masses were converted to gravitational radiation in the final fraction of a second, with a peak power 3.6×1056 erg/s (200 solar masses per second), which is 50 times the total output power of all the stars in the observable universe. The merger took place 440+160−180 megaparsecs from Earth, between 600 million and 1.8 billion years ago. The observed signal is consistent with the predictions of numerical relativity.
Dynamics modelling
Some simplified algebraic models can be used for the case where the black holes are far apart, during the inspiral stage, and also to solve for the final ringdown.
Post-Newtonian approximations can be used for the inspiral. These approximate the general-relativity field equations adding extra terms to equations in Newtonian gravity. Orders used in these calculations may be termed 2PN (second-order post-Newtonian) 2.5PN or 3PN (third-order post-Newtonian). Effective-one-body (EOB) approximation solves the dynamics of the binary black-hole system by transforming the equations to those of a single object. This is especially useful where mass ratios are large, such as a stellar-mass black hole merging with a galactic-core black hole, but can also be used for equal-mass systems.
For the ringdown, black-hole perturbation theory can be used. The final Kerr black hole is distorted, and the spectrum of frequencies it produces can be calculated.
Description of the entire evolution, including merger, requires solving the full equations of general relativity. This can be done in numerical relativity simulations. Numerical relativity models space-time and simulates its change over time. In these calculations it is important to have enough fine detail close into the black holes, and yet have enough volume to determine the gravitation radiation that propagates to infinity. In order to reduce the number of points such that the numerical problem is tractable in a reasonable time, special coordinate systems can be used, such as Boyer–Lindquist coordinates or fish-eye coordinates.
Numerical-relativity techniques steadily improved from the initial attempts in the 1960s and 1970s.
Long-term simulations of orbiting black holes, however, were not possible until three groups independently developed groundbreaking new methods to model the inspiral, merger, and ringdown of binary black holes in 2005.
In the full calculations of an entire merger, several of the above methods can be used together. It is then important to fit the different pieces of the model that were worked out using different algorithms. The Lazarus Project linked the parts on a spacelike hypersurface at the time of the merger.
Results from the calculations can include the binding energy. In a stable orbit the binding energy is a local minimum relative to parameter perturbation. At the innermost stable circular orbit the local minimum becomes an inflection point.
The gravitational waveform produced is important for observation prediction and confirmation. When inspiralling reaches the strong zone of the gravitational field, the waves scatter within the zone producing what is called the post-Newtonian tail (PN tail).
In the ringdown phase of a Kerr black hole, frame-dragging produces a gravitation wave with the horizon frequency. In contrast, the Schwarzschild black-hole ringdown looks like the scattered wave from the late inspiral, but with no direct wave.
The radiation reaction force can be calculated by Padé resummation of gravitational wave flux. A technique to establish the radiation is the Cauchy-characteristic extraction technique CCE, which gives a close estimate of the flux at infinity, without having to calculate at larger and larger finite distances.
The final mass of the resultant black hole depends on the definition of mass in general relativity. The Bondi mass MB is calculated from the Bondi–Sach mass-loss formula,
d
M
B
d
U
=
−
f
(
U
)
{\displaystyle {\frac {dM_{B}}{dU}}=-f(U)}
, with f(U) being the gravitational wave flux at retarded time U. f is a surface integral of the news function at null infinity varied by solid angle. The Arnowitt–Deser–Misner (ADM) energy, or ADM mass, is the mass as measured at infinite distance and includes all the gravitational radiation emitted:
M
ADM
=
M
B
(
U
)
+
∫
−
∞
U
F
(
V
)
d
V
{\displaystyle M_{\text{ADM}}=M_{\text{B}}(U)+\int _{-\infty }^{U}F(V)\,dV}
.
Angular momentum is also lost in the gravitational radiation. This is primarily in the z axis of the initial orbit. It is calculated by integrating the product of the multipolar metric waveform with the news function complement over retarded time.
Shape
One of the problems to solve is the shape or topology of the event horizon during a black-hole merger.
In numerical models, test geodesics are inserted to see whether they encounter an event horizon. As two black holes approach each other, a "duckbill" shape protrudes from each of the two event horizons towards the other one. This protrusion extends longer and narrower until it meets the protrusion from the other black hole. At this point in time the event horizon has a very narrow X-shape at the meeting point. The protrusions are drawn out into a thin thread. The meeting point expands to a roughly cylindrical connection called a bridge.
Simulations as of 2011 had not produced any event horizons with toroidal topology (ring-shaped). Some researchers suggested that it would be possible if, for example, several black holes in the same nearly circular orbit coalesce.
Black-hole merger recoil
See also: Pulsar kick § Black hole kicks, and Rogue black hole
An unexpected result can occur with binary black holes that merge, in that the gravitational waves carry momentum, and the merging black-hole pair accelerates, seemingly violating Newton's third law. The center of gravity can add over 1000 km/s of kick velocity. The greatest kick velocities (approaching 5000 km/s) occur for equal-mass and equal-spin-magnitude black-hole binaries, when the spins directions are optimally oriented to be counter-aligned, parallel to the orbital plane or nearly aligned with the orbital angular momentum. This is enough to escape large galaxies. With more likely orientations, a smaller effect takes place, perhaps only a few hundred kilometers per second. This sort of speed can eject merging binary black holes from globular clusters, thus preventing the formation of massive black holes in globular-cluster cores. This, in turn, reduces the chances of subsequent mergers, and thus the chance of detecting gravitational waves. For non-spinning black holes a maximum recoil velocity of 175 km/s occurs for masses in the ratio of five to one. When spins are aligned in the orbital plane, a recoil of 5000 km/s is possible with two identical black holes.
Parameters that may be of interest include the point at which the black holes merge, the mass ratio that produces maximum kick, and how much mass/energy is radiated via gravitational waves. In a head-on collision this fraction is calculated at 0.002, or 0.2%. One of the best candidates of the recoiled supermassive black holes is CXO J101527.2+625911.
See also
List of most massive black holes
References
^ Credits: SXS (Simulating eXtreme Spacetimes) project.
^ a b c Pretorius, Frans (2005). "Evolution of Binary Black-Hole Spacetimes". Physical Review Letters. 95 (12): 121101. arXiv:gr-qc/0507014. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95l1101P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.121101. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 16197061. S2CID 24225193.
^ a b c Campanelli, M.; Lousto, C. O.; Marronetti, P.; Zlochower, Y. (2006). "Accurate Evolutions of Orbiting Black-Hole Binaries without Excision". Physical Review Letters. 96 (11): 111101. arXiv:gr-qc/0511048. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..96k1101C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.111101. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 16605808. S2CID 5954627.
^ a b c Baker, John G.; Centrella, Joan; Choi, Dae-Il; Koppitz, Michael; van Meter, James (2006). "Gravitational-Wave Extraction from an Inspiraling Configuration of Merging Black Holes". Physical Review Letters. 96 (11): 111102. arXiv:gr-qc/0511103. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..96k1102B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.111102. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 16605809. S2CID 23409406.
^ Abadie, J.; et al. (2011). "Search for gravitational waves from binary black hole inspiral, merger and ringdown". Physical Review D. 83 (12): 122005. arXiv:1102.3781. Bibcode:2011PhRvD..83l2005A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.83.122005. S2CID 174250.
^ "Observation Of Gravitational Waves From A Binary Black Hole Merger" (PDF). LIGO. 11 February 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
^ Harwood, W. (11 February 2016). "Einstein was right: Scientists detect gravitational waves in breakthrough". CBS News. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ Drake, Nadia (11 February 2016). "Found! Gravitational Waves, or a Wrinkle in Spacetime". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ Liu, Fukun; Komossa, Stefanie; Schartel, Norbert (22 April 2014). "Unique Pair of Hidden Black Holes Discovered yy XMM-Newton". A milli-parsec supermassive black hole binary candidate in the galaxy SDSS J120136.02+300305.5. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
^ a b c B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
^ "NASA Visualization Probes the Doubly Warped World of Binary Black Holes". NASA. 15 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
^ S. Komossa; V. Burwitz; G. Hasinger; P. Predehl; J.S. Kaastra; Y. Ikebe (January 2003). "Discovery of a Binary Active Galactic Nucleus in the Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy NGC 6240 Using Chandra". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 582 (1). The American Astronomical Society: L15–L19. arXiv:astro-ph/0212099. Bibcode:2003ApJ...582L..15K. doi:10.1086/346145. S2CID 16697327.
^ Hongyan Zhou; Tinggui Wang; Xueguang Zhang; Xiaobo Dong; Cheng Li (26 February 2004). "Obscured Binary Quasar Cores in SDSS J104807.74+005543.5?". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 604 (1). The American Astronomical Society: L33–L36. arXiv:astro-ph/0411167. Bibcode:2004ApJ...604L..33Z. doi:10.1086/383310. S2CID 14297940.
^ Gerke, Brian F.; Newman, Jeffrey A.; Lotz, Jennifer; Yan, Renbin; Barmby, P.; Coil, Alison L.; Conselice, Christopher J.; Ivison, R. J.; Lin, Lihwai; Koo, David C.; Nandra, Kirpal; Salim, Samir; Small, Todd; Weiner, Benjamin J.; Cooper, Michael C.; Davis, Marc; Faber, S. M.; Guhathakurta, Puragra; et al. (6 April 2007). "The DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey: AEGIS Observations of a Dual AGN at z = 0.7". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 660 (1): L23–L26. arXiv:astro-ph/0608380. Bibcode:2007ApJ...660L..23G. doi:10.1086/517968. S2CID 14320681.
^ Valtonen, M. V.; Mikkola, S.; Merritt, D.; Gopakumar, A.; Lehto, H. J.; Hyvönen, T.; Rampadarath, H.; Saunders, R.; Basta, M.; Hudec, R. (February 2010). "Measuring the Spin of the Primary Black Hole in OJ287". The Astrophysical Journal. 709 (2): 725–732. arXiv:0912.1209. Bibcode:2010ApJ...709..725V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/725. S2CID 119276181.
^ Pesce, D. W.; Seth, A. C.; Greene, J. E.; Braatz, J. A.; Condon, J. J.; Kent, B. R.; Krajnović, D. (March 2021). "A Restless Supermassive Black Hole in the Galaxy J0437+2456". Astrophysical Journal. 909 (2): 141–153. arXiv:2101.07932. Bibcode:2021ApJ...909..141P. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abde3d. S2CID 231648121.
^ Graham, Matthew J.; Djorgovski, S. G.; Stern, Daniel; Glikman, Eilat; Drake, Andrew J.; Mahabal, Ashish A.; Donalek, Ciro; Larson, Steve; Christensen, Eric (7 January 2015). "A possible close supermassive black-hole binary in a quasar with optical periodicity". Nature. 518 (7537): 74–6. arXiv:1501.01375. Bibcode:2015Natur.518...74G. doi:10.1038/nature14143. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 25561176. S2CID 4459433.
^ D'Orazio, Daniel J.; Haiman, Zoltán; Schiminovich, David (17 September 2015). "Relativistic boost as the cause of periodicity in a massive black-hole binary candidate". Nature. 525 (7569): 351–353. arXiv:1509.04301. Bibcode:2015Natur.525..351D. doi:10.1038/nature15262. PMID 26381982. S2CID 205245606.
^ Overbye, Dennis (16 September 2015). "More Evidence for Coming Black Hole Collision". The New York Times.
^ Milosavljević, Miloš; Merritt, David (October 2003). "The Final Parsec Problem" (PDF). AIP Conference Proceedings. 686 (1). American Institute of Physics: 201–210. arXiv:astro-ph/0212270. Bibcode:2003AIPC..686..201M. doi:10.1063/1.1629432. S2CID 12124842.
^ Merritt, David (2013). Dynamics and Evolution of Galactic Nuclei. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12101-7.
^ Ryu, Taeho; Perna, Rosalba; Haiman, Zoltán; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Stone, Nicholas C. (2018). "Interactions between multiple supermassive black holes in galactic nuclei: a solution to the final parsec problem". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 473 (3): 3410–3433. arXiv:1709.06501. Bibcode:2018MNRAS.473.3410R. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2524. S2CID 119083047.
^ Iwasawa, Masaki; Funato, Yoko; Makino, Junichiro (2006). "Evolution of Massive Blackhole Triples I – Equal-mass binary–single systems". Astrophys. J. 651 (2): 1059–1067. arXiv:astro-ph/0511391. Bibcode:2006ApJ...651.1059I. doi:10.1086/507473. S2CID 14816623. We found that in most cases two of the three BHs merge through gravitational wave (GW) radiation in the timescale much shorter than the Hubble time, before ejecting one BH through a slingshot.
^ "Introduction to LIGO & Gravitational Waves: Inspiral Gravitational Waves". LIGO Scientific Collaboration.
^ a b Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (February 11, 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. S2CID 182916902. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
^ "Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction". www.nsf.gov. NSF – National Science Foundation. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
^ Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (11 February 2016). "Properties of the binary black hole merger GW150914". Physical Review Letters. 116 (24): 241102. arXiv:1602.03840. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116x1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.241102. PMID 27367378. S2CID 217406416.
^ Kramer, Sarah (11 February 2016). "This collision was 50 times more powerful than all the stars in the universe combined". Tech Insider. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
^ The LIGO Scientific Collaboration and The Virgo Collaboration (2016). "An improved analysis of GW150914 using a fully spin-precessing waveform model". Physical Review X. 6 (4): 041014. arXiv:1606.01210. Bibcode:2016PhRvX...6d1014A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.6.041014. S2CID 18217435.
^ Hahn, Susan G.; Lindquist, Richard W. (1964). "The two-body problem in geometrodynamics". Annals of Physics. 29 (2): 304–331. Bibcode:1964AnPhy..29..304H. doi:10.1016/0003-4916(64)90223-4. ISSN 0003-4916.
^ Smarr, Larry; Čadež, Andrej; DeWitt, Bryce; Eppley, Kenneth (1976). "Collision of two black holes: Theoretical framework". Physical Review D. 14 (10): 2443–2452. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14.2443S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.2443. ISSN 0556-2821.
^ a b c Nichols, David A.; Yanbei Chen (2012). "Hybrid method for understanding black-hole mergers: Inspiralling case". Physical Review D. 85 (4): 044035. arXiv:1109.0081. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..85d4035N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.044035. S2CID 30890236.
^ Thibault
^ a b c Cohen, Michael I.; Jeffrey D. Kaplan; Mark A. Scheel (2012). "On Toroidal Horizons in Binary Black Hole Inspirals". Physical Review D. 85 (2): 024031. arXiv:1110.1668. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..85b4031C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.024031. S2CID 37654897.
^ Pietilä, Harri; Heinämäki, Pekka; Mikkola, Seppo; Valtonen, Mauri J. (10 January 1996). Anisotropic Gravitational Radiation In The Merger Of Black Holes. Relativistic Astrophysics Conference. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.51.2616.
^ Campanelli, Manuela; Lousto, Carlos; Zlochower, Yosef; Merritt, David (7 June 2007). "Maximum Gravitational Recoil". Physical Review Letters. 98 (23): 231102. arXiv:gr-qc/0702133. Bibcode:2007PhRvL..98w1102C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.231102. PMID 17677894. S2CID 29246347.
^ Lousto, Carlos; Zlochower, Yosef (2011). "Hangup Kicks: Still Larger Recoils by Partial Spin–Orbit Alignment of Black-Hole Binaries". Physical Review Letters. 107 (23): 231102. arXiv:1108.2009. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107w1102L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.231102. PMID 22182078. S2CID 15546595.
^ Pietilä, Harri; Heinämäki, Pekka; Mikkola, Seppo; Valtonen, Mauri J. (1995). "Anisotropic gravitational radiation in the problems of three and four black holes". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 62 (4): 377–394. Bibcode:1995CeMDA..62..377P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.51.2616. doi:10.1007/BF00692287. S2CID 122956625.
^ Kim, D.-C.; et al. (2017). "A Potential Recoiling Supermassive Black Hole CXO J101527.2+625911". Astrophysical Journal. 840 (2): 71–77. arXiv:1704.05549. Bibcode:2017ApJ...840...71K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6030. S2CID 119401892.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Binary black holes.
Binary Black Holes Orbit and Collide
Merritt, David; Milosavljević, Miloš (2005). "Massive Black Hole Binary Evolution". Living Reviews in Relativity. 8: 8. arXiv:astro-ph/0410364. Bibcode:2005LRR.....8....8M. doi:10.12942/lrr-2005-8. S2CID 119367453. Archived from the original on 2012-03-30.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GW150914","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW150914"},{"link_name":"gravitational lensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lensing"},{"link_name":"space-time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-time"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"stellar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_black_hole"},{"link_name":"binary star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_star"},{"link_name":"dynamic processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_dynamics"},{"link_name":"supermassive black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_holes"},{"link_name":"galactic mergers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_merger"},{"link_name":"gravitational waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_wave"},{"link_name":"waveforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveform"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pretorius2005-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CampanelliLousto2006-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BakerCentrella2006-4"},{"link_name":"directly detecting such waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_wave#Detection"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"LIGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIGO"},{"link_name":"GW150914","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW150914"},{"link_name":"solar masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"light-years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-year"},{"link_name":"watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"observable universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DetectionScienceSummary-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBS2016-02-11-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown. The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as space-time itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.[1]A binary black hole (BBH), or black hole binary, is a system consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other. Like black holes themselves, binary black holes are often divided into stellar binary black holes, formed either as remnants of high-mass binary star systems or by dynamic processes and mutual capture; and binary supermassive black holes, believed to be a result of galactic mergers.For many years, proving the existence of binary black holes was made difficult because of the nature of black holes themselves and the limited means of detection available. However, in the event that a pair of black holes were to merge, an immense amount of energy should be given off as gravitational waves, with distinctive waveforms that can be calculated using general relativity.[2][3][4] Therefore, during the late 20th and early 21st century, binary black holes became of great interest scientifically as a potential source of such waves and a means by which gravitational waves could be proven to exist. Binary black hole mergers would be one of the strongest known sources of gravitational waves in the universe, and thus offer a good chance of directly detecting such waves. As the orbiting black holes give off these waves, the orbit decays, and the orbital period decreases. This stage is called binary black hole inspiral. The black holes will merge once they are close enough. Once merged, the single hole settles down to a stable form, via a stage called ringdown, where any distortion in the shape is dissipated as more gravitational waves.[5] In the final fraction of a second the black holes can reach extremely high velocity, and the gravitational wave amplitude reaches its peak.The existence of stellar-mass binary black holes (and gravitational waves themselves) was finally confirmed when LIGO detected GW150914 (detected September 2015, announced February 2016), a distinctive gravitational wave signature of two merging stellar-mass black holes of around 30 solar masses each, occurring about 1.3 billion light-years away. In its final 20 ms of spiraling inward and merging, GW150914 released around 3 solar masses as gravitational energy, peaking at a rate of 3.6×1049 watts – more than the combined power of all light radiated by all the stars in the observable universe put together.[6][7][8] Supermassive binary black hole candidates have been found, but not yet categorically proven.[9]","title":"Binary black hole"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_wave_observation"},{"link_name":"LIGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIGO"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbot-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"galaxy mergers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_merger"},{"link_name":"NGC 6240","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC_6240"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Komossa-12"},{"link_name":"SDSS J104807.74+005543.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SDSS_J104807.74%2B005543.5&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou-13"},{"link_name":"EGSD2 J142033.66 525917.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EGSD2_J142033.66_525917.5&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gerke-14"},{"link_name":"OJ287","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OJ287"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Valtonen-15"},{"link_name":"peculiar velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_velocity"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pesce2021-16"},{"link_name":"PKS 1302-102","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKS_1302-102"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham2015-17"}],"text":"Stellar-mass binary black holes have been demonstrated to exist, by the first detection of a black-hole merger event GW150914 by LIGO.[10]In this visualization a binary system containing two supermassive black holes and their accretion disks is initially viewed from above. After about 25 seconds, the camera tips close to the orbital plane to reveal the most dramatic distortions produced by their gravity. The different colors of the accretion disks make it easier to track where light from each black hole turns up.[11]Supermassive black-hole (SMBH) binaries are believed to form during galaxy mergers. Some likely candidates for binary black holes are galaxies with double cores still far apart. An example active double nucleus is NGC 6240.[12] Much closer black-hole binaries are likely in single-core galaxies with double emission lines. Examples include SDSS J104807.74+005543.5[13] and EGSD2 J142033.66 525917.5.[14] Other galactic nuclei have periodic emissions suggesting large objects orbiting a central black hole, for example, in OJ287.[15]Measurements of the peculiar velocity of the mobile SMBH in the galaxy J0437+2456 indicate that it is a promising candidate for hosting either a recoiling or binary SMBH, or an ongoing galaxy merger.[16]The quasar PKS 1302-102 appears to have a binary black hole with an orbital period of 1900 days.[17]","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hyperbolic trajectories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_trajectory"},{"link_name":"dynamical friction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_friction"},{"link_name":"gravitational slingshot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_slingshot"},{"link_name":"orbital energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_energy"},{"link_name":"parsecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec"},{"link_name":"PKS 1302-102","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKS_1302-102"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"eccentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"When two galaxies collide, the supermassive black holes at their centers are very unlikely to hit head-on and would most likely shoot past each other on hyperbolic trajectories, unless some mechanism brings them together. The most important mechanism is dynamical friction, which transfers kinetic energy from the black holes to nearby matter. As a black hole passes a star, the gravitational slingshot accelerates the star while decelerating the black hole.This slows the black holes enough that they form a bound binary system, and further dynamical friction steals orbital energy from the pair until they are orbiting within a few parsecs of each other. However, this process also ejects matter from the orbital path, and as the orbits shrink, the volume of space the black holes pass through reduces, until there is so little matter remaining that it could not cause a merger within the age of the universe.Gravitational waves can cause significant loss of orbital energy, but not until the separation shrinks to a much smaller value, roughly 0.01–0.001 parsec.Nonetheless, supermassive black holes appear to have merged, and what appears to be a pair in this intermediate range has been observed in PKS 1302-102.[18][19] The question of how this happens is the \"final-parsec problem\".[20]A number of solutions to the final-parsec problem have been proposed. Most involve mechanisms to bring additional matter, either stars or gas, close enough to the binary pair to extract energy from the binary and cause it to shrink. If enough stars pass close by to the orbiting pair, their gravitational ejection can bring the two black holes together in an astronomically plausible time.[21]One mechanism that is known to work, although infrequently, is a third supermassive black hole from a second galactic collision.[22] With three black holes in close proximity, the orbits are chaotic and allow three additional energy loss mechanisms:The black holes orbit through a substantially larger volume of the galaxy, interacting with (and losing energy to) a much greater amount of matter.\nThe orbits can become highly eccentric, allowing energy loss by gravitational radiation at the point of closest approach.\nTwo of the black holes can transfer energy to the third, possibly ejecting it.[23]","title":"Final-parsec problem "},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Lifecycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inspiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspiral"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"innermost stable circular orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innermost_stable_circular_orbit"}],"sub_title":"Inspiral","text":"The first stage of the life of a binary black hole is the inspiral, a gradually shrinking orbit. The first stages of the inspiral take a very long time, as the gravitational waves emitted are very weak when the black holes are distant from each other. In addition to the orbit shrinking due to the emission of gravitational waves, extra angular momentum may be lost due to interactions with other matter present, such as other stars.As the black holes’ orbit shrinks, the speed increases, and gravitational wave emission increases. When the black holes are close the gravitational waves cause the orbit to shrink rapidly.[24]The last stable orbit or innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) is the innermost complete orbit before the transition from inspiral to merger.","title":"Lifecycle"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Merger","text":"This is followed by a plunging orbit, in which the two black holes meet, followed by the merger. Gravitational wave emission peaks at this time.","title":"Lifecycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photon sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon_sphere"}],"sub_title":"Ringdown","text":"Immediately following the merger, the now single black hole will “ring”. This ringing is damped in the next stage, called the ringdown, by the emission of gravitational waves. The ringdown phase starts when the black holes approach each other within the photon sphere. In this region most of the emitted gravitational waves go towards the event horizon, and the amplitude of those escaping reduces. Remotely detected gravitational waves have an oscillation with fast-reducing amplitude, as echos of the merger event result from tighter and tighter spirals around the resulting black hole.","title":"Lifecycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GW150914","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GW150914"},{"link_name":"LIGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIGO"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbot-10"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Discovery_2016-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Properties-27"},{"link_name":"erg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erg"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbot-10"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"megaparsecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaparsec"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Discovery_2016-25"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pretorius2005-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CampanelliLousto2006-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BakerCentrella2006-4"}],"text":"The first observation of stellar-mass binary black holes merging, GW150914, was performed by the LIGO detector.[10][25][26] As observed from Earth, a pair of black holes with estimated masses around 36 and 29 times that of the Sun spun into each other and merged to form an approximately 62-solar-mass black hole on 14 September 2015, at 09:50 UTC.[27] Three solar masses were converted to gravitational radiation in the final fraction of a second, with a peak power 3.6×1056 erg/s (200 solar masses per second),[10] which is 50 times the total output power of all the stars in the observable universe.[28] The merger took place 440+160−180 megaparsecs from Earth,[29] between 600 million and 1.8 billion years ago.[25] The observed signal is consistent with the predictions of numerical relativity.[2][3][4]","title":"Observation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Post-Newtonian approximations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Newtonian_expansion"},{"link_name":"merging with a galactic-core black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_mass_ratio_inspiral"},{"link_name":"perturbation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_theory"},{"link_name":"Kerr black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerr_metric"},{"link_name":"numerical relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_relativity"},{"link_name":"Boyer–Lindquist coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Lindquist_coordinates"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HahnLindquist1964-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smarr%C4%8Cade%C5%BE1976-31"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pretorius2005-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CampanelliLousto2006-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BakerCentrella2006-4"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1109.0081v1-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1109.0081v1-32"},{"link_name":"frame-dragging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame-dragging"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1109.0081v1-32"},{"link_name":"Padé resummation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pad%C3%A9_resummation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"mass in general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_in_general_relativity"},{"link_name":"Bondi mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondi_mass"},{"link_name":"surface integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_integral"},{"link_name":"news function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=News_function&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ADM mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADM_mass"},{"link_name":"Angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"retarded time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retarded_time"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11102938v1-33"}],"text":"Some simplified algebraic models can be used for the case where the black holes are far apart, during the inspiral stage, and also to solve for the final ringdown.Post-Newtonian approximations can be used for the inspiral. These approximate the general-relativity field equations adding extra terms to equations in Newtonian gravity. Orders used in these calculations may be termed 2PN (second-order post-Newtonian) 2.5PN or 3PN (third-order post-Newtonian). Effective-one-body (EOB) approximation solves the dynamics of the binary black-hole system by transforming the equations to those of a single object. This is especially useful where mass ratios are large, such as a stellar-mass black hole merging with a galactic-core black hole, but can also be used for equal-mass systems.For the ringdown, black-hole perturbation theory can be used. The final Kerr black hole is distorted, and the spectrum of frequencies it produces can be calculated.Description of the entire evolution, including merger, requires solving the full equations of general relativity. This can be done in numerical relativity simulations. Numerical relativity models space-time and simulates its change over time. In these calculations it is important to have enough fine detail close into the black holes, and yet have enough volume to determine the gravitation radiation that propagates to infinity. In order to reduce the number of points such that the numerical problem is tractable in a reasonable time, special coordinate systems can be used, such as Boyer–Lindquist coordinates or fish-eye coordinates.Numerical-relativity techniques steadily improved from the initial attempts in the 1960s and 1970s.[30][31]\nLong-term simulations of orbiting black holes, however, were not possible until three groups independently developed groundbreaking new methods to model the inspiral, merger, and ringdown of binary black holes[2][3][4] in 2005.In the full calculations of an entire merger, several of the above methods can be used together. It is then important to fit the different pieces of the model that were worked out using different algorithms. The Lazarus Project linked the parts on a spacelike hypersurface at the time of the merger.[32]Results from the calculations can include the binding energy. In a stable orbit the binding energy is a local minimum relative to parameter perturbation. At the innermost stable circular orbit the local minimum becomes an inflection point.The gravitational waveform produced is important for observation prediction and confirmation. When inspiralling reaches the strong zone of the gravitational field, the waves scatter within the zone producing what is called the post-Newtonian tail (PN tail).[32]In the ringdown phase of a Kerr black hole, frame-dragging produces a gravitation wave with the horizon frequency. In contrast, the Schwarzschild black-hole ringdown looks like the scattered wave from the late inspiral, but with no direct wave.[32]The radiation reaction force can be calculated by Padé resummation of gravitational wave flux. A technique to establish the radiation is the Cauchy-characteristic extraction technique CCE, which gives a close estimate of the flux at infinity, without having to calculate at larger and larger finite distances.The final mass of the resultant black hole depends on the definition of mass in general relativity. The Bondi mass MB is calculated from the Bondi–Sach mass-loss formula, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n M\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n d\n U\n \n \n \n =\n −\n f\n (\n U\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dM_{B}}{dU}}=-f(U)}\n \n, with f(U) being the gravitational wave flux at retarded time U. f is a surface integral of the news function at null infinity varied by solid angle. The Arnowitt–Deser–Misner (ADM) energy, or ADM mass, is the mass as measured at infinite distance and includes all the gravitational radiation emitted: \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ADM\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n B\n \n \n (\n U\n )\n +\n \n ∫\n \n −\n ∞\n \n \n U\n \n \n F\n (\n V\n )\n \n d\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{\\text{ADM}}=M_{\\text{B}}(U)+\\int _{-\\infty }^{U}F(V)\\,dV}\n \n.Angular momentum is also lost in the gravitational radiation. This is primarily in the z axis of the initial orbit. It is calculated by integrating the product of the multipolar metric waveform with the news function complement over retarded time.[33]","title":"Dynamics modelling"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1110.1668-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1110.1668-34"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Binary_black_hole&action=edit"},{"link_name":"toroidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroid"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1110.1668-34"}],"text":"One of the problems to solve is the shape or topology of the event horizon during a black-hole merger.In numerical models, test geodesics are inserted to see whether they encounter an event horizon. As two black holes approach each other, a \"duckbill\" shape protrudes from each of the two event horizons towards the other one. This protrusion extends longer and narrower until it meets the protrusion from the other black hole. At this point in time the event horizon has a very narrow X-shape at the meeting point. The protrusions are drawn out into a thin thread.[34] The meeting point expands to a roughly cylindrical connection called a bridge.[34]Simulations as of 2011[update] had not produced any event horizons with toroidal topology (ring-shaped). Some researchers suggested that it would be possible if, for example, several black holes in the same nearly circular orbit coalesce.[34]","title":"Shape"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pulsar kick § Black hole kicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsar_kick#Black_hole_kicks"},{"link_name":"Rogue black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_black_hole"},{"link_name":"Newton's third law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"See also: Pulsar kick § Black hole kicks, and Rogue black holeAn unexpected result can occur with binary black holes that merge, in that the gravitational waves carry momentum, and the merging black-hole pair accelerates, seemingly violating Newton's third law. The center of gravity can add over 1000 km/s of kick velocity.[35] The greatest kick velocities (approaching 5000 km/s) occur for equal-mass and equal-spin-magnitude black-hole binaries, when the spins directions are optimally oriented to be counter-aligned, parallel to the orbital plane or nearly aligned with the orbital angular momentum.[36] This is enough to escape large galaxies. With more likely orientations, a smaller effect takes place, perhaps only a few hundred kilometers per second. This sort of speed can eject merging binary black holes from globular clusters, thus preventing the formation of massive black holes in globular-cluster cores. This, in turn, reduces the chances of subsequent mergers, and thus the chance of detecting gravitational waves. For non-spinning black holes a maximum recoil velocity of 175 km/s occurs for masses in the ratio of five to one. When spins are aligned in the orbital plane, a recoil of 5000 km/s is possible with two identical black holes.[37]\nParameters that may be of interest include the point at which the black holes merge, the mass ratio that produces maximum kick, and how much mass/energy is radiated via gravitational waves. In a head-on collision this fraction is calculated at 0.002, or 0.2%.[38] One of the best candidates of the recoiled supermassive black holes is CXO J101527.2+625911.[39]","title":"Black-hole merger recoil"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Computer simulation of the black hole binary system GW150914 as seen by a nearby observer, during its final inspiral, merge, and ringdown. The star field behind the black holes is being heavily distorted and appears to rotate and move, due to extreme gravitational lensing, as space-time itself is distorted and dragged around by the rotating black holes.[1]"},{"image_text":"In this visualization a binary system containing two supermassive black holes and their accretion disks is initially viewed from above. After about 25 seconds, the camera tips close to the orbital plane to reveal the most dramatic distortions produced by their gravity. The different colors of the accretion disks make it easier to track where light from each black hole turns up.[11]"}]
|
[{"title":"List of most massive black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_black_holes"}]
|
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Astrophysical Journal. 840 (2): 71–77. arXiv:1704.05549. Bibcode:2017ApJ...840...71K. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6030. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature
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California State Legislature
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["1 History","1.1 1849 Constitution","1.2 1879 Constitution","2 Legislative session schedule","3 State House","4 Terms and term limits","5 Record keeping","6 Legislative committees","6.1 Pocket veto","7 Overview of legislative procedure","8 Compensation","9 Reform proposals","9.1 Expansion proposals","10 Sessions","11 See also","11.1 Districts, elections and members","12 Footnotes","13 References","14 External links"]
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Coordinates: 38°34′36″N 121°29′36″W / 38.576572°N 121.493411°W / 38.576572; -121.493411Legislative branch of the state government of California
California State Legislature2023–24 sessionGreat Seal of the State of CaliforniaTypeTypeBicameral HousesSenateAssemblyTerm limits12 yearsHistoryNew session startedDecember 5, 2022LeadershipPresident of the Senate/Lt. Gov.Eleni Kounalakis (D) since January 7, 2019 President Pro Tem of the SenateMike McGuire (D) since February 5, 2024 Senate Republican LeaderBrian W. Jones (R) since December 2022 Speaker of the AssemblyRobert Rivas (D) since June 30, 2023 Assembly Minority LeaderJames Gallagher (R) since February 8, 2022 StructureSeats12040 Senators80 AssemblymembersSenate political groups
Democratic (32)
Republican (8)
Assembly political groups
Democratic (62)
Republican (17)
ElectionsLast Senate electionNovember 8, 2022(20 seats)Last Assembly electionNovember 8, 2022Next Senate electionNovember 5, 2024(20 seats)Next Assembly electionNovember 5, 2024Meeting placeCalifornia State CapitolSacramentoWebsiteleginfo.legislature.ca.gov
38°34′36″N 121°29′36″W / 38.576572°N 121.493411°W / 38.576572; -121.493411
California State Assembly chamber
California State Senate chamber
A few volumes of the journals of each house (Senate is red; Assembly is green).
Capitol Annex Swing Space. During the replacement of the Capitol Annex, starting in 2022 Legislature offices are located at 1021 O Street two blocks from the Capitol.
The California State Legislature is a bicameral state legislature consisting of a lower house, the California State Assembly, with 80 members; and an upper house, the California State Senate, with 40 members. Both houses of the Legislature convene at the California State Capitol in Sacramento. The California state legislature is one of just ten full-time state legislatures in the United States. The houses are distinguished by the colors of the carpet and trim of each house. The Senate is distinguished by the color red and the Assembly by the color green, inspired by the United Kingdom's House of Lords and House of Commons respectively.
The Democratic Party currently holds veto-proof supermajorities in both houses of the California State Legislature. The Assembly consists of 62 Democrats and 17 Republicans, while the Senate is composed of 32 Democrats and 8 Republicans. Except for a brief period from 1995 to 1996, the Assembly has been in Democratic hands since the 1970 election. The Senate has been under Democratic control since 1970, except for a brief period from 1973 to 1975.
History
1849 Constitution
Article IV of the 1849 California Constitution prescribed that the legislative power of the state is invested in an Assembly and a Senate which was to be designated as the Legislature of the State of California. Sessions were required to be annual and began on the first Monday of the January after the previous election unless if the Governor called an extraordinary session by proclamation. The terms of Assembly members lasted for one year while the terms of Senators lasted for two years. The 1849 Constitution did not prescribe the size of either house, but it did require that the Senate was to be composed of no less than one third but no more than one half of the number of members in the Assembly, with half of the Senators being up for election each year while requiring the legislature to fix the number of Senators and Assemblymembers, with there to be no less than 24 and no more than 36 members in the Assembly until the population of the state reached 100,000 residents, upon which the number of members in the Assembly was to be no less than 36 and no more than 80. Legislative districts were to be apportioned among the "several counties and districts" according to the white population of said areas. Section 25 imposed a single-subject rule on legislative bills, Section 26 prohibited the legislature from granting a divorce, Section 31 prohibited the legislature from establishing a corporation with a special act (similar to a private bill), Section 34 prohibited the legislature from granting a charter "for banking purposes" while Section 35 required the legislature to enact a statute which prohibited any person or corporation from "..exercising the privileges of banking or creating paper to circulate as money", and Section 38 required all votes in the legislature to be conducted via voice vote.
1879 Constitution
In its original form, Article IV of the 1879 California Constitution structured the legislature in a similar way to the 1849 Constitution. However, the 1879 Constitution explicitly stated that the Senate has 40 members and that the Assembly has 80 members. The constitution also explicitly provides that Senators terms are four years and the terms of members of the Assembly are two years.
Legislative session schedule
New legislators convene each new two-year session, to organize, in the Assembly and Senate chambers, respectively, at noon on the first Monday in December following the election.
After the organizational meeting, both houses are in recess until the first Monday in January, except when the first Monday is January 1 or January 1 is a Sunday, in which case they meet the following Wednesday. Aside from the recess, the legislature is in session year-round.
State House
Since California was given official statehood by the U.S. on September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, the state capital was variously San Jose (1850–1851), Vallejo (1852–1853) and Benicia (1853–1854), until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854.
The first Californian State House was originally a hotel in San Jose owned by businessman Pierre "Don Pedro" Sainsevain and his associates.
The State Legislature currently meets in the California State Capitol in Sacramento.
Terms and term limits
Members of the Assembly are elected from 80 districts and serve two-year terms. All 80 Assembly seats are subject to election every two years. Members of the Senate are elected from 40 districts and serve four-year terms. Every two years, one half of the Senate (20 seats) is subject to election, with odd-numbered districts up for election during presidential elections, and even-numbered districts up for election during midterm elections.
Term limits were initially established in 1990 following the passage of Proposition 140. In June 2012, voters approved Proposition 28, which limits legislators to a maximum of 12 years, without regard to whether they serve those years in the State Assembly or the State Senate. Legislators first elected on or before June 5, 2012, are restricted by the previous term limits, approved in 1990, which limited legislators to three terms in the State Assembly and two terms in the State Senate.
Record keeping
The proceedings of the California State Legislature are briefly summarized in regularly published journals, which show votes and who proposed or withdrew what. Reports produced by California executive agencies, as well as the Legislature, were published in the Appendices to the Journals from 1849 to 1970. Since the 1990s, the legislature has provided a live video feed for its sessions, and has been broadcast state-wide on the California Channel and local Public-access television cable TV. Due to the expense and the obvious political downside, California did not keep verbatim records of actual speeches made by members of the Assembly and Senate until the video feed began. As a result, reconstructing legislative intent outside of an act's preamble is extremely difficult in California for legislation passed before the 1990s.
Since 1993, the Legislature has hosted a web or FTP site in one form or another. The current website contains the text of all statutes, all bills, the text of all versions of the bills, all the committee analyses of bills, all the votes on bills in committee or on the floor, and veto messages from the governor. Before then, committees occasionally published reports for significant bills, but most bills were not important enough to justify the expense of printing and distributing a report to archives and law libraries across the state. For bills lacking such a formal committee report, the only way to discover legislative intent is to access the state archives in Sacramento and manually review the files of relevant legislators, legislative committees, and the Governor's Office from the relevant time period, in the hope of finding a statement of intent and evidence that the statement actually reflected the views of several of the legislators who voted for the bill (as opposed to just one).
Legislative committees
The most sought-after legislative committee appointments are to governance and finance, business and professions, and health. These are sometimes called "juice" committees, because membership in these committees often aids the campaign fundraising efforts of the committee members because powerful lobbying groups want to donate to members of these committees.
Pocket veto
The legislature can "pocket veto" laws by avoiding consideration and thus avoiding a vote. The Appropriations "Suspense File", which was created in the mid-1980s, is a popular way to avoid a vote.
When a committee refuses to vote a bill out of committee, a discharge petition can typically be passed by the broader membership. In California, as of 2019 this was governed by Senate Rule 28 which requires 21 members and Assembly Rule 96(a) which requires 41 members; the procedure was notably used in 1998.
In 2019, a rule change in the Assembly allowed committee chairs to avoid considering bills, which effectively kills the proposal. A proposed amendment to the constitution (ACA-23) was proposed for the 2017–2018 session to require a vote.
Across the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in legislatures; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.
Overview of legislative procedure
A bill is a proposal to change, repeal, or add to existing state law. An Assembly Bill (AB) is one introduced in the Assembly; a Senate Bill (SB), in the Senate.
Bills are designated by number, in the order of introduction in each house. For example, AB 16 refers to the 16th bill introduced in the Assembly. The numbering starts afresh each session. There may be one or more "extraordinary" sessions. The bill numbering starts again for each of these. For example, the third bill introduced in the Assembly for the second extraordinary session is ABX2 3. The name of the author, the legislator who introduced the bill, becomes part of the title of the bill.
The legislative procedure, is divided into distinct stages:
Drafting. The procedure begins when a Senator or Assembly Member decides to author a bill. A legislator sends the idea for the bill to the California Office of the Legislative Counsel, which drafts it into bill form and returns the draft to the legislator for introduction.
Introduction or First Reading. A legislator introduces a bill for the first time by reading or having read: the bill number, name of the author, and descriptive title on the floor of the house. The bill then goes to the Office of State Publishing. The legislator can not act on a bill, except the Budget Bill, until 30 days after its introduction.
Committee hearing. After introduction, a bill goes to the rules committee of the house, which assigns it to the policy committee appropriate to the subject matter, for its first hearing. During the committee hearing, the author presents the bill to the committee, which may hear testimony in support of or opposition to the bill. The committee then votes on whether to pass the bill out of committee, or that it be passed as amended. Bills may be amended several times. It takes a majority vote of the committee membership to pass a bill and send it to the next committee or to the floor.
The Fiscal committee reviews the bill if it contains an appropriation or has financial implications for the state.
A second reading on the floor of the house happens when a bill is recommended for passage. Ordinarily there is little or no debate. If a bill is amended at this stage, it may be referred back for another committee hearing.
Floor vote. A roll call vote is taken. An ordinary bill needs a majority vote to pass . An urgency bill or a bill with tax increases requires a two-thirds vote. The California Constitution used to require a two-thirds vote of both houses on the yearly budget and on any bill that would increase taxes, but since the passage of California Proposition 25 (2010), the two-thirds vote is required only for tax increases. Before this change, the two-thirds vote requirement was faulted for much of what had been termed "legislative gridlock", enabling a minority party to block approval of a budget before the previous one expired.
Second house. If it receives a favorable vote in the first house, a bill repeats the same steps in the other house. If the second house passes the bill without changing it, it is sent to the governor's desk.
Resolution of Differences (concurrence or conference). If a measure is amended in the second house and passed, it is returned to the house of origin for consideration of amendments. The house of origin may concur with the amendments and send the bill to the governor or reject the amendments and submit it to a two-house conference committee. If either house rejects the conference report, a second (and even a third) conference committee can be formed. If both houses adopt the conference report, the bill is sent to the governor.
Governor's action. Within 30 days after receiving a bill, the governor may sign it into law, allow it to become law without his/her signature, or veto it.
Overrides. A vetoed bill is returned to the house of origin, where a vote may be taken to override the governor's veto; a two-thirds vote of both houses is required to override a veto. (There has been no override in the California Legislature since 1979.)
California Law and effective date. Each bill that is passed by the Legislature and approved by the Governor is assigned a chapter number by the Secretary of State. These chaptered bills are statutes, and ordinarily become part of the California Codes. Ordinarily a law passed during a regular session takes effect January 1 of the following year. A few statutes go into effect as soon as the governor signs them; these include acts calling for elections and urgency measures necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety.
Compensation
From December 6, 2021, members of the California State Legislature receive an annual salary of $119,702. The Assembly Speaker, Senate President pro tempore, and minority floor leaders receive salaries of $137,655. Majority floor leaders and second ranking minority leaders receive salaries of $128,680. As of 2022, these salaries are the highest paid to any state legislators. Senators receive per diem of $211 and Assembly members receive per diem of $214.
Reform proposals
Expansion proposals
The Neighborhood Legislature Reform Act
In July 23rd, 2015, then former Republican presidential primary candidate John Cox submitted a ballot measure named "The Neighborhood Legislature Reform Act" which proposed that the Legislature's districts be subdivided into "neighborhood districts" of approximately 5000 people within each Assembly district and 10000 people within each Senate district. The representatives of these "neighborhood districts" within each district would then elect 40 Senate members and 80 Assembly members by majority vote. It has been argued that while this proposal would make it easier for citizens to get the attention of any individual community representative, it would also in turn make it harder for these representatives to get the attention of their state legislators. The measure failed to acquire enough signatures to qualify as a proposition for the 2016 November elections ballot.
Sessions
California State Legislature, 2023–24 session
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California State Legislature, 2009–2010 session
California State Legislature, 2007–2008 session
California State Legislature, 2005–2006 session
California State Legislature, 2003–2004 session
California State Legislature, 2001–2002 session
California State Legislature, 1999–2000 session
California State Legislature, 1997–1998 session
California State Legislature, 1995–1996 session
See also
California portal
California Statutes
Government of California
List of California state legislatures
Districts, elections and members
California State Assembly Districts
California State Senate Districts
Districts in California
Members of the California State Legislature
Footnotes
^ The California Constitution was amended by voters in 2004 to include a balanced budget amendment that allowed the minority party to negotiate sizable budget cuts, versus revenue increases, by not providing enough votes to pass a budget if certain demands were not met. In 2009, when California faced a major revenue crisis due to the global economic downturn, the state was forced to issue revenue anticipation warrants ("RAWs", or more commonly, "IOUs") for two months because it lacked budgetary authority to issue payments. In 2010, California voters again amended the state's constitution with the approval of Proposition 25, which lets a simple majority pass an "all cuts budget" to meet the balanced budget requirement, and provide budgetary authority to issue payments and avoid revenue anticipation warrants, but continued the requirement of a two-thirds vote to increase revenues and reduce budget cuts.
References
^ a b "California Constitution Article IV § 2". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
^ ""Full- and Part-time Legislatures"". Archived from the original on March 7, 2018. Retrieved December 6, 2018.
^ "Assembly & Senate | California State Capitol Museum". Archived from the original on September 12, 2022. Retrieved September 12, 2022.
^ Gstalter, Morgan (November 12, 2018). "Dems gain veto-proof supermajority in California legislature". The Hill. Archived from the original on April 6, 2020. Retrieved December 2, 2019.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV § 1 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV § 2 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV §§ 3, 5 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV §§ 6, 29 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV § 29 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV §§ 25, 26, 31, 34, 35, 38 (1849)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "Cal. Const. Art. IV § 5" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 26, 2020. Retrieved April 12, 2023.
^ "California Constitution Article IV § 3". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
^ a b Representation Archived May 1, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Nextca.
^ Richard B. Rice et al., The Elusive Eden (1988) 191–95
^ "California's first State House, San Jose, 1849". Pacific Rim Library. Archived from the original on July 21, 2011.
^ "Proposition 28". Voter Information Guide | California Secretary of State. April 14, 2012. Archived from the original on April 14, 2012. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
^ "Legislative Publications". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on April 4, 2020. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
^ Stratford, Juri (2012). Index to Reports Published in the Appendices to the Journals of the California Legislature 1905-1970 Archived April 6, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Davis: University of California.
^ "California Legislative Information". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on February 23, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
^ "Worst Legislator in California, By David Futch Thursday, Jun 2 2011". Archived from the original on January 14, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2013.
^ Cain, Bruce E. (January 1, 2006). Governing California: Politics, Government, and Public Policy in the Golden State. Institute of Governmental Studies Press, the University of California. ISBN 9780877724209.
^ Rosenhall, Laurel (September 6, 2017). "The Suspense Files: California bills vanish almost without a trace". CALmatters. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2019.
^ "Legislative Procedure" (PDF). California State Assembly Office of the Chief Clerk. January 1, 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 31, 2018.
^ "GOP Forces Assembly Vote on Porno Vending Machines". Los Angeles Times. January 28, 1988. ISSN 0458-3035. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2019.
^ Rosenhall, Laurel (May 2019). "How powerful lawmakers are killing California bills—without a peep". CALmatters. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2019.
^ "Bill Text - ACA-23 Legislative committees: prohibition on holding bills in committee". leginfo.legislature.ca.gov. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2019.
^ Myers, John (May 2018). "California's Legislature should require a formal vote to kill bills, Republican lawmaker says". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2019.
^ Cox, Gary W.; Kousser, Thad; McCubbins, Mathew D. (2010). "Party Power or Preferences? Quasi-Experimental Evidence from American State Legislatures". The Journal of Politics. 72 (3): 799–811. doi:10.1017/s0022381610000174. ISSN 0022-3816. JSTOR 10.1017/s0022381610000174.
^ "Overview of Legislative Process". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on February 23, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
^ "California Voters Pass Simple-Majority Budget Rule", November 3, 2010
^ "A California constitutional convention" Archived January 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, by Erwin Chemerinsky, Los Angeles Times, May 28, 2009
^ Siders, David; Miller, Jim (September 22, 2016). "Override Jerry Brown's veto? Not likely to happen". The Sacramento Bee. ISSN 0890-5738. Archived from the original on December 4, 2019. Retrieved September 4, 2018.
^ "Salaries". ca.gov. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
^ "2022 Legislator Compensation". ncsl.org. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
^ "Re: Request for Title and Summary for Proposed Initiative" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 7, 2022. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
^ "How Many Lawmakers Does a Legislature Need?". Governing. December 20, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
^ "California Legislature Expansion Initiative (2016)". Ballotpedia. Archived from the original on July 7, 2022. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
For in-depth look at California's legislative process, see also: California's Legislature (2007), by Chief Clerk E. Dotson Wilson and Brian Ebbert (ed). Sacramento: California State Assembly.
External links
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SNAC
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"38°34′36″N 121°29′36″W / 38.576572°N 121.493411°W / 38.576572; -121.493411","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=California_State_Legislature¶ms=38.576572_N_121.493411_W_"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California_State_Assembly_room_p1080879.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California_Senate_chamber_p1080899.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Californialegislaturejournals.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California_State_Capitol_Annex_Swing_Space,_1021_O_Street,_Sacramento,_main_entrance.jpg"},{"link_name":"1021 O Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1021_O_Street"},{"link_name":"bicameral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral"},{"link_name":"state legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"lower house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house"},{"link_name":"California State Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Assembly"},{"link_name":"upper house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house"},{"link_name":"California State Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Senate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leg_members_and_term_limits_first_m_dec-1"},{"link_name":"California State Capitol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Capitol"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"state legislatures in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_legislatures_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"supermajorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajority"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Republican_Party"}],"text":"Legislative branch of the state government of California38°34′36″N 121°29′36″W / 38.576572°N 121.493411°W / 38.576572; -121.493411California State Assembly chamberCalifornia State Senate chamberA few volumes of the journals of each house (Senate [upper chamber] is red; Assembly [lower chamber] is green).Capitol Annex Swing Space. During the replacement of the Capitol Annex, starting in 2022 Legislature offices are located at 1021 O Street two blocks from the Capitol.The California State Legislature is a bicameral state legislature consisting of a lower house, the California State Assembly, with 80 members; and an upper house, the California State Senate, with 40 members.[1] Both houses of the Legislature convene at the California State Capitol in Sacramento. The California state legislature is one of just ten full-time state legislatures in the United States.[2] The houses are distinguished by the colors of the carpet and trim of each house. The Senate is distinguished by the color red and the Assembly by the color green, inspired by the United Kingdom's House of Lords and House of Commons respectively.[3]The Democratic Party currently holds veto-proof supermajorities in both houses of the California State Legislature.[4] The Assembly consists of 62 Democrats and 17 Republicans, while the Senate is composed of 32 Democrats and 8 Republicans. Except for a brief period from 1995 to 1996, the Assembly has been in Democratic hands since the 1970 election. The Senate has been under Democratic control since 1970, except for a brief period from 1973 to 1975.","title":"California State Legislature"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1849 California Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_California"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV1-5"},{"link_name":"proclamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV2-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV3,5-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV6,29-8"},{"link_name":"white population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_people"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV29-9"},{"link_name":"single-subject rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-subject_rule"},{"link_name":"divorce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce"},{"link_name":"private bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_bill"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1849IV25,26-10"}],"sub_title":"1849 Constitution","text":"Article IV of the 1849 California Constitution prescribed that the legislative power of the state is invested in an Assembly and a Senate which was to be designated as the Legislature of the State of California.[5] Sessions were required to be annual and began on the first Monday of the January after the previous election unless if the Governor called an extraordinary session by proclamation.[6] The terms of Assembly members lasted for one year while the terms of Senators lasted for two years.[7] The 1849 Constitution did not prescribe the size of either house, but it did require that the Senate was to be composed of no less than one third but no more than one half of the number of members in the Assembly, with half of the Senators being up for election each year while requiring the legislature to fix the number of Senators and Assemblymembers, with there to be no less than 24 and no more than 36 members in the Assembly until the population of the state reached 100,000 residents, upon which the number of members in the Assembly was to be no less than 36 and no more than 80.[8] Legislative districts were to be apportioned among the \"several counties and districts\" according to the white population of said areas.[9] Section 25 imposed a single-subject rule on legislative bills, Section 26 prohibited the legislature from granting a divorce, Section 31 prohibited the legislature from establishing a corporation with a special act (similar to a private bill), Section 34 prohibited the legislature from granting a charter \"for banking purposes\" while Section 35 required the legislature to enact a statute which prohibited any person or corporation from \"..exercising the privileges of banking or creating paper to circulate as money\", and Section 38 required all votes in the legislature to be conducted via voice vote. [10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"1879 Constitution","text":"In its original form, Article IV of the 1879 California Constitution structured the legislature in a similar way to the 1849 Constitution. However, the 1879 Constitution explicitly stated that the Senate has 40 members and that the Assembly has 80 members.[11] The constitution also explicitly provides that Senators terms are four years and the terms of members of the Assembly are two years.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-regsess_convene_adjourn_sine_die-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NextCa-13"}],"text":"New legislators convene each new two-year session, to organize, in the Assembly and Senate chambers, respectively, at noon on the first Monday in December following the election.[12]After the organizational meeting, both houses are in recess until the first Monday in January, except when the first Monday is January 1 or January 1 is a Sunday, in which case they meet the following Wednesday. Aside from the recess, the legislature is in session year-round.[13]","title":"Legislative session schedule"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Compromise of 1850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compromise_of_1850"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"San Jose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"Vallejo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallejo,_California"},{"link_name":"Benicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benicia,_California"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento,_California"},{"link_name":"San Jose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"Pierre \"Don Pedro\" Sainsevain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Sainsevain"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"California State Capitol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Capitol"}],"text":"Since California was given official statehood by the U.S. on September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850,[14] the state capital was variously San Jose (1850–1851), Vallejo (1852–1853) and Benicia (1853–1854), until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854.The first Californian State House was originally a hotel in San Jose owned by businessman Pierre \"Don Pedro\" Sainsevain and his associates.[15]The State Legislature currently meets in the California State Capitol in Sacramento.","title":"State House"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_limits_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_limits_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"presidential elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"midterm elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_midterm_election"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leg_members_and_term_limits_first_m_dec-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NextCa-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Members of the Assembly are elected from 80 districts and serve two-year terms. All 80 Assembly seats are subject to election every two years. Members of the Senate are elected from 40 districts and serve four-year terms. Every two years, one half of the Senate (20 seats) is subject to election, with odd-numbered districts up for election during presidential elections, and even-numbered districts up for election during midterm elections.[1]Term limits were initially established in 1990 following the passage of Proposition 140.[13] In June 2012, voters approved Proposition 28,[16] which limits legislators to a maximum of 12 years, without regard to whether they serve those years in the State Assembly or the State Senate. Legislators first elected on or before June 5, 2012, are restricted by the previous term limits, approved in 1990, which limited legislators to three terms in the State Assembly and two terms in the State Senate.","title":"Terms and term limits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"withdrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/withdrew"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Public-access television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-access_television"},{"link_name":"cable TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_TV"},{"link_name":"downside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/downside"},{"link_name":"verbatim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verbatim"},{"link_name":"act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute"},{"link_name":"preamble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preamble"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento"}],"text":"The proceedings of the California State Legislature are briefly summarized in regularly published journals, which show votes and who proposed or withdrew what.[17] Reports produced by California executive agencies, as well as the Legislature, were published in the Appendices to the Journals from 1849 to 1970.[18] Since the 1990s, the legislature has provided a live video feed for its sessions, and has been broadcast state-wide on the California Channel and local Public-access television cable TV. Due to the expense and the obvious political downside, California did not keep verbatim records of actual speeches made by members of the Assembly and Senate until the video feed began. As a result, reconstructing legislative intent outside of an act's preamble is extremely difficult in California for legislation passed before the 1990s.Since 1993, the Legislature has hosted a web or FTP site in one form or another. The current website contains the text of all statutes, all bills, the text of all versions of the bills, all the committee analyses of bills, all the votes on bills in committee or on the floor, and veto messages from the governor.[19] Before then, committees occasionally published reports for significant bills, but most bills were not important enough to justify the expense of printing and distributing a report to archives and law libraries across the state. For bills lacking such a formal committee report, the only way to discover legislative intent is to access the state archives in Sacramento and manually review the files of relevant legislators, legislative committees, and the Governor's Office from the relevant time period, in the hope of finding a statement of intent and evidence that the statement actually reflected the views of several of the legislators who voted for the bill (as opposed to just one).","title":"Record keeping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"legislative committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legislative_committee&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The most sought-after legislative committee appointments are to governance and finance, business and professions, and health. These are sometimes called \"juice\" committees, because membership in these committees often aids the campaign fundraising efforts of the committee members because powerful lobbying groups want to donate to members of these committees.[20]","title":"Legislative committees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pocket veto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_veto"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"discharge petition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_petition"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Pocket veto","text":"The legislature can \"pocket veto\" laws by avoiding consideration and thus avoiding a vote. The Appropriations \"Suspense File\", which was created in the mid-1980s,[21] is a popular way to avoid a vote.[22]When a committee refuses to vote a bill out of committee, a discharge petition can typically be passed by the broader membership. In California, as of 2019 this was governed by Senate Rule 28 which requires 21 members and Assembly Rule 96(a) which requires 41 members;[23] the procedure was notably used in 1998.[24]In 2019, a rule change in the Assembly allowed committee chairs to avoid considering bills, which effectively kills the proposal.[25] A proposed amendment to the constitution (ACA-23[26]) was proposed for the 2017–2018 session to require a vote.[27]Across the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in legislatures; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.[28]","title":"Legislative committees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_(proposed_law)"},{"link_name":"state law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_law"},{"link_name":"legislative procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_procedure"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leginfo_overview_leg_process-29"},{"link_name":"Drafting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/draft"},{"link_name":"California Office of the Legislative Counsel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Office_of_the_Legislative_Counsel"},{"link_name":"First Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Reading"},{"link_name":"Budget Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_Bill"},{"link_name":"Committee hearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_hearing"},{"link_name":"policy committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_committee"},{"link_name":"floor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_of_the_house"},{"link_name":"appropriation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriation_(law)"},{"link_name":"second reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_reading"},{"link_name":"recommended for passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommended_for_passage"},{"link_name":"Floor vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_vote"},{"link_name":"roll call vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll_call_vote"},{"link_name":"majority vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_vote"},{"link_name":"two-thirds vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-thirds_vote"},{"link_name":"California Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Constitution"},{"link_name":"California Proposition 25 (2010)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_25_(2010)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[b 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"concurrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrence"},{"link_name":"amended","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_(proposed_law)"},{"link_name":"passed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass_(legislature)"},{"link_name":"concur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concur"},{"link_name":"conference committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_committee"},{"link_name":"sign it into law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_into_law"},{"link_name":"Overrides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veto_override"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"California Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Law"},{"link_name":"effective date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_date"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"statutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute"},{"link_name":"California Codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Code"},{"link_name":"session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_(parliamentary_procedure)"},{"link_name":"statutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute"},{"link_name":"go into effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_into_effect"}],"text":"A bill is a proposal to change, repeal, or add to existing state law. An Assembly Bill (AB) is one introduced in the Assembly; a Senate Bill (SB), in the Senate.Bills are designated by number, in the order of introduction in each house. For example, AB 16 refers to the 16th bill introduced in the Assembly. The numbering starts afresh each session. There may be one or more \"extraordinary\" sessions. The bill numbering starts again for each of these. For example, the third bill introduced in the Assembly for the second extraordinary session is ABX2 3. The name of the author, the legislator who introduced the bill, becomes part of the title of the bill.The legislative procedure, is divided into distinct stages:[29]Drafting. The procedure begins when a Senator or Assembly Member decides to author a bill. A legislator sends the idea for the bill to the California Office of the Legislative Counsel, which drafts it into bill form and returns the draft to the legislator for introduction.\nIntroduction or First Reading. A legislator introduces a bill for the first time by reading or having read: the bill number, name of the author, and descriptive title on the floor of the house. The bill then goes to the Office of State Publishing. The legislator can not act on a bill, except the Budget Bill, until 30 days after its introduction.\nCommittee hearing. After introduction, a bill goes to the rules committee of the house, which assigns it to the policy committee appropriate to the subject matter, for its first hearing. During the committee hearing, the author presents the bill to the committee, which may hear testimony in support of or opposition to the bill. The committee then votes on whether to pass the bill out of committee, or that it be passed as amended. Bills may be amended several times. It takes a majority vote of the committee membership to pass a bill and send it to the next committee or to the floor.\nThe Fiscal committee reviews the bill if it contains an appropriation or has financial implications for the state.\nA second reading on the floor of the house happens when a bill is recommended for passage. Ordinarily there is little or no debate. If a bill is amended at this stage, it may be referred back for another committee hearing.\nFloor vote. A roll call vote is taken. An ordinary bill needs a majority vote to pass . An urgency bill or a bill with tax increases requires a two-thirds vote. The California Constitution used to require a two-thirds vote of both houses on the yearly budget and on any bill that would increase taxes, but since the passage of California Proposition 25 (2010), the two-thirds vote is required only for tax increases.[30] Before this change, the two-thirds vote requirement was faulted for much of what had been termed \"legislative gridlock\",[31] enabling a minority party to block approval of a budget before the previous one expired.[b 1]\nSecond house. If it receives a favorable vote in the first house, a bill repeats the same steps in the other house. If the second house passes the bill without changing it, it is sent to the governor's desk.\nResolution of Differences (concurrence or conference). If a measure is amended in the second house and passed, it is returned to the house of origin for consideration of amendments. The house of origin may concur with the amendments and send the bill to the governor or reject the amendments and submit it to a two-house conference committee. If either house rejects the conference report, a second (and even a third) conference committee can be formed. If both houses adopt the conference report, the bill is sent to the governor.\nGovernor's action. Within 30 days after receiving a bill, the governor may sign it into law, allow it to become law without his/her signature, or veto it.\nOverrides. A vetoed bill is returned to the house of origin, where a vote may be taken to override the governor's veto; a two-thirds vote of both houses is required to override a veto. (There has been no override in the California Legislature since 1979.[32])\nCalifornia Law and effective date. Each bill that is passed by the Legislature and approved by the Governor is assigned a chapter number by the Secretary of State. These chaptered bills are statutes, and ordinarily become part of the California Codes. Ordinarily a law passed during a regular session takes effect January 1 of the following year. A few statutes go into effect as soon as the governor signs them; these include acts calling for elections and urgency measures necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety.","title":"Overview of legislative procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"From December 6, 2021, members of the California State Legislature receive an annual salary of $119,702. The Assembly Speaker, Senate President pro tempore, and minority floor leaders receive salaries of $137,655. Majority floor leaders and second ranking minority leaders receive salaries of $128,680. As of 2022, these salaries are the highest paid to any state legislators. Senators receive per diem of $211 and Assembly members receive per diem of $214.[33][34]","title":"Compensation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reform proposals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_H._Cox"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"2016 November elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_California_elections#Propositions"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Expansion proposals","text":"The Neighborhood Legislature Reform ActIn July 23rd, 2015, then former Republican presidential primary candidate John Cox submitted a ballot measure named \"The Neighborhood Legislature Reform Act\" which proposed that the Legislature's districts be subdivided into \"neighborhood districts\" of approximately 5000 people within each Assembly district and 10000 people within each Senate district. The representatives of these \"neighborhood districts\" within each district would then elect 40 Senate members and 80 Assembly members by majority vote.[35] It has been argued that while this proposal would make it easier for citizens to get the attention of any individual community representative, it would also in turn make it harder for these representatives to get the attention of their state legislators.[36] The measure failed to acquire enough signatures to qualify as a proposition for the 2016 November elections ballot.[37]","title":"Reform proposals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2023–24 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2023%E2%80%9324_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2021–2022 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2021%E2%80%932022_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2019–2020 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2019%E2%80%932020_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2017–2018 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2017%E2%80%932018_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2015–2016 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2015%E2%80%932016_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2013–2014 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2013%E2%80%932014_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2011–2012 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2011%E2%80%932012_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2009–2010 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2009%E2%80%932010_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2007–2008 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2007%E2%80%932008_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2005–2006 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2005%E2%80%932006_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2003–2004 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2003%E2%80%932004_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 2001–2002 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_2001%E2%80%932002_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 1999–2000 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_1999%E2%80%932000_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 1997–1998 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_1997%E2%80%931998_session"},{"link_name":"California State Legislature, 1995–1996 session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature,_1995%E2%80%931996_session"}],"text":"California State Legislature, 2023–24 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2021–2022 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2019–2020 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2017–2018 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2015–2016 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2013–2014 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2011–2012 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2009–2010 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2007–2008 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2005–2006 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2003–2004 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 2001–2002 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 1999–2000 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 1997–1998 session\nCalifornia State Legislature, 1995–1996 session","title":"Sessions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"California Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Constitution"},{"link_name":"balanced budget amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment"},{"link_name":"Proposition 25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_25_(2010)"}],"text":"^ The California Constitution was amended by voters in 2004 to include a balanced budget amendment that allowed the minority party to negotiate sizable budget cuts, versus revenue increases, by not providing enough votes to pass a budget if certain demands were not met. In 2009, when California faced a major revenue crisis due to the global economic downturn, the state was forced to issue revenue anticipation warrants (\"RAWs\", or more commonly, \"IOUs\") for two months because it lacked budgetary authority to issue payments. In 2010, California voters again amended the state's constitution with the approval of Proposition 25, which lets a simple majority pass an \"all cuts budget\" to meet the balanced budget requirement, and provide budgetary authority to issue payments and avoid revenue anticipation warrants, but continued the requirement of a two-thirds vote to increase revenues and reduce budget cuts.","title":"Footnotes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"California State Assembly chamber","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/California_State_Assembly_room_p1080879.jpg/220px-California_State_Assembly_room_p1080879.jpg"},{"image_text":"California State Senate chamber","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/California_Senate_chamber_p1080899.jpg/220px-California_Senate_chamber_p1080899.jpg"},{"image_text":"A few volumes of the journals of each house (Senate [upper chamber] is red; Assembly [lower chamber] is green).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Californialegislaturejournals.jpg/220px-Californialegislaturejournals.jpg"},{"image_text":"Capitol Annex Swing Space. During the replacement of the Capitol Annex, starting in 2022 Legislature offices are located at 1021 O Street two blocks from the Capitol.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/California_State_Capitol_Annex_Swing_Space%2C_1021_O_Street%2C_Sacramento%2C_main_entrance.jpg/220px-California_State_Capitol_Annex_Swing_Space%2C_1021_O_Street%2C_Sacramento%2C_main_entrance.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"California portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:California"},{"title":"California Statutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Statutes"},{"title":"Government of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_California"},{"title":"List of California state legislatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_California_state_legislatures"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"California Constitution Article IV § 2\". California Office of Legislative Counsel. Archived from the original on February 24, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS§ionNum=SEC.%202.&article=IV","url_text":"\"California Constitution Article IV § 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Office_of_Legislative_Counsel","url_text":"California Office of Legislative Counsel"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190224062408/https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CONS§ionNum=SEC.","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Full- and Part-time Legislatures\"\". Archived from the original on March 7, 2018. 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Not likely to happen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0890-5738","url_text":"0890-5738"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191204010011/https://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article103302897.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Salaries\". ca.gov. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. Retrieved October 12, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.calhr.ca.gov/cccc/pages/cccc-salaries.aspx","url_text":"\"Salaries\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221012060023/https://www.calhr.ca.gov/cccc/pages/cccc-salaries.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2022 Legislator Compensation\". ncsl.org. Archived from the original on October 12, 2022. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_O%27Donnell
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Chris O'Donnell
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["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Personal life","4 Filmography","4.1 Film","4.2 Television","5 References","6 External links"]
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American actor (born 1970)
For the Delaware Republican senatorial candidate, see Christine O'Donnell.
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Chris O’DonnellO'Donnell at the premiere of Max Payne in 2008BornChristopher Eugene O'Donnell (1970-06-26) June 26, 1970 (age 53)Winnetka, Illinois, U.S.EducationBoston CollegeAlma materBoston College (BS)OccupationActorYears active1986–presentSpouse
Caroline Fentress (m. 1997)Children5
Christopher Eugene O'Donnell (born June 26, 1970) is an American actor who performs in film and television.
He has played numerous roles since Charlie Sims in Scent of a Woman. Others include Chris Reece in School Ties, D'Artagnan in The Three Musketeers, Jack Foley in the drama film Circle of Friends, Dick Grayson/Robin in Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, Jason Brown in Robert Altman's Cookie's Fortune, Peter Garrett in Vertical Limit, and Wardell Pomeroy in Kinsey.
O'Donnell also starred as Special Agent G. Callen on the CBS crime drama television series NCIS: Los Angeles. This was a spin-off of NCIS.
Early life
O'Donnell was born in the Chicago suburb of Winnetka, Illinois, the son of Julie Ann Rohs von Brecht and William Charles O'Donnell Sr., a general manager of WBBM-AM. He is the youngest of seven children, with four sisters and two brothers, and is of German and Irish descent. O'Donnell was raised in a Catholic family and attended Catholic schools. He graduated from Loyola Academy in Wilmette, Illinois in 1988.
O'Donnell attended Boston College and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in marketing in 1992. He had begun modeling at the age of 13 so was comfortable in front of cameras, and also had already made commercials.
Career
O'Donnell had already appeared in numerous commercials as a teenager, advertising Cap'n Crunch cereal and Fruit Roll-Ups snacks. In a McDonald's fast food commercial, he served NBA great Michael Jordan.
An early television series role was an appearance on the TV series Jack and Mike in 1986. In the early 1990s, he appeared in several films including Men Don't Leave (1990), starring Jessica Lange; Fried Green Tomatoes (1991), appearing again with Kathy Bates from Men Don't Leave; School Ties (1992); and Scent of a Woman (1992) with Al Pacino. For the latter he received two nominations: one for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor-Motion Picture (which was won by Gene Hackman for Unforgiven), and one for a Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actor (which he won). He was also named one of the 12 Promising New Actors of 1992 in John Willis's Screen World, Vol. 44.
After appearing in the film Blue Sky (1994), reuniting him with Jessica Lange, he starred in Circle of Friends (1995) with Minnie Driver, Mad Love (1995) with Drew Barrymore, and In Love and War (1996) with Sandra Bullock.
O'Donnell played the character of Dick Grayson/Robin in Batman Forever, in which Barrymore also had a role. Reportedly the field of candidates for the role of Robin included Leonardo DiCaprio, Matt Damon, Jude Law, Ewan McGregor, Corey Haim, Corey Feldman, Toby Stephens, and Scott Speedman.
Casting directors narrowed their choices to O'Donnell and DiCaprio, and finally selected O'Donnell. He reportedly was considered by 20th Century Fox studios to play the lead role of Jack Dawson in Titanic (1997), but that role was won by DiCaprio.
O'Donnell had a starring role in 1996's The Chamber, based on the John Grisham novel of the same name. He reprised his role as Robin in 1997's Batman & Robin. Although it was a box-office success, the movie was critically panned. O'Donnell later said that he did not believe it turned out well.
O'Donnell did not appear in another movie for two years. He was the choice of one of the producers for the role of James Darrell Edwards III/Agent J in Men in Black (1997), but he turned it down as being too similar to his role in Batman Forever. Will Smith played this role. The subsequent films Cookie's Fortune (1999) and The Bachelor (1999) were moderately successful, while Vertical Limit (2000) was a box office hit.
Following a four-year hiatus, O'Donnell returned in 2004 with the widely praised Kinsey. He also appeared in the 2004 episode of Two and a Half Men, entitled "An Old Flame With A New Wick."
O'Donnell took a lead role in the Fox Network television series Head Cases in 2005. The show was the first of the fall 2005 season to be canceled, and only two episodes were aired. He was subsequently cast as veterinarian Finn Dandridge on the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy.
O'Donnell and Mark Harmon filming in 2009
O'Donnell featured prominently in the TNT miniseries The Company as CIA case officer Jack McAuliffe, a character who progressed from spoonfed Yale elitist to jaded, post-Cold War cynic. In 2008 O'Donnell appeared in Kit Kittredge: An American Girl as the titular character's father Jack Kittredge, and in Max Payne as Jason Colvin.
Between 2009 and 2023, O'Donnell starred on NCIS: Los Angeles, a spinoff of NCIS, as G. Callen, an NCIS Special Agent in charge of the Office of Special Projects Team stationed in Los Angeles. CBS describes Callen as "a chameleon who transforms himself into whomever he needs to be to infiltrate the criminal underworld."
In 2010, O'Donnell appeared in the sequel to the 2001 movie Cats & Dogs, The Revenge of Kitty Galore.
Personal life
O'Donnell married Caroline Fentress in April 1997 at St. Patrick Church in Washington, D.C. They have five children together. He is not related to actress Rosie O'Donnell.
O'Donnell continues to be a practicing Catholic.
According to Rolling Stone, O'Donnell is afraid of heights.
O'Donnell is an avid golfer and is a member of Bel-Air Country Club, Cypress Point Club, Valley Club of Montecito, Seminole Golf Club, Shoreacres Golf Club, Tarratine Golf Club, and Chicago Golf Club.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1990
Men Don't Leave
Chris Macauley
1991
Fried Green Tomatoes
Buddy Threadgoode
1992
School Ties
Chris Reece
Scent of a Woman
Charlie Simms
Nominated – Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor
1993
The Three Musketeers
D'Artagnan
1994
Blue Sky
Glenn Johnson
1995
Circle of Friends
Jack Foley
Mad Love
Matt Leland
Batman Forever
Dick Grayson/Robin
1996
The Chamber
Adam Hall
In Love and War
Ernest "Ernie" Hemingway
1997
Batman & Robin
Dick Grayson/Robin
1999
Cookie's Fortune
Jason Brown
The Bachelor
Jimmie Shannon
2000
Vertical Limit
Peter Garrett
2002
29 Palms
The Hitman
2004
Kinsey
Wardell Pomeroy
2005
The Sisters
David Turzin
2008
Kit Kittredge: An American Girl
Jack Kittredge
Max Payne
Jason Colvin
2010
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore
Shane
A Little Help
Bob Pehlke
2016
PG
Max
Short film
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1986
Jack and Mike
Evan
Episode: "Cry Uncle"
2003
The Practice
Brad Stanfield
4 episodes
2004
Two and a Half Men
Bill Shrader
Episode: "An Old Flame with a New Wick"
The Amazing Westermans
TV movie
2005
Head Cases
Jason Payne
2 episodes
2006
Grey's Anatomy
Dr. Finn "McVet" Dandridge
9 episodes
2007
The Company
Jack McAuliffe
TV miniseries
2009 & 2023
NCIS
G. Callen
3 episodes
2009–2023
NCIS: Los Angeles
323 episodesNominated – People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Crime Drama Actor (2017)
2010
WWII in HD: The Air War
John Gibbons
Voice
2012
Hawaii Five-0
G. Callen
Episode: "Pa Make Loa"
2013
Who Do You Think You Are?
Himself
Episode: "Chris O'Donnell"
2014
Robot Chicken
Mr. Fantastic / Commander Rex Kling
Voice; Episode: "Catdog on a Stick"
2017
American Dad!
G. Callen
Voice; Episode: "Casino Normale"
2017 & 2021
The Price Is Right
Himself
2 episodes
2023
NCIS: Hawaiʻi
G. Callen
Episode: "Deep Fake"
Bupkis
Pete's Agent
Episode: "Crispytown"; uncredited
References
^ "Chris O'Donnell Net Worth (2024) - AllFamousTrend". allfamoustrend.net. June 14, 2024. Retrieved June 14, 2024.
^ "Chris O'Donnell Biography – Yahoo! Movies". Movies.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2011. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
^ Kessler, Mike (December 8, 2010). "William C. O'Donnell dies at 88 — Winnetka & Northfield news, photos and events —". Triblocal.com. Archived from the original on June 14, 2012. Retrieved January 18, 2013.
^ Polunsky, Bob. "Express-News Archives : MySA.com".
^ "Actor's roles range from the birds & the bees to just a bird – Robin.(Originated from The Virginian-Pilot)". Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service. April 13, 1995.
^ "Music News". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.
^ "Actor Chris O'Donnell sells seldom-used townhouse here". Chicago Tribune.
^ "Chris O'Donnell from 'NCIS LA': Age, net worth, family, children". November 26, 2021.
^ "Boston College to Celebrate 150 Years with Concert at Symphony Hall". March 19, 2013.
^ a b "Chris O'Donnell helps Boston College celebrate 150 years". www.boston.com.
^ "Watch! Magazine Photos on CBS" – via www.cbs.com.
^ "'Titanic' Casting: What Other Stars Were Considered For James Cameron's Masterpiece?". HuffPost. June 22, 2012. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
^ Archived September 18, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Trivia for Men in Black". at the Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 21, 2007.
^ Andreeva, Nellie (February 27, 2009). "O'Donnell nabs lead role in "NCIS" spin-off". Reuters. Archived from the original on January 7, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2009.
^ "NCIS Los Angeles". CBS. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
^ a b Smith, Russel Scott (December 8, 2000). "Chris O'Donnell's Personal High". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
^ Chiu, Alexis (December 18, 2007). "Chris O'Donnell and Wife Have Fifth Baby". People. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
^ "Chris O'Donnell's Daughter Steals the Show on 'NCIS: Los Angeles' Set". ET Online. October 12, 2015.
^ Donahue, Wendy (November 25, 2014). "Johnnie-O label finds sweet spot between East and West Coast prep". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
^ "Chris O'Donnell Interview – Sarah's Backstage Pass". sarahsbackstagepass.com.
^ "People's Choice Awards 2017: Full List Of Winners". People's Choice. January 19, 2017. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chris O'Donnell.
Chris O'Donnell at IMDb
Chris O'Donnell at the TCM Movie Database
Chris O'Donnell at the Internet Broadway Database
Feature article on O'Donnell in June 2008 issue of Men's Vogue
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
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Callen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Callen"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"NCIS: Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCIS:_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"NCIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCIS_(TV_series)"}],"text":"For the Delaware Republican senatorial candidate, see Christine O'Donnell.Christopher Eugene O'Donnell (born June 26, 1970) is an American actor who performs in film and television.He has played numerous roles since Charlie Sims in Scent of a Woman. Others include Chris Reece in School Ties, D'Artagnan in The Three Musketeers, Jack Foley in the drama film Circle of Friends, Dick Grayson/Robin in Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, Jason Brown in Robert Altman's Cookie's Fortune, Peter Garrett in Vertical Limit, and Wardell Pomeroy in Kinsey.O'Donnell also starred as Special Agent G. Callen on the CBS crime drama television series NCIS: Los Angeles. This was a spin-off of NCIS.","title":"Chris O'Donnell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Winnetka, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnetka,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"WBBM-AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WBBM-AM"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Loyola Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyola_Academy"},{"link_name":"Wilmette, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmette,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Boston College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_College"},{"link_name":"Bachelor of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"}],"text":"O'Donnell was born in the Chicago suburb of Winnetka, Illinois, the son of Julie Ann Rohs von Brecht and William Charles O'Donnell Sr., a general manager of WBBM-AM.[2][3] He is the youngest of seven children, with four sisters and two brothers, and is of German and Irish descent.[4][5] O'Donnell was raised in a Catholic family and attended Catholic schools.[6] He graduated from Loyola Academy in Wilmette, Illinois in 1988.[7][8]O'Donnell attended Boston College and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in marketing in 1992.[9][10] He had begun modeling at the age of 13 so was comfortable in front of cameras, and also had already made commercials.[11][10]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cap'n Crunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%27n_Crunch"},{"link_name":"Fruit Roll-Ups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_Roll-Ups"},{"link_name":"McDonald's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald%27s"},{"link_name":"NBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA"},{"link_name":"Michael Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jordan"},{"link_name":"Jack and Mike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_and_Mike"},{"link_name":"Men Don't Leave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_Don%27t_Leave"},{"link_name":"Jessica Lange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Lange"},{"link_name":"Fried Green Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fried_Green_Tomatoes_(film)"},{"link_name":"Kathy Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathy_Bates"},{"link_name":"School Ties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_Ties"},{"link_name":"Scent of a Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scent_of_a_Woman_(1992_film)"},{"link_name":"Al Pacino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Pacino"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award"},{"link_name":"Gene Hackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Hackman"},{"link_name":"Unforgiven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unforgiven"},{"link_name":"Chicago Film Critics Association Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Film_Critics_Association_Awards"},{"link_name":"Blue Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Sky_(1994_film)"},{"link_name":"Circle of Friends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_Friends_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"Minnie Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnie_Driver"},{"link_name":"Mad Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_Love_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"Drew Barrymore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Barrymore"},{"link_name":"In Love and War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Love_and_War_(1996_film)"},{"link_name":"Sandra Bullock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Bullock"},{"link_name":"Batman Forever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman_Forever"},{"link_name":"Leonardo DiCaprio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_DiCaprio"},{"link_name":"Matt Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Damon"},{"link_name":"Jude Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jude_Law"},{"link_name":"Ewan McGregor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewan_McGregor"},{"link_name":"Corey Haim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey_Haim"},{"link_name":"Corey Feldman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corey_Feldman"},{"link_name":"Toby Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Stephens"},{"link_name":"Scott Speedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Speedman"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"20th Century Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century_Fox"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic_(1997_film)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"The Chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chamber_(1996_film)"},{"link_name":"John Grisham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Grisham"},{"link_name":"Batman & Robin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman_%26_Robin_(film)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Men in Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_in_Black_(1997_film)"},{"link_name":"Will Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Smith"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Cookie's Fortune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookie%27s_Fortune"},{"link_name":"The Bachelor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bachelor_(1999_film)"},{"link_name":"Vertical Limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_Limit"},{"link_name":"Kinsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinsey_(film)"},{"link_name":"Two and a Half Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_and_a_Half_Men"},{"link_name":"Fox Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Head Cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_Cases"},{"link_name":"veterinarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinarian"},{"link_name":"Finn Dandridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finn_Dandridge"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Grey's Anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mark_Harmon_and_Chris_ODonnell_(8_March_2009)_6.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mark Harmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Harmon"},{"link_name":"TNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_(U.S._TV_network)"},{"link_name":"The Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Company_(TV_miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Kit Kittredge: An American Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Kittredge:_An_American_Girl"},{"link_name":"the titular character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Kittredge"},{"link_name":"Max Payne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Payne_(film)"},{"link_name":"NCIS: Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCIS:_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"NCIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCIS_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"G. Callen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Callen"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Cats & Dogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cats_%26_Dogs"},{"link_name":"The Revenge of Kitty Galore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cats_%26_Dogs:_The_Revenge_of_Kitty_Galore"}],"text":"O'Donnell had already appeared in numerous commercials as a teenager, advertising Cap'n Crunch cereal and Fruit Roll-Ups snacks. In a McDonald's fast food commercial, he served NBA great Michael Jordan.An early television series role was an appearance on the TV series Jack and Mike in 1986. In the early 1990s, he appeared in several films including Men Don't Leave (1990), starring Jessica Lange; Fried Green Tomatoes (1991), appearing again with Kathy Bates from Men Don't Leave; School Ties (1992); and Scent of a Woman (1992) with Al Pacino. For the latter he received two nominations: one for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor-Motion Picture (which was won by Gene Hackman for Unforgiven), and one for a Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actor (which he won). He was also named one of the 12 Promising New Actors of 1992 in John Willis's Screen World, Vol. 44.After appearing in the film Blue Sky (1994), reuniting him with Jessica Lange, he starred in Circle of Friends (1995) with Minnie Driver, Mad Love (1995) with Drew Barrymore, and In Love and War (1996) with Sandra Bullock.O'Donnell played the character of Dick Grayson/Robin in Batman Forever, in which Barrymore also had a role. Reportedly the field of candidates for the role of Robin included Leonardo DiCaprio, Matt Damon, Jude Law, Ewan McGregor, Corey Haim, Corey Feldman, Toby Stephens, and Scott Speedman.[citation needed]Casting directors narrowed their choices to O'Donnell and DiCaprio, and finally selected O'Donnell. He reportedly was considered by 20th Century Fox studios to play the lead role of Jack Dawson in Titanic (1997), but that role was won by DiCaprio.[12]O'Donnell had a starring role in 1996's The Chamber, based on the John Grisham novel of the same name. He reprised his role as Robin in 1997's Batman & Robin. Although it was a box-office success, the movie was critically panned. O'Donnell later said that he did not believe it turned out well.[13]O'Donnell did not appear in another movie for two years. He was the choice of one of the producers for the role of James Darrell Edwards III/Agent J in Men in Black (1997), but he turned it down as being too similar to his role in Batman Forever. Will Smith played this role.[14][better source needed] The subsequent films Cookie's Fortune (1999) and The Bachelor (1999) were moderately successful, while Vertical Limit (2000) was a box office hit.Following a four-year hiatus, O'Donnell returned in 2004 with the widely praised Kinsey. He also appeared in the 2004 episode of Two and a Half Men, entitled \"An Old Flame With A New Wick.\"O'Donnell took a lead role in the Fox Network television series Head Cases in 2005. The show was the first of the fall 2005 season to be canceled, and only two episodes were aired. He was subsequently cast as veterinarian Finn Dandridge on the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy.O'Donnell and Mark Harmon filming in 2009O'Donnell featured prominently in the TNT miniseries The Company as CIA case officer Jack McAuliffe, a character who progressed from spoonfed Yale elitist to jaded, post-Cold War cynic. In 2008 O'Donnell appeared in Kit Kittredge: An American Girl as the titular character's father Jack Kittredge, and in Max Payne as Jason Colvin.Between 2009 and 2023, O'Donnell starred on NCIS: Los Angeles, a spinoff of NCIS, as G. Callen,[15] an NCIS Special Agent in charge of the Office of Special Projects Team stationed in Los Angeles. CBS describes Callen as \"a chameleon who transforms himself into whomever he needs to be to infiltrate the criminal underworld.\"[16]In 2010, O'Donnell appeared in the sequel to the 2001 movie Cats & Dogs, The Revenge of Kitty Galore.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St. Patrick Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Catholic_Church_(Washington,_D.C.)"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Rosie O'Donnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosie_O%27Donnell"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"}],"text":"O'Donnell married Caroline Fentress in April 1997 at St. Patrick Church in Washington, D.C.[17] They have five children together.[18][19][20] He is not related to actress Rosie O'Donnell.O'Donnell continues to be a practicing Catholic.[21]According to Rolling Stone, O'Donnell is afraid of heights.[17]O'Donnell is an avid golfer and is a member of Bel-Air Country Club, Cypress Point Club, Valley Club of Montecito, Seminole Golf Club, Shoreacres Golf Club, Tarratine Golf Club, and Chicago Golf Club.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"}]
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[{"image_text":"O'Donnell and Mark Harmon filming in 2009","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Mark_Harmon_and_Chris_ODonnell_%288_March_2009%29_6.jpg/150px-Mark_Harmon_and_Chris_ODonnell_%288_March_2009%29_6.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell Net Worth (2024) - AllFamousTrend\". allfamoustrend.net. June 14, 2024. Retrieved June 14, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://allfamoustrend.net/celebrities/chris-odonnell-net-worth-2024/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell Net Worth (2024) - AllFamousTrend\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell Biography – Yahoo! Movies\". Movies.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2011. Retrieved May 26, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110209123324/http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800019490/bio","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell Biography – Yahoo! Movies\""},{"url":"https://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800019490/bio","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kessler, Mike (December 8, 2010). \"William C. O'Donnell dies at 88 — Winnetka & Northfield news, photos and events —\". Triblocal.com. Archived from the original on June 14, 2012. Retrieved January 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120614083824/http://triblocal.com/winnetka-northfield/community/stories/2010/12/william-c-odonnell-dies-at-88/","url_text":"\"William C. O'Donnell dies at 88 — Winnetka & Northfield news, photos and events —\""},{"url":"http://triblocal.com/winnetka-northfield/community/stories/2010/12/william-c-odonnell-dies-at-88/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Polunsky, Bob. \"Express-News Archives : MySA.com\".","urls":[{"url":"http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SAEC&p_theme=saec&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAFE753A9C74029&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D","url_text":"\"Express-News Archives : MySA.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Actor's roles range from the birds & the bees to just a bird – Robin.(Originated from The Virginian-Pilot)\". Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service. April 13, 1995.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-6330360_ITM","url_text":"\"Actor's roles range from the birds & the bees to just a bird – Robin.(Originated from The Virginian-Pilot)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Music News\". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071013110445/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5932797/chris_odonnells_personal_high/","url_text":"\"Music News\""},{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Actor Chris O'Donnell sells seldom-used townhouse here\". Chicago Tribune.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2002-02-10-0202100032-story.html","url_text":"\"Actor Chris O'Donnell sells seldom-used townhouse here\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell from 'NCIS LA': Age, net worth, family, children\". November 26, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.newsner.com/news/chris-odonnell-from-ncis-la-age-net-worth-family-children/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell from 'NCIS LA': Age, net worth, family, children\""}]},{"reference":"\"Boston College to Celebrate 150 Years with Concert at Symphony Hall\". March 19, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bostonmagazine.com/arts-entertainment/2013/03/19/boston-college-150-symphony-hall-concert/","url_text":"\"Boston College to Celebrate 150 Years with Concert at Symphony Hall\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell helps Boston College celebrate 150 years\". www.boston.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2013/03/24/chris-odonnell-helps-boston-college-celebrate-150-years/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell helps Boston College celebrate 150 years\""}]},{"reference":"\"Watch! Magazine Photos on CBS\" – via www.cbs.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbs.com/shows/watch_magazine/photos/1008350/ncis-los-angeles-chris-o-donnell-tees-up-for-a-playful-photo-shoot/","url_text":"\"Watch! Magazine Photos on CBS\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Titanic' Casting: What Other Stars Were Considered For James Cameron's Masterpiece?\". HuffPost. June 22, 2012. Retrieved November 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffpost.com/entry/titanic-casting-james-cameron-christian-bale_n_1619006","url_text":"\"'Titanic' Casting: What Other Stars Were Considered For James Cameron's Masterpiece?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Trivia for Men in Black\". at the Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 21, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119654/trivia","url_text":"\"Trivia for Men in Black\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database","url_text":"Internet Movie Database"}]},{"reference":"Andreeva, Nellie (February 27, 2009). \"O'Donnell nabs lead role in \"NCIS\" spin-off\". Reuters. Archived from the original on January 7, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160107002102/http://www.reuters.com/article/televisionNews/idUSTRRRE51Q13620090227","url_text":"\"O'Donnell nabs lead role in \"NCIS\" spin-off\""},{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/televisionNews/idUSTRRRE51Q13620090227","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"NCIS Los Angeles\". CBS. Retrieved August 11, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbs.com/primetime/ncis_los_angeles/about/","url_text":"\"NCIS Los Angeles\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Russel Scott (December 8, 2000). \"Chris O'Donnell's Personal High\". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 3, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie-news/chris-odonnells-personal-high-170746/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell's Personal High\""}]},{"reference":"Chiu, Alexis (December 18, 2007). \"Chris O'Donnell and Wife Have Fifth Baby\". People. Retrieved November 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://people.com/parents/chris-odonnell-and-wife-have-fifth-baby/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell and Wife Have Fifth Baby\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_(magazine)","url_text":"People"}]},{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell's Daughter Steals the Show on 'NCIS: Los Angeles' Set\". ET Online. October 12, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.etonline.com/tv/173851_chris_o_donnell_daughter_steals_the_show_on_ncis_los_angeles_set/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell's Daughter Steals the Show on 'NCIS: Los Angeles' Set\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ET_Online","url_text":"ET Online"}]},{"reference":"Donahue, Wendy (November 25, 2014). \"Johnnie-O label finds sweet spot between East and West Coast prep\". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved November 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/sc-fash-1201-johnnie-o-mens-style-20141125-story.html","url_text":"\"Johnnie-O label finds sweet spot between East and West Coast prep\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chris O'Donnell Interview – Sarah's Backstage Pass\". sarahsbackstagepass.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://sarahsbackstagepass.com/chris-odonnell-interview/","url_text":"\"Chris O'Donnell Interview – Sarah's Backstage Pass\""}]},{"reference":"\"People's Choice Awards 2017: Full List Of Winners\". People's Choice. January 19, 2017. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 19, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170120023620/http://blog.peopleschoice.com/2017/01/18/peoples-choice-awards-2017-winners/","url_text":"\"People's Choice Awards 2017: Full List Of Winners\""},{"url":"http://blog.peopleschoice.com/2017/01/18/peoples-choice-awards-2017-winners/","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_and_Jefferson_College
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Washington & Jefferson College
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["1 History","1.1 Early history and the academies","1.2 Jefferson College and Washington College","1.3 Unification of the colleges","1.4 History since unification","2 Academics","2.1 Admission and rankings","2.2 Curriculum","3 Campus","3.1 Popular culture","4 Student body","5 Student life","5.1 Student housing","5.2 Clubs","5.3 Student media","5.4 Literary societies","5.5 Art scene","5.6 Greek life","6 Athletics","6.1 Intercollegiate","6.2 Intramural","7 Traditions","7.1 Symbols of the college","8 Relations with the city of Washington","9 Notable alumni","10 References","11 External links"]
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Coordinates: 40°10′17″N 80°14′21″W / 40.1714°N 80.2393°W / 40.1714; -80.2393Private liberal arts college in Washington, Pennsylvania, US
Washington & Jefferson CollegeLatin: Collegium Washingtoniense et JeffersonienseFormer namesJefferson College (1802–1865)Washington College (1806–1865)MottoJuncta Juvant (Latin)Motto in English"Together We Thrive"TypePrivate liberal arts collegeEstablished1781; 243 years ago (1781)Academic affiliationsAnnapolis GroupPCLAEndowment$122.9 million (2020)PresidentJohn C. KnappUndergraduates1,149 (fall 2022)LocationWashington, Pennsylvania, U.S.40°10′17″N 80°14′21″W / 40.1714°N 80.2393°W / 40.1714; -80.2393CampusSmall town60 acres (0.2 km2)CheerWhichi CoaxColors Red and blackNicknamePresidentsSporting affiliationsNCAA Division III – PACCWPAWebsitewww.washjeff.edu
Washington & Jefferson College (W&J College or W&J) is a private liberal arts college in Washington, Pennsylvania. The college traces its origin to three log cabin colleges in Washington County established by three Presbyterian missionaries to the American frontier in the 1780s: John McMillan, Thaddeus Dod, and Joseph Smith. These early schools eventually grew into two competing academies, with Jefferson College located in Canonsburg and Washington College located in Washington. The two colleges merged in 1865 to form Washington & Jefferson College. The 60 acre (0.2 km2) campus has more than 40 buildings, with the oldest dating to 1793.
The college's academic emphasis is on the liberal arts and the sciences, with a focus on preparing students for graduate and professional schools. Campus activities include various religious, political, and general interest clubs, as well as academic and professional-themed organizations. The college has a strong history of competing literary societies, dating back before the union of Jefferson and Washington Colleges. Students operate a college radio station, a campus newspaper, and a literary journal. The athletic program competes in NCAA Division III. A large majority of students participate in intramural athletics. Nearly all students live on campus and roughly one third are members of fraternities or sororities. A number of noteworthy alumni have attended the college or its predecessor institutions, including James G. Blaine, William Holmes McGuffey, Joseph Ruggles Wilson (the father of President Woodrow Wilson), and Pete Henry.
History
Main article: History of Washington & Jefferson College
Early history and the academies
Washington Academy's sole building (now called McMillan Hall), showing the original central portion and the two wings added in 1818.
Washington & Jefferson College traces its origin to three log cabin colleges established by three frontier clergymen in the 1780s: John McMillan, Thaddeus Dod, and Joseph Smith. The three men, all graduates from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), came to present-day Washington County to plant churches and spread Presbyterianism to what was then the American frontier beyond the Appalachian Mountains. John McMillan, the most prominent of the three founders because of his strong personality and longevity, came to the area in 1775 and built his log cabin college in 1780 near his church in Chartiers. Thaddeus Dod, known as a keen scholar, built his log cabin college in Lower Ten Mile in 1781. Joseph Smith taught classical studies in his college, called "The Study," at Buffalo.
Washington Academy was chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on September 24, 1787. The first members of the board of trustees included Reverends Dod and Smith. After a difficult search for a headmaster, in which the trustees consulted Benjamin Franklin, the trustees unanimously selected Thaddeus Dod, considered to be the best scholar in western Pennsylvania. Amid financial difficulties and unrest from the Whiskey Rebellion, the academy held no classes from 1791 to 1796. In 1792, the academy secured four lots at Wheeling and Lincoln street from William Hoge and began construction on the stone Academy Building. During the Whiskey Rebellion, portions of David Bradford's militia camped on a hillside that would later become home to the unified Washington & Jefferson College.
In October 1792, after a year's delay from its official incorporation resulting from "trouble with Indians," McMillan was chosen as the headmaster and Canonsburg was chosen as the location for the "Canonsburg Academy." At a subsequent unknown date, McMillan transferred his students from the log cabin to Canonsburg Academy. Canonsburg Academy was chartered by the General Assembly on March 11, 1794, thus placing it firmly ahead of its sister school, Washington Academy, which was without a faculty, students, or facilities. On January 15, 1802, with McMillan as president of the board, the General Assembly finally granted a charter for "a college at Canonsburgh."
Jefferson College and Washington College
Jefferson College campus in 1900, with West College on the left and Providence Hall on the right.
In 1802, Canonsburg Academy was reconstituted as Jefferson College, with John McMillan serving as the first President of the board of trustees. In 1806, Matthew Brown petitioned the Pennsylvania General Assembly to grant Washington Academy a charter, allowing it to be re-christened as Washington College. At various times over the next 60 years, the various parties within the two colleges pursued unification with each other, but the question of where the unified college would be located thwarted those efforts. In 1817, a disagreement over a perceived agreement for unification erupted into "The College War" and threatened the existence of both colleges. In the ensuing years, both colleges began to undertake risky financial moves, especially over-selling scholarships. Thanks to the leadership of Matthew Brown, Jefferson College was in a stronger position to weather the financial storm for a longer period. Desperate for funds, Washington College accepted an offer from the Synod of Wheeling to take control of the college, a move that was supposed to stabilize the finances for a period of time. However, Washington College then undertook another series of risky financial moves that crippled its finances.
Unification of the colleges
The two identical towers on Old Main symbolize the 1865 union of Jefferson College and Washington College.
Following the Civil War, both colleges were short on students and on funds, causing them to join as Washington & Jefferson College in 1865. The charter provided for the college to operate at both Canonsburg and Washington, a position that caused significant difficulty for the administration trying to rescue the college amid ill feelings over the unification. Jonathan Edwards, a pastor from Baltimore who had been president of Hanover College, was elected the first president of the unified Washington & Jefferson College on April 4, 1866. Edwards immediately encountered significant challenges, including the difficulties of administering a college across two campuses, as well as old prejudices and hard feelings among those still loyal to either Jefferson College or Washington College. Edwards resigned in 1869, as the two-campus arrangement was declared a failure and all operations were consolidated in Washington. Before the merger could be completed, Canonsburg residents and Jefferson College partisans filed a lawsuit, known as the Pennsylvania College Cases, sought to overturn the consolidation plan. Leadership of the college during this time fell to Samuel J. Wilson, a local pastor, and James I. Brownson, who had earlier been interim president of Washington College. By 1871, the United States Supreme Court upheld the consolidation, allowing the newly configured college to proceed.
History since unification
Hays Hall, named after George P. Hays, was built in 1903 and demolished in 1994.
George P. Hays, who had assumed the presidency amid the court battle and the unification controversy, led the newly unified college until 1881. His successor, James D. Moffat, led the college through a period of growth where the college constructed the Old Gym, Hays Hall, Thompson Memorial Library, and Thistle Physics Building, as well as purchasing the land known as the "old fair ground," now used for Cameron Stadium. Towards the end of his term, Moffat personally paid for the 1912 renovations of McMillan Hall. In 1914, Frederick W. Hinitt was elected president. His tenure was dominated by the United States' entry into World War I, with an enrollment drop of 50%. William E. Slemmons, a college trustee and adjunct professor, succeeded Hinitt and served as interim president from May 1918 to June 1919. After the war ended in 1919, Samuel Charles Black took over and helped to stabilize the enrollment. While on a honeymoon tour of national parks, Black became ill and died. His successor, Simon Strousse Baker, was well liked by the college's trustees and by "many a townsman", but the student body felt that Baker was "autocratic" and held an "unfriendly attitude toward the student body as individuals." Baker defended himself, saying that the perceived ill-will towards students was unintentional and a misunderstanding. Nonetheless, the student body held a strike and general walkout in 1931, prompting Baker to resign.
Named after Howard J. Burnett, the Burnett Center was constructed in 1998.
Baker's successor, Ralph Cooper Hutchison, was much more popular with the student body. In an effort to strengthen the college's science department, Hutchison extended and expanded the southern portion of the campus, adding the Lazear Chemistry Hall and purchasing McIlvane Hall. When World War II broke out, the campus was opened to the Army Administration School, where hundreds of soldiers received their "training in classifications." Hutchison resigned in 1945 to take the presidency of his alma mater, Lafayette College. James Herbert Case, Jr., who was president from 1946 to 1950, constructed several new dormitories to handle the influx of veterans under the G.I. Bill. In 1950, Boyd Crumrine Patterson assumed the presidency and oversaw curriculum revisions and the construction of a number of buildings, including the Henry Memorial Center, 10 Greek housing units in the center of campus, the U. Grant Miller Library, the Student Center, the Commons, and two new dormitories. His fundraising abilities grew the college's endowment expanded from $2.3 million to nearly $11 million. Patterson retired in 1970, the same year that the trustees authorized the admission of women as undergraduate students. Howard J. Burnett took office as president that year and hired the college's first female faculty members and the first female dean. The college also adopted a new academic calendar to include intersession and expanded its academic programs to include the Entrepreneurial Studies Program, the Freshman Forum, and several cooperative international education programs. Student enrollment grew from 830 in 1970 to 1,100 in 1998. Burnett retired as president in 1998. Under Burnett's successor, Brian C. Mitchell, who served as president from 1998 to 2004, the college experienced a growth in construction and an effort to improve relations with the neighboring communities. In 2004, Tori Haring-Smith became the first woman to serve as president of Washington & Jefferson, undertaking an effort to improve the science curriculum and to construct the Swanson Science Center. After 13 years of service, Haring-Smith retired from her position on June 30, 2017. John C. Knapp was named Haring-Smith's successor on April 21, 2017, and became the college's 13th president on August 1, 2017. On February 27, 2024 the college announced the selection of Elizabeth MacLeod Walls as the 14th president. MacLeod Walls will begin her tenure on June 30, 2024.
Academics
As a liberal arts college, Washington & Jefferson College focuses exclusively on undergraduate education. It is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. The college's teaching environment reflects the liberal arts tradition of small group instruction by maintaining an average class size of 17 and a student/faculty ratio of 12:1. 85% of faculty have terminal degrees and no classes are taught by teaching assistants. The college has a strong science program, with 35% of students majoring in one of the scientific departments. Within those areas, all 32 professors hold terminal degrees. The most frequent class size is between 10 and 19 students.
The college has a focus on preparing students for graduate school and professional programs. Across all disciplines, 85% to 90% of students who apply to such programs receive offers of admission. Among students who apply to medical school or related health graduate programs, 90% of students gain admission. Approximately 11% of all current W&J alumni are physicians and engineers, making the college third in the nation per capita for producing doctors and scientific researchers. Among students who apply to law school, approximately 90% of students gain admission.
The college recently added The English Language Institute which is a pre-academic program designed to equip multi-lingual learners with the English and academic skills to be prepared for undergraduate study.
Admission and rankings
Academic rankingsLiberal artsU.S. News & World Report92Washington Monthly108NationalForbes437WSJ/College Pulse208
Admission to Washington & Jefferson College is classified as "more selective" by both the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education and U.S. News & World Report. The Princeton Review gave Washington & Jefferson an "Admissions Selectivity Rating" of 92. The college extends offers of admission to 38.2% of all applicants. Of all matriculating students, the average high school GPA is 3.34 and 38% are in the top 10% of their high school class. The interquartile range for SAT scores in math and reasoning skills are 510–610 and 520–620, respectively. In 2009, the college developed an SAT-optional admissions program.
In the 2019 U.S. News & World Report college rankings, Washington & Jefferson is ranked #103 of all liberal arts colleges in the nation, placing it within "Tier 1." In Forbes Magazine's List of America's Best Colleges for 2010, the college was ranked #100 out of the nation's institutions of higher education. The Washington Monthly ranked the college #132 among all American liberal arts colleges in terms of social mobility, research, and community service. The rankings listed the college as #30 in the nation in terms of Federal Work-Study Program money spent of community service.
As president of the college, Tori Haring-Smith has specifically criticized the U.S. News & World Report rankings system, noting that the "financial resources" portion of the rankings formula favors colleges that have higher tuition, even without providing any educational benefits, saying that this has harmed the college's ranking because it charged $5,000 to $7,000 less in tuition that its peer institutions. She also questioned the "peer assessment" portion of the rankings and suggested that college presidents are rarely aware of educational improvements in their peer institutions; she noted that Washington & Jefferson College's ranking has remained the same for a number of years, even while the college made significant improvements in terms of its acceptance rates and overall selectivity, the addition of academic programs, and the construction of additional buildings. Haring-Smith's criticism of the rankings spurred Bob Morse, the founder of the U.S. College Rankings system to respond to the criticisms directly in an article. She has signed the "Presidents Letter," a nationwide movement asking fellow college presidents to decline participation in the U.S. News & World Report reputation survey, a subjective evaluation where college administrators score their competition.
Curriculum
The curriculum is centered on the traditional liberal arts education and pre-professional classes. All first-semester freshmen must complete the "First Year Seminar" class, which introduces new students to a variety of lectures, concerts, plays, and trips to museums or galleries based on a different course theme selected each year. In addition to completing an academic major, students must satisfy the college-wide general education requirements, which include classes in the arts, humanities, natural sciences and mathematics, foreign languages, cultural diversity, and academic skills classes including writing, oral communication, quantitative reasoning. Students may choose to complete an academic minor, participate in interdepartmental concentrations, or to focus on an intra-departmental emphasis. Additionally, all students must complete a physical education requirement, amounting to one full semester class, making W&J one of the few liberal arts colleges without a physical education major to have such a requirement. The college maintains a number of combined degree programs, allowing students to attend graduate or professional school in lieu of senior year.
The college follows the 4–1–4 academic calendar, which includes a four-month fall term, a three-week Intersession term in January, followed by a four-month spring term. During the Intersession term, students have the choice of studying abroad, completing an external internship, or taking a specially-designed Intersession course. These Intersession courses are more focused than regular courses and provide professors with an opportunity to teach non-traditional subjects. Past Intersession courses have included "Emerging Diseases: Global and Local" in the biology department, "Corporate Failures, Frauds, and Scandals" in the business department, and "Vampires and Other Bloodsuckers" in the English department, "Holocaust Survivor Narratives" in the German department, and "Alternative Radio" in the communications department. At various times, the faculty organizes an "Integrated Semester," where professors organize regular departmental courses, specialized projects, and public events dealing with a common interdisciplinary theme. Students participating in more than two designed courses receive a transcript designation noting their participation in the program. Past themes have included "Integrated Semester on Asia," "The Importance of Place," "Integrated Semester on the Spanish-Speaking World." Students can also pursue international education through 30 pre-approved programs in over 20 countries. While W&J has not had a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program since 1991, the college has a relationship with the University of Pittsburgh's Army and Air Force ROTC programs, allowing W&J students to prepare for an active or reserve commission following graduation. Members of the National Guard of the United States may take online classes to earn an associate's degree in Information Technology Leadership or a certificate in Information Management and Security. Students may undertake externships to gain experiential learning experience in their chosen field. The Franklin Internship Awards, established in 2006 by Ellis Hyman, provide upperclassmen with financial assistance to take an unpaid internship. The college's Magellan Project is a series of programs that provide support and financing for research and independent study projects. Past Magellan Projects have allowed students to study the Invasion of Normandy, Mexican transportation systems, and to volunteer at medical missions in the Dominican Republic. In 2010, the Magellan Project received the Heiskell Award from the Institute of International Education in recognition of the college's progressive approach to study abroad. In the 2010–2011 school year, 58% of W&J students studied abroad.
Campus
See also: List of Washington & Jefferson College buildings
McMillan Hall, built in 1793, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The campus of Washington & Jefferson College is located in the city of Washington and the East Washington Borough, small-town communities about 30 miles (48 km) south of Pittsburgh. The 60-acre (24 ha) campus is home to more than 40 academic, administrative, recreational, and residential buildings. The northern edge of campus is bound by East Walnut Street, the western edge by South College Street, the southern edge by East Maiden Street, and the eastern edge by South Wade. Portions of the campus extend into the East Washington Historic District. Four historic gates mark four traditional entrances to campus at East Maiden Street, Wheeling Street, South College Street, and Beau Street. In 1947, the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker noting the historic importance of the college.
The oldest surviving building is McMillan Hall, which dates to 1793 and is the oldest college building west of the Allegheny Mountains. The main academic building is Old Main, which is topped with two prominent towers. The Old Gym houses a modern exercise facility. McIlvaine Hall, which was originally home to a female seminary, was demolished in 2008 and replaced by the Swanson Science Center. Davis Memorial Hall was once a dormitory and private house. The Thistle Physics Building, the Lazear Chemistry Hall, and the Dieter-Porter Life Sciences Building all cater to the scientific curriculum. The Burnett Center and its sister building, the Technology Center, were built in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
The first dormitory on campus was Hays Hall. Wade House, Carriage House, and Whitworth House are Victorian homes housing older students. The recently constructed Chestnut Street Housing complex provides housing for the college's Greek organizations. The Presidents' Row is a cluster of ten buildings in the center of campus, several of which are dedicated to theme housing. Two sister dormitories, New Residence Hall and Bica-Ross Hall, feature suite-style living arrangements. Mellon Hall houses female freshman, and Upperclass Hall houses male freshmen. Other dormitories include Alexander Hall, Beau Hall, Marshall Hall, North Hall, and Penn House. The college administration utilizes several buildings, including the Admissions House, the Alumni House, and the President's House, which are all modified Victorian homes. The U. Grant Miller Library is the modern library; its predecessor, Thompson Hall, is now used for administrative purposes. The Hub, The Commons, and the Rossin Campus Center provide recreational and dining facilities for students. The athletic and intramural teams utilize Cameron Stadium for football and track. The Henry Memorial Center is used for basketball, wrestling, swimming, and volleyball. Other athletic facilities include Brooks Park, Ross Memorial Park and Alexandre Stadium, and the Janet L. Swanson Tennis Courts.
Popular culture
Washington & Jefferson is the setting for the Netflix programs The Chair and Mindhunter.
Student body
Demographics of student body
Undergraduate
Pennsylvania
U.S. Census
African American
2.84%
11.20%
12.1%
Asian American
1.19%
2.46%
4.3%
White American
81.97%
86.83%
65.8%
Hispanic American
1.32%
4.19%
14.5%
Native American
0.46%
0.54%
0.9%
International student
2.05%
N/A
N/A
Unknown/unspecified
10.17%
N/A
N/A
As of fall 2021, the student body totaled 1,156 undergraduate students. The student body is highly residential, with 98% of students residing in campus housing. The number of transfer students joining the student body each year is relatively low, compared to other institutions. Approximately 18% of the student body receives federal Pell Grants. Prior to entering college, 82% of the student body attended public high schools. Roughly 86% of the each freshman class returns to the college for their sophomore year. The overall graduation rate is 70% About 25 to 30% of each incoming class is the first in their family to attend college.
The male to female ratio is 54% to 46%. Like the population of Pennsylvania and the United States as a whole, the largest ethnic group at the college is White American, making up about 82% of the student population. Roughly 10% of the student population does not specify their ethnicity. Other ethnicities, including African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic Americans collectively comprise about 6% of the student body. International students make up 2.05% of the student body.
In 2006, Men's Fitness named W&J the "14th Fittest College in America," a ranking that weighed the college's fitness offerings and the student body's culture of fitness and behavior. In 2009, the college was named to the President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll, in recognition of the student body's commitment to community service. The college's spends 22% of its Federal Work-Study Program funds on community service projects.
The college has joined the YES Prep School IMPACT Partnership Program to provide support to low-income students from the YES Prep Public Schools.
Student life
Student housing
The college offers "Theme Community Living," where students with common interests live in a single living unit. Past themes have included the "Intensive Study," the "Service Leadership Community," the "International House," "Music House," the "WashPA Radio Theme Community" for students who participate in the WNJR college radio station, and the "Pet House". Students proposing a theme community must develop an educational plan centered on the theme. The college does not typically allow students to live in off-campus housing.
The Pet House, which allows students to bring their pets to campus, has been located in Monroe Hall in Presidents' Row. Not all types of pets are permitted, only permits students to bring cats, small dogs, small birds, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, and fish. Further, students may only bring pets that they have owned for over one year and be over the age of one and one half, to avoid the problem of impulse purchases and abandonment of pets. The college began the pet house program in 2006, and is one of a dozen schools nationwide to have such a program. The Pet House has been profiled in The New York Times, the USA Today, Observer-Reporter, and KDKA.
Several old Victorian houses, named Whitworth Hall and Wade Hall, are used as women's dorms and are slightly isolated from the other dormitories. Many students are also housed in the Greek houses on Chestnut Street, all of the Greek organizations on campus occupy houses owned by the college.
The college's dining services has made efforts to use locally grown foods. There are three dining venues on campus, The Commons Café, G&T's Grill and X'Prez'O, which are managed by Bon Apetit Management Company.
Clubs
Barack Obama campaigning at W&J in 2008.
Students may organize new clubs by presenting a constitution and a list of members to the college administration and the student government for approval. This approval process does not authorize any club to act on behalf of the college, nor does approval indicate any the college's agreement with the club's purpose.
The college recognizes over 70 student clubs on campus. A number of student clubs are dedicated to encouraging interest is a specific academic discipline, including the "W&J Denominators" mathematics club, the Society of Physics Students, and the Pre-Health Professions Society. Others are organized along ethnic and cultural lines, including the Black Student Union and the Asian Culture Association. Both major American political parties have chapters at the college, in the form of the "W&J College Democrats" and the Young Republicans. Some clubs take the form of non-varsity athletic teams, including the Men's Rugby Club, the Women's Rugby Club, the Equestrian Club, Men's Volleyball Club and the Ultimate Frisbee Club. Several clubs create volunteer opportunities though Big Brothers/Big Sisters and the United Way. Many religious faiths are represented, including the Hillel Society, Newman Club, and the Student Christian Association, as well as an Interfaith Leadership Club which organizes interfaith events. Many other clubs encourage interests in various academic and non-academic activities, including the Green Club (the college's environmental club), the Outdoors Club, and others which are mainly inactive like the Bottega Art Club, the Franklin Literary Society, and the Chess Club.
Student media
Student media offerings at Washington & Jefferson College include a college newspaper, a college radio station, a yearbook, and a student-edited literary journal. All students, regardless of academic major, are eligible to contribute to these media organizations.
Founded in 1909, the Red & Black student newspaper has a weekly circulation of 1,250 copies. The student staff handles all aspects of the production, including writing, editing, graphic design, layout, and advertising sales. The Red & Black features local and national news, student opinion, and college athletics coverage. During the 1860s, students published a satirical newspaper called The Bogus Tract.
The college radio station, WNJR broadcasts on the FM broadcast band. Assisted by a faculty advisor from the Department of Theater and Communication, the student-run studio broadcasts in a freeform format with both nationally syndicated programs and Pittsburgh-based independent programs. Student on-air personalities produce radio programs including music, news, talk, and sports. It serves the Pittsburgh Designated Market Area, reaching north to the northern Pittsburgh suburbs, east to Monessen, south to Waynesburg and west to the West Virginia Panhandle.
The Wooden Tooth Review is a student-edited literary journal, featuring short fiction and poetry submitted by members of the student body. The editorial board is organized as a recognized student club, with a faculty advisor. The journal was founded in 1999, with V. Penelope Pelizzon, Coordinator of Creative Writing, serving as the first faculty advisor. The college's yearbook, Pandora, is produced annually by a student staff.
Literary societies
Main article: Literary societies at Washington & Jefferson College
Cover of the playbill for the 1893 Contest
The history of literary societies at Washington & Jefferson College dates back to the 1797, when the Franklin Literary Society and the Philo Literary Society were founded at Canonsburg Academy. Two other literary societies were founded at Washington College, the Union Literary Society in 1809 and the Washington Literary Society in 1814. Typical early activities include the presentation of dialogues, translations of passages from Greek or Latin classics, and extemporaneous speaking. Later, the literary societies began to present declamations. Each society maintained independent libraries for the use of their members, each of which rivaled the holdings of their respective colleges. These four college literary societies had intense rivalries with each other, competing in "contests", which pitted select society members against another in "compositions, speaking select orations and debating", with the trustees selecting the victor. Because the two colleges never met each other in athletic contests, these literary competitions were the main outlet for their rivalry. In the years after the union of the two colleges, these four literary societies merged with the Franklin Literary Society, which survives today.
Art scene
Washington & Jefferson College is home to a vibrant student art and musical scene. The artistic center of campus is the Olin Fine Arts Center, with an art gallery and a 486-seat auditorium. On the academic side, the Department of Art offers majors in studio art and art education, as well as a concentration in graphic design. The Department of Music offers majors and minors in music. The Department of Theatre and Communications offers a major and minor in theatre. Current musical organizations include the W&J Wind Ensemble, the W&J Jazz Ensemble, the W&J Choir and the Camerata Singers. Former musical organizations include the Banjo, Mandolin & Guitar Club and the College Band. Every year since 2003, the Theatre and Communication Department has produced the Winter Tales series, an annual production of one-act plays written by members of the W&J community, students, alumni, faculty, administration, and staff, and produced by the W&J Student Theater Company.
In addition to student-produced art and music, the college provides a number of opportunities to view art and music from the larger art community. The college holds a collection of paintings by distinguished regional artist Malcolm Parcell, which are displayed in several locations on campus. The most prominent location is the Malcolm Parcell Room in The Commons, which is part of the student dining area. The W&J Arts Series is an annual collection of musicians, singers, and other artistic performers appearing at the Olin Fine Arts Center. Past shows have included Di Wu, Habib Koité, Chris Potter, The Aquila Theatre Company presenting The Invisible Man, Eroica Trio, Oni Buchanan, Tommy Sands, Cavani String Quartet, Sergio and Odar Assad, and Sandip Burman. In 1999, billionaire W&J alum and well-known opera philanthropist Alberto Vilar sponsored the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series, which brought a number of world-class classical performers to perform at the Olin Fine Arts Center at no cost to students. During its run, the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series hosted, among others, Lorin Maazel conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, conductor Valery Gergiev conducting the Kirov Orchestra, Camerata Salzburg with Murray Periaha, St. Petersburg Classic Ballet, Vienna State Opera Ballet, Salzburg Mozarteum Orchestra, Susan Graham, Jennifer Larmore, Samuel Ramey, Barbara Bonney, Katia and Marielle Labèque, Angelika Kirchschlager, Simon Keenlyside, Gil Shaham, and Jessye Norman. In 2003, amid Vilar's falling fortunes during the stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002, the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series went on a temporary hiatus. Vilar's 2005 indictment for financial fraud ended any possibility of reviving the arts series. In Fall 2003, the W&J Arts Series, the college's other art series, was expanded to partially compensate for the loss. The Student Government Association organizes the annual Fall Concert and Spring Concert, which bring popular musical acts to campus. Past Spring and Fall concerts have included Cobra Starship, Girl Talk, N.E.R.D. New Found Glory, Saves the Day, and local favorite The Clarks.
Greek life
Main article: Greek organizations at Washington & Jefferson College
Members of Phi Kappa Sigma pose for a chapter photo in the early 1870s.
With 43% of women and 40% of men of the student body participating in Greek life, fraternities and sororities play a significant role in student life at W&J. The Princeton Review named Washington & Jefferson College 12th on their 2010 list of "Major Frat and Sorority Scene" in the United States. As of 2022, the Office of Fraternity & Sorority Life recognized 4 fraternities, Alpha Tau Omega, Beta Theta Pi, Delta Tau Delta, and Phi Kappa Psi, and four sororities, Delta Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Kappa Gamma, and Pi Beta Phi. The fraternities are governed by a local Interfraternal Council and the sororities are governed by a local Panhellenic Council, while the Greek Judiciary manages broad policy violations at the chapter-level. All Greek organizations occupy College-owned houses on Chestnut Street on campus. All members of fraternities and sororities must pay the $100 "Greek Membership Fee", a levy designed to fund leadership seminars and other educational events for Greeks.
Two national fraternities were founded at Jefferson College, Phi Gamma Delta in 1848 and Phi Kappa Psi in 1852. Together, they are collectively known as the Jefferson Duo. A third fraternity was founded at Jefferson College, Kappa Phi Lambda, but it dissolved after a decade of existence amid a dispute between chapters. In 1874, a fourth fraternity was founded at W&J, the short-lived Phi Delta Kappa. The new fraternity grew to several chapters before falling apart in 1880.
Athletics
Intercollegiate
Main article: Washington & Jefferson Presidents
Cameron Stadium, home of Washington & Jefferson Presidents football since 1890.
W&J competes in 23 intercollegiate athletics at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III level. As of the 2009–10 academic year, the Presidents have won more than 108 Presidents' Athletic Conference (PAC) championships, 40 students were selected as conference Most Valuable Player, more than 300 athletes were awarded First Team All-Conference recognition, 75 received All-American honors, and 25 achieved Academic All-American status. During the 2005–2006 season, 34 percent of the student body played varsity-level athletics.
The football team has been very successful, winning 18 out of the last 21 PAC Championships and advancing to the NCAA Division III playoffs 17 times. W&J played to a 0–0 tie in the 1922 Rose Bowl against the California Golden Bears and were named to a share of the national championship by the Boand System. The men's ice hockey team won the 2008 College Hockey Mid America Conference championship, a Division I regional league of the American Collegiate Hockey Association. W&J also fields teams in field hockey, wrestling, baseball, softball, and volleyball, as well as men's and women's cross country running, soccer, tennis, water polo, basketball, swimming and diving, golf, lacrosse, and track & field
W&J's baseball team plays at the all-turf Ross Memorial Ballpark, a site selected to host the 2015 and 2016 NCAA D-III regional tournament. Under the leadership of Coach Jeff Mountain, the Presidents have produced three All-Americans: Shaun Pfeill (3B, 2007); Sam Mann (P/1B; 2007) and Eddie Nogay (Pitcher; 2013). Nogay of Weirton, WV is the school's all-time wins leader with a career record of 28–2. Josh Staniscia of Franklin Regional H.S. is the school's all-time hits leader, with 251 career hits from 2011 to 2014. Frank Quirin (2008–2010) is the all-time home run leader with 22 career dingers.
Intramural
The intramural sports program is one of the most consistently popular activities at Washington & Jefferson College, providing non-varsity and recreational athletic activities for all students, faculty, and staff of the college. Vicki Staton, a former varsity women's basketball and volleyball coach, manages the intramural program. In 2002, 60% of students participated in intramural sports. In 2006, more than 40% of the student body participated in intramural athletics. In 2007, the intramural activities included 3-on-3 basketball, billiards, bowling, flag football, kickball, tennis, ultimate frisbee, volleyball, wallyball, ping pong, and Texas hold 'em. Intramural champions win a T-shirt celebrating their victory.
While the varsity athletics program was struggling during the 1930s, intramural participation topped 84% of the student population. During that time, the management of intramural activities was transferred to the athletic department, allowing the intramural program to use the college's varsity facilities. In the 1930s and 1940s, groups of students competed for the "Big Cup," a trophy given to the most outstanding team, as judged by a cross-sport point system.
Traditions
Main article: Traditions of Washington & Jefferson College
A game of pushball between the freshman and sophomore classes.
One of the oldest traditions at Washington & Jefferson College was the "Freshman Rules," a system of rules and restrictions on freshmen. Failure by freshmen to follow these rules would subject them to beatings by upperclassmen or other punishments doled out by the "Freshman Court." During the 1870s and 1880s, the students engaged in organized athletic competitions, pitting the freshman versus sophomore classes in the "Olympic Games" that involved elaborate opening ceremonies and the smoking of a "Pipe of Peace." Another form of physical contest between the freshman and sophomore classes were the annual "color rush," where the teams fought over control over strips of fabric, the "pole rush," where the teams battled to raise a flag up a flagpole, and the "cane rush" where the teams fought over control over a ceremonial cane. These contests generally devolved into outright gang violence.
The college cheer, Whichi Coax, is so pervasive in college history and culture that in addition to being shouted during academic ceremonies and football games, it is also used as a salutation in correspondence between alumni. The college's fight song, "Good Ole W&J" is sung to the tune of "99 Bottles of Beer" and makes fun of a number of rival colleges, including the University of Pittsburgh, but was modified sometime before 1958 to laud Washington Female Seminary. For a large portion of the college's history, there was no official alma mater, but there were a number of other tradition hymns and songs.
Symbols of the college
The coat of arms of Washington & Jefferson.
The college's coat of arms features a two-part shield based on the coats of arms of the Jefferson and Washington families. The top portion, showing two towers, representing Washington College and Jefferson College, and three stars, representing the McMillan, Dod, and Smith log cabins. The lower portion, showing an interlocked design that in heraldry is called a fret, is adapted from Jefferson's coat of arms and the colors, red and black, is taken from the Washington coat of arms. The coat of arms may appear with a banner underneath showing the college motto. The design was adopted in 1902 in celebration of Jefferson College's centennial. It was designed by Rev. Harry B. King, class of 1891. Upon its adoption, it was described as "a happy combination, and makes a very neat appearance when worn as a pin or button."
The college seal displays two brick towers, with one labeled "1802," representing Jefferson College, and the other labeled "1806," representing Washington College. The union of the two colleges is represented by a bridge between the two towers, with Roman numerals reading 1865, the year of union. Banners hanging from the towers show the college motto of "Juncta Juvant." The creation of the seal is unknown, with the first known use occurring during the 1902 centennial celebration of Jefferson College's founding. The seal is used in official documents, including diplomas and certificates.
The college's current logo features a stylized version of the two towers of Old Main, symbolizing the 1865 unification of Washington College and Jefferson College. The logo may be displayed in several versions: with the entire name of the college, the shortened form of "W&J", or without any text. Prior to the adoption of this logo, the college's graphic identity consisted of a variety of conflicting logos and type styles.
Relations with the city of Washington
Main article: City of Washington–Washington & Jefferson College relations
Relations between the city of Washington, Pennsylvania and Washington & Jefferson College span over two centuries, dating to the founding of both the city and the college in the 1780s. The relationship between the town and college was strong enough that the citizens of Washington offered a $50,000 donation in 1869 to the college in a successful attempt to lure the trustees to select Washington over nearby Canonsburg as the consolidated location of the college. The relationship encountered challenges the 20th century, with disagreements arising between the college and residential neighborhoods as the college pursued an expansion plan. Preservationists unsuccessfully attempted to pass laws prohibiting the college from demolishing certain buildings that were listed on the East Washington Historic District. Local preservationists also unsuccessfully tried to block the demolition of Hays Hall, which had been condemned. In the 1990s, the city of Washington made several unsuccessful attempts to challenge the college's tax-exempt status. In 1993, Washington appealed the Washington County Board of Assessment's determination that the college was exempt from the city's property tax. That case went to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the college. In response, the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed a new law clarifying that colleges were exempt from taxation, including from local property taxes. Separately, the city of Washington passed an ordinance that levied a municipal "service fee" against the college students, which was ruled to be illegal and was struck down. In the late 1990s, the college and town created the Blueprint for Collaboration, a plan with detailed goals and benchmarks for the future to help the college and the city work together on economic development, environmental protection, and historic preservation.
Notable alumni
Main article: List of Washington & Jefferson College alumni
James G. Blaine served as U.S. Congressman, Speaker of the House, U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, and almost won the 1884 presidential election.
As of 2009, Washington & Jefferson College had about 12,000 living alumni. Before the union of the two colleges, Washington College graduated 872 men and Jefferson College graduated 1,936 men. These alumni include James G. Blaine, who served in Congress as Speaker of the House, U.S. Senator from Maine, two-time United States Secretary of State and the Republican nominee for the 1884 presidential election. Other graduates have held high federal positions, including United States Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow and United States Attorney General Henry Stanbery, who successfully defended Andrew Johnson during his impeachment trial. As a U.S. Congressman, Clarence Long was a key figure in directing funds to Operation Cyclone, the CIA's effort to arm the mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War. James A. Beaver served as Governor of Pennsylvania and as acting president of the Pennsylvania State University; he is the namesake of Beaver Stadium.Blake Ragsdale Van Leer, was the fifth president of Georgia Tech and first president to allow women to enroll there. He also had a prominent military career. William Holmes McGuffey authored the McGuffey Readers, which are among the most popular and influential books in history. Thaddeus Dod's student, Jacob Lindley, was the first president of Ohio University. Astronaut and test pilot Joseph A. Walker became the first person to enter space twice. Other graduates have gone on to success in professional athletics, including Buddy Jeannette, a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame, and Pete Henry, a member of both the College and Pro Football Hall of Fame. Roger Goodell has served as the Commissioner of the NFL since 2006. Among graduates who entered the medical field, Jonathan Letterman is recognized as the "Father of Battlefield Medicine." William Passavant is recognized as a saint within the Lutheran Church. James McGready, who studied with Joseph Smith and John McMillan was a leading revivalist in the Second Great Awakening. Successful graduates in the business realm include Richard Clark, President and CEO of Merck, John S. Reed, the former chairman of Citigroup and the New York Stock Exchange.
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*"},{"link_name":"private","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_college"},{"link_name":"liberal arts college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_colleges_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Washington, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Washington County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"American frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_frontier"},{"link_name":"John McMillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McMillan_(missionary)"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Dod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Dod"},{"link_name":"Joseph Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith_(Presbyterian_minister,_born_1736)"},{"link_name":"Canonsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonsburg,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"NCAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association"},{"link_name":"Division III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_III"},{"link_name":"James G. Blaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_G._Blaine"},{"link_name":"William Holmes McGuffey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Holmes_McGuffey"},{"link_name":"Joseph Ruggles Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ruggles_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Pete Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Henry"}],"text":"Private liberal arts college in Washington, Pennsylvania, USWashington & Jefferson College (W&J College or W&J) is a private liberal arts college in Washington, Pennsylvania. The college traces its origin to three log cabin colleges in Washington County established by three Presbyterian missionaries to the American frontier in the 1780s: John McMillan, Thaddeus Dod, and Joseph Smith. These early schools eventually grew into two competing academies, with Jefferson College located in Canonsburg and Washington College located in Washington. The two colleges merged in 1865 to form Washington & Jefferson College. The 60 acre (0.2 km2) campus has more than 40 buildings, with the oldest dating to 1793.The college's academic emphasis is on the liberal arts and the sciences, with a focus on preparing students for graduate and professional schools. Campus activities include various religious, political, and general interest clubs, as well as academic and professional-themed organizations. The college has a strong history of competing literary societies, dating back before the union of Jefferson and Washington Colleges. Students operate a college radio station, a campus newspaper, and a literary journal. The athletic program competes in NCAA Division III. A large majority of students participate in intramural athletics. Nearly all students live on campus and roughly one third are members of fraternities or sororities. A number of noteworthy alumni have attended the college or its predecessor institutions, including James G. Blaine, William Holmes McGuffey, Joseph Ruggles Wilson (the father of President Woodrow Wilson), and Pete Henry.","title":"Washington & Jefferson College"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:McMillan_Hall_W%26J_College_4.jpg"},{"link_name":"McMillan Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMillan_Hall"},{"link_name":"John McMillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McMillan_(missionary)"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Dod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Dod"},{"link_name":"Joseph Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith_(Presbyterian_minister,_born_1736)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners-4"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"Washington County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Presbyterianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianism"},{"link_name":"American frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_frontier"},{"link_name":"Appalachian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners-4"},{"link_name":"Chartiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartiers_Township,_Washington_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wickersham-5"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania General Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Dod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Dod"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"Whiskey Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"Academy Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMillan_Hall"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"Whiskey Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"David Bradford's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bradford_(lawyer)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersIII-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersIII-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersIII-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersIII-7"}],"sub_title":"Early history and the academies","text":"Washington Academy's sole building (now called McMillan Hall), showing the original central portion and the two wings added in 1818.Washington & Jefferson College traces its origin to three log cabin colleges established by three frontier clergymen in the 1780s: John McMillan, Thaddeus Dod, and Joseph Smith.[4] The three men, all graduates from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), came to present-day Washington County to plant churches and spread Presbyterianism to what was then the American frontier beyond the Appalachian Mountains.[4] John McMillan, the most prominent of the three founders because of his strong personality and longevity, came to the area in 1775 and built his log cabin college in 1780 near his church in Chartiers.[4] Thaddeus Dod, known as a keen scholar, built his log cabin college in Lower Ten Mile in 1781.[4] Joseph Smith taught classical studies in his college, called \"The Study,\" at Buffalo.[5]Washington Academy was chartered by the Pennsylvania General Assembly on September 24, 1787.[6] The first members of the board of trustees included Reverends Dod and Smith.[6] After a difficult search for a headmaster, in which the trustees consulted Benjamin Franklin, the trustees unanimously selected Thaddeus Dod, considered to be the best scholar in western Pennsylvania.[6] Amid financial difficulties and unrest from the Whiskey Rebellion, the academy held no classes from 1791 to 1796.[6] In 1792, the academy secured four lots at Wheeling and Lincoln street from William Hoge and began construction on the stone Academy Building.[6] During the Whiskey Rebellion, portions of David Bradford's militia camped on a hillside that would later become home to the unified Washington & Jefferson College.[6]In October 1792, after a year's delay from its official incorporation resulting from \"trouble with Indians,\" McMillan was chosen as the headmaster and Canonsburg was chosen as the location for the \"Canonsburg Academy.\"[7] At a subsequent unknown date, McMillan transferred his students from the log cabin to Canonsburg Academy.[7] Canonsburg Academy was chartered by the General Assembly on March 11, 1794, thus placing it firmly ahead of its sister school, Washington Academy, which was without a faculty, students, or facilities.[7] On January 15, 1802, with McMillan as president of the board, the General Assembly finally granted a charter for \"a college at Canonsburgh.\"[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jefferson_College_1830_EDITED.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners59-8"},{"link_name":"Matthew Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Brown_(college_president)"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania General Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brownwash-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners143-149-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners68-73-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners78-85-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners78-85-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners130-131-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scottwash-14"}],"sub_title":"Jefferson College and Washington College","text":"Jefferson College campus in 1900, with West College on the left and Providence Hall on the right.In 1802, Canonsburg Academy was reconstituted as Jefferson College, with John McMillan serving as the first President of the board of trustees.[8] In 1806, Matthew Brown petitioned the Pennsylvania General Assembly to grant Washington Academy a charter, allowing it to be re-christened as Washington College.[9] At various times over the next 60 years, the various parties within the two colleges pursued unification with each other, but the question of where the unified college would be located thwarted those efforts.[10] In 1817, a disagreement over a perceived agreement for unification erupted into \"The College War\" and threatened the existence of both colleges.[11] In the ensuing years, both colleges began to undertake risky financial moves, especially over-selling scholarships.[12] Thanks to the leadership of Matthew Brown, Jefferson College was in a stronger position to weather the financial storm for a longer period.[12] Desperate for funds, Washington College accepted an offer from the Synod of Wheeling to take control of the college, a move that was supposed to stabilize the finances for a period of time.[13] However, Washington College then undertook another series of risky financial moves that crippled its finances.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Main_W%26J_1880s.jpg"},{"link_name":"Old Main","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Main_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners143-149-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners143-149-10"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Edwards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore"},{"link_name":"Hanover College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover_College"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners149-155-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edwardsdm-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners149-155-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners149-155-15"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania College Cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_College_Cases"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners155-156-17"},{"link_name":"Samuel J. Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_J._Wilson"},{"link_name":"James I. Brownson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_I._Brownson"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"United States Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners155-156-17"}],"sub_title":"Unification of the colleges","text":"The two identical towers on Old Main symbolize the 1865 union of Jefferson College and Washington College.Following the Civil War, both colleges were short on students and on funds, causing them to join as Washington & Jefferson College in 1865.[10] The charter provided for the college to operate at both Canonsburg and Washington, a position that caused significant difficulty for the administration trying to rescue the college amid ill feelings over the unification.[10] Jonathan Edwards, a pastor from Baltimore who had been president of Hanover College, was elected the first president of the unified Washington & Jefferson College on April 4, 1866.[15][16] Edwards immediately encountered significant challenges, including the difficulties of administering a college across two campuses, as well as old prejudices and hard feelings among those still loyal to either Jefferson College or Washington College.[15] Edwards resigned in 1869, as the two-campus arrangement was declared a failure and all operations were consolidated in Washington.[15] Before the merger could be completed, Canonsburg residents and Jefferson College partisans filed a lawsuit, known as the Pennsylvania College Cases, sought to overturn the consolidation plan.[17] Leadership of the college during this time fell to Samuel J. Wilson, a local pastor, and James I. Brownson, who had earlier been interim president of Washington College.[18][19] By 1871, the United States Supreme Court upheld the consolidation, allowing the newly configured college to proceed.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hayes_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hays Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hays_Hall"},{"link_name":"George P. Hays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_P._Hays_(college_president)"},{"link_name":"George P. Hays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_P._Hays_(college_president)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"James D. Moffat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Moffat"},{"link_name":"Old Gym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Gym"},{"link_name":"Hays Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hays_Hall"},{"link_name":"Thompson Memorial Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thompson_Memorial_Library"},{"link_name":"Thistle Physics Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thistle_Physics_Building"},{"link_name":"Cameron Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moffatlibrary-21"},{"link_name":"McMillan Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMillan_Hall"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Frederick W. Hinitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_W._Hinitt"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hinittlibrary-23"},{"link_name":"William E. Slemmons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E._Slemmons"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-slemmonslibrary-24"},{"link_name":"Samuel Charles Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Charles_Black"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerlibrary-25"},{"link_name":"national parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blacklibrary-26"},{"link_name":"Simon Strousse Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Strousse_Baker"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerlibrary-25"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strikewon-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerlibrary-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerlibrary-25"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strikewon-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheBurnettCenter.jpg"},{"link_name":"Howard J. Burnett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_J._Burnett"},{"link_name":"Burnett Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnett_Center"},{"link_name":"Ralph Cooper Hutchison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Cooper_Hutchison"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hutchison-28"},{"link_name":"Lazear Chemistry Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazear_Chemistry_Hall"},{"link_name":"McIlvane Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McIlvane_Hall"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hutchisonlibrary-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldgym-30"},{"link_name":"Lafayette College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette_College"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hutchisonlibrary-29"},{"link_name":"James Herbert Case, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Herbert_Case,_Jr."},{"link_name":"G.I. Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Bill"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-caselibrary-31"},{"link_name":"Boyd Crumrine Patterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyd_Crumrine_Patterson"},{"link_name":"Henry Memorial Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Memorial_Center"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities"},{"link_name":"U. Grant Miller Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U._Grant_Miller_Library"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pattersonlibrary-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obit-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pattersonlibrary-32"},{"link_name":"Howard J. Burnett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_J._Burnett"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-burnettlibrary-34"},{"link_name":"academic calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_calendar#Collegiate_calendars"},{"link_name":"intersession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersession"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-burnettlibrary-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-burnettlibrary-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-burnettlibrary-34"},{"link_name":"Brian C. Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_C._Mitchell"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mitchelllibrary-35"},{"link_name":"Tori Haring-Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori_Haring-Smith"},{"link_name":"Swanson Science Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanson_Science_Center"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sciencedetails-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth MacLeod Walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_MacLeod_Walls"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"History since unification","text":"Hays Hall, named after George P. Hays, was built in 1903 and demolished in 1994.George P. Hays, who had assumed the presidency amid the court battle and the unification controversy, led the newly unified college until 1881.[20] His successor, James D. Moffat, led the college through a period of growth where the college constructed the Old Gym, Hays Hall, Thompson Memorial Library, and Thistle Physics Building, as well as purchasing the land known as the \"old fair ground,\" now used for Cameron Stadium.[21] Towards the end of his term, Moffat personally paid for the 1912 renovations of McMillan Hall.[22] In 1914, Frederick W. Hinitt was elected president. His tenure was dominated by the United States' entry into World War I, with an enrollment drop of 50%.[23] William E. Slemmons, a college trustee and adjunct professor, succeeded Hinitt and served as interim president from May 1918 to June 1919.[24] After the war ended in 1919, Samuel Charles Black took over and helped to stabilize the enrollment.[25] While on a honeymoon tour of national parks, Black became ill and died.[26] His successor, Simon Strousse Baker, was well liked by the college's trustees and by \"many a townsman\", but the student body felt that Baker was \"autocratic\" and held an \"unfriendly attitude toward the student body as individuals.\"[25][27] Baker defended himself, saying that the perceived ill-will towards students was unintentional and a misunderstanding.[25] Nonetheless, the student body held a strike and general walkout in 1931, prompting Baker to resign.[25][27]Named after Howard J. Burnett, the Burnett Center was constructed in 1998.Baker's successor, Ralph Cooper Hutchison, was much more popular with the student body.[28] In an effort to strengthen the college's science department, Hutchison extended and expanded the southern portion of the campus, adding the Lazear Chemistry Hall and purchasing McIlvane Hall.[29] When World War II broke out, the campus was opened to the Army Administration School, where hundreds of soldiers received their \"training in classifications.\"[30] Hutchison resigned in 1945 to take the presidency of his alma mater, Lafayette College.[29] James Herbert Case, Jr., who was president from 1946 to 1950, constructed several new dormitories to handle the influx of veterans under the G.I. Bill.[31] In 1950, Boyd Crumrine Patterson assumed the presidency and oversaw curriculum revisions and the construction of a number of buildings, including the Henry Memorial Center, 10 Greek housing units in the center of campus, the U. Grant Miller Library, the Student Center, the Commons, and two new dormitories.[32] His fundraising abilities grew the college's endowment expanded from $2.3 million to nearly $11 million.[33] Patterson retired in 1970, the same year that the trustees authorized the admission of women as undergraduate students.[32] Howard J. Burnett took office as president that year and hired the college's first female faculty members and the first female dean.[34] The college also adopted a new academic calendar to include intersession and expanded its academic programs to include the Entrepreneurial Studies Program, the Freshman Forum, and several cooperative international education programs.[34] Student enrollment grew from 830 in 1970 to 1,100 in 1998.[34] Burnett retired as president in 1998.[34] Under Burnett's successor, Brian C. Mitchell, who served as president from 1998 to 2004, the college experienced a growth in construction and an effort to improve relations with the neighboring communities.[35] In 2004, Tori Haring-Smith became the first woman to serve as president of Washington & Jefferson, undertaking an effort to improve the science curriculum and to construct the Swanson Science Center.[36][37] After 13 years of service, Haring-Smith retired from her position on June 30, 2017. John C. Knapp was named Haring-Smith's successor on April 21, 2017, and became the college's 13th president on August 1, 2017.[38] On February 27, 2024 the college announced the selection of Elizabeth MacLeod Walls as the 14th president. MacLeod Walls will begin her tenure on June 30, 2024.[39]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"liberal arts college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_colleges_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"undergraduate education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_education"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegieclassifications-40"},{"link_name":"accredited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_accreditation"},{"link_name":"Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_States_Association_of_Colleges_and_Schools"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"student/faculty ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%E2%80%93teacher_ratio"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collegefacts-3"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"terminal degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_degree"},{"link_name":"teaching assistants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_assistant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collegefacts-3"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prfaculty-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ataglance-44"},{"link_name":"terminal degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_degree"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ataglance-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prfaculty-43"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collegefacts-3"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ataglance-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ataglance-44"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winter2010-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"As a liberal arts college, Washington & Jefferson College focuses exclusively on undergraduate education.[40] It is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.[41] The college's teaching environment reflects the liberal arts tradition of small group instruction by maintaining an average class size of 17 and a student/faculty ratio of 12:1.[3][42] 85% of faculty have terminal degrees and no classes are taught by teaching assistants.[3][43] The college has a strong science program, with 35% of students majoring in one of the scientific departments.[44] Within those areas, all 32 professors hold terminal degrees.[44] The most frequent class size is between 10 and 19 students.[43]The college has a focus on preparing students for graduate school and professional programs.[3] Across all disciplines, 85% to 90% of students who apply to such programs receive offers of admission.[45] Among students who apply to medical school or related health graduate programs, 90% of students gain admission.[44] Approximately 11% of all current W&J alumni are physicians and engineers, making the college third in the nation per capita for producing doctors and scientific researchers.[44][46][47] Among students who apply to law school, approximately 90% of students gain admission.[48]The college recently added The English Language Institute which is a pre-academic program designed to equip multi-lingual learners with the English and academic skills to be prepared for undergraduate study.","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Classification_of_Institutions_of_Higher_Education"},{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegieclassifications-40"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usnewsoverall-53"},{"link_name":"The Princeton Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princeton_Review"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pradmissions-54"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usnewsoverall-53"},{"link_name":"matriculating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriculation"},{"link_name":"top 10%","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_rank"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pradmissions-54"},{"link_name":"interquartile range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interquartile_range"},{"link_name":"SAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAT"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pradmissions-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usnewsoverall-53"},{"link_name":"Forbes Magazine's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"List of America's Best Colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_Magazine%27s_List_of_America%27s_Best_Colleges"},{"link_name":"higher education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"The Washington Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Monthly"},{"link_name":"social mobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_mobility"},{"link_name":"community service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_service"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmguide2009-58"},{"link_name":"Federal Work-Study Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Work-Study_Program"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmguide2009-58"},{"link_name":"Tori Haring-Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori_Haring-Smith"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potemkin-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potemkin-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Presidents Letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_which_have_signed_the_Presidents_Letter"},{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"Admission and rankings","text":"Admission to Washington & Jefferson College is classified as \"more selective\" by both the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education and U.S. News & World Report.[40][53] The Princeton Review gave Washington & Jefferson an \"Admissions Selectivity Rating\" of 92.[54] The college extends offers of admission to 38.2% of all applicants.[53] Of all matriculating students, the average high school GPA is 3.34 and 38% are in the top 10% of their high school class.[54] The interquartile range for SAT scores in math and reasoning skills are 510–610 and 520–620, respectively.[54] In 2009, the college developed an SAT-optional admissions program.[55][56]In the 2019 U.S. News & World Report college rankings, Washington & Jefferson is ranked #103 of all liberal arts colleges in the nation, placing it within \"Tier 1.\"[53] In Forbes Magazine's List of America's Best Colleges for 2010, the college was ranked #100 out of the nation's institutions of higher education.[57] The Washington Monthly ranked the college #132 among all American liberal arts colleges in terms of social mobility, research, and community service.[58] The rankings listed the college as #30 in the nation in terms of Federal Work-Study Program money spent of community service.[58]As president of the college, Tori Haring-Smith has specifically criticized the U.S. News & World Report rankings system, noting that the \"financial resources\" portion of the rankings formula favors colleges that have higher tuition, even without providing any educational benefits, saying that this has harmed the college's ranking because it charged $5,000 to $7,000 less in tuition that its peer institutions.[59] She also questioned the \"peer assessment\" portion of the rankings and suggested that college presidents are rarely aware of educational improvements in their peer institutions; she noted that Washington & Jefferson College's ranking has remained the same for a number of years, even while the college made significant improvements in terms of its acceptance rates and overall selectivity, the addition of academic programs, and the construction of additional buildings.[59] Haring-Smith's criticism of the rankings spurred Bob Morse, the founder of the U.S. College Rankings system to respond to the criticisms directly in an article.[60] She has signed the \"Presidents Letter,\" a nationwide movement asking fellow college presidents to decline participation in the U.S. News & World Report reputation survey, a subjective evaluation where college administrators score their competition.[61]","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"liberal arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts"},{"link_name":"pre-professional classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_professional_degree"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegieclassifications-40"},{"link_name":"freshmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshman"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"academic major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_major"},{"link_name":"general education requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_education_requirements"},{"link_name":"arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_education_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"natural sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciences"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"foreign languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_languages"},{"link_name":"cultural diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies"},{"link_name":"writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing"},{"link_name":"oral communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_communication"},{"link_name":"quantitative reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_research"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"academic minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_(Academic)"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"physical education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_education"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fittest2006-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"graduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_school"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"academic calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_calendar"},{"link_name":"Intersession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersession"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"studying abroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_abroad"},{"link_name":"internship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intern"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-integratedsemester-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-integratedsemester-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-integratedsemester-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"Reserve Officers' Training Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps"},{"link_name":"University of Pittsburgh's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps"},{"link_name":"Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps"},{"link_name":"active","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_duty"},{"link_name":"reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_components_of_the_United_States_armed_forces"},{"link_name":"commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog08-62"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"National Guard of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"associate's degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associate%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"externships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship"},{"link_name":"experiential learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_learning"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Invasion of Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy"},{"link_name":"medical missions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_clinic"},{"link_name":"Dominican Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Institute of International Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_International_Education"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"sub_title":"Curriculum","text":"The curriculum is centered on the traditional liberal arts education and pre-professional classes.[40] All first-semester freshmen must complete the \"First Year Seminar\" class, which introduces new students to a variety of lectures, concerts, plays, and trips to museums or galleries based on a different course theme selected each year.[62] In addition to completing an academic major, students must satisfy the college-wide general education requirements, which include classes in the arts, humanities, natural sciences and mathematics, foreign languages, cultural diversity, and academic skills classes including writing, oral communication, quantitative reasoning.[62] Students may choose to complete an academic minor, participate in interdepartmental concentrations, or to focus on an intra-departmental emphasis.[62][63] Additionally, all students must complete a physical education requirement, amounting to one full semester class, making W&J one of the few liberal arts colleges without a physical education major to have such a requirement.[64][65] The college maintains a number of combined degree programs, allowing students to attend graduate or professional school in lieu of senior year.[62]The college follows the 4–1–4 academic calendar, which includes a four-month fall term, a three-week Intersession term in January, followed by a four-month spring term.[62] During the Intersession term, students have the choice of studying abroad, completing an external internship, or taking a specially-designed Intersession course.[62] These Intersession courses are more focused than regular courses and provide professors with an opportunity to teach non-traditional subjects.[62][66] Past Intersession courses have included \"Emerging Diseases: Global and Local\" in the biology department, \"Corporate Failures, Frauds, and Scandals\" in the business department, and \"Vampires and Other Bloodsuckers\" in the English department, \"Holocaust Survivor Narratives\" in the German department, and \"Alternative Radio\" in the communications department.[62][67][68] At various times, the faculty organizes an \"Integrated Semester,\" where professors organize regular departmental courses, specialized projects, and public events dealing with a common interdisciplinary theme.[69] Students participating in more than two designed courses receive a transcript designation noting their participation in the program.[69] Past themes have included \"Integrated Semester on Asia,\" \"The Importance of Place,\" \"Integrated Semester on the Spanish-Speaking World.\"[69][70][71] Students can also pursue international education through 30 pre-approved programs in over 20 countries.[62] While W&J has not had a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program since 1991, the college has a relationship with the University of Pittsburgh's Army and Air Force ROTC programs, allowing W&J students to prepare for an active or reserve commission following graduation.[62][72] Members of the National Guard of the United States may take online classes to earn an associate's degree in Information Technology Leadership or a certificate in Information Management and Security.[73] Students may undertake externships to gain experiential learning experience in their chosen field.[74] The Franklin Internship Awards, established in 2006 by Ellis Hyman, provide upperclassmen with financial assistance to take an unpaid internship.[75] The college's Magellan Project is a series of programs that provide support and financing for research and independent study projects.[76] Past Magellan Projects have allowed students to study the Invasion of Normandy, Mexican transportation systems, and to volunteer at medical missions in the Dominican Republic.[77] In 2010, the Magellan Project received the Heiskell Award from the Institute of International Education in recognition of the college's progressive approach to study abroad.[78] In the 2010–2011 school year, 58% of W&J students studied abroad.[79]","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Washington & Jefferson College buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Washington_%26_Jefferson_College_buildings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:McMillan_Hall_western_front.jpg"},{"link_name":"McMillan Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMillan_Hall"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"city of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"East Washington 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marker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Pennsylvania_state_historical_markers_in_Washington_County"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phmcdatabase-84"},{"link_name":"McMillan Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMillan_Hall"},{"link_name":"Allegheny Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Old Main","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Main_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Old Gym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Gym"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Swanson Science Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swanson_Science_Center"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sciencedetails-36"},{"link_name":"The Burnett Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Burnett_Center"},{"link_name":"Technology Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_Center_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Hays Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hays_Hall"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Victorian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_architecture"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-washjeffVictorian-94"},{"link_name":"Greek organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Greek_life"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-washjeffVictorian-94"},{"link_name":"U. Grant Miller Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U._Grant_Miller_Library"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"athletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_%26_Jefferson_Presidents"},{"link_name":"intramural teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Intramural_athletics"},{"link_name":"Cameron Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Stadium"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_%26_Jefferson_Presidents_football"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Henry Memorial Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Memorial_Center"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Brooks Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks_Park"},{"link_name":"Ross Memorial Park and Alexandre Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Memorial_Park_and_Alexandre_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"}],"text":"See also: List of Washington & Jefferson College buildingsMcMillan Hall, built in 1793, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.The campus of Washington & Jefferson College is located in the city of Washington and the East Washington Borough, small-town communities about 30 miles (48 km) south of Pittsburgh.[62][80] The 60-acre (24 ha) campus is home to more than 40 academic, administrative, recreational, and residential buildings.[62] The northern edge of campus is bound by East Walnut Street, the western edge by South College Street, the southern edge by East Maiden Street, and the eastern edge by South Wade.[81] Portions of the campus extend into the East Washington Historic District.[82] Four historic gates mark four traditional entrances to campus at East Maiden Street, Wheeling Street, South College Street, and Beau Street.[83] In 1947, the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker noting the historic importance of the college.[84]The oldest surviving building is McMillan Hall, which dates to 1793 and is the oldest college building west of the Allegheny Mountains.[85] The main academic building is Old Main, which is topped with two prominent towers.[86] The Old Gym houses a modern exercise facility.[87] McIlvaine Hall, which was originally home to a female seminary, was demolished in 2008 and replaced by the Swanson Science Center.[88][89] Davis Memorial Hall was once a dormitory and private house.[90] The Thistle Physics Building, the Lazear Chemistry Hall, and the Dieter-Porter Life Sciences Building all cater to the scientific curriculum.[36] The Burnett Center and its sister building, the Technology Center, were built in the late 1990s and early 2000s.[91][92]The first dormitory on campus was Hays Hall.[93] Wade House, Carriage House, and Whitworth House are Victorian homes housing older students.[94] The recently constructed Chestnut Street Housing complex provides housing for the college's Greek organizations.[95] The Presidents' Row is a cluster of ten buildings in the center of campus, several of which are dedicated to theme housing.[96] Two sister dormitories, New Residence Hall and Bica-Ross Hall, feature suite-style living arrangements.[97][98] Mellon Hall houses female freshman, and Upperclass Hall houses male freshmen.[99][100] Other dormitories include Alexander Hall, Beau Hall, Marshall Hall, North Hall, and Penn House.[101][102][103][104] The college administration utilizes several buildings, including the Admissions House, the Alumni House, and the President's House, which are all modified Victorian homes.[94] The U. Grant Miller Library is the modern library; its predecessor, Thompson Hall, is now used for administrative purposes.[105][106] The Hub, The Commons, and the Rossin Campus Center provide recreational and dining facilities for students.[107][108] The athletic and intramural teams utilize Cameron Stadium for football and track.[109] The Henry Memorial Center is used for basketball, wrestling, swimming, and volleyball.[110] Other athletic facilities include Brooks Park, Ross Memorial Park and Alexandre Stadium, and the Janet L. Swanson Tennis Courts.[111][112]","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"The Chair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chair_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Mindhunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindhunter_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Popular culture","text":"Washington & Jefferson is the setting for the Netflix programs The Chair and Mindhunter.[113]","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usnewsoverall-53"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegieclassifications-40"},{"link_name":"transfer students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_student"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carnegieclassifications-40"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Pell Grants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pell_Grant"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmguide2009-58"},{"link_name":"public high schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_high_school"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pradmissions-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pradmissions-54"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmguide2009-58"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yesprep-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usnewsstudentbody-119"},{"link_name":"White American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_American"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prstudentbody-114"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prstudentbody-114"},{"link_name":"Asian American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_American"},{"link_name":"Hispanic Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prstudentbody-114"},{"link_name":"International students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_student"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prstudentbody-114"},{"link_name":"Men's Fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%27s_Fitness"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fittest2006-64"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Higher_Education_Community_Service_Honor_Roll"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Federal Work-Study Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Work-Study_Program"},{"link_name":"community service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_service"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wmguide2009-58"},{"link_name":"YES Prep Public Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YES_Prep_Public_Schools"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yesprep-118"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"}],"text":"As of fall 2021, the student body totaled 1,156 undergraduate students. [53] [116] The student body is highly residential, with 98% of students residing in campus housing.[40] The number of transfer students joining the student body each year is relatively low, compared to other institutions.[40][117] Approximately 18% of the student body receives federal Pell Grants.[58] Prior to entering college, 82% of the student body attended public high schools.[54] Roughly 86% of the each freshman class returns to the college for their sophomore year.[54] The overall graduation rate is 70%[58] About 25 to 30% of each incoming class is the first in their family to attend college.[118]The male to female ratio is 54% to 46%.[119] Like the population of Pennsylvania and the United States as a whole, the largest ethnic group at the college is White American, making up about 82% of the student population.[114] Roughly 10% of the student population does not specify their ethnicity.[114] Other ethnicities, including African American, Asian American, Native American, and Hispanic Americans collectively comprise about 6% of the student body.[114] International students make up 2.05% of the student body.[114]In 2006, Men's Fitness named W&J the \"14th Fittest College in America,\" a ranking that weighed the college's fitness offerings and the student body's culture of fitness and behavior.[64][120][121] In 2009, the college was named to the President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll, in recognition of the student body's commitment to community service.[122][123] The college's spends 22% of its Federal Work-Study Program funds on community service projects.[58]The college has joined the YES Prep School IMPACT Partnership Program to provide support to low-income students from the YES Prep Public Schools.[118][124]","title":"Student body"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"WNJR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WNJR_(FM)"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-showcase-127"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-showcase-127"},{"link_name":"Pet House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet_House"},{"link_name":"Monroe Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Hall"},{"link_name":"Presidents' Row","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Washington_%26_Jefferson_College_buildings#Presidents'_Row"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-petnews-128"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-petnews-128"},{"link_name":"abandonment of pets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abandoned_pets"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-petnews-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bite-130"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"USA Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today"},{"link_name":"Observer-Reporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer-Reporter"},{"link_name":"KDKA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDKA-TV"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bite-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"locally grown foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_food"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"Bon Apetit Management Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon_App%C3%A9tit_Management_Company"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"}],"sub_title":"Student housing","text":"The college offers \"Theme Community Living,\" where students with common interests live in a single living unit.[125] Past themes have included the \"Intensive Study,\" the \"Service Leadership Community,\" the \"International House,\" \"Music House,\" the \"WashPA Radio Theme Community\" for students who participate in the WNJR college radio station, and the \"Pet House\".[126][127] Students proposing a theme community must develop an educational plan centered on the theme.[127] The college does not typically allow students to live in off-campus housing.The Pet House, which allows students to bring their pets to campus, has been located in Monroe Hall in Presidents' Row.[128] Not all types of pets are permitted, only permits students to bring cats, small dogs, small birds, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, and fish.[128] Further, students may only bring pets that they have owned for over one year and be over the age of one and one half, to avoid the problem of impulse purchases and abandonment of pets.[128][129] The college began the pet house program in 2006, and is one of a dozen schools nationwide to have such a program.[130] The Pet House has been profiled in The New York Times, the USA Today, Observer-Reporter, and KDKA.[130][131][132]Several old Victorian houses, named Whitworth Hall and Wade Hall, are used as women's dorms and are slightly isolated from the other dormitories. Many students are also housed in the Greek houses on Chestnut Street, all of the Greek organizations on campus occupy houses owned by the college.The college's dining services has made efforts to use locally grown foods.[133] There are three dining venues on campus, The Commons Café, G&T's Grill and X'Prez'O, which are managed by Bon Apetit Management Company.[134]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obama_W%26J_College_4-15-2008.jpg"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubmanual-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubmanual-135"},{"link_name":"student clubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_society"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubs-136"},{"link_name":"Society of Physics 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Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newman_Centre"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubs-136"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubs-136"}],"sub_title":"Clubs","text":"Barack Obama campaigning at W&J in 2008.Students may organize new clubs by presenting a constitution and a list of members to the college administration and the student government for approval.[135] This approval process does not authorize any club to act on behalf of the college, nor does approval indicate any the college's agreement with the club's purpose.[135]The college recognizes over 70 student clubs on campus.[136] A number of student clubs are dedicated to encouraging interest is a specific academic discipline, including the \"W&J Denominators\" mathematics club, the Society of Physics Students, and the Pre-Health Professions Society.[136] Others are organized along ethnic and cultural lines, including the Black Student Union and the Asian Culture Association.[136] Both major American political parties have chapters at the college, in the form of the \"W&J College Democrats\" and the Young Republicans.[136] Some clubs take the form of non-varsity athletic teams, including the Men's Rugby Club, the Women's Rugby Club, the Equestrian Club, Men's Volleyball Club and the Ultimate Frisbee Club.[136] Several clubs create volunteer opportunities though Big Brothers/Big Sisters and the United Way.[136] Many religious faiths are represented, including the Hillel Society, Newman Club, and the Student Christian Association, as well as an Interfaith Leadership Club which organizes interfaith events.[137][136] Many other clubs encourage interests in various academic and non-academic activities, including the Green Club (the college's environmental club), the Outdoors Club, and others which are mainly inactive like the Bottega Art Club, the Franklin Literary Society, and the Chess Club.[136]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"college newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_newspaper"},{"link_name":"college radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_radio"},{"link_name":"yearbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yearbook"},{"link_name":"literary journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_journal"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-studentmedia-138"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubs-136"},{"link_name":"Red & Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_%26_Black_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"student newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_newspaper"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rnb-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rnb-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rnb-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"college radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_radio"},{"link_name":"WNJR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WNJR_(FM)"},{"link_name":"FM broadcast band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcast_band"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aboutwnjr-141"},{"link_name":"freeform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeform_(radio_format)"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aboutwnjr-141"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_radio"},{"link_name":"sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_radio"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aboutwnjr-141"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Designated Market Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_DMA"},{"link_name":"northern Pittsburgh suburbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Township,_Allegheny_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Monessen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monessen,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Waynesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waynesburg,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"West Virginia Panhandle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Panhandle_of_West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"literary journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_journal"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clubs-136"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"V. Penelope Pelizzon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._Penelope_Pelizzon"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"yearbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yearbook"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-studentmedia-138"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pandora-148"}],"sub_title":"Student media","text":"Student media offerings at Washington & Jefferson College include a college newspaper, a college radio station, a yearbook, and a student-edited literary journal.[138] All students, regardless of academic major, are eligible to contribute to these media organizations.[136]Founded in 1909, the Red & Black student newspaper has a weekly circulation of 1,250 copies.[139] The student staff handles all aspects of the production, including writing, editing, graphic design, layout, and advertising sales.[139] The Red & Black features local and national news, student opinion, and college athletics coverage.[139] During the 1860s, students published a satirical newspaper called The Bogus Tract.[140]The college radio station, WNJR broadcasts on the FM broadcast band.[141] Assisted by a faculty advisor from the Department of Theater and Communication, the student-run studio broadcasts in a freeform format with both nationally syndicated programs and Pittsburgh-based independent programs.[141][142] Student on-air personalities produce radio programs including music, news, talk, and sports.[141] It serves the Pittsburgh Designated Market Area, reaching north to the northern Pittsburgh suburbs, east to Monessen, south to Waynesburg and west to the West Virginia Panhandle.[143]The Wooden Tooth Review is a student-edited literary journal, featuring short fiction and poetry submitted by members of the student body.[144][145] The editorial board is organized as a recognized student club, with a faculty advisor.[136][146] The journal was founded in 1999, with V. Penelope Pelizzon, Coordinator of Creative Writing, serving as the first faculty advisor.[147] The college's yearbook, Pandora, is produced annually by a student staff.[138][148]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:W%26J_Contest_1893.jpg"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centennial-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centennial-149"},{"link_name":"dialogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centennial-149"},{"link_name":"declamations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declamatio"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centennial-149"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-literarysocietylibraries-150"},{"link_name":"college literary societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_literary_societies"},{"link_name":"trustees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Washington_%26_Jefferson_College_trustees"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centennial-149"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scarborough15-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spring06-152"}],"sub_title":"Literary societies","text":"Cover of the playbill for the 1893 ContestThe history of literary societies at Washington & Jefferson College dates back to the 1797, when the Franklin Literary Society and the Philo Literary Society were founded at Canonsburg Academy.[149] Two other literary societies were founded at Washington College, the Union Literary Society in 1809 and the Washington Literary Society in 1814.[149] Typical early activities include the presentation of dialogues, translations of passages from Greek or Latin classics, and extemporaneous speaking.[149] Later, the literary societies began to present declamations.[149] Each society maintained independent libraries for the use of their members, each of which rivaled the holdings of their respective colleges.[150] These four college literary societies had intense rivalries with each other, competing in \"contests\", which pitted select society members against another in \"compositions, speaking select orations and debating\", with the trustees selecting the victor.[149] Because the two colleges never met each other in athletic contests, these literary competitions were the main outlet for their rivalry.[151] In the years after the union of the two colleges, these four literary societies merged with the Franklin Literary Society, which survives today.[152]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shorttakes-154"},{"link_name":"studio art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_art"},{"link_name":"art education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_education"},{"link_name":"graphic design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_design"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wjart-155"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"Malcolm Parcell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Parcell"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog-163"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-catalog-163"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"Di Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_Wu_(pianist)"},{"link_name":"Habib Koité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habib_Koit%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Chris Potter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Potter_(jazz_saxophonist)"},{"link_name":"The Aquila Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquila_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Invisible Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man"},{"link_name":"Eroica Trio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eroica_Trio"},{"link_name":"Oni Buchanan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oni_Buchanan"},{"link_name":"Tommy Sands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Sands_(Irish_folk_singer)"},{"link_name":"Cavani String Quartet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavani_String_Quartet"},{"link_name":"Sergio and Odar Assad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Assad"},{"link_name":"Sandip Burman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandip_Burman"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-w2002-168"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"W&J alum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Washington_%26_Jefferson_College_alumni"},{"link_name":"Alberto Vilar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Vilar"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shorttakes-154"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vilarae4-171"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sum2003-172"},{"link_name":"Lorin Maazel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorin_Maazel"},{"link_name":"Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavarian_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Valery Gergiev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery_Gergiev"},{"link_name":"Kirov Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirov_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Camerata Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camerata_Salzburg"},{"link_name":"Vienna State Opera Ballet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera_Ballet"},{"link_name":"Salzburg Mozarteum Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salzburg_Mozarteum_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Susan Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Graham"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Larmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Larmore"},{"link_name":"Samuel Ramey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Ramey"},{"link_name":"Barbara Bonney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Bonney"},{"link_name":"Katia and Marielle Labèque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katia_and_Marielle_Lab%C3%A8que"},{"link_name":"Angelika Kirchschlager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelika_Kirchschlager"},{"link_name":"Simon Keenlyside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Keenlyside"},{"link_name":"Gil Shaham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Shaham"},{"link_name":"Jessye Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessye_Norman"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-w2002-168"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vilarae4-171"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-review-173"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scandal-174"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-accused-175"},{"link_name":"stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vilarae4-171"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scandal-174"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sum2003-172"},{"link_name":"popular musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"Cobra Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobra_Starship"},{"link_name":"Girl Talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl_Talk_(musician)"},{"link_name":"N.E.R.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N.E.R.D."},{"link_name":"New Found Glory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Found_Glory"},{"link_name":"Saves the Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saves_the_Day"},{"link_name":"The Clarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clarks"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"}],"sub_title":"Art scene","text":"Washington & Jefferson College is home to a vibrant student art and musical scene. The artistic center of campus is the Olin Fine Arts Center, with an art gallery and a 486-seat auditorium.[153][154] On the academic side, the Department of Art offers majors in studio art and art education, as well as a concentration in graphic design.[155] The Department of Music offers majors and minors in music.[156] The Department of Theatre and Communications offers a major and minor in theatre.[157] Current musical organizations include the W&J Wind Ensemble, the W&J Jazz Ensemble, the W&J Choir and the Camerata Singers.[158] Former musical organizations include the Banjo, Mandolin & Guitar Club and the College Band.[159][160] Every year since 2003, the Theatre and Communication Department has produced the Winter Tales series, an annual production of one-act plays written by members of the W&J community, students, alumni, faculty, administration, and staff, and produced by the W&J Student Theater Company.[161][162]In addition to student-produced art and music, the college provides a number of opportunities to view art and music from the larger art community. The college holds a collection of paintings by distinguished regional artist Malcolm Parcell, which are displayed in several locations on campus.[163] The most prominent location is the Malcolm Parcell Room in The Commons, which is part of the student dining area.[163][164] The W&J Arts Series is an annual collection of musicians, singers, and other artistic performers appearing at the Olin Fine Arts Center.[165] Past shows have included Di Wu, Habib Koité, Chris Potter, The Aquila Theatre Company presenting The Invisible Man, Eroica Trio, Oni Buchanan, Tommy Sands, Cavani String Quartet, Sergio and Odar Assad, and Sandip Burman.[166][167][168][169][170] In 1999, billionaire W&J alum and well-known opera philanthropist Alberto Vilar sponsored the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series, which brought a number of world-class classical performers to perform at the Olin Fine Arts Center at no cost to students.[154][171][172] During its run, the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series hosted, among others, Lorin Maazel conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, conductor Valery Gergiev conducting the Kirov Orchestra, Camerata Salzburg with Murray Periaha, St. Petersburg Classic Ballet, Vienna State Opera Ballet, Salzburg Mozarteum Orchestra, Susan Graham, Jennifer Larmore, Samuel Ramey, Barbara Bonney, Katia and Marielle Labèque, Angelika Kirchschlager, Simon Keenlyside, Gil Shaham, and Jessye Norman.[168][171][173][174][175] In 2003, amid Vilar's falling fortunes during the stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002, the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series went on a temporary hiatus.[171] Vilar's 2005 indictment for financial fraud ended any possibility of reviving the arts series.[174] In Fall 2003, the W&J Arts Series, the college's other art series, was expanded to partially compensate for the loss.[172] The Student Government Association organizes the annual Fall Concert and Spring Concert, which bring popular musical acts to campus.[176] Past Spring and Fall concerts have included Cobra Starship, Girl Talk, N.E.R.D. New Found Glory, Saves the Day, and local favorite The Clarks.[177][178][179][180][181]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phi_Kappa_Sigma_1872_W%26J_College.jpg"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Sigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Sigma"},{"link_name":"fraternities and sororities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternities_and_sororities_in_North_America"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"The Princeton Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princeton_Review"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"Alpha Tau Omega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Tau_Omega"},{"link_name":"Beta Theta Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_Theta_Pi"},{"link_name":"Delta Tau Delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Tau_Delta"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Psi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Psi"},{"link_name":"Delta Gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Gamma"},{"link_name":"Kappa Alpha Theta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Alpha_Theta"},{"link_name":"Kappa Kappa Gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Kappa_Gamma"},{"link_name":"Pi Beta Phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_Beta_Phi"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SHgreek-185"},{"link_name":"Interfraternal Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-American_Interfraternity_Conference"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"Panhellenic Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Panhellenic_Conference"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SHgreek-185"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chestnut-188"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-majorchanges-189"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"Phi Gamma Delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Psi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Psi"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"Jefferson Duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Duo"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"Kappa Phi Lambda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa_Phi_Lambda_(fraternity)"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bairdkappaphilambda-195"},{"link_name":"Phi Delta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Delta_Kappa_(fraternity)"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bairdphideltakappa-196"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bairdphideltakappa-196"}],"sub_title":"Greek life","text":"Members of Phi Kappa Sigma pose for a chapter photo in the early 1870s.With 43% of women and 40% of men of the student body participating in Greek life, fraternities and sororities play a significant role in student life at W&J.[182] The Princeton Review named Washington & Jefferson College 12th on their 2010 list of \"Major Frat and Sorority Scene\" in the United States.[183] As of 2022, the Office of Fraternity & Sorority Life recognized 4 fraternities, Alpha Tau Omega, Beta Theta Pi, Delta Tau Delta, and Phi Kappa Psi, and four sororities, Delta Gamma, Kappa Alpha Theta, Kappa Kappa Gamma, and Pi Beta Phi.[184][185] The fraternities are governed by a local Interfraternal Council[186] and the sororities are governed by a local Panhellenic Council,[187] while the Greek Judiciary manages broad policy violations at the chapter-level.[185] All Greek organizations occupy College-owned houses on Chestnut Street on campus.[188] All members of fraternities and sororities must pay the $100 \"Greek Membership Fee\", a levy designed to fund leadership seminars and other educational events for Greeks.[189][190]Two national fraternities were founded at Jefferson College, Phi Gamma Delta in 1848 and Phi Kappa Psi in 1852.[191][192] Together, they are collectively known as the Jefferson Duo.[193][194] A third fraternity was founded at Jefferson College, Kappa Phi Lambda, but it dissolved after a decade of existence amid a dispute between chapters.[195] In 1874, a fourth fraternity was founded at W&J, the short-lived Phi Delta Kappa.[196] The new fraternity grew to several chapters before falling apart in 1880.[196]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Athletics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WashJeffFootball.JPG"},{"link_name":"Washington & Jefferson Presidents football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_%26_Jefferson_Presidents_football"},{"link_name":"National Collegiate Athletic Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association"},{"link_name":"Division III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_III"},{"link_name":"Presidents' Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidents%27_Athletic_Conference"},{"link_name":"Most Valuable Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_Valuable_Player"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-athletics-197"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fittest2006-64"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division III playoffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_III_National_Football_Championship"},{"link_name":"1922 Rose Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Rose_Bowl"},{"link_name":"California Golden Bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Golden_Bears_football"},{"link_name":"national championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football_national_championships_in_NCAA_Division_I_FBS"},{"link_name":"Boand System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boand_System"},{"link_name":"American Collegiate Hockey Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Collegiate_Hockey_Association"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"}],"sub_title":"Intercollegiate","text":"Cameron Stadium, home of Washington & Jefferson Presidents football since 1890.W&J competes in 23 intercollegiate athletics at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III level. As of the 2009–10 academic year, the Presidents have won more than 108 Presidents' Athletic Conference (PAC) championships, 40 students were selected as conference Most Valuable Player, more than 300 athletes were awarded First Team All-Conference recognition, 75 received All-American honors, and 25 achieved Academic All-American status.[197] During the 2005–2006 season, 34 percent of the student body played varsity-level athletics.[64]The football team has been very successful, winning 18 out of the last 21 PAC Championships and advancing to the NCAA Division III playoffs 17 times. W&J played to a 0–0 tie in the 1922 Rose Bowl against the California Golden Bears and were named to a share of the national championship by the Boand System. The men's ice hockey team won the 2008 College Hockey Mid America Conference championship, a Division I regional league of the American Collegiate Hockey Association.[198] W&J also fields teams in field hockey, wrestling, baseball, softball, and volleyball, as well as men's and women's cross country running, soccer, tennis, water polo, basketball, swimming and diving, golf, lacrosse, and track & fieldW&J's baseball team plays at the all-turf Ross Memorial Ballpark, a site selected to host the 2015 and 2016 NCAA D-III regional tournament. Under the leadership of Coach Jeff Mountain, the Presidents have produced three All-Americans: Shaun Pfeill (3B, 2007); Sam Mann (P/1B; 2007) and Eddie Nogay (Pitcher; 2013). Nogay of Weirton, WV is the school's all-time wins leader with a career record of 28–2. Josh Staniscia of Franklin Regional H.S. is the school's all-time hits leader, with 251 career hits from 2011 to 2014. Frank Quirin (2008–2010) is the all-time home run leader with 22 career dingers.","title":"Athletics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intramural sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intramural_sports"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fittest2006-64"},{"link_name":"wallyball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallyball"},{"link_name":"ping pong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping_pong"},{"link_name":"Texas hold 'em","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_hold_%27em"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scarborough113-204"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"}],"sub_title":"Intramural","text":"The intramural sports program is one of the most consistently popular activities at Washington & Jefferson College, providing non-varsity and recreational athletic activities for all students, faculty, and staff of the college.[199][200] Vicki Staton, a former varsity women's basketball and volleyball coach, manages the intramural program.[201] In 2002, 60% of students participated in intramural sports.[202] In 2006, more than 40% of the student body participated in intramural athletics.[64] In 2007, the intramural activities included 3-on-3 basketball, billiards, bowling, flag football, kickball, tennis, ultimate frisbee, volleyball, wallyball, ping pong, and Texas hold 'em.[203] Intramural champions win a T-shirt celebrating their victory.[200]While the varsity athletics program was struggling during the 1930s, intramural participation topped 84% of the student population.[204] During that time, the management of intramural activities was transferred to the athletic department, allowing the intramural program to use the college's varsity facilities.[200] In the 1930s and 1940s, groups of students competed for the \"Big Cup,\" a trophy given to the most outstanding team, as judged by a cross-sport point system.[200]","title":"Athletics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pushball_W%26J.jpg"},{"link_name":"pushball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushball"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scarborough1617-205"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-welcometojay-200"},{"link_name":"Whichi Coax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Whichi_Coax"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c2007-206"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m2009-207"},{"link_name":"fight song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight_song"},{"link_name":"Good Ole W&J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Good_Ole_W%26J"},{"link_name":"99 Bottles of Beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99_Bottles_of_Beer"},{"link_name":"University of Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"Washington Female Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Female_Seminary"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m2009-207"},{"link_name":"alma mater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_mater"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-misctraditons-208"}],"text":"A game of pushball between the freshman and sophomore classes.One of the oldest traditions at Washington & Jefferson College was the \"Freshman Rules,\" a system of rules and restrictions on freshmen.[200] Failure by freshmen to follow these rules would subject them to beatings by upperclassmen or other punishments doled out by the \"Freshman Court.\"[200] During the 1870s and 1880s, the students engaged in organized athletic competitions, pitting the freshman versus sophomore classes in the \"Olympic Games\" that involved elaborate opening ceremonies and the smoking of a \"Pipe of Peace.\"[205] Another form of physical contest between the freshman and sophomore classes were the annual \"color rush,\" where the teams fought over control over strips of fabric, the \"pole rush,\" where the teams battled to raise a flag up a flagpole, and the \"cane rush\" where the teams fought over control over a ceremonial cane.[200] These contests generally devolved into outright gang violence.[200]The college cheer, Whichi Coax, is so pervasive in college history and culture that in addition to being shouted during academic ceremonies and football games, it is also used as a salutation in correspondence between alumni.[206][207] The college's fight song, \"Good Ole W&J\" is sung to the tune of \"99 Bottles of Beer\" and makes fun of a number of rival colleges, including the University of Pittsburgh, but was modified sometime before 1958 to laud Washington Female Seminary.[207] For a large portion of the college's history, there was no official alma mater, but there were a number of other tradition hymns and songs.[208]","title":"Traditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WandJShield.svg"},{"link_name":"coat of arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms"},{"link_name":"shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escutcheon_(heraldry)"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coa-209"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coa-209"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coa-209"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coa-209"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seal-211"},{"link_name":"Old Main","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Main_(Washington_%26_Jefferson_College)"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gi-212"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symbolsofjay-210"},{"link_name":"type styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gi-212"}],"sub_title":"Symbols of the college","text":"The coat of arms of Washington & Jefferson.The college's coat of arms features a two-part shield based on the coats of arms of the Jefferson and Washington families.[209] The top portion, showing two towers, representing Washington College and Jefferson College, and three stars, representing the McMillan, Dod, and Smith log cabins.[209] The lower portion, showing an interlocked design that in heraldry is called a fret, is adapted from Jefferson's coat of arms and the colors, red and black, is taken from the Washington coat of arms.[209][210] The coat of arms may appear with a banner underneath showing the college motto.[210] The design was adopted in 1902 in celebration of Jefferson College's centennial.[210] It was designed by Rev. Harry B. King, class of 1891.[210] Upon its adoption, it was described as \"a happy combination, and makes a very neat appearance when worn as a pin or button.\"[209]The college seal displays two brick towers, with one labeled \"1802,\" representing Jefferson College, and the other labeled \"1806,\" representing Washington College.[210] The union of the two colleges is represented by a bridge between the two towers, with Roman numerals reading 1865, the year of union.[210] Banners hanging from the towers show the college motto of \"Juncta Juvant.\"[210] The creation of the seal is unknown, with the first known use occurring during the 1902 centennial celebration of Jefferson College's founding.[210] The seal is used in official documents, including diplomas and certificates.[211]The college's current logo features a stylized version of the two towers of Old Main, symbolizing the 1865 unification of Washington College and Jefferson College.[212] The logo may be displayed in several versions: with the entire name of the college, the shortened form of \"W&J\", or without any text.[210] Prior to the adoption of this logo, the college's graphic identity consisted of a variety of conflicting logos and type styles.[212]","title":"Traditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bannersII-6"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"Canonsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonsburg,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banners149-155-15"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-onguard-214"},{"link_name":"East Washington Historic District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Washington_Historic_District"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-critics-82"},{"link_name":"Hays Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hays_Hall"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-delayed-215"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"property tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_tax"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-550PA-217"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-550PA-217"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania General Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ride-218"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PADC-219"},{"link_name":"Blueprint for Collaboration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_for_Collaboration"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blueprint2002-220"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"}],"text":"Relations between the city of Washington, Pennsylvania and Washington & Jefferson College span over two centuries, dating to the founding of both the city and the college in the 1780s.[6][213] The relationship between the town and college was strong enough that the citizens of Washington offered a $50,000 donation in 1869 to the college in a successful attempt to lure the trustees to select Washington over nearby Canonsburg as the consolidated location of the college.[15] The relationship encountered challenges the 20th century, with disagreements arising between the college and residential neighborhoods as the college pursued an expansion plan.[214] Preservationists unsuccessfully attempted to pass laws prohibiting the college from demolishing certain buildings that were listed on the East Washington Historic District.[82] Local preservationists also unsuccessfully tried to block the demolition of Hays Hall, which had been condemned.[215][216] In the 1990s, the city of Washington made several unsuccessful attempts to challenge the college's tax-exempt status. In 1993, Washington appealed the Washington County Board of Assessment's determination that the college was exempt from the city's property tax.[217] That case went to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the college.[217] In response, the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed a new law clarifying that colleges were exempt from taxation, including from local property taxes.[218] Separately, the city of Washington passed an ordinance that levied a municipal \"service fee\" against the college students, which was ruled to be illegal and was struck down.[219] In the late 1990s, the college and town created the Blueprint for Collaboration, a plan with detailed goals and benchmarks for the future to help the college and the city work together on economic development, environmental protection, and historic preservation.[220][221]","title":"Relations with the city of Washington"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JamesGBlaine.png"},{"link_name":"James G. Blaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_G._Blaine"},{"link_name":"U.S. Congressman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Speaker of the House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"1884 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"alumni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alumni"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wash-223"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jeff-224"},{"link_name":"James G. Blaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_G._Blaine"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Speaker of the House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"United States Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Republican_Party"},{"link_name":"1884 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wash-223"},{"link_name":"United States Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Bristow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Bristow"},{"link_name":"United States Attorney General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General"},{"link_name":"Henry Stanbery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Stanbery"},{"link_name":"Andrew Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Johnson"},{"link_name":"impeachment trial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jeff-224"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"Clarence Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Long"},{"link_name":"Operation Cyclone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cyclone"},{"link_name":"CIA's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"mujahideen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujahideen"},{"link_name":"Soviet–Afghan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"James A. Beaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_A._Beaver"},{"link_name":"Governor of Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"acting president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Pennsylvania_State_University"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University"},{"link_name":"Beaver Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jeff-224"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"},{"link_name":"Blake Ragsdale Van Leer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blake_Ragsdale_Van_Leer"},{"link_name":"Georgia Tech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Tech"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-228"},{"link_name":"William Holmes McGuffey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Holmes_McGuffey"},{"link_name":"McGuffey Readers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGuffey_Readers"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"Jacob Lindley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Lindley"},{"link_name":"Ohio University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_University"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"Joseph A. Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Walker"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"},{"link_name":"Buddy Jeannette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Jeannette"},{"link_name":"Basketball Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Pete Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Henry"},{"link_name":"College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Pro Football Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Football_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"Roger Goodell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Goodell"},{"link_name":"Commissioner of the NFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-235"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Letterman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Letterman"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jeff-224"},{"link_name":"William Passavant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Passavant"},{"link_name":"saint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_Saints_(Lutheran)"},{"link_name":"Lutheran Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jeff-224"},{"link_name":"James McGready","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McGready"},{"link_name":"revivalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_meeting"},{"link_name":"Second Great Awakening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"},{"link_name":"Richard Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Clark_(pharmacologist)"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"Merck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merck_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"John S. Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_S._Reed"},{"link_name":"chairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chief_Executives_of_Citigroup"},{"link_name":"Citigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-238"}],"text":"James G. Blaine served as U.S. Congressman, Speaker of the House, U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, and almost won the 1884 presidential election.As of 2009, Washington & Jefferson College had about 12,000 living alumni.[222] Before the union of the two colleges, Washington College graduated 872 men and Jefferson College graduated 1,936 men.[223][224] These alumni include James G. Blaine, who served in Congress as Speaker of the House, U.S. Senator from Maine, two-time United States Secretary of State and the Republican nominee for the 1884 presidential election.[223] Other graduates have held high federal positions, including United States Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow and United States Attorney General Henry Stanbery, who successfully defended Andrew Johnson during his impeachment trial.[224][225] As a U.S. Congressman, Clarence Long was a key figure in directing funds to Operation Cyclone, the CIA's effort to arm the mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War.[226] James A. Beaver served as Governor of Pennsylvania and as acting president of the Pennsylvania State University; he is the namesake of Beaver Stadium.[224][227]Blake Ragsdale Van Leer, was the fifth president of Georgia Tech and first president to allow women to enroll there. He also had a prominent military career.[228] William Holmes McGuffey authored the McGuffey Readers, which are among the most popular and influential books in history.[229] Thaddeus Dod's student, Jacob Lindley, was the first president of Ohio University.[230] Astronaut and test pilot Joseph A. Walker became the first person to enter space twice.[231] Other graduates have gone on to success in professional athletics, including Buddy Jeannette, a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame, and Pete Henry, a member of both the College and Pro Football Hall of Fame.[232][233][234] Roger Goodell has served as the Commissioner of the NFL since 2006.[235] Among graduates who entered the medical field, Jonathan Letterman is recognized as the \"Father of Battlefield Medicine.\"[224] William Passavant is recognized as a saint within the Lutheran Church.[224] James McGready, who studied with Joseph Smith and John McMillan was a leading revivalist in the Second Great Awakening.[236] Successful graduates in the business realm include Richard Clark, President and CEO of Merck, John S. Reed, the former chairman of Citigroup and the New York Stock Exchange.[237][238]","title":"Notable alumni"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Washington Academy's sole building (now called McMillan Hall), showing the original central portion and the two wings added in 1818.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/McMillan_Hall_W%26J_College_4.jpg/220px-McMillan_Hall_W%26J_College_4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jefferson College campus in 1900, with West College on the left and Providence Hall on the right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Jefferson_College_1830_EDITED.jpg/220px-Jefferson_College_1830_EDITED.jpg"},{"image_text":"The two identical towers on Old Main symbolize the 1865 union of Jefferson College and Washington College.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Old_Main_W%26J_1880s.jpg/220px-Old_Main_W%26J_1880s.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hays Hall, named after George P. Hays, was built in 1903 and demolished in 1994.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Hayes_Hall.jpg/220px-Hayes_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Named after Howard J. Burnett, the Burnett Center was constructed in 1998.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/TheBurnettCenter.jpg/220px-TheBurnettCenter.jpg"},{"image_text":"McMillan Hall, built in 1793, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/McMillan_Hall_western_front.jpg/250px-McMillan_Hall_western_front.jpg"},{"image_text":"Barack Obama campaigning at W&J in 2008.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Obama_W%26J_College_4-15-2008.jpg/220px-Obama_W%26J_College_4-15-2008.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cover of the playbill for the 1893 Contest","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/W%26J_Contest_1893.jpg/250px-W%26J_Contest_1893.jpg"},{"image_text":"Members of Phi Kappa Sigma pose for a chapter photo in the early 1870s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Phi_Kappa_Sigma_1872_W%26J_College.jpg/220px-Phi_Kappa_Sigma_1872_W%26J_College.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cameron Stadium, home of Washington & Jefferson Presidents football since 1890.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/WashJeffFootball.JPG/220px-WashJeffFootball.JPG"},{"image_text":"A game of pushball between the freshman and sophomore classes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Pushball_W%26J.jpg/220px-Pushball_W%26J.jpg"},{"image_text":"The coat of arms of Washington & Jefferson.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/WandJShield.svg/150px-WandJShield.svg.png"},{"image_text":"James G. Blaine served as U.S. Congressman, Speaker of the House, U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, and almost won the 1884 presidential election.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/JamesGBlaine.png/170px-JamesGBlaine.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20 (Report). National Association of College and University Business Officers and TIAA. February 19, 2021. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021. Retrieved February 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nacubo.org/-/media/Documents/Research/2020-NTSE-Public-Tables--Endowment-Market-Values--FINAL-FEBRUARY-19-2021.ashx","url_text":"U.S. and Canadian Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2020 Endowment Market Value and Change in Endowment Market Value from FY19 to FY20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIAA","url_text":"TIAA"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210221003510/https://www.nacubo.org/-/media/Documents/Research/2020-NTSE-Public-Tables--Endowment-Market-Values--FINAL-FEBRUARY-19-2021.ashx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. News 2024 National Liberal Arts College Rankings\". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved January 17, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/washington-and-jefferson-college-3389","url_text":"\"U.S. News 2024 National Liberal Arts College Rankings\""}]},{"reference":"\"W&J: College Facts\". Washington & Jefferson College. Archived from the original on December 30, 2008. Retrieved March 23, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081230000508/http://www.washjeff.edu/content.aspx?section=372&menu_id=133&crumb=137&id=55","url_text":"\"W&J: College Facts\""},{"url":"http://www.washjeff.edu/content.aspx?section=372&menu_id=133&crumb=137&id=55","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wickersham, James (1886). A History of Education in Pennsylvania, Private and Public, Elementary and Higher. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Inquirer Publishing Company. pp. 400–401. Retrieved September 12, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ahistoryeducati00wickgoog","url_text":"A History of Education in Pennsylvania, Private and Public, Elementary and Higher"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ahistoryeducati00wickgoog/page/n432","url_text":"400"}]},{"reference":"\"Jonathan Edwards (1866–1869)\". U. Grant Miller Library Digital Archives. Washington & Jefferson College. September 4, 2003. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved June 3, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120716025022/http://washjeff.cdmhost.com/u?/p4019coll8,31","url_text":"\"Jonathan Edwards (1866–1869)\""},{"url":"http://washjeff.cdmhost.com/u?/p4019coll8,31","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"James I. Brownson (Pro Tem. 1870)\". U. Grant Miller Library Digital Archives. Washington & Jefferson College. September 4, 2003. 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October 1922. p. 807. ...PHI GAMMA DELTA'S fellow member of the \"Jefferson Duo\" — Phi Kappa Psi — has taken an unusually courageous stand in the matter of...","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fDXPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA807","url_text":"\"Phi Psi Scholarship\""},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fDXPAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"The Phi Gamma Delta, Volume 45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Gamma_Delta","url_text":"Phi Gamma Delta"}]},{"reference":"\"History of Greek Letter Organizations\". Phi Gamma Delta. Archived from the original on January 7, 2010. Retrieved April 26, 2010. These two-Phi Gamma Delta and Phi Kappa Psi- comprise the famed \"Jefferson Duo\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Friday_Night_Lights_characters
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List of Friday Night Lights characters
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["1 Cast","2 Main characters","3 Recurring characters","3.1 Introduced in Season 1","3.2 Introduced in Season 2","3.3 Introduced in Season 3","3.4 Introduced in Season 4","3.5 Introduced in Season 5","4 See also","5 References"]
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Friday Night Lights is an American television drama series that aired on NBC and DirecTV's The 101 Network from 2006 to 2011. The series is based on the non-fiction book of the same name. Set in the fictional town of Dillon, Texas, the show focuses on a high school varsity football team. Several characters in the series are adapted from individuals depicted in the original book.
Cast
Main cast of Friday Night Lights
Actor
Character
Season
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
Kyle Chandler
Eric Taylor
Main
Connie Britton
Tami Taylor
Main
Aimee Teegarden
Julie Taylor
Main
Taylor Kitsch
Tim Riggins
Main
Recurring
Jesse Plemons
Landry Clarke
Main
Guest
Zach Gilford
Matt Saracen
Main
Recurring
Minka Kelly
Lyla Garrity
Main
Guest
Does not appear
Adrianne Palicki
Tyra Collette
Main
Does not appear
Guest
Scott Porter
Jason Street
Main
Recurring
Does not appear
Guest
Gaius Charles
Brian "Smash" Williams
Main
Recurring
Does not appear
Michael B. Jordan
Vince Howard
Does not appear
Main
Jurnee Smollett
Jess Merriweather
Does not appear
Main
Matt Lauria
Luke Cafferty
Does not appear
Main
Madison Burge
Becky Sproles
Does not appear
Recurring
Main
Grey Damon
Hastings Ruckle
Does not appear
Main
Main characters
Eric Taylor (Kyle Chandler) — The varsity football coach of the Dillon Panthers, a character inspired by real-life coach Gary Gaines. Initially, Taylor struggles to adjust to the fervent football culture in Dillon. He faces conflicting advice from local supporters. At the end of Season 1, after leading the team to the state tournament, he accepts a higher-level coaching job at a Texas college but returns to Dillon early in Season 2. By the end of Season 3, political maneuvers lead to his job loss, prompting a move to the underfunded East Dillon High. Taylor rebuilds the football program there, leading the team to a State Championship before relocating to Philadelphia in support of his wife, Tami.
Tami Taylor (Connie Britton) — The wife of Eric Taylor and mother of Julie Taylor. She starts as the guidance counselor at Dillon High School, gives birth to her second daughter, Gracie Belle, in Season 2, and becomes the principal in Season 3. She remains at Dillon High after her husband moves to East Dillon in Season 4. Following an incident involving an abortion, Tami resigns as principal and plans to become the guidance counselor at East Dillon. In Season 5, she accepts a position as Dean of Admissions at the fictional Braemore College in Philadelphia.
Julie Taylor (Aimee Teegarden) — the eldest daughter of Eric and Tami Taylor, begins as a freshman at Dillon High School and becomes the girlfriend of Matt Saracen. Despite an interview at Boston College, Julie stays in Dillon. By the Season 3 finale, she and Matt break up, but they reconnect in Season 5 when she visits him in Chicago. Eventually, Matt proposes to Julie, and they are seen living in Chicago in the series finale.
Matt Saracen (Zach Gilford) — The Dillon Panthers' quarterback and later wide receiver, struggles with abandonment issues. His mother left when he was young, and his father is often absent due to military service. Saracen is based on Mike Winchell. He graduates at the end of Season 3 but stays in Dillon until moving to Chicago in Season 4 to pursue a career in art. He wears the number 7 jersey, which Tim Riggins frequently refers to him by.
Tim Riggins (Taylor Kitsch) — The Panthers' fullback/running back, is a troubled character based on Don Billingsley. Known for his heavy drinking and womanizing, he has tumultuous relationships with Lyla Garrity and Tyra Collette. In the Season 4 finale, Riggins takes the fall for an illegal chop shop operation to protect his brother. As a Dillon Panther, he wears the number 33.
Landry Clarke (Jesse Plemons) – A nerdy freshman, is the best friend of Matt Saracen and eventually joins the football team in Season 2. He forms a band and falls in love with Tyra Collette. Landry, based on Brian Chavez, also exhibits traits of Jerrod McDougal. In Season 4, he becomes a key player for East Dillon High, making the winning field goal in the season finale. Landry goes to Rice University in Houston in Season 5. As a Dillon Panther he wore the number 85, and as an East Dillon Lion he wore the number 21.
Tyra Collette (Adrianne Palicki) — A former 'bad girl' at Dillon High, transforms under Tami Taylor's mentorship. She dates Tim Riggins, Landry, and Cash. Aspiring to break free from stereotypes, Tyra is accepted into the University of Texas in Austin and expresses a desire to enter politics by the series finale.
Jason Street (Scott Porter) — Once the star quarterback, becomes paralyzed from the chest down in the first episode. He takes an interest in quad rugby and briefly serves as an assistant coach for the Panthers. He eventually moves to New Jersey with his wife and son, working as a sports agent. Street's jersey number is 6.
Lyla Garrity (Minka Kelly) — Daughter of Buddy Garrity and former cheerleader captain, struggles with her relationships following Jason Street's accident. She turns to religion after her parents' divorce and later dates Tim Riggins. Lyla leaves for Vanderbilt University at the end of Season 3 but returns for a brief appearance in Season 4.
Brian "Smash" Williams (Gaius Charles) — Brian "Smash" Williams, the Panthers' former running back, aims for an NFL career to support his family. His character is based on Boobie Miles. Smash faces challenges, including a steroid scandal and a racial altercation. Injured between Seasons 2 and 3, he ultimately joins Texas A&M University with Coach Taylor's support. As a Dillon Panther he wore the number 20.
Luke Cafferty (Matt Lauria) – Introduced in Season 4 of "Friday Night Lights" as a replacement for Tim Riggins at tailback. Initially a standout on West Dillon High's junior varsity team, Luke is transferred to East Dillon High after it's discovered he falsified his address to play for West Dillon. Unlike other parents, his are unsupportive of his football pursuits. Luke's friendship with J.D. McCoy ends due to J.D.'s arrogance. He impregnates Becky Sproles in Season 4, but they eventually develop a strong relationship. In Season 5, Luke struggles with whether to attend a Division III college for football after not receiving offers from larger schools. Guided by Tim Riggins, he focuses on winning the state championship, which his team achieves. Eight months later, Luke enlists in the Army. He wore number 4 as a Dillon Panther and number 44 as an East Dillon Lion, earning the nickname "Fours" from Tim Riggins.
Vince Howard (Michael B. Jordan) – Introduced in Season 4 of "Friday Night Lights." A talented athlete with no previous football experience, he joins the East Dillon football team to avoid juvenile detention. After helping his mother enter drug rehab, Vince becomes the team's quarterback, leading them to victory in the Season 4 finale. In Season 5, Vince faces challenges with the attention from colleges and becomes arrogant. His father, who is often present at games, pressures him about college choices, causing tension. Coach Taylor benches Vince due to his behavior affecting team morale. Vince eventually matures and leads the Lions to the state championship. Initially involved with a troubled crowd, Vince supports his mother and stands up to his father. Eight months later, he becomes the quarterback for a rival school. Vince wears the number 5 jersey for the East Dillon Lions.
Jess Merriweather (Jurnee Smollett) – Introduced in Season 4 of "Friday Night Lights" as an East Dillon student. Her father, a former state-championship-winning quarterback for the East Dillon Lions, grew to resent the sport and the team. Jess works at her family's restaurant and takes care of her three younger brothers. By the end of Season 4, she begins a relationship with Vince Howard after a brief relationship with Landry. In Season 5, Jess decides to become a coach and starts shadowing Coach Taylor. Her relationship with Vince faces challenges due to his behavior, but they reconcile before the Lions go to the state championship. Later, Jess informs Coach Taylor that she is moving to Dallas due to her father's business success, and Coach Taylor offers to recommend her to a coach in Dallas.
Becky Sproles (Madison Burge) – An East Dillon student and aspiring beauty queen. In Season 4, she has a one-night stand with Luke Cafferty and undergoes an abortion, receiving support from Tim Riggins. This decision causes controversy for Tami Taylor, eventually leading to her resignation. In Season 5, Becky and Luke reconcile, and she moves in with Billy and Mindy after her mother leaves and she faces mistreatment from her stepmother. By the series finale, Becky moves back with her mother but promises to stay in touch with Billy and Mindy. Becky is notable for being the only main character who was initially a recurring character before being promoted.
Hastings Ruckle (Grey Damon) – Introduced in Season 4 when Buddy Garrity, Luke Cafferty, and Vince Howard convince him to join the East Dillon football team instead of the basketball team. He becomes a talented receiver and contributes to the team's state championship victory. It remains unclear whether he joins the Dillon Panthers "super team" or returns to playing basketball for East Dillon. As an East Dillon Lion, he wears the number 88.
Recurring characters
Introduced in Season 1
Buddy Garrity (Brad Leland) – Owner of a popular Chevrolet dealership in Dillon and an influential alumnus and booster club. member of the Dillon Panthers football team. He has three children, Lyla, Tabby, and Buddy Jr., with his ex-wife Pam. A former college football player for the Texas Longhorns. Buddy's loud and pragmatic demeanor initially causes friction with Coach Taylor, though they eventually develop a cooperative relationship. Buddy's affair with Angela Collette leads to a contentious divorce. In the third season, disillusioned by Joe McCoy's takeover of the Panthers, Buddy shifts his allegiance to the East Dillon Lions, where he significantly contributes by securing sponsorships and hosting a pro-Lions radio show. Later, he sells his dealership and opens a bar in East Dillon. His ex-wife sends their son, Buddy Jr., to live with him after behavioral issues arise. Ultimately, when the Dillon Independent School District consolidates the football teams, Buddy returns to the Panthers as the booster club president. The series finale shows him embracing his role with the Panthers, symbolized by his placement of a sign in the coach's office that reads, "Clear Eyes, Full Hearts, Can't Lose," honoring Coach Taylor.
Buddy Garrity Jr. (Jeff Rosick and Joey Truty) – son of Buddy Garrity and the younger brother of Lyla Garrity. Initially depicted as a young child, Buddy Jr. begins acting out and showing disrespect for authority after moving to California. Consequently, his mother sends him back to Texas to live with his father. To help him straighten out, Buddy Jr. joins the East Dillon Lions football team, where he wears the number 42. However, an injury sidelines him for much of the season. Eventually, he becomes part of the consolidated Dillon super-team.
Tabby Garrity (Kate Krause) – daughter of Buddy Garrity and the sister of Lyla Garrity and Buddy Garrity Jr. Initially presented as a young child, Tabby moves to California with her mother and stepfather following her parents' divorce. She returns to Dillon in Season 3 to visit her father and sister, though she initially struggles to show respect towards her father. After this visit, Tabby does not appear again in the series.
Pam Garrity (Merrilee McCommas) – wife of Buddy Garrity, and the mother of Lyla, Buddy Jr., and Tabby. She divorces Buddy in Season 1 after discovering his affair with Angela Collette. In Season 2, Pam remarries a man named Kevin, and between Seasons 2 and 3, they relocate to California with Buddy Jr. and Tabby. In Season 5, due to Buddy Jr.'s behavioral issues, Pam sends him back to Dillon to live with Buddy
Billy Riggins (Derek Phillips) — Older brother and legal guardian of Tim Riggins, assuming this role due to the absence of their parents. Initially poised to attend college on a golf scholarship, Billy sacrifices this opportunity to care for Tim. Like his brother, he played for the Dillon Panthers. Billy marries Mindy Collette, the older sister of Tim's ex-girlfriend Tyra, at the end of Season 3. He starts a car repair business named Riggins Rigs. Facing financial pressure, especially with Mindy's pregnancy, Billy opens a chop shop in Season 4. When Tim takes the blame for the illegal operation, Billy becomes a coach at East Dillon and supports Becky Sproles during Tim's incarceration. In Season 5, Billy and Mindy learn they are expecting twins. In the series finale, Billy is depicted as a coach for the newly consolidated Dillon Panthers super-team.
Walt Riggins (Brett Cullen) – Father of Tim and Billy Riggins. He abandoned the family just as Billy was about to attend college. In Season 1, Tim seeks him out for a signature on a document, and Walt appears to attempt a reconciliation. Despite Tim's efforts to reconnect, Walt's true nature is revealed when he steals a camera used to record football games, affirming Billy's warnings about their father.
Lorraine Saracen (Louanne Stephens) — Grandmother tof Matt Saracen and requires special care due to her dementia. Acting as a motherly figure, she has been a primary caregiver in Matt's life since his father is often absent. Her condition necessitates significant responsibility from Matt, impacting his personal life and decisions.
Henry Saracen (Brent Smiga) – The father of Matt Saracen, divorced Matt's mother when Matt was young and enlisted in the US Army, serving in Iraq. His prolonged absences left Matt without a father figure, leading him to seek guidance from Coach Taylor and his friend Landry. The strained father-son relationship culminates in Henry's death from an IED in Iraq, explored in the emotionally charged episode "The Son," where Matt grapples with his feelings of anger and loss, ultimately acknowledging his father's service to the country at the funeral.
Corrina Williams (Liz Mikel) — Mother of Brian "Smash" Williams. She works as a nurse and plays a crucial role in her son's life, balancing her support for his football dreams with a strong emphasis on education. She discovers steroids in Smash's room and informs Coach Taylor, momentarily jeopardizing his career. Corrina also informs Tami Taylor of her pregnancy at the end of Season 1. She and her daughters exit the series after Smash leaves for college.
Sheila & Noannie Williams (Whitney MCCauley) & (Nieko Mann) – Older and younger sisters Smash Williams, respectively. Their roles in the series are minor, with their family dynamics and interactions primarily supporting Smash's storyline.
Waverly Grady (Aasha Davis) — The preacher's daughter, is a former girlfriend of Smash Williams. Their relationship ends due to the challenges posed by Waverly's bipolar disorder.
Reverend Grady (Sid Johnson) – A preacher in town in town and Waverly's father, contributing to the portrayal of Waverly's family and social environment.
Mitchell and Joanne Street (Mark Nutter and Katherine Willis) — Jason Street's parents. Their professions are not specified. Following Jason's injury, they mortgage their house to cover medical expenses and home renovations, leading them to sue Coach Taylor for compensation. This decision creates household tension, as Jason views Taylor as a mentor and is close to his parents. The Streets, depicted as an "All-American" family, are dedicated to Jason, their presumed only child, and regularly supported him at football games. After Jason moves to New York City in Season 3, they are no longer mentioned.
Herc (Kevin Rankin) — Athlete who shares the same spinal cord injury as Jason Street. They meet as roommates in the rehab center, where Herc mentors Jason and introduces him to quad rugby. They later become roommates and collaborate on a real estate venture before Jason departs for the northeast.
Angela Collette (Dana Wheeler-Nicholson) — Mother of Tyra Collette and former mistress to Buddy Garrity. Her affair with Buddy contributes to the breakdown of his family life, revealing his repeated infidelities to Lyla's mother over the years.
Mindy Collette-Riggins (Stacey Oristano) – Tyra Collette's hard-edged sister and Billy Riggins's wife. She works as a stripper at The Landing Strip and, unlike Tyra, embraces a "trashy" image. Initially a minor character, Mindy's role expands in the final two seasons, revealing her empathetic nature. She acts as a sister figure to Becky, has a son named Stevie with Billy, and is expecting twins in Season 5.
Mac MacGill (Blue Deckert) — Offensive coordinator for the Dillon Panthers. TInitially tense with Eric Taylor due to his expectation of becoming head coach, Mac makes controversial comments leading to a team walkout in Season 1. He later defends Smash Williams during a brawl incident. After a heart attack in Season 3, Mac takes a leave and is replaced by Wade Aikmen. He declines a job offer from Coach Taylor at East Dillon in Season 4. By Season 5, Mac becomes the head coach of the Dillon Panthers, but his status after the football season is uncertain.
Coach T.C. Crowley (Timothy Crowley) – Assistant coach for the Dillon Panthers from Seasons 1-4. He joins Coach Taylor at East Dillon, becoming his right-hand man. A disagreement over player conduct briefly puts him at odds with Taylor and Coach Riggins. Crowley returns to the Dillon Panthers "super team" in the series finale after the East Dillon football program shuts down.
Coach Spivey (Aaron Spivey-Sorrells) – Assistant coach for the Dillon Panthers who joins the East Dillon Lions in Season 5. Known for his motivational skills, he returns to the Panthers "super team" in the series finale following the closure of the East Dillon football program.
Bobby "Bull" Reyes (Walter Perez) – An outside linebacker for the Dillon Panthers, appearing early in Season 1. He participates in vandalizing a rival quarterback's car and later assaults Kurt Kaster. Initially claiming racism as the motive, Reyes admits the truth to Coach Taylor, who then removes him from the team. Reyes is not seen or mentioned after this incident. As a Panther, he wore number 40.
Bradley Cole (James Powers) - A defensive end for the Dillon Panthers, characterized by his quiet demeanor and background presence. In "Full Hearts," he is involved in a confrontation with Tim Riggins following rumors of Tim's affair with Lyla, spurred by misinformation about Tim's altercation with Jason Street. Cole later facilitates Matt and Julie's use of his family's lake house for a significant moment. Tim's return to the team prompts Cole to receive Riggins's apology in "Seeing Other People." He appears throughout Seasons 1 and 2 but is absent from Season 3 onwards, presumably due to graduation. As a Dillon Panther he wore either the number 56 in Season 1 and the number 55 in Season 2.
Ray “Voodoo” Tatum (Aldis Hodge) — A Louisiana resident brought to Dillon by Buddy Garrity to temporarily replace Matt Saracen as the Panther quarterback after Hurricane Katrina displaced him. Despite initial success, his refusal to bond with teammates and insubordination lead to his expulsion from the team during halftime of a crucial game. The Panthers subsequently forfeit a game he led them to win. Tatum reappears as the quarterback for West Cambria in the State Final against the Panthers at the end of Season 1, attempting to provoke Smash Williams. As a Panther and later a Mustang, he wears number 9.
Jackie Miller (Brooke Langton) – Single mother to Bo Miller who moves in next door to the Riggins brothers with her son, Bo. She becomes romantically involved with both Tim and Billy Riggins, causing tension between the brothers in Season 2. Jackie leaves the series after her breakup with Billy.
Bo Miller (Jae Head) – Jackie's son and an admirer of Tim Riggins. After being bullied, Tim teaches him self-defense, strengthening their bond. Tim gives Jackie tickets for the state final, ostensibly for Bo.
Suzy (Alexandra Holden) – A tattoo artist who briefly engages in a flirtation with Jason Street, witnessed by Lyla, causing strain in their relationship.
Kurt Kaster (Brent McGregor) – A longtime friend of Matt and Landry who is hospitalized after being assaulted by Bobby Reyes following a disagreement about football. Landry's reluctance to intervene strains his friendship with Matt.
Mayor Lucy Rodell (Libby Villari) – staunch supporter of the Dillon Panthers, playing a prominent role in local politics and events.
Slammin' Sammy Meade (David Cowgill) – serves as the commentator for football games in Dillon, providing colorful commentary and analysis.
Lois (Megan Moser) – A friend of Julie Taylor, initially preferred by Tami over Tyra Collette.
Introduced in Season 2
Gracie Belle Taylor (Madilyn Landry) – Younger Daughter of Eric and Tami Taylor
Bill McGregor (Chris Mulkey) — Former head coach of the Dillon Panthers. He replaced Coach Taylor at the beginning of season 2 after the latter left for TMU. Known as the "Tennessee Tyrant" for his heavy-handed take-no-prisoners approach to coaching, in contrast to Taylor's more casual style.
Chad Clarke (Glenn Morshower) — Father of Landry Clarke, Dillon Panthers alumnus, and police sergeant for the Dillon Police Department. He tries to protect Landry when he gets into trouble in Season 2.
Mary Clarke (Carol Farabee) – Mother of Landry Clarke.
Santiago Herrera (Benny Ciaramello) — upon his release from juvenile detention. Despite his troubled past, Santiago demonstrates academic prowess, which is noted by then-guidance counselor Tami Taylor. Buddy Garrity extends a helping hand by offering Santiago employment and accommodation, leading to the development of a paternal bond between the two. Santiago's athletic talents are recognized when he joins the football team, excelling as a standout defensive player, notably wearing the number 59 as a Dillon Panther. However, due to the disruption caused by a writers' strike, Santiago's storyline is abruptly abandoned in the subsequent season, resulting in the character's disappearance from the series altogether.
Carlotta Alonso (Daniella Alonso) – introduced as a live-in nurse enlisted to assist Matt and Lorraine during Lorraine's declining mental health. Despite Matt's existing relationship, he develops romantic feelings for Carlotta. Eventually, he ends his relationship to pursue one with Carlotta, who initially resists but later reciprocates his affections. Their relationship progresses to a physical level, resulting in Carlotta taking Matt's virginity. However, their romance is short-lived as Carlotta decides to return to her family in Guatemala, prompting the end of their relationship.
Shelley Hayes (Jessalyn Gilsig) – Tami Taylor's sister, portrayed as immature, arrives to assist after Gracie's birth. Her actions prompt Julie to reflect on her own behavior. Subsequently, she transitions into a career as a real estate agent.
Noelle Davenport (Jana Kramer) – The sister of a former Panther player, who had graduated two years before Season 2, enters a relationship with Smash during this season. Their interracial relationship faces disapproval from both sets of parents. Alongside Smash's sister Noannie, they encounter harassment from teenagers during a movie outing, which leads to Smash defending their honor. As a consequence, Smash receives a three-game suspension.
Chris Kennedy (Matt Czuchry) – A Christian youth leader, who is also a DJ on a Christian radio station, meets Lyla when she joins their group in Season 2. Their relationship develops into a romantic one, despite Tim Riggins' unwanted attention towards Lyla. However, in Season 3, the character is absent from the storyline due to Lyla's abusive relationship with Tim, which takes precedence in the narrative.
Erin Street (Tamara Jolaine) – A waitress encounters Jason after a failed blind date and ends up sleeping with him, resulting in her pregnancy. Despite initial plans for abortion due to her young age, Jason, realizing the unlikelihood of conception due to his paraplegia-related fertility issues, urges her to keep the child. In Season 3, she gives birth to their son, Noah, and maintains a relationship with Jason, although they do not reside together. Eventually, she relocates to New Jersey with Noah to live with her parents, prompting Jason to pursue a job in New York. After securing an entry-level position at a sports agency, Jason commits to supporting her and their child. By Season 5, Jason reveals that they are married, and she expresses a desire to expand their family.
Glenn Reed (Steven Walters) – A teacher at Dillon High School develops a friendship with Tami Taylor upon her return from maternity leave. In Season 4, he kisses Tami while intoxicated during a happy hour event. Overcome with guilt, he confesses the incident to Tami's husband, Eric, feeling ashamed of his actions.
Anton "The Swede" (Alejandro Rose-Garcia, later known as the musician Shakey Graves) – A lifeguard stationed at the pool where Julie works catches her attention at the outset of Season 2. Julie becomes romantically interested in him. Following the birth of Gracie Belle and amidst the challenges of her home life, Julie decides to end her relationship with Matt and pursue a connection with "The Swede." However, Julie discovers, as warned by Tami, that "The Swede" is not interested in a committed relationship and leads a carefree lifestyle, causing her distress.
Noah Barnett (Austin Nichols) – A young teacher joins Dillon High School in Season 2, where Julie forms a friendship with him after learning about the reality of her relationship with "The Swede." Tami misinterprets their rapport as a romantic interest and confronts the teacher, leading to strained relations between Tami and Julie.
Guy Raston (Joey Oglesby) – Tim Riggins seeks refuge with a methamphetamine dealer after departing his home and being ousted from Tyra's residence. The dealer permits Tim to stay provided he tends to his ferrets. Upon awakening to the dealer wielding a firearm, Tim opts to leave. Later, Tim pilfers funds from the dealer to settle his mortgage, leading to confrontation. Despite repayment facilitated by Lyla, tensions persist, resulting in a strained relationship. In Season 3, Billy endeavors to vend stolen copper wire to the dealer, but encounters obstacles.
Jean Binnel (Brea Grant) – In Season 2, Landry embarks on a brief relationship with a girl who becomes aware of his complex dynamics with Tyra. Sensing the tension, she confronts Landry, insisting that he make a choice between her and Tyra. Ultimately, Landry decides to pursue a romantic relationship with Tyra, opting to end things with the other girl.
Lauren Davis (Kim Smith) – Following his split from Julie, Matt briefly enters into a relationship with a cheerleader. However, his feelings for Carlotta develop, prompting him to seek advice from Smash on how to navigate the breakup. Smash suggests proposing an open relationship, which Matt follows through with. As a result, the cheerleader, named Lauren, ends their relationship.
Roberta "Bobbie" Roberts (Alanna Ubach) – The coach of the girls' soccer team at Dillon High School is known for her persistent requests for equipment when Taylor assumes the role of athletic director. She consistently seeks resources to support the team's needs.
Morris "Mo" McArnold (Peter Berg) – Mo, Tami's former high school sweetheart, who she left to be with Eric, returns to Dillon as a real estate developer aiming to purchase shopping centers. Despite the passage of time, Mo remains attracted to Tami. Tensions escalate when Mo accuses Eric of "stealing" Tami from him, sparking a confrontation between the two men. Eric's jealousy over Mo's lingering feelings for Tami exacerbates the conflict, leading to a heated altercation between them.
Kevin Turner (Taylor Nichols) - Pam's partner, later husband, following her divorce from Buddy, is named Kevin. The family, excluding Lyla, relocates to California between Season 2 and Season 3. Kevin is characterized as a hipster and a vegetarian. His influence leads to Buddy Jr. and Tabby adopting disrespectful behavior towards their father in Season 3. Additionally, Buddy insinuates that the marijuana Pam accuses Buddy Jr. of using originates from Kevin.
Introduced in Season 3
Shelby Saracen (née Garrett) (Kim Dickens) — Mother of Matt Saracen,. Shelby was largely absent from Matt's life until his struggles with his grandmother prompted him to seek her out to sign papers for his legal emancipation. She eventually stays in Dillon with Matt and his grandmother, Lorraine, who takes some time to accept Shelby's help.
J.D. McCoy (Jeremy Sumpter) — talented quarterback who joins the varsity team as a freshman, eventually replacing Matt Saracen as the starter. His father, Joe McCoy, attempts to bribe Coach Taylor to start J.D. He struggles to relate to older teammates due to his straight-laced habits. In the fourth season, J.D. becomes arrogant as Joe becomes President of the Booster Club and Wade Aikmen becomes head coach. By the fifth season, J.D. is no longer the starting quarterback for the Panthers, having left Dillon after a loss to East Dillon. As a Panther, he wore the number 12. His increasing arrogance makes him the secondary antagonist of Season 4..
Joe McCoy (D. W. Moffett) – J.D. McCoy's father and a beer distributor. He attempts to bribe Coach Taylor into starting J.D. and is controlling of his son's life, restricting his diet and social interactions. Joe's actions escalate, leading to Coach Taylor's replacement by Wade Aikmen. In Season 4, as head of the booster club, Joe antagonizes Tami Taylor and announces his divorce from Katie. In Season 5, Joe, J.D., and Wade have left Dillon, making Joe the main antagonist of Seasons 3 and 4.
Katie McCoy (Janine Turner) – J.D. McCoy's mother and Joe's wife. She is less controlling of J.D.'s life and encourages him to focus on activities other than football. In Season 3, she befriends Tami Taylor, but their friendship ends after the Taylors call CPS. By Season 4, Joe announces their impending divorce.
Wade Aikmen (Drew Waters) – .D. McCoy's personal coach, hired by Joe McCoy. He temporarily replaces Mac McGill after a heart attack and later becomes head coach of the Panthers, replacing Coach Taylor. By Season 5, Wade, along with Joe and J.D., has left Dillon.
Jamarcus Hall (Sinqua Walls) – A player introduced in Season 3 who replaces Tim Riggins as fullback. Jamarcus forges his parents' signatures to play football, but his father pulls him from the team, citing a lack of interest in football and a career that requires frequent relocations. With Eric and Tami's persuasion, Jamarcus is given another chance and gains the respect of his teammates. He does not appear in Seasons 4 and 5, possibly due to his family's relocation. As a Panther, he wore the number 1.
Devin Boland (Stephanie Hunt) – A new student in Season 3 who joins Landry's band. After Landry kisses her, she reveals she is a lesbian, but they maintain their friendship. In Season 4, she attends East Dillon High and becomes friends with Julie. Her parents' divorce is mentioned. Her last name was shown as "Corrigan" in Season 3 credits, possibly due to her parents' divorce.
Madison Balman (Whitney Hoy) – A girl interested in J.D. McCoy in Season 3. Katie McCoy approves of their relationship, but Joe sees it as a distraction. Initially, J.D. ends their relationship under his father's pressure but later resumes it. In Season 4, Madison is not seen, suggesting they broke up due to J.D.'s increasing arrogance.
Cash Waller (Zach Roerig) – A cowboy who dates Tyra in Season 3. Initially charming, he is later revealed to have a gambling problem and a temper.
Paul Dunley (David Born) – The superintendent for Dillon High. He aligns with Tami Taylor's views but acknowledges the need to appease the community for funding.
Clint Trucks (Brandon Smith) - The vice principal at Dillon High. He discourages Tyra from aiming for certain colleges and disapproves of her campaign. Tami Taylor defends Tyra but agrees with Trucks' opinion.
Jimmy Adler (Caleb Landry Jones) - The drummer for Landry's band.
Grant Halbert (Scottie Jeffries) - A former football player for Westerby turned sports agent in New York. He initially seeks information from Jason Street about Wendell Foley, a former teammate who went pro. Impressed by Jason's ability to persuade Wendell to sign with him, Grant helps Jason secure an entry-level position at his firm.
Wendell Foley (Galen Flemons) - A former Panther who went pro and introduces Jason Street to Grant Halbert. Jason convinces Wendell to sign with Grant, leading to Jason's employment at Grant's firm.
Introduced in Season 4
Levi Burnwell (Troy Hogan) – Introduced in season 4, Levi Burnwell is an alumnus and the principal of East Dillon High. He was formerly a teacher at West Dillon High before East Dillon's reopening. Despite viewing football as a financial burden for East Dillon High, Levi frequently attends games to support the Lions.
Dallas Tinker (LaMarcus Tinker) – Known by his last name, Tinker is a key player for the East Dillon Lions, part of a core group that includes Vince Howard, Luke Cafferty, Hastings Ruckle, and Buddy Garrity, Jr. He has shown camaraderie, such as helping Luke mend a fence on his parents' farm. In Season 5, he trades his rally girl, Becky, to Luke in exchange for a pig. Tinker eventually joins the Dillon super-team and wears the number 79. His teammates often call him "Tink."
Coach Stan Traub (Russell DeGrazier) – Assistant coach for the East Dillon Lions during seasons 4 and 5. He is also the manager of a local Sears store and was formerly a standout Pop Warner coach. Stan is known for echoing the words of fellow coaches. By the season finale, his future with football coaching remains uncertain.
Regina Howard (Angela Rawna) – The mother of Vince Howard, Regina is a former drug addict who, after being helped into rehab by her son, strives to turn her life around.
Calvin Brown (Ernest James) – A friend of Vince Howard in Season 4. Calvin joins the football team but is expelled by Coach Taylor after refusing to apologize for fighting. He is involved in criminal activities and influences Vince to borrow money from his boss, Kennard. Calvin is later shot and killed by rival neighborhood thugs, prompting Vince to attend his memorial and face pressure to seek revenge. During the brief time that he was an East Dillon Lion, he wore the number 23.
Kennard Royce (Cedric Neal) – A thug in East Dillon who employs Calvin and Vince, teaching them to steal cars. Kennard loans Vince money to get his mother into rehab, creating a debt Vince must repay. After Calvin's death, Kennard pressures Vince to seek revenge but ultimately spares him, deeming him unworthy. In Season 5, Kennard demands repayment, leading to a confrontation with Vince's father, Ornette.
Cheryl Sproles (Alicia Witt) – The mother of Becky Sproles and a bartender in West Dillon. She has a brief relationship with Tim Riggins and allows him to rent a trailer on her property. Having had Becky in high school, Cheryl is determined that Becky does not repeat her mistakes. When Becky becomes pregnant, Cheryl insists on an abortion. She later works on a casino boat, leaving Becky in the care of her father and stepmother.
Bull Sproles (Lee Stringer) – Becky Sproles' father and a truck driver. He visits in Season 4, gets Becky a dog, but is revealed to have another child with another woman. He fights with Tim Riggins over this revelation and leaves. In Season 5, he returns to look after Becky while her mother is away, but struggles with parenting, prompting Becky to live with the Riggins family.
Virgil "Big Merry" Merriweather (Steve Harris) – Father of Jess Merriweather and her three brothers, Virgil owns and operates Ray's BBQ in East Dillon. A former East Dillon Lions state champion, he initially opposes Coach Taylor's football program but later supports it, offering advice and employment to Vince Howard.
Bird Merriweather (Lorraine Toussaint) – Jess, Andre, Caleb and Darius' aunt, and Virgil's sister. She manages his restaurant in Season 5 while he is in Dallas on a work trip.
Andre Merriweather (Charlie Quary) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother, who plays peewee football.
Caleb Merriweather (Isaac Smith) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother. He plays peewee football.
Darius Merriweather (Josh Levi) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother, who also plays peewee football.
Tom Cafferty (Barry Tubb) – Luke Cafferty's father, a cattle rancher. He supports his son through various challenges, including a teenage pregnancy. In Season 5, he is proud of Luke's success on the football field but is initially uneasy about Luke's relationship with Becky.
Margaret Cafferty (Kathleen Griffith) – Luke Cafferty's mother, who is deeply upset by Becky's decision to have an abortion, blaming Tami Taylor, which contributes to Tami losing her job. Despite this, she and Tom support Luke's football career and relationship with Becky in Season 5.
Ryan Lowry (Matt Barr) – A partner with "Habitat for Humanity." Julie Taylor briefly dates him in Season 4 after her breakup with Matt Saracen. He leaves for a project in Arizona.
Coach Granger (John Swasey) - A coach for the East Dillon Lions in Season 4 who quits after a confrontation with Calvin Brown.
Ken Shaw (Nnamdi Asomugha) - A detective with the East Dillon Police Department. His brother was a player under Coach Taylor. Ken intervenes to keep Vince Howard out of juvenile detention, allowing him to play football instead.
Elden Crumpler (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.) – A former gangster turned community worker. He assists in improving conditions at Carroll Park and supports Coach Taylor's initiatives.
Introduced in Season 5
Ornette Howard (Cress Williams) – Vince Howard's father, a former drug dealer who returns to Dillon after serving time in prison. Despite initial rejection from Vince, Ornette becomes involved in his life, often clashing with Coach Taylor over Vince's future.
Doreen Sproles (Heather Kafka) – Becky Sproles' stepmother, who struggles to care for her when Becky's mother is away. Eventually, Becky moves in with the Riggins family due to the tension at home.
Epyck Sanders (Emily Rios) – A troubled student at East Dillon High living in a foster home. Despite Tami Taylor's efforts to help her, Epyck's behavioral issues lead to her arrest and transfer to another school.
Maura Friedman (Denise Williamson) – A student at East Dillon High who becomes involved with Vince Howard, leading to a conflict with Jess Merriweather.
Derek Bishop (Gil McKinney) – Julie Taylor's college history TA with whom she has an affair. When discovered by his wife, Julie returns home to recover from the fallout.
Laurel Sachs (Lynn Blackburn) - A history teacher at East Dillon High who befriends Tami Taylor. She becomes involved in the incident leading to Epyck Sanders' arrest.
Bob Short (Akin Babatunde) - Owner of a gardening store in East Dillon who hires Regina Howard, supporting her efforts to rebuild her life.
vteFriday Night LightsEpisodesSeason 1
"Pilot"
"Eyes Wide Open"
"Wind Sprints"
"Who's Your Daddy"
"Git'er Done"
"El Accidente"
"Homecoming"
"Crossing the Line"
"Full Hearts"
"It's Different for Girls"
"Nevermind"
"What to Do While You're Waiting"
"Little Girl I Wanna Marry You"
"Upping the Ante"
"Blinders"
"Black Eyes and Broken Hearts"
"I Think We Should Have Sex"
"Extended Families"
"Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes"
"Mud Bowl"
"Best Laid Plans"
"State"
Season 2
"Last Days of Summer"
"Bad Ideas"
"Are You Ready for Friday Night?"
"Backfire"
"Let's Get It On"
"How Did I Get Here"
"Pantherama!"
"Seeing Other People"
"The Confession"
"There Goes the Neighborhood"
"Jumping the Gun"
"Who Do You Think You Are?"
"Humble Pie"
"Leave No One Behind"
"May the Best Man Win"
Season 3
"I Knew You When"
"Tami Knows Best"
"How the Other Half Lives"
"Hello, Goodbye"
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn"
"It Ain't Easy Being J.D. McCoy"
"Keeping Up Appearances"
"New York, New York"
"Game of the Week"
"The Giving Tree"
"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"
"Underdogs"
"Tomorrow Blues"
Season 4
"East of Dillon"
"After the Fall"
"In the Skin of a Lion"
"A Sort of Homecoming"
"The Son"
"Stay"
"In the Bag"
"Toilet Bowl"
"The Lights in Carroll Park"
"I Can't"
"Injury List"
"Laboring"
"Thanksgiving"
Season 5
"Expectations"
"On the Outside Looking In"
"The Right Hand of the Father"
"Keep Looking"
"Kingdom"
"Swerve"
"Perfect Record"
"Fracture"
"Gut Check"
"Don't Go"
"The March"
"Texas Whatever"
"Always"
Characters
Eric Taylor
Matt Saracen
Jason Street
Smash Williams
Tim Riggins
Tami Taylor
Lyla Garrity
Tyra Collette
Soundtracks
Film soundtrack
Television soundtrack (Vol. 1)
Television soundtrack (Vol. 2)
Related
Film
Friday Night Lights: A Town, a Team, and a Dream
Boobie Miles
Gary Gaines
See also
The Son
Derek Luke
College Station, Texas.
References
^ Knutzen, Eirik (January 19, 2007). "TV Close-Up: Kyle Chandler". Bend Weekly. Retrieved September 27, 2012.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Friday Night Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"DirecTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirecTV"},{"link_name":"The 101 Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_101_Network"},{"link_name":"book of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights:_A_Town,_a_Team,_and_a_Dream"},{"link_name":"varsity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varsity_team"}],"text":"Friday Night Lights is an American television drama series that aired on NBC and DirecTV's The 101 Network from 2006 to 2011. The series is based on the non-fiction book of the same name. Set in the fictional town of Dillon, Texas, the show focuses on a high school varsity football team. Several characters in the series are adapted from individuals depicted in the original book.","title":"List of Friday Night Lights characters"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eric Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Taylor_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Kyle Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Gary Gaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Gaines"},{"link_name":"Tami Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Connie Britton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connie_Britton"},{"link_name":"Aimee Teegarden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aimee_Teegarden"},{"link_name":"Boston College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_College"},{"link_name":"Matt Saracen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Saracen"},{"link_name":"Zach Gilford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zach_Gilford"},{"link_name":"quarterback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarterback"},{"link_name":"wide receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_receiver"},{"link_name":"Tim Riggins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Riggins"},{"link_name":"Taylor Kitsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Kitsch"},{"link_name":"fullback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullback_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"running back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running_back"},{"link_name":"chop shop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chop_shop"},{"link_name":"Jesse Plemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Plemons"},{"link_name":"Rice University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_University"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"Tyra Collette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyra_Collette"},{"link_name":"Adrianne Palicki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrianne_Palicki"},{"link_name":"University of Texas in Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"Jason Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Street"},{"link_name":"Scott Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Porter"},{"link_name":"paralyzed from the chest down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadriplegia"},{"link_name":"quad rugby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelchair_rugby"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Lyla Garrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyla_Garrity"},{"link_name":"Minka Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minka_Kelly"},{"link_name":"cheerleader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheerleader"},{"link_name":"Vanderbilt University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanderbilt_University"},{"link_name":"Brian \"Smash\" Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smash_Williams"},{"link_name":"Gaius Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Charles"},{"link_name":"running back","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Running_back"},{"link_name":"Boobie Miles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boobie_Miles"},{"link_name":"Texas A&M University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University"},{"link_name":"Matt Lauria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Lauria"},{"link_name":"Division III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_III"},{"link_name":"Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Michael B. Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_B._Jordan"},{"link_name":"juvenile detention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_detention"},{"link_name":"drug rehab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation"},{"link_name":"Jurnee Smollett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurnee_Smollett"},{"link_name":"Madison Burge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Burge"},{"link_name":"Grey Damon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_Damon"}],"text":"Eric Taylor (Kyle Chandler) — The varsity football coach of the Dillon Panthers, a character inspired by real-life coach Gary Gaines. Initially, Taylor struggles to adjust to the fervent football culture in Dillon. He faces conflicting advice from local supporters. At the end of Season 1, after leading the team to the state tournament, he accepts a higher-level coaching job at a Texas college but returns to Dillon early in Season 2. By the end of Season 3, political maneuvers lead to his job loss, prompting a move to the underfunded East Dillon High. Taylor rebuilds the football program there, leading the team to a State Championship before relocating to Philadelphia in support of his wife, Tami.\nTami Taylor (Connie Britton) — The wife of Eric Taylor and mother of Julie Taylor. She starts as the guidance counselor at Dillon High School, gives birth to her second daughter, Gracie Belle, in Season 2, and becomes the principal in Season 3. She remains at Dillon High after her husband moves to East Dillon in Season 4. Following an incident involving an abortion, Tami resigns as principal and plans to become the guidance counselor at East Dillon. In Season 5, she accepts a position as Dean of Admissions at the fictional Braemore College in Philadelphia.\nJulie Taylor (Aimee Teegarden) — the eldest daughter of Eric and Tami Taylor, begins as a freshman at Dillon High School and becomes the girlfriend of Matt Saracen. Despite an interview at Boston College, Julie stays in Dillon. By the Season 3 finale, she and Matt break up, but they reconnect in Season 5 when she visits him in Chicago. Eventually, Matt proposes to Julie, and they are seen living in Chicago in the series finale.\nMatt Saracen (Zach Gilford) — The Dillon Panthers' quarterback and later wide receiver, struggles with abandonment issues. His mother left when he was young, and his father is often absent due to military service. Saracen is based on Mike Winchell. He graduates at the end of Season 3 but stays in Dillon until moving to Chicago in Season 4 to pursue a career in art. He wears the number 7 jersey, which Tim Riggins frequently refers to him by.\nTim Riggins (Taylor Kitsch) — The Panthers' fullback/running back, is a troubled character based on Don Billingsley. Known for his heavy drinking and womanizing, he has tumultuous relationships with Lyla Garrity and Tyra Collette. In the Season 4 finale, Riggins takes the fall for an illegal chop shop operation to protect his brother. As a Dillon Panther, he wears the number 33.\nLandry Clarke (Jesse Plemons) – A nerdy freshman, is the best friend of Matt Saracen and eventually joins the football team in Season 2. He forms a band and falls in love with Tyra Collette. Landry, based on Brian Chavez, also exhibits traits of Jerrod McDougal. In Season 4, he becomes a key player for East Dillon High, making the winning field goal in the season finale. Landry goes to Rice University in Houston in Season 5. As a Dillon Panther he wore the number 85, and as an East Dillon Lion he wore the number 21.\nTyra Collette (Adrianne Palicki) — A former 'bad girl' at Dillon High, transforms under Tami Taylor's mentorship. She dates Tim Riggins, Landry, and Cash. Aspiring to break free from stereotypes, Tyra is accepted into the University of Texas in Austin and expresses a desire to enter politics by the series finale.\nJason Street (Scott Porter) — Once the star quarterback, becomes paralyzed from the chest down in the first episode. He takes an interest in quad rugby and briefly serves as an assistant coach for the Panthers. He eventually moves to New Jersey with his wife and son, working as a sports agent. Street's jersey number is 6.\nLyla Garrity (Minka Kelly) — Daughter of Buddy Garrity and former cheerleader captain, struggles with her relationships following Jason Street's accident. She turns to religion after her parents' divorce and later dates Tim Riggins. Lyla leaves for Vanderbilt University at the end of Season 3 but returns for a brief appearance in Season 4.\nBrian \"Smash\" Williams (Gaius Charles) — Brian \"Smash\" Williams, the Panthers' former running back, aims for an NFL career to support his family. His character is based on Boobie Miles. Smash faces challenges, including a steroid scandal and a racial altercation. Injured between Seasons 2 and 3, he ultimately joins Texas A&M University with Coach Taylor's support. As a Dillon Panther he wore the number 20.\nLuke Cafferty (Matt Lauria) – Introduced in Season 4 of \"Friday Night Lights\" as a replacement for Tim Riggins at tailback. Initially a standout on West Dillon High's junior varsity team, Luke is transferred to East Dillon High after it's discovered he falsified his address to play for West Dillon. Unlike other parents, his are unsupportive of his football pursuits. Luke's friendship with J.D. McCoy ends due to J.D.'s arrogance. He impregnates Becky Sproles in Season 4, but they eventually develop a strong relationship. In Season 5, Luke struggles with whether to attend a Division III college for football after not receiving offers from larger schools. Guided by Tim Riggins, he focuses on winning the state championship, which his team achieves. Eight months later, Luke enlists in the Army. He wore number 4 as a Dillon Panther and number 44 as an East Dillon Lion, earning the nickname \"Fours\" from Tim Riggins.\nVince Howard (Michael B. Jordan) – Introduced in Season 4 of \"Friday Night Lights.\" A talented athlete with no previous football experience, he joins the East Dillon football team to avoid juvenile detention. After helping his mother enter drug rehab, Vince becomes the team's quarterback, leading them to victory in the Season 4 finale. In Season 5, Vince faces challenges with the attention from colleges and becomes arrogant. His father, who is often present at games, pressures him about college choices, causing tension. Coach Taylor benches Vince due to his behavior affecting team morale. Vince eventually matures and leads the Lions to the state championship. Initially involved with a troubled crowd, Vince supports his mother and stands up to his father. Eight months later, he becomes the quarterback for a rival school. Vince wears the number 5 jersey for the East Dillon Lions.\nJess Merriweather (Jurnee Smollett) – Introduced in Season 4 of \"Friday Night Lights\" as an East Dillon student. Her father, a former state-championship-winning quarterback for the East Dillon Lions, grew to resent the sport and the team. Jess works at her family's restaurant and takes care of her three younger brothers. By the end of Season 4, she begins a relationship with Vince Howard after a brief relationship with Landry. In Season 5, Jess decides to become a coach and starts shadowing Coach Taylor. Her relationship with Vince faces challenges due to his behavior, but they reconcile before the Lions go to the state championship. Later, Jess informs Coach Taylor that she is moving to Dallas due to her father's business success, and Coach Taylor offers to recommend her to a coach in Dallas.\nBecky Sproles (Madison Burge) – An East Dillon student and aspiring beauty queen. In Season 4, she has a one-night stand with Luke Cafferty and undergoes an abortion, receiving support from Tim Riggins. This decision causes controversy for Tami Taylor, eventually leading to her resignation. In Season 5, Becky and Luke reconcile, and she moves in with Billy and Mindy after her mother leaves and she faces mistreatment from her stepmother. By the series finale, Becky moves back with her mother but promises to stay in touch with Billy and Mindy. Becky is notable for being the only main character who was initially a recurring character before being promoted.\nHastings Ruckle (Grey Damon) – Introduced in Season 4 when Buddy Garrity, Luke Cafferty, and Vince Howard convince him to join the East Dillon football team instead of the basketball team. He becomes a talented receiver and contributes to the team's state championship victory. It remains unclear whether he joins the Dillon Panthers \"super team\" or returns to playing basketball for East Dillon. As an East Dillon Lion, he wears the number 88.","title":"Main characters"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recurring characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brad Leland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Leland"},{"link_name":"Chevrolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet"},{"link_name":"booster club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_club"},{"link_name":"college football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football"},{"link_name":"Texas Longhorns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Longhorns"},{"link_name":"Derek Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Phillips_(actor)"},{"link_name":"chop shop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chop_shop"},{"link_name":"Brett Cullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett_Cullen"},{"link_name":"Matt Saracen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Saracen"},{"link_name":"IED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device"},{"link_name":"Liz Mikel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Mikel"},{"link_name":"Smash Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smash_Williams"},{"link_name":"Aasha Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aasha_Davis"},{"link_name":"Katherine Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Willis"},{"link_name":"Jason Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Street"},{"link_name":"Kevin Rankin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Rankin_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Dana Wheeler-Nicholson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_Wheeler-Nicholson"},{"link_name":"Stacey Oristano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacey_Oristano"},{"link_name":"Blue Deckert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Deckert"},{"link_name":"Walter Perez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Perez_(actor)"},{"link_name":"outside linebacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outside_linebacker"},{"link_name":"defensive end","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defensive_end"},{"link_name":"Aldis Hodge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldis_Hodge"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Katrina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina"},{"link_name":"displaced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_Hurricane_Katrina"},{"link_name":"Brooke Langton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooke_Langton"},{"link_name":"Jae Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jae_Head"},{"link_name":"Alexandra Holden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Holden"},{"link_name":"Libby Villari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libby_Villari"}],"sub_title":"Introduced in Season 1","text":"Buddy Garrity (Brad Leland) – Owner of a popular Chevrolet dealership in Dillon and an influential alumnus and booster club. member of the Dillon Panthers football team. He has three children, Lyla, Tabby, and Buddy Jr., with his ex-wife Pam. A former college football player for the Texas Longhorns. Buddy's loud and pragmatic demeanor initially causes friction with Coach Taylor, though they eventually develop a cooperative relationship. Buddy's affair with Angela Collette leads to a contentious divorce. In the third season, disillusioned by Joe McCoy's takeover of the Panthers, Buddy shifts his allegiance to the East Dillon Lions, where he significantly contributes by securing sponsorships and hosting a pro-Lions radio show. Later, he sells his dealership and opens a bar in East Dillon. His ex-wife sends their son, Buddy Jr., to live with him after behavioral issues arise. Ultimately, when the Dillon Independent School District consolidates the football teams, Buddy returns to the Panthers as the booster club president. The series finale shows him embracing his role with the Panthers, symbolized by his placement of a sign in the coach's office that reads, \"Clear Eyes, Full Hearts, Can't Lose,\" honoring Coach Taylor.\nBuddy Garrity Jr. (Jeff Rosick and Joey Truty) – son of Buddy Garrity and the younger brother of Lyla Garrity. Initially depicted as a young child, Buddy Jr. begins acting out and showing disrespect for authority after moving to California. Consequently, his mother sends him back to Texas to live with his father. To help him straighten out, Buddy Jr. joins the East Dillon Lions football team, where he wears the number 42. However, an injury sidelines him for much of the season. Eventually, he becomes part of the consolidated Dillon super-team.\nTabby Garrity (Kate Krause) – daughter of Buddy Garrity and the sister of Lyla Garrity and Buddy Garrity Jr. Initially presented as a young child, Tabby moves to California with her mother and stepfather following her parents' divorce. She returns to Dillon in Season 3 to visit her father and sister, though she initially struggles to show respect towards her father. After this visit, Tabby does not appear again in the series.\nPam Garrity (Merrilee McCommas) – wife of Buddy Garrity, and the mother of Lyla, Buddy Jr., and Tabby. She divorces Buddy in Season 1 after discovering his affair with Angela Collette. In Season 2, Pam remarries a man named Kevin, and between Seasons 2 and 3, they relocate to California with Buddy Jr. and Tabby. In Season 5, due to Buddy Jr.'s behavioral issues, Pam sends him back to Dillon to live with Buddy\nBilly Riggins (Derek Phillips) — Older brother and legal guardian of Tim Riggins, assuming this role due to the absence of their parents. Initially poised to attend college on a golf scholarship, Billy sacrifices this opportunity to care for Tim. Like his brother, he played for the Dillon Panthers. Billy marries Mindy Collette, the older sister of Tim's ex-girlfriend Tyra, at the end of Season 3. He starts a car repair business named Riggins Rigs. Facing financial pressure, especially with Mindy's pregnancy, Billy opens a chop shop in Season 4. When Tim takes the blame for the illegal operation, Billy becomes a coach at East Dillon and supports Becky Sproles during Tim's incarceration. In Season 5, Billy and Mindy learn they are expecting twins. In the series finale, Billy is depicted as a coach for the newly consolidated Dillon Panthers super-team.\nWalt Riggins (Brett Cullen) – Father of Tim and Billy Riggins. He abandoned the family just as Billy was about to attend college. In Season 1, Tim seeks him out for a signature on a document, and Walt appears to attempt a reconciliation. Despite Tim's efforts to reconnect, Walt's true nature is revealed when he steals a camera used to record football games, affirming Billy's warnings about their father.\nLorraine Saracen (Louanne Stephens) — Grandmother tof Matt Saracen and requires special care due to her dementia. Acting as a motherly figure, she has been a primary caregiver in Matt's life since his father is often absent. Her condition necessitates significant responsibility from Matt, impacting his personal life and decisions.\nHenry Saracen (Brent Smiga) – The father of Matt Saracen, divorced Matt's mother when Matt was young and enlisted in the US Army, serving in Iraq. His prolonged absences left Matt without a father figure, leading him to seek guidance from Coach Taylor and his friend Landry. The strained father-son relationship culminates in Henry's death from an IED in Iraq, explored in the emotionally charged episode \"The Son,\" where Matt grapples with his feelings of anger and loss, ultimately acknowledging his father's service to the country at the funeral.\nCorrina Williams (Liz Mikel) — Mother of Brian \"Smash\" Williams. She works as a nurse and plays a crucial role in her son's life, balancing her support for his football dreams with a strong emphasis on education. She discovers steroids in Smash's room and informs Coach Taylor, momentarily jeopardizing his career. Corrina also informs Tami Taylor of her pregnancy at the end of Season 1. She and her daughters exit the series after Smash leaves for college.\nSheila & Noannie Williams (Whitney MCCauley) & (Nieko Mann) – Older and younger sisters Smash Williams, respectively. Their roles in the series are minor, with their family dynamics and interactions primarily supporting Smash's storyline.\nWaverly Grady (Aasha Davis) — The preacher's daughter, is a former girlfriend of Smash Williams. Their relationship ends due to the challenges posed by Waverly's bipolar disorder.\nReverend Grady (Sid Johnson) – A preacher in town in town and Waverly's father, contributing to the portrayal of Waverly's family and social environment.\nMitchell and Joanne Street (Mark Nutter and Katherine Willis) — Jason Street's parents. Their professions are not specified. Following Jason's injury, they mortgage their house to cover medical expenses and home renovations, leading them to sue Coach Taylor for compensation. This decision creates household tension, as Jason views Taylor as a mentor and is close to his parents. The Streets, depicted as an \"All-American\" family, are dedicated to Jason, their presumed only child, and regularly supported him at football games. After Jason moves to New York City in Season 3, they are no longer mentioned.\nHerc (Kevin Rankin) — Athlete who shares the same spinal cord injury as Jason Street. They meet as roommates in the rehab center, where Herc mentors Jason and introduces him to quad rugby. They later become roommates and collaborate on a real estate venture before Jason departs for the northeast.\nAngela Collette (Dana Wheeler-Nicholson) — Mother of Tyra Collette and former mistress to Buddy Garrity. Her affair with Buddy contributes to the breakdown of his family life, revealing his repeated infidelities to Lyla's mother over the years.\nMindy Collette-Riggins (Stacey Oristano) – Tyra Collette's hard-edged sister and Billy Riggins's wife. She works as a stripper at The Landing Strip and, unlike Tyra, embraces a \"trashy\" image. Initially a minor character, Mindy's role expands in the final two seasons, revealing her empathetic nature. She acts as a sister figure to Becky, has a son named Stevie with Billy, and is expecting twins in Season 5.\nMac MacGill (Blue Deckert) — Offensive coordinator for the Dillon Panthers. TInitially tense with Eric Taylor due to his expectation of becoming head coach, Mac makes controversial comments leading to a team walkout in Season 1. He later defends Smash Williams during a brawl incident. After a heart attack in Season 3, Mac takes a leave and is replaced by Wade Aikmen. He declines a job offer from Coach Taylor at East Dillon in Season 4. By Season 5, Mac becomes the head coach of the Dillon Panthers, but his status after the football season is uncertain.\nCoach T.C. Crowley (Timothy Crowley) – Assistant coach for the Dillon Panthers from Seasons 1-4. He joins Coach Taylor at East Dillon, becoming his right-hand man. A disagreement over player conduct briefly puts him at odds with Taylor and Coach Riggins. Crowley returns to the Dillon Panthers \"super team\" in the series finale after the East Dillon football program shuts down.\nCoach Spivey (Aaron Spivey-Sorrells) – Assistant coach for the Dillon Panthers who joins the East Dillon Lions in Season 5. Known for his motivational skills, he returns to the Panthers \"super team\" in the series finale following the closure of the East Dillon football program.\nBobby \"Bull\" Reyes (Walter Perez) – An outside linebacker for the Dillon Panthers, appearing early in Season 1. He participates in vandalizing a rival quarterback's car and later assaults Kurt Kaster. Initially claiming racism as the motive, Reyes admits the truth to Coach Taylor, who then removes him from the team. Reyes is not seen or mentioned after this incident. As a Panther, he wore number 40.\nBradley Cole (James Powers) - A defensive end for the Dillon Panthers, characterized by his quiet demeanor and background presence. In \"Full Hearts,\" he is involved in a confrontation with Tim Riggins following rumors of Tim's affair with Lyla, spurred by misinformation about Tim's altercation with Jason Street. Cole later facilitates Matt and Julie's use of his family's lake house for a significant moment. Tim's return to the team prompts Cole to receive Riggins's apology in \"Seeing Other People.\" He appears throughout Seasons 1 and 2 but is absent from Season 3 onwards, presumably due to graduation. As a Dillon Panther he wore either the number 56 in Season 1 and the number 55 in Season 2.\nRay “Voodoo” Tatum (Aldis Hodge) — A Louisiana resident brought to Dillon by Buddy Garrity to temporarily replace Matt Saracen as the Panther quarterback after Hurricane Katrina displaced him. Despite initial success, his refusal to bond with teammates and insubordination lead to his expulsion from the team during halftime of a crucial game. The Panthers subsequently forfeit a game he led them to win. Tatum reappears as the quarterback for West Cambria in the State Final against the Panthers at the end of Season 1, attempting to provoke Smash Williams. As a Panther and later a Mustang, he wears number 9.\nJackie Miller (Brooke Langton) – Single mother to Bo Miller who moves in next door to the Riggins brothers with her son, Bo. She becomes romantically involved with both Tim and Billy Riggins, causing tension between the brothers in Season 2. Jackie leaves the series after her breakup with Billy.\nBo Miller (Jae Head) – Jackie's son and an admirer of Tim Riggins. After being bullied, Tim teaches him self-defense, strengthening their bond. Tim gives Jackie tickets for the state final, ostensibly for Bo.\nSuzy (Alexandra Holden) – A tattoo artist who briefly engages in a flirtation with Jason Street, witnessed by Lyla, causing strain in their relationship.\nKurt Kaster (Brent McGregor) – A longtime friend of Matt and Landry who is hospitalized after being assaulted by Bobby Reyes following a disagreement about football. Landry's reluctance to intervene strains his friendship with Matt.\nMayor Lucy Rodell (Libby Villari) – staunch supporter of the Dillon Panthers, playing a prominent role in local politics and events.\nSlammin' Sammy Meade (David Cowgill) – serves as the commentator for football games in Dillon, providing colorful commentary and analysis.\nLois (Megan Moser) – A friend of Julie Taylor, initially preferred by Tami over Tyra Collette.","title":"Recurring characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Taylor_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Tami Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Chris Mulkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Mulkey"},{"link_name":"Glenn Morshower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Morshower"},{"link_name":"juvenile detention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_detention_center"},{"link_name":"Daniella Alonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniella_Alonso"},{"link_name":"Jessalyn Gilsig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessalyn_Gilsig"},{"link_name":"Jana Kramer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jana_Kramer"},{"link_name":"Matt Czuchry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Czuchry"},{"link_name":"Alejandro Rose-Garcia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Rose-Garcia"},{"link_name":"Austin Nichols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_Nichols"},{"link_name":"Brea Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brea_Grant"},{"link_name":"Kim Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Smith_(model)"},{"link_name":"Alanna Ubach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanna_Ubach"},{"link_name":"Peter Berg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Berg"},{"link_name":"Taylor Nichols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Nichols"}],"sub_title":"Introduced in Season 2","text":"Gracie Belle Taylor (Madilyn Landry) – Younger Daughter of Eric and Tami Taylor\nBill McGregor (Chris Mulkey) — Former head coach of the Dillon Panthers. He replaced Coach Taylor at the beginning of season 2 after the latter left for TMU. Known as the \"Tennessee Tyrant\" for his heavy-handed take-no-prisoners approach to coaching, in contrast to Taylor's more casual style.\nChad Clarke (Glenn Morshower) — Father of Landry Clarke, Dillon Panthers alumnus, and police sergeant for the Dillon Police Department. He tries to protect Landry when he gets into trouble in Season 2.\nMary Clarke (Carol Farabee) – Mother of Landry Clarke.\nSantiago Herrera (Benny Ciaramello) — upon his release from juvenile detention. Despite his troubled past, Santiago demonstrates academic prowess, which is noted by then-guidance counselor Tami Taylor. Buddy Garrity extends a helping hand by offering Santiago employment and accommodation, leading to the development of a paternal bond between the two. Santiago's athletic talents are recognized when he joins the football team, excelling as a standout defensive player, notably wearing the number 59 as a Dillon Panther. However, due to the disruption caused by a writers' strike, Santiago's storyline is abruptly abandoned in the subsequent season, resulting in the character's disappearance from the series altogether.\nCarlotta Alonso (Daniella Alonso) – introduced as a live-in nurse enlisted to assist Matt and Lorraine during Lorraine's declining mental health. Despite Matt's existing relationship, he develops romantic feelings for Carlotta. Eventually, he ends his relationship to pursue one with Carlotta, who initially resists but later reciprocates his affections. Their relationship progresses to a physical level, resulting in Carlotta taking Matt's virginity. However, their romance is short-lived as Carlotta decides to return to her family in Guatemala, prompting the end of their relationship.\nShelley Hayes (Jessalyn Gilsig) – Tami Taylor's sister, portrayed as immature, arrives to assist after Gracie's birth. Her actions prompt Julie to reflect on her own behavior. Subsequently, she transitions into a career as a real estate agent.\nNoelle Davenport (Jana Kramer) – The sister of a former Panther player, who had graduated two years before Season 2, enters a relationship with Smash during this season. Their interracial relationship faces disapproval from both sets of parents. Alongside Smash's sister Noannie, they encounter harassment from teenagers during a movie outing, which leads to Smash defending their honor. As a consequence, Smash receives a three-game suspension.\nChris Kennedy (Matt Czuchry) – A Christian youth leader, who is also a DJ on a Christian radio station, meets Lyla when she joins their group in Season 2. Their relationship develops into a romantic one, despite Tim Riggins' unwanted attention towards Lyla. However, in Season 3, the character is absent from the storyline due to Lyla's abusive relationship with Tim, which takes precedence in the narrative.\nErin Street (Tamara Jolaine) – A waitress encounters Jason after a failed blind date and ends up sleeping with him, resulting in her pregnancy. Despite initial plans for abortion due to her young age, Jason, realizing the unlikelihood of conception due to his paraplegia-related fertility issues, urges her to keep the child. In Season 3, she gives birth to their son, Noah, and maintains a relationship with Jason, although they do not reside together. Eventually, she relocates to New Jersey with Noah to live with her parents, prompting Jason to pursue a job in New York. After securing an entry-level position at a sports agency, Jason commits to supporting her and their child. By Season 5, Jason reveals that they are married, and she expresses a desire to expand their family.\nGlenn Reed (Steven Walters) – A teacher at Dillon High School develops a friendship with Tami Taylor upon her return from maternity leave. In Season 4, he kisses Tami while intoxicated during a happy hour event. Overcome with guilt, he confesses the incident to Tami's husband, Eric, feeling ashamed of his actions.\nAnton \"The Swede\" (Alejandro Rose-Garcia, later known as the musician Shakey Graves) – A lifeguard stationed at the pool where Julie works catches her attention at the outset of Season 2. Julie becomes romantically interested in him. Following the birth of Gracie Belle and amidst the challenges of her home life, Julie decides to end her relationship with Matt and pursue a connection with \"The Swede.\" However, Julie discovers, as warned by Tami, that \"The Swede\" is not interested in a committed relationship and leads a carefree lifestyle, causing her distress.\nNoah Barnett (Austin Nichols) – A young teacher joins Dillon High School in Season 2, where Julie forms a friendship with him after learning about the reality of her relationship with \"The Swede.\" Tami misinterprets their rapport as a romantic interest and confronts the teacher, leading to strained relations between Tami and Julie.\nGuy Raston (Joey Oglesby) – Tim Riggins seeks refuge with a methamphetamine dealer after departing his home and being ousted from Tyra's residence. The dealer permits Tim to stay provided he tends to his ferrets. Upon awakening to the dealer wielding a firearm, Tim opts to leave. Later, Tim pilfers funds from the dealer to settle his mortgage, leading to confrontation. Despite repayment facilitated by Lyla, tensions persist, resulting in a strained relationship. In Season 3, Billy endeavors to vend stolen copper wire to the dealer, but encounters obstacles.\nJean Binnel (Brea Grant) – In Season 2, Landry embarks on a brief relationship with a girl who becomes aware of his complex dynamics with Tyra. Sensing the tension, she confronts Landry, insisting that he make a choice between her and Tyra. Ultimately, Landry decides to pursue a romantic relationship with Tyra, opting to end things with the other girl.\nLauren Davis (Kim Smith) – Following his split from Julie, Matt briefly enters into a relationship with a cheerleader. However, his feelings for Carlotta develop, prompting him to seek advice from Smash on how to navigate the breakup. Smash suggests proposing an open relationship, which Matt follows through with. As a result, the cheerleader, named Lauren, ends their relationship.\nRoberta \"Bobbie\" Roberts (Alanna Ubach) – The coach of the girls' soccer team at Dillon High School is known for her persistent requests for equipment when Taylor assumes the role of athletic director. She consistently seeks resources to support the team's needs.\nMorris \"Mo\" McArnold (Peter Berg) – Mo, Tami's former high school sweetheart, who she left to be with Eric, returns to Dillon as a real estate developer aiming to purchase shopping centers. Despite the passage of time, Mo remains attracted to Tami. Tensions escalate when Mo accuses Eric of \"stealing\" Tami from him, sparking a confrontation between the two men. Eric's jealousy over Mo's lingering feelings for Tami exacerbates the conflict, leading to a heated altercation between them.\nKevin Turner (Taylor Nichols) - Pam's partner, later husband, following her divorce from Buddy, is named Kevin. The family, excluding Lyla, relocates to California between Season 2 and Season 3. Kevin is characterized as a hipster and a vegetarian. His influence leads to Buddy Jr. and Tabby adopting disrespectful behavior towards their father in Season 3. Additionally, Buddy insinuates that the marijuana Pam accuses Buddy Jr. of using originates from Kevin.","title":"Recurring characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kim Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Sumpter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Sumpter"},{"link_name":"D. W. Moffett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._W._Moffett"},{"link_name":"Janine Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janine_Turner"},{"link_name":"Sinqua Walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinqua_Walls"},{"link_name":"Zach Roerig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zach_Roerig"},{"link_name":"Caleb Landry Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caleb_Landry_Jones"}],"sub_title":"Introduced in Season 3","text":"Shelby Saracen (née Garrett) (Kim Dickens) — Mother of Matt Saracen,. Shelby was largely absent from Matt's life until his struggles with his grandmother prompted him to seek her out to sign papers for his legal emancipation. She eventually stays in Dillon with Matt and his grandmother, Lorraine, who takes some time to accept Shelby's help.\nJ.D. McCoy (Jeremy Sumpter) — talented quarterback who joins the varsity team as a freshman, eventually replacing Matt Saracen as the starter. His father, Joe McCoy, attempts to bribe Coach Taylor to start J.D. He struggles to relate to older teammates due to his straight-laced habits. In the fourth season, J.D. becomes arrogant as Joe becomes President of the Booster Club and Wade Aikmen becomes head coach. By the fifth season, J.D. is no longer the starting quarterback for the Panthers, having left Dillon after a loss to East Dillon. As a Panther, he wore the number 12. His increasing arrogance makes him the secondary antagonist of Season 4..\nJoe McCoy (D. W. Moffett) – J.D. McCoy's father and a beer distributor. He attempts to bribe Coach Taylor into starting J.D. and is controlling of his son's life, restricting his diet and social interactions. Joe's actions escalate, leading to Coach Taylor's replacement by Wade Aikmen. In Season 4, as head of the booster club, Joe antagonizes Tami Taylor and announces his divorce from Katie. In Season 5, Joe, J.D., and Wade have left Dillon, making Joe the main antagonist of Seasons 3 and 4.\nKatie McCoy (Janine Turner) – J.D. McCoy's mother and Joe's wife. She is less controlling of J.D.'s life and encourages him to focus on activities other than football. In Season 3, she befriends Tami Taylor, but their friendship ends after the Taylors call CPS. By Season 4, Joe announces their impending divorce.\nWade Aikmen (Drew Waters) – .D. McCoy's personal coach, hired by Joe McCoy. He temporarily replaces Mac McGill after a heart attack and later becomes head coach of the Panthers, replacing Coach Taylor. By Season 5, Wade, along with Joe and J.D., has left Dillon.\nJamarcus Hall (Sinqua Walls) – A player introduced in Season 3 who replaces Tim Riggins as fullback. Jamarcus forges his parents' signatures to play football, but his father pulls him from the team, citing a lack of interest in football and a career that requires frequent relocations. With Eric and Tami's persuasion, Jamarcus is given another chance and gains the respect of his teammates. He does not appear in Seasons 4 and 5, possibly due to his family's relocation. As a Panther, he wore the number 1.\nDevin Boland (Stephanie Hunt) – A new student in Season 3 who joins Landry's band. After Landry kisses her, she reveals she is a lesbian, but they maintain their friendship. In Season 4, she attends East Dillon High and becomes friends with Julie. Her parents' divorce is mentioned. Her last name was shown as \"Corrigan\" in Season 3 credits, possibly due to her parents' divorce.\nMadison Balman (Whitney Hoy) – A girl interested in J.D. McCoy in Season 3. Katie McCoy approves of their relationship, but Joe sees it as a distraction. Initially, J.D. ends their relationship under his father's pressure but later resumes it. In Season 4, Madison is not seen, suggesting they broke up due to J.D.'s increasing arrogance.\nCash Waller (Zach Roerig) – A cowboy who dates Tyra in Season 3. Initially charming, he is later revealed to have a gambling problem and a temper.\nPaul Dunley (David Born) – The superintendent for Dillon High. He aligns with Tami Taylor's views but acknowledges the need to appease the community for funding.\nClint Trucks (Brandon Smith) - The vice principal at Dillon High. He discourages Tyra from aiming for certain colleges and disapproves of her campaign. Tami Taylor defends Tyra but agrees with Trucks' opinion.\nJimmy Adler (Caleb Landry Jones) - The drummer for Landry's band.\nGrant Halbert (Scottie Jeffries) - A former football player for Westerby turned sports agent in New York. He initially seeks information from Jason Street about Wendell Foley, a former teammate who went pro. Impressed by Jason's ability to persuade Wendell to sign with him, Grant helps Jason secure an entry-level position at his firm.\nWendell Foley (Galen Flemons) - A former Panther who went pro and introduces Jason Street to Grant Halbert. Jason convinces Wendell to sign with Grant, leading to Jason's employment at Grant's firm.","title":"Recurring characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LaMarcus Tinker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaMarcus_Tinker"},{"link_name":"Russell DeGrazier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_DeGrazier"},{"link_name":"Alicia Witt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicia_Witt"},{"link_name":"Steve Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Harris_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Lorraine Toussaint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorraine_Toussaint"},{"link_name":"Barry Tubb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Tubb"},{"link_name":"Matt Barr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Barr"},{"link_name":"John Swasey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Swasey"},{"link_name":"Nnamdi Asomugha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nnamdi_Asomugha"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Gilliard Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Gilliard_Jr."}],"sub_title":"Introduced in Season 4","text":"Levi Burnwell (Troy Hogan) – Introduced in season 4, Levi Burnwell is an alumnus and the principal of East Dillon High. He was formerly a teacher at West Dillon High before East Dillon's reopening. Despite viewing football as a financial burden for East Dillon High, Levi frequently attends games to support the Lions.\nDallas Tinker (LaMarcus Tinker) – Known by his last name, Tinker is a key player for the East Dillon Lions, part of a core group that includes Vince Howard, Luke Cafferty, Hastings Ruckle, and Buddy Garrity, Jr. He has shown camaraderie, such as helping Luke mend a fence on his parents' farm. In Season 5, he trades his rally girl, Becky, to Luke in exchange for a pig. Tinker eventually joins the Dillon super-team and wears the number 79. His teammates often call him \"Tink.\"\nCoach Stan Traub (Russell DeGrazier) – Assistant coach for the East Dillon Lions during seasons 4 and 5. He is also the manager of a local Sears store and was formerly a standout Pop Warner coach. Stan is known for echoing the words of fellow coaches. By the season finale, his future with football coaching remains uncertain.\nRegina Howard (Angela Rawna) – The mother of Vince Howard, Regina is a former drug addict who, after being helped into rehab by her son, strives to turn her life around.\nCalvin Brown (Ernest James) – A friend of Vince Howard in Season 4. Calvin joins the football team but is expelled by Coach Taylor after refusing to apologize for fighting. He is involved in criminal activities and influences Vince to borrow money from his boss, Kennard. Calvin is later shot and killed by rival neighborhood thugs, prompting Vince to attend his memorial and face pressure to seek revenge. During the brief time that he was an East Dillon Lion, he wore the number 23.\nKennard Royce (Cedric Neal) – A thug in East Dillon who employs Calvin and Vince, teaching them to steal cars. Kennard loans Vince money to get his mother into rehab, creating a debt Vince must repay. After Calvin's death, Kennard pressures Vince to seek revenge but ultimately spares him, deeming him unworthy. In Season 5, Kennard demands repayment, leading to a confrontation with Vince's father, Ornette.\nCheryl Sproles (Alicia Witt) – The mother of Becky Sproles and a bartender in West Dillon. She has a brief relationship with Tim Riggins and allows him to rent a trailer on her property. Having had Becky in high school, Cheryl is determined that Becky does not repeat her mistakes. When Becky becomes pregnant, Cheryl insists on an abortion. She later works on a casino boat, leaving Becky in the care of her father and stepmother.\nBull Sproles (Lee Stringer) – Becky Sproles' father and a truck driver. He visits in Season 4, gets Becky a dog, but is revealed to have another child with another woman. He fights with Tim Riggins over this revelation and leaves. In Season 5, he returns to look after Becky while her mother is away, but struggles with parenting, prompting Becky to live with the Riggins family.\nVirgil \"Big Merry\" Merriweather (Steve Harris) – Father of Jess Merriweather and her three brothers, Virgil owns and operates Ray's BBQ in East Dillon. A former East Dillon Lions state champion, he initially opposes Coach Taylor's football program but later supports it, offering advice and employment to Vince Howard.\nBird Merriweather (Lorraine Toussaint) – Jess, Andre, Caleb and Darius' aunt, and Virgil's sister. She manages his restaurant in Season 5 while he is in Dallas on a work trip.\nAndre Merriweather (Charlie Quary) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother, who plays peewee football.\nCaleb Merriweather (Isaac Smith) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother. He plays peewee football.\nDarius Merriweather (Josh Levi) – Jess Merriweather's younger brother, who also plays peewee football.\nTom Cafferty (Barry Tubb) – Luke Cafferty's father, a cattle rancher. He supports his son through various challenges, including a teenage pregnancy. In Season 5, he is proud of Luke's success on the football field but is initially uneasy about Luke's relationship with Becky.\nMargaret Cafferty (Kathleen Griffith) – Luke Cafferty's mother, who is deeply upset by Becky's decision to have an abortion, blaming Tami Taylor, which contributes to Tami losing her job. Despite this, she and Tom support Luke's football career and relationship with Becky in Season 5.\nRyan Lowry (Matt Barr) – A partner with \"Habitat for Humanity.\" Julie Taylor briefly dates him in Season 4 after her breakup with Matt Saracen. He leaves for a project in Arizona.\nCoach Granger (John Swasey) - A coach for the East Dillon Lions in Season 4 who quits after a confrontation with Calvin Brown.\nKen Shaw (Nnamdi Asomugha) - A detective with the East Dillon Police Department. His brother was a player under Coach Taylor. Ken intervenes to keep Vince Howard out of juvenile detention, allowing him to play football instead.\nElden Crumpler (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.) – A former gangster turned community worker. He assists in improving conditions at Carroll Park and supports Coach Taylor's initiatives.","title":"Recurring characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cress Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cress_Williams"},{"link_name":"Heather Kafka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Kafka"},{"link_name":"Emily Rios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Rios"},{"link_name":"Denise Williamson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denise_Williamson"},{"link_name":"Gil McKinney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_McKinney"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Friday_Night_Lights"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Friday_Night_Lights"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Friday_Night_Lights"},{"link_name":"Friday Night Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Episodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Friday_Night_Lights_episodes"},{"link_name":"Season 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_season_1"},{"link_name":"Pilot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Eyes Wide Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyes_Wide_Open_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Wind Sprints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_Sprints"},{"link_name":"Who's Your Daddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s_Your_Daddy_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Git'er Done","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Git%27er_Done"},{"link_name":"El Accidente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Accidente_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Homecoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homecoming_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Crossing the Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_the_Line_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Full Hearts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Hearts"},{"link_name":"It's Different for Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s_Different_for_Girls_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Nevermind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevermind_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"What to Do While You're Waiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_to_Do_While_You%27re_Waiting"},{"link_name":"Little Girl I Wanna Marry You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Girl_I_Wanna_Marry_You"},{"link_name":"Upping the Ante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upping_the_Ante"},{"link_name":"Blinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinders_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Black Eyes and Broken Hearts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Eyes_and_Broken_Hearts"},{"link_name":"I Think We Should Have Sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Think_We_Should_Have_Sex"},{"link_name":"Extended Families","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Families_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes"},{"link_name":"Mud Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud_Bowl_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Best Laid Plans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Laid_Plans_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Season 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_season_2"},{"link_name":"Last Days of Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Days_of_Summer_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Bad Ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Ideas_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Are You Ready for Friday Night?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are_You_Ready_for_Friday_Night%3F"},{"link_name":"Backfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backfire_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Let's Get It On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Get_It_On_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"How Did I Get Here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Did_I_Get_Here_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Pantherama!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantherama!"},{"link_name":"Seeing Other People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeing_Other_People_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The Confession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Confession_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"There Goes the Neighborhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There_Goes_the_Neighborhood_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Jumping the Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumping_the_Gun_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Who Do You Think You Are?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Do_You_Think_You_Are%3F_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Humble Pie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humble_Pie_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Leave No One Behind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_No_One_Behind"},{"link_name":"May the Best Man Win","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_the_Best_Man_Win"},{"link_name":"Season 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_season_3"},{"link_name":"I Knew You When","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Knew_You_When_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Tami Knows Best","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Knows_Best"},{"link_name":"How the Other Half Lives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Other_Half_Lives_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Hello, Goodbye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello,_Goodbye_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Every Rose Has Its Thorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Rose_Has_Its_Thorn_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"It Ain't Easy Being J.D. McCoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It_Ain%27t_Easy_Being_J.D._McCoy"},{"link_name":"Keeping Up Appearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeping_Up_Appearances_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"New York, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York,_New_York_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Game of the Week","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_of_the_Week_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The Giving Tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Giving_Tree_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hard_Rain%27s_Gonna_Fall"},{"link_name":"Underdogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underdogs_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Tomorrow Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrow_Blues_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Season 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_season_4"},{"link_name":"East of Dillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_Dillon"},{"link_name":"After the Fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_the_Fall_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"In the Skin of a Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Skin_of_a_Lion_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"A Sort of Homecoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sort_of_Homecoming_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Son_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Stay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stay_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"In the Bag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Bag_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Toilet Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_Bowl_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The Lights in Carroll Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lights_in_Carroll_Park"},{"link_name":"I Can't","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Can%27t_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Injury List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury_List_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Laboring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboring_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Thanksgiving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Season 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_season_5"},{"link_name":"Expectations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectations_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"On the Outside Looking In","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Outside_Looking_In_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The Right Hand of the Father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Right_Hand_of_the_Father"},{"link_name":"Keep Looking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep_Looking"},{"link_name":"Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Swerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swerve_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Perfect Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Record"},{"link_name":"Fracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Gut Check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_Check_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Don't Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Go_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"The March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_March_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Texas Whatever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Whatever"},{"link_name":"Always","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Always_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Eric Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Taylor_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Matt Saracen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Saracen"},{"link_name":"Jason Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Street"},{"link_name":"Smash Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smash_Williams"},{"link_name":"Tim Riggins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Riggins"},{"link_name":"Tami Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Lyla Garrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyla_Garrity"},{"link_name":"Tyra Collette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyra_Collette"},{"link_name":"Film soundtrack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(film_soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Television soundtrack (Vol. 1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(television_soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Television soundtrack (Vol. 2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_Vol._2"},{"link_name":"Film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(film)"},{"link_name":"Friday Night Lights: A Town, a Team, and a Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights:_A_Town,_a_Team,_and_a_Dream"},{"link_name":"Boobie Miles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boobie_Miles"},{"link_name":"Gary Gaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Gaines"}],"sub_title":"Introduced in Season 5","text":"Ornette Howard (Cress Williams) – Vince Howard's father, a former drug dealer who returns to Dillon after serving time in prison. Despite initial rejection from Vince, Ornette becomes involved in his life, often clashing with Coach Taylor over Vince's future.\nDoreen Sproles (Heather Kafka) – Becky Sproles' stepmother, who struggles to care for her when Becky's mother is away. Eventually, Becky moves in with the Riggins family due to the tension at home.\nEpyck Sanders (Emily Rios) – A troubled student at East Dillon High living in a foster home. Despite Tami Taylor's efforts to help her, Epyck's behavioral issues lead to her arrest and transfer to another school.\nMaura Friedman (Denise Williamson) – A student at East Dillon High who becomes involved with Vince Howard, leading to a conflict with Jess Merriweather.\nDerek Bishop (Gil McKinney) – Julie Taylor's college history TA with whom she has an affair. When discovered by his wife, Julie returns home to recover from the fallout.\nLaurel Sachs (Lynn Blackburn) - A history teacher at East Dillon High who befriends Tami Taylor. She becomes involved in the incident leading to Epyck Sanders' arrest.\nBob Short (Akin Babatunde) - Owner of a gardening store in East Dillon who hires Regina Howard, supporting her efforts to rebuild her life.vteFriday Night LightsEpisodesSeason 1\n\"Pilot\"\n\"Eyes Wide Open\"\n\"Wind Sprints\"\n\"Who's Your Daddy\"\n\"Git'er Done\"\n\"El Accidente\"\n\"Homecoming\"\n\"Crossing the Line\"\n\"Full Hearts\"\n\"It's Different for Girls\"\n\"Nevermind\"\n\"What to Do While You're Waiting\"\n\"Little Girl I Wanna Marry You\"\n\"Upping the Ante\"\n\"Blinders\"\n\"Black Eyes and Broken Hearts\"\n\"I Think We Should Have Sex\"\n\"Extended Families\"\n\"Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes\"\n\"Mud Bowl\"\n\"Best Laid Plans\"\n\"State\"\nSeason 2\n\"Last Days of Summer\"\n\"Bad Ideas\"\n\"Are You Ready for Friday Night?\"\n\"Backfire\"\n\"Let's Get It On\"\n\"How Did I Get Here\"\n\"Pantherama!\"\n\"Seeing Other People\"\n\"The Confession\"\n\"There Goes the Neighborhood\"\n\"Jumping the Gun\"\n\"Who Do You Think You Are?\"\n\"Humble Pie\"\n\"Leave No One Behind\"\n\"May the Best Man Win\"\nSeason 3\n\"I Knew You When\"\n\"Tami Knows Best\"\n\"How the Other Half Lives\"\n\"Hello, Goodbye\"\n\"Every Rose Has Its Thorn\"\n\"It Ain't Easy Being J.D. McCoy\"\n\"Keeping Up Appearances\"\n\"New York, New York\"\n\"Game of the Week\"\n\"The Giving Tree\"\n\"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\n\"Underdogs\"\n\"Tomorrow Blues\"\nSeason 4\n\"East of Dillon\"\n\"After the Fall\"\n\"In the Skin of a Lion\"\n\"A Sort of Homecoming\"\n\"The Son\"\n\"Stay\"\n\"In the Bag\"\n\"Toilet Bowl\"\n\"The Lights in Carroll Park\"\n\"I Can't\"\n\"Injury List\"\n\"Laboring\"\n\"Thanksgiving\"\nSeason 5\n\"Expectations\"\n\"On the Outside Looking In\"\n\"The Right Hand of the Father\"\n\"Keep Looking\"\n\"Kingdom\"\n\"Swerve\"\n\"Perfect Record\"\n\"Fracture\"\n\"Gut Check\"\n\"Don't Go\"\n\"The March\"\n\"Texas Whatever\"\n\"Always\"\nCharacters\nEric Taylor\nMatt Saracen\nJason Street\nSmash Williams\nTim Riggins\nTami Taylor\nLyla Garrity\nTyra Collette\nSoundtracks\nFilm soundtrack\nTelevision soundtrack (Vol. 1)\nTelevision soundtrack (Vol. 2)\nRelated\nFilm\nFriday Night Lights: A Town, a Team, and a Dream\nBoobie Miles\nGary Gaines","title":"Recurring characters"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"The Son","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Son_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"title":"Derek Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Luke_(actor)"},{"title":"College Station, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Station,_Texas"}]
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[{"reference":"Knutzen, Eirik (January 19, 2007). \"TV Close-Up: Kyle Chandler\". Bend Weekly. Retrieved September 27, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bendweekly.com/news/1979.html","url_text":"\"TV Close-Up: Kyle Chandler\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaisford_Prize
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Gaisford Prize
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["1 History","2 Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse","3 Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose","4 Winners of the Gaisford Essay Prize","5 Winners of the Gaisford Dissertation Prize","6 Notable winning entries","7 In fiction","8 See also","9 References","10 See also"]
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Oxford awards for Greek or Latin
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Thomas Gaisford
The Gaisford Prize is a prize awarded by the Faculty of Classics, University of Oxford for a composition in Classical Greek Verse and Prose by an undergraduate student. The prize was founded in 1855 in memory of Dr Thomas Gaisford (1779–1855). The prizes now also include the Gaisford Essay Prize and the Gaisford Dissertation Prize.
History
Dr Thomas Gaisford, Dean of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Oxford for more than forty years (1811–1855), died on 2 June 1855. Ten days later, at a meeting held in Christ Church on 12 June, it was resolved to establish a prize in his honour, to be called the Gaisford Prize, and to raise for that purpose £1,000 by public subscription, the interest to be applied "to reward a successful prizeman or prizemen, under such regulations as shall be approved by Convocation". The prizes were first awarded in 1857.
There have been four categories of Gaisford Prize. The two original categories were:
Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse. It ceased being awarded for a period after 1975, but had been revived by 1995.
Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose. By the late 1980s it was awarded based on Honour Moderations exams.
By 2003 the Schedule to the University's Statutes and Regulations provided for a different two prizes, which remained in the Schedule as of 2024:
Gaisford Essay Prize for Greek Language and Literature, available to undergraduates
Gaisford Dissertation Prize for Greek or Latin Language and Literature, available to graduates
The 1857–1876 winners of the Greek Prose Prize were listed alongside winners of the Newdigate Prize on the wrapper of Oscar Wilde's published Newdigate-winning poem Ravenna (1878).
Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008)
1857: Joseph Henry Warner (Balliol) for Homeric verse: Milton's Paradise Lost 6.56-98.
1858: Reginald Broughton (Balliol) for comic iambics: Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part I, Act 2 Sc. 4.
1859: George Rankine Luke (Balliol) for hexameter verse: Morte D'Arthur.
1860: Chaloner William Chute (Balliol) for tragic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Richard III, Act 4, Sc. 4.
1861: James Bryce (Trinity) for Theocritean verse: The May Queen: a Greek idyll (from Tennyson).
1862: Robert William Raper (Trinity) for comic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part II, Act 4, Sc. 3.
1863: Charles John Pearson for Homeric verse: Paradise Lost 6.824-877.
1864: Evelyn Abbott (Balliol) for tragic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Pericles, Act 5, Sc. 1.
1865: Ernest James Myers (Balliol and Wadham) for a Theocritean idyll: Ægon et Milo, qui ad Olympicum certamen profecti erant, domum redeuntes, inter se loquuntur.
1866: George Nutt (New College) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 1. Sc. 2.
1867: Alexander James Montgomerie Bell (Balliol) for Homeric hexameters: Necryomanteia sive Dante Poeta apud Inferos.
1868: Richard Lewis Nettleship (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, Act 2, Sc. 4.
1869: John Arthur Godley (Balliol) for Theocritean verse: Shakespeare's Cymbeline, Act 4, Sc. 2.
1870: Walter Sumner Gibson (Balliol) for comic iambic verse: Henry IV, Part II, Act 5, Sc. 1.
1871: Edward Byron Nicholson (Trinity, and Bodley's librarian) for heroic hexameters: Ἄστρων νυκτέρων ὁμήγυρις.
1872: Thomas Agar (Christ Church) for tragic iambic verse: Byron's Manfred, Act 1, "The Spirits I have raised..."
1873: Alfred Joshua Butler for Homeric verse: Paradise Lost 4.634-705.
1874: Edward Maclaine Field (Trinity) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part I, Act 5 Sc. 4.
1875: Thomas Herbert Warren (Balliol and Magdalen) for an idyll: The Ruins of Athens.
1876: Arthur Elam Haigh (Corpus Christi) for tragic iambics: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Act 1, Sc. 2.
1877: Sidney Graves Hamilton (Balliol and Hertford) for Homeric hexameters: Paradise Lost 4.223-287.
1878: Alfred Denis Godley (Balliol) for comic iambics: the Hampshire farmer's address in Rejected Addresses.
1879: Alfred Temple Roberts (Magdalen) for idyllic hexameters: Milton's Lycidas 5.132.
1880: Ernest Alfred Upcott (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Paradise Lost 4.32-113.
1881: Christopher Cookson (Corpus Christi) for idyllic hexameter's: Matthew Arnold's Thyrsis.
1882: William Ross Hardie (Balliol) for comic iambics: Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Act 2, Sc. 5
1883: Cecil Henry St Leger Russell (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: The Death of Zohrab and Rustum.
1884: Harry Hammond House (Corpus Christi) for iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 1, Sc. 1.
1885: John Undershell Powell (St. John's) for idyllic hexameters" Shelley's Adonaïs 39–66.
1886: Gilbert Murray (St. John's) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 3, Sc. 2.
1887: Frederick William Hall (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: Paradise Lost 6.746-785.
1888: Frank Fletcher (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Shelley's Cenci, Act 5, Sc. 4.
1889: René Louis Alphonse Du Pontet (Trinity) for hexameters on Columbus.
1890: William Martin Geldart (Balliol) for comic iambics: Henry V, Act 2, Sc. 3.
1891: William Frederick Lofthouse (Trinity) for idyllic hexameters: 'Country Cousins at the Jubilee' (Et quæ tanta fuit Romam tibi causa vivendi).
1892: Wilfred Ormrod Bailey (Trinity) for tragic iambics: Milton's Samson Agonistes 1570–1660.
1893: Herbert Sidebotham (Balliol) for idyllic hexameters: Lycidas 15–84.
1894: George Stuart Robertson (New College) for comic iambic verse: Henry IV, Part II, Act 2, Sc. 2.
1895: Frank Lloyd Edwards (New College) for tragic iambic verse: Matthew Arnold's Merope.
1896: Edward L. D. Cole (Balliol) for hexameters: Virgil's Aeneid 2.162-249.
1897: W. F. Nicholson (Balliol) for Theocritean hexameters: Thomson's Castle of Indolence 1.2-12.
1898: James Alexander Webster (Magdalen) for iambic verse: Marlowe's Edward II, Act 5, Sc. 1.
1899: Harold Trevor Baker (New College) for comic iambic verse: Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humour, Act 1, Sc. 4.
1900: Julius Victor Scholderer (Trinity) for hexameters: R.L. Stevenson's Rahéro.
1901: Frederick Lewisohn (Trinity) for Theocritean verse: Milton's Comus 244–330.
1902: Edward William Macleay Grigg (New College) for iambic verse: Richard III, Act 1, Sc. 2.
1903: H. L. Henderson (Christ Church) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 3, Sc. 2.
1904: Cyril Charles Martindale (Pope's Hall ) for hexameters: Virgil's Georgics 4.450-547.
1905: F. A. B. Newman (Univ) for Theocritean hexameters: Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar: Aegloga Sexta.
1906: Leslie Whitaker Hunter (New College) for elegiac verse: Tennyson's Lotos-Eaters.
1907: William Alexander Bain (Christ Church) for tragic iambics: Byron's Marino Faliero, Act 4, Sc. 2.
1908: Ronald Arbuthnott Knox (Balliol) for Theocritean hexameters: Robert Browning's Pippa Passes III. 'Evening: Talk By the Way'.
1909: Algernon E. F. Spencer (Christ Church) for comic iambics: Sheridan's School for Scandal, Act 4, Sc. 1.
1910: Roderick McKenzie (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: Virgil's Aeneid 2.268-385.
1911: Edgar Lobel (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Racine's Esther 3.1-3.
1912: Thomas Farrant Higham for Theocritean hexameters: George Meredith's Love in the Valley 1–9.
1913: George Dunn (Corpus Christi) for elegiacs: Pope's Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady.
1914: Frank Newton Tribe for tragic iambics: Browning's Strafford, Act 5, Sc. 2, lines 268-end.
1915: Reuben Cohen for comic iambics: Oliver Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer, Act 2.
1916: Godfrey Rolles Driver (New College) for A.H. Clough's Amour de Voyage .
1920: John Blackburne Poynton for Browning's Balaustion's Adventure, lines 11-139.
1921: Asher Hyman for hexameters: from Virgil's 4th Georgic, lines 425–527.
1922: Robert Graham Cockrane Levens for Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, Act 3, Sc. 1.
1923: Cedric A. L. Cliffe for Racine's Athalie, Act 2, Sc. 5.
1924: Edmond Patrick Charles Cotter for Tennyson's Godiva.
1925: Henri Nicolas de Villiers for iambics: Byron's Cain, Act 3.
1927: Ronald Syme (Oriel) for Homeric hexameters: a passage of Morris's The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs.
1928: Denys Lionel Page for Greek tragic iambics: John Masefield's Pompey the Great, Act 2, Sc. 1.
1929: Noël Kilpatrick Hutton for 'The Sad Shepherd', from Yeats's "The Wild Swans at Coole".
1930: Brian Davidson for a translation of Addison's Cato, 4.4-5.1.
1931: John Saye Wingfield Twistleton-Wykeham-Fiennes for comic verse: W.S. Gilbert's The Mikado, or The Town of Titipu.
1932: Archibald David Manisty Ross for 'The Story of Glam', from The Saga of Grettir the Strong.
1933: Thomas Hunter Steen Wyllie for the 'Prologue in Heaven' from Goethe's Faust.
1934: (William) Spencer Barrett (Christ Church) for Congreve's Mourning Bride.
1935: A. T. G. Holmes for Tennyson's Tithonus.
1937: H. Thomson for Sheridan's The Rivals, Act 3, Sc. 1.
1938: Christopher Montague Woodhouse (New College) for Pope's Sappho to Phaon 2.179-end.
1939: Kenneth Dover (Balliol) for lines from Racine's Phèdre, Act 1, Sc. 1, lines 1–133.
1995: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: Martin Revermann of Corpus Christi).
1996: Jeremy Grant (Worcester).
1998: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: Letizia Palladini of Balliol).
1999: Luke Pitcher (Somerville).
2000: Laura Bender (Magdalen).
2016: Andrew Jones (Queen's) for tragic trimeter: Virgil's Aeneid 4.9-38.
2018: Joost Botman (Queen's) & Phillip Bone (Exeter) for tragic and comic trimeter respectively: a passage from Shakespeare's A Winter's Tale.
2019: Jason Webber (Exeter) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Shakespeare's Measure for Measure.
2020: Nicholas Stone (Christ Church) for tragicomic trimeter: a passage from Wordsworth's 'The Brothers Poem'.
2021: Benjamin Goodrick (Trinity) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Shakespeare's Richard the Third.
2022: Althea Sovani (Somerville)
2023: David Dunn (Balliol) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine
Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008)
1857: Robert Dobie Wilson (Balliol) for Empedocles, Dialogues Græcus.
1858: George Rankine Luke (Balliol) for Nicias, sive De superstitione.
1859: Henry Nettleship (Corpus Christi and Lincoln) for Pygmaeorum Civitas.
1860: James Bryce (Trinity and Oriel) for The Plague of London, in the style of Herodotus or Plato.
1861: Charles Bigg (Corpus Christi and Christ Church) for Milo, sive de Gymnastica.
1862: Charles John Pearson (Corpus Christi) for Timæus Novus, sive De Geologia: Dialogus Platonicus.
1863: Augustine Ley (Christ Church) for Marco Polo: Narratio ad Examplar Herodoteum.
1864: A Platonic Dialogue, Socrates apud inferos more suo Atheniensum principes reipublicæ interrogat.
1865: William Henry Simcox (Queen's) for Sancti Ludovici mors, res gestæ, ingenium, after Thucydides.
1866: Francis de Paravicini (Balliol and Christ Church) for Cratylus, sive de hominum sermonis origine.
1867: William Wallace (Balliol and later Merton) for The Aztecs in Herodotean style.
1868: Alfred Goodwin (Balliol) for Ἀμαζόνες ἀντιάνειραι, a Platonic dialogue.
1869: Robert Lowes Clarke (Balliol) for The Reign of Terror, in the style of Thucydides.
1870: John Arthur Godley (Balliol) for Φειδίας ἢ περὶ ἀνδριαντοποιΐας: a Platonic dialogue.
1871: George Edward Jeans (Pembroke and Hertford) for Iceland: in Herodotean prose
1872: Alfred Joshua Butler (Trinity and Brasenose) for Ullane sint reconditioris doctrinæ vestigia apud Homerum reperienda?
1873: William Wardlaw Waddell (Balliol) for The Siege of Londonderry, in the style of Thucydides.
1874: , A Platonic dialogue, "Esse aliquid manes". De spectris et simulacris mortuorum quid revera sentiendum sit.
1875: Edward Maclaine Field (Trinity) for The Sources of the Nile. Prose in the Style of Herodotus (Viator Anglus Nili fontes explorans quæ viderit narrat.).
1876: George Spencer Bower (New College) for a Platonic dialogue, Socrates Aristophanes Sophocles de Arte Poetarum inter se colloquuntur.
1877: Arthur Elam Haigh for The Popish Plot, in the style of Thucydides.
1878: Philip Edward Raynor (New College) for a Platonic dialogue, Ἀναξίμανδρος ἢ περὶ ζῴων γενέσεως.
1879: David Samuel Margoliouth (New College) for Japanorum reipublicæ conversio.
1880: William Yorke Fausset (Balliol) for a Platonic dialogue, De Œconomia quam vocant Politica.
1881: Richard Edmund Mitcheson (St. John's) for Speeches in accusation and defence of Warren Hastings.
1882: William Ross Hardie for a Platonic dialogue, Δημηγορία, Τίς ἐστιν ἡ ποιητική (Inter Rhetoricam et Poeticam quid intersit).
1883: William Edward Long (Magdlalen) for The Wandering Jew, in the style of Herodotus.
1884: Cecil Henry St Leger Russell (Trinity) for The Athenian state: a platonic dialogue.
1885: Walter Ashburner (Balliol and Merton) for The Spanish Armada in the style of Thucydides.
1886: Michael Henry Mansel Wood (Trinity) for Prometheus sive De hominum natura et origine, a Platonic dialogue.
1887: Gilbert Murray (St. John's) for Mesolonghi Capta (in the Historical Register (1900) as Missolonghi Capta).
1888: Frederick William Hall (Trinity) for Πότερον ἐὰν ἀπόληται τὸ κακὸν οὐδὲ πεινῆν ἔτι ἔστι ἢ διψῆν, ἤ τι ἄλλο τῶν τοιούτων... (or De origine Mali).
1889: Reginald Carter (Balliol) for The Battle of Inkermann, in the style of Thucydides.
1890: Henry Stuart Jones (Balliol) for Δάμων ἢ περὶ μουσικῆς or De origine et vi artis musicæ.
1891: Julian James Cotton (Corpus Christi) for The Story of Husain and the Mohurram Celebration in the East.
1892: Philip Herbert Hanson (Balliol) for Νικίας: Τῆς ἄνω ὁδοῦ ἀεὶ ἐσόμεθα.
1893: Wilfred Ormrod Bailey (Trinity) for A supposed speech of Abraham Lincoln on the occasion of his second election to the presidency of the United States, in the style of Thucydides.
1894: Herbert Sidebotham for Ἀριστοφάνης ἢ περὶ τοῦ γελοίου.
1895: George Stuart Robertson (New College) for Herodotus in Britain.
1896: Prose in the manner of Socrates: A Defence of Despotism.
1897: Edward Launcelot Davey Cole (Balliol) for Wordsworth 'Of the Principles of Poetry' and the 'Lyrical Ballads'.
1898: Ernest Ely Genner (Balliol) for On the Causes and Conditions of Naval Supremacy.
1899: Frederick Herbert Williamson (Balliol) for The Principle of Isolation in British Foreign Policy.
1900 Heathcote William Garrod (Balliol) for Erasmus on the Renascence of Literature.
1902: James McLean Watson (Oriel) for Relations Between a Mother Country and her Colonies.
1903: Robert William Chapman (Oriel) for Advantages of an Academy of Letters.
1904: William Moir Calder (Christ Church) for The Possibility of a Federal Union of the English-Speaking Peoples.
1905: Thomas Williams Phillips (Jesus) for Imperatores Divus Iulius et Napoleon de rebus a se domi militiaeque gestis apud inferos colloquuntur.
1906: Hugh McKinnon Wood (Balliol) for Διογένης ἢ περὶ παρρησίας.
1907: John Davidson Beazley (Balliol) for Herodotus at the Zoo.
1908: Leslie Whitaker Hunter (New College) for Warren Hastings' Defence of his Administration in India.
1909: George Douglas Brooks (Worcester) for The Relation between Art and Morality.
1911: George Leicester Marriott (Exeter) for A Dialogue Between Socrates, Agathon and Aristophanes, τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀνδρὸς εἶναι κωμῳδίαν καὶ τραγῳδίαν ἐπίστασθαι ποιεῖν.
1912: Cecil John Ellingham for Πορφυρίων Δίης Τύραννος.
1913: Godfrey Rolles Driver (New College) for Στάσεως ἐν Βρεταννοῖς γενομένης, λέγει μὲν ὁ προστάτης τοῦ δήμου, ἀντιλέγει δὲ ὁ στρατηγός...
1914: Harry Samuels for Crates, sive De vita simplici, a dialogue.
1915: Robert Walter Theodore Gordon Scott for Panama.
1921: Christian James Fordyce (Balliol) for Herodotus in Ireland: being part of the third book of his account of Britain.
1922: William Francis Ross Hardie (Balliol) for A Lucianic dialogue between Socrates in Hades and certain men of the present day.
1923: Basil Edward Butler for Ἡράκλειτος, a translation of a passage from Prof. Eddington's Romanes lecture (1922).
1926: Ronald Syme (Oriel) for a section of Thomas More's Utopia into Platonic prose.
1927: Colin Hardie (Balliol).
1930: Peter J. McGowen for a translation of Leo Tolstoy's The First Step, chapter 7.
1931: John Langshaw Austin (Balliol).
1932: Humphry Gilbert Bohun Lynch (Merton) for a translation of the Areopagitica.
1933: Arthur Frederick Hall for Boswell's Life of Johnson (Everyman Edition, vol. 1, pp. 272–275) in the style of Lucian.
1934: W.H. Walsh for Envoys from Russia and Japan seek alliance with Chinese Republic.
1936: John Godfrey Griffith for a translation of Tolstoy's Thou Shalt Not Kill.
1937: Henry Arthur Pears Fisher for Burke's Letters on a Regicide Peace.
1938: Vincent Turner for A.E. Housman's Introductory Lecture (1892).
1939: David Penistan Simpson for Characters in the Style of Theophrastus: the Snob, the Prig, and the Pedant.
1948: John Francis Bligh for Thomas Erskine's Speech in Defence of Mr. John Frost, 1793.
1952: Jeremy Morse
1981: Armand D'Angour (Merton).
1995: Deborah W. Rooke (Regent's Park).
1996: Holger Gzella (Worcester).
1997: Martin Revermann (Corpus Christi).
1998: Sinead Willis (New College).
1999: Letizia Poli-Palladini (Balliol).
2000: Luke Pitcher (Somerville).
2002: Oliver Thomas (New College).
2009: Christopher White (Magdalen).
2019: Lucas Jones (Magdalen).
2020: Jason Webber (Magdalen).
2021: Nicholas Stone (Christ Church).
2022: Lucas Barron (Magdalen).
2023: Althea Sovani (Somerville).
Winners of the Gaisford Essay Prize
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008)
1996: Ben Rowland (Balliol).
1997: Nicholas Larkin (Brasenose).
1998: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: David Hodgkinson, Balliol).
2007: Sarah Cullinan (Oriel).
2008: Robert Colborn (New College).
2009: Scott Liddle (New College).
2014: Supratik Baralay (Wadham College).
Winners of the Gaisford Dissertation Prize
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008)
1987: Richard Maxwell Gaskin (St Edmund Hall), Tragedy and Subjectivity in Virgil’s Aeneid.
1998: No prize awarded.
1999: Letizia Poli-Palladini (Balliol) and Tobias Reinhardt (Corpus Christi) jointly.
2002: Wolfgang David Cirilo de Melo (jointly), for work on the Latin verb system.
2008: Oliver Thomas (New College and Balliol).
2014: Thomas Nelson (University).
2015: Ella Grunberger-Kirsh (Exeter).
2017: Timothy Foot (Merton) and Elinor Garnett (Christ Church) jointly.
2021: Charles Baker (New College).
2023: Christopher G. Lu (Balliol College).
Notable winning entries
John Davidson Beazley's winning entry for the 1907 Greek Prose prize, Herodotus at the Zoo, was reprinted by Blackwell in 1911 and later appeared in a collection of classical parodies produced in Switzerland in 1968. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography calls it "an enchanting work".
George Stuart Robertson won the prize for Greek Verse in 1894 with a translation of a hundred lines of Shakespeare into comic iambic verse, and the next year he won the prize for Greek Prose and a Blue for hammer throwing. He heard about the 1896 Summer Olympics, the first of the modern era, and later explained "Greek classics were my proper academic field, so I could hardly resist a go at the Olympics, could I?" On arrival in Athens, he found to his dismay that his discipline of hammer throwing was not to be competed in, so in the spirit of amateurism he entered the shot put, the discus and the tennis. In the discus, he recorded the Games' worst ever throw, and in the tennis doubles he lost his only match but nevertheless won a Bronze Medal. In a ceremony after the Games, Robertson recited an ode to athletic prowess which he had composed in Greek.
Between 1953 and 1956, C. G. R. Leach won all four University prizes for composition in classical languages – the Gaisford Greek Verse and Prose prizes, and the Chancellor's Prizes for Latin Verse and Prose – while his brother J. H. C. Leach won three and was runner-up for a fourth.
In fiction
In Max Beerbohm's satirical tragedy of undergraduate life at Oxford, Zuleika Dobson (1911), the hero, called the Duke of Dorset, has won one of the Prizes: At Eton he had been called "Peacock", and this nick-name had followed him up to Oxford. It was not wholly apposite, however. For, whereas the peacock is a fool even among birds, the Duke had already taken (besides a particularly brilliant First in Mods) the Stanhope, the Newdigate, the Lothian, and the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse.
See also
Bowdoin Prizes at Harvard University
References
^ Urban, Sylvanus, The Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. XLIV (July to December 1855) page 100 online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Stray, Christopher (2007). "Non-identical twins: classics at nineteenth-century Oxford and Cambridge". In Stray, Christopher (ed.). Oxford Classics: Teaching and Learning, 1800-2000. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4725-3782-9.
^ a b c d e f g Hibbert, Christopher; Hibbert, Edward, eds. (1988). "Prizes and scholarships". The Encyclopaedia of Oxford. London: Macmillan. pp. 338–340. ISBN 0-333-39917-X.
^ a b c Oxford University Gazette, 23 June 1995 Archived 27 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 19 March 2024
^ "Schedule". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 22 April 2003. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
^ "Part 18: Gaisford Fund". Schedule. University of Oxford. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
^ Mason, Stuart, Bibliography of Oscar Wilde, (Reprint by Read Books, 2007, of 1914 edition, ISBN 978-1-4067-5485-8) p. 241
^ Warner, J. H., Gaisford Prize: Greek Hexameters Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 24, MDCCCLVII (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1857), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Broughton, R., Gaisford Prize: Greek Iambics Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 16, MDCCCLVIII (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1858), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Luke, George R., Morte D'Arthur, The Gaisford Prize Poem: Recited in the Sheldonian Theatre, July 6, A. D. MDCCCLIX (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1859), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Chute, Chaloner W., Gaisford Prize: Greek Iambics Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 20, MDCCCLX (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1860), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Bryce, James, The May queen : a Greek idyll: Gaisford prize, Greek verse (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1861, 7 pp.)
^ Raper, Robert W., Gaisford Prize: Greek Iambics Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, July 2, MDCCCLXII (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1862), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Pearson, Charles J., Gaisford Prize: A translation of Milton's Paradise lost, Book 6, 824–877, Homeric hexameters : recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 17, MDCCCLXIII] (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1863)
^ Selected Poetry of Ernest Myers (1844–1921) Archived 2007-11-11 at the Wayback Machine at rpo.library.utoronto.ca, accessed 16 August 2008
^ Nutt, George, Gaisford Prize: Greek Comic Iambics Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, Jube xiii, mdccclxvi (Oxford: Rivingtons, 1866), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Bell, Alexander M., Gaisford Prize Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, June 26, 1867, by Alexander M. Bell, Balliol College (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1867, 15pp.)
^ Godley, John Arthur, Gaisford Prize: Greek Theocritean verse Recited in the Theatre, Oxford, July 4, MDCCCLXIX (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1869), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Matthew, H. C. G., 'Godley, (John) Arthur, first Baron Kilbracken (1847–1932), civil servant' in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 (online edition, subscription required), accessed 16 August 2008
^ Nicholson, Edward Byron, Gaisford Prize: Greek verse recited in the Sheldonian theatre, Oxford, June 14, MDCCCLXXI (Oxford: G. Shrimpton, 1870, 7 pp.)
^ Haigh, Arthur Elam, Gaisford Prize: Greek Verse (Oxford: Thos. Shrimpton & Son, 1876), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Hamilton, Sidney Graves, Gaisford Prize: Greek Verse (Oxford: 1877), online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Hardie, William Ross, Gaisford Prize: Greek iambics (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell, 1884, 15 pp.)
^ a b Foster, op. cit: "Russell, Cecil Henry St. Leger, born at Trinidad, West Indies, 18 April 1862 ; is. Richard, arm. TRINITY, matric. 15 Oct., 81, aged 19 (from Lancing coll.), scholar 81–5, B.A. 86, M.A. 88 (HONOURS: 2 classical mods. 82, Latin verse 82, Greek verse 83, Greek prose 84, 2 classics 85); a master at Clifton coll."
^ House, Harry Hammond, Gaisford Prize: Greek iambics (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell, 1884, 11 pp.)
^ Du Pontet, René L. A., Gaisford prize, 1889. Hexameter verse (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell, 1889, 15 pp.)
^ Foster, Joseph, Oxford men, 1880–1892, with a record of their schools, honours and degrees (1893) online at us.archive.org, accessed 18 August 2008: "Du-Pontet, Rene Louis Alphonse, born in London 27 Aug., 1868; is. Marc Jules Henri, cler. TRINITY, matric. 15 Oct., 87, aged 19 (from St. Paul's school), scholar 86, B.A. 91 (HONOURS : i classical mods. 89, 2 classics 91, Hertford scholarship 88, Greek verse 89, Taylorian (French) scholarship 89, Latin verse 90, Craven scholarship 90, Latin essay 92, Derby scholarship 92) ; a master at Winchester"
^ Cole, Edward L. D., Gaisford prize, 1896. Greek hexameters (Oxford, B. H. Blackwell, 1896, 13 pp.)
^ a b "University intelligence". The Times. No. 36771. London. 19 May 1902. p. 8.
^ Rose, Kenneth, 'Grigg, Edward William Macleay, first Baron Altrincham (1879–1955), colonial administrator and politician' (rev.) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, (online edition, January 2008, subscription required) accessed 16 August 2008
^ Hunter, Leslie Whitaker, Gaisford Prize for Greek elegiac verse, translation from Tennyson's Lotos-eaters (Oxford: Blackwell, 1906)
^ a b J. A. Emerton, 'Driver, Sir Godfrey Rolles (1892–1975)', in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004
^ a b Millar, Fergus, Hannah M. Cotton, & Guy M. Rogers, Rome, the Greek World, and the East, page 401 online at books.google.co.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ Page, Denys Lionel, Tragic iambics: A translation of Masefield's Pompey the Great, Act 2, Scene I (Gaisford prize for Greek verse) (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1928)
^ Lloyd-Jones, Hugh, 'Page, Sir Denys Lionel (1908–1978), classical scholar' in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004)
^ Davidson, Brian, A translation of Addison's 'Cato', act IV, sc.iv, to act V, sc.1: Gaisford prize for Greek verse (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1930, 8 pp.)
^ 'BARRETT, (William) Spencer' in Who Was Who, A & C Black, 1920–2007, online edition (subscription required) by Oxford University Press, December 2007: BARRETT, (William) Spencer, accessed 14 August 2008
^ a b c Oxford University Gazette, 25 July 1996 Archived 26 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ a b c d Oxford University Gazette, 24 September 1998 Archived 8 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ a b c Oxford University Gazette, 23 September 1999 Archived 13 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ a b Oxford University Gazette, 19 October 2000 Archived 13 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 14 August 2008
^ University, Oxford (2015). 2015-2016 - Vol 146. University of Oxford. Online resource. https://doi.org/10.25446/oxford.17298206.v1
^ 'Academic prizes for Queen's students' at ox.ac.uk, accessed 12 October 2018
^ 'Exeter students win Classics prizes' at ox.ac.uk, accessed 12 October 2018
^ Exonian Wins Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse at ox.ac.uk, accessed 18 May 2021
^ a b Oxford University Gazette, 25 June 2020 at ox.ac.uk, accessed 20 May 2021
^ a b Oxford University Gazette, 17 June 2021 at ox.ac.uk, accessed 17 June 2021
^ "Balliol undergraduate wins Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse". ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 21 June 2023.
^ Luke, George R., Nikais : a Greek dialogue on superstition, Gaisford prize, Greek prose (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1858, 23 pp.)
^ Jones, Martin D. W., 'Bigg, Charles (1840–1908)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 (online (subscription site), accessed 16 August 2008
^ Godley, John Arthur, Gaisford Prize: Phidias, or Concerning Sculpture: a Platonic dialogue (Oxford: T. and G. Shrimpton, 1870)
^ Jeans, George Edward, Gaisford Prize: Iceland: in Herodotean prose (Oxford: George Shrimpton, 1871, 19 pp. )
^ Bertie, David M., Scottish Episcopal Clergy, 1689–2000, p. 254: "FAUSSET, William Yorke, M.A. b. 1859... Gaisford Prize (Prose) 1880... D 1884, P 1887... Became headmaster of Ripon Grammar School, Yorks. in 1890"
^ Russell, Cecil Henry St Leger, Gaisford prize, Greek prose: The Athenian state: a platonic dialogue (Oxford & London: B. H. Blackwell, 1884)
^ Robertson, George Stuart, Herodotus in Britain, Gaisford prize for Greek prose (Oxford: Blackwell, 1895)
^ Powell, L. F., 'Chapman, Robert William (1881–1960)', rev. M. Clare Loughlin-Chow, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 online edn, May 2006 (subscription site), accessed 16 August 2008
^ Beazley, John Davidson, Herodotus at the Zoo (Oxford: Blackwell, reprinted 1911)
^ Known as Frank Hardie, later a Fellow of Magdalen and Corpus Christi and President of Corpus Christi from 1950 to 1969
^ Rev. Stephen X. Winters S.J. Papers Archived 30 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine at georgetown.edu, accessed 16 August 2008
^ Hacker, P. M. S. 'Austin, John Langshaw (1911–1960)', in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 online (subscription site), accessed 16 August 2008
^ Griffith, John Godfrey, Tolstoy's 'Thou shalt not kill': Translated into Greek verse, Gaisford prize for Greek prose, 1936 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1936)
^ 25 YEARS OF WOMEN AT NEW COLLEGE DISTINCTIONS Archived 2005-12-24 at the Wayback Machine at new.ox.ac.uk, accessed 16 August 2008
^ Oxford University Gazette, 20 June 2019 at ox.ac.uk, accessed 23 June 2019
^ "Richard Gaskin's CV" – via www.academia.edu.
^ de Melo, Wolfgang David Cirilo, The Early Latin Verb System, Preface, p. ix: "I should like to thank the anonymous committees that gave me the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse (jointly) and the Gaisford Dissertation Prize (jointly). The latter was for my 2002b article, which forms the basis of Ch. 6."
^ Oliver Thomas CV Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine at users.ox.ac.uk, accessed 16 August 2008
^ Oxford University Gazette, 6 July 2017 Archived 18 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine at ox.ac.uk, accessed 8 July 2017
^ Oxford University Gazette, 13 January 2022 accessed 21 July 2022
^ Robertson, Martin, 'Beazley, Sir John Davidson (1885–1970)', rev. David Gill, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 (online edition (subscription required) accessed 16 Aug 2008
^ Hodge, Gavvandra, Olympian odes: I say, what rhymes with Discoboloi? in The Independent on Sunday August 8, 2004, at findarticles.com
^ Or in full, John Albert Edward Claude Orde Angus Tankerton Tanville-Tankerton, fourteenth Duke of Dorset, Marquis of Dorset, Earl of Grove, Earl of Chastermaine, Viscount Brewsby, Baron Grove, Baron Petstrap, and Baron Wolock
^ Beerbohm, Max, Zuleika Dobson online at fulltextarchive.com, accessed 10 August 2009
See also
List of awards named after people
List of British literary awards
List of poetry awards
List of years in poetry
List of years in literature
|
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The prizes now also include the Gaisford Essay Prize and the Gaisford Dissertation Prize.","title":"Gaisford Prize"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_(religion)"},{"link_name":"Christ Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Regius Professor of Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Greek_(Oxford)"},{"link_name":"£","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling"},{"link_name":"Convocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convocation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1995-4"},{"link_name":"Honour Moderations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honour_Moderations"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Newdigate Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newdigate_Prize"},{"link_name":"Oscar Wilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Wilde"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Dr Thomas Gaisford, Dean of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Oxford for more than forty years (1811–1855), died on 2 June 1855. Ten days later, at a meeting held in Christ Church on 12 June, it was resolved to establish a prize in his honour, to be called the Gaisford Prize, and to raise for that purpose £1,000 by public subscription, the interest to be applied \"to reward a successful prizeman or prizemen, under such regulations as shall be approved by Convocation\".[1] The prizes were first awarded in 1857.[2]There have been four categories of Gaisford Prize. The two original categories were:Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse. It ceased being awarded for a period after 1975,[3] but had been revived by 1995.[4]\nGaisford Prize for Greek Prose. By the late 1980s it was awarded based on Honour Moderations exams.[3]By 2003 the Schedule to the University's Statutes and Regulations[5] provided for a different two prizes, which remained in the Schedule as of 2024:[6]Gaisford Essay Prize for Greek Language and Literature, available to undergraduates\nGaisford Dissertation Prize for Greek or Latin Language and Literature, available to graduatesThe 1857–1876 winners of the Greek Prose Prize were listed alongside winners of the Newdigate Prize on the wrapper of Oscar Wilde's published Newdigate-winning poem Ravenna (1878).[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paradise Lost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Henry IV, Part I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_I"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Morte 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Abbott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Abbott"},{"link_name":"Pericles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre"},{"link_name":"Ernest James Myers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Myers_(author)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Alexander James Montgomerie Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//england.prm.ox.ac.uk/englishness-Bell-collection.html"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Richard Lewis Nettleship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lewis_Nettleship"},{"link_name":"Prometheus Unbound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Unbound_(Shelley)"},{"link_name":"John Arthur 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Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Alfred Denis Godley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Denis_Godley"},{"link_name":"Lycidas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycidas"},{"link_name":"Thyrsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyrsis_(poem)"},{"link_name":"William Ross Hardie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hardie"},{"link_name":"Twelfth Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-foster-russell-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Adonaïs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adona%C3%AFs"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Murray"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"William Martin Geldart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Martin_Geldart"},{"link_name":"Henry V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_V_(play)"},{"link_name":"George Stuart Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Robertson"},{"link_name":"Merope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merope_(poem)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Castle of Indolence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_of_Indolence"},{"link_name":"Edward II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_II_(play)"},{"link_name":"Harold Trevor Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Trevor_Baker"},{"link_name":"Every Man in His Humour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Man_in_His_Humour"},{"link_name":"Julius Victor Scholderer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Scholderer"},{"link_name":"Rahéro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rah%C3%A9ro&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Comus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comus_(John_Milton)"},{"link_name":"Edward William Macleay Grigg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Grigg,_1st_Baron_Altrincham"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TT19051902-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Cyril Charles Martindale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._C._Martindale"},{"link_name":"Campion Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campion_Hall,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Georgics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgics"},{"link_name":"Univ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Shepherd's Calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepherd%27s_Calendar"},{"link_name":"Lotos-Eaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lotos-Eaters"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Marino Faliero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marino_Faliero,_Doge_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Ronald Arbuthnott Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Arbuthnott_Knox"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"Pippa Passes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pippa_Passes"},{"link_name":"School for Scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_for_Scandal"},{"link_name":"Roderick McKenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick_McKenzie"},{"link_name":"Edgar Lobel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Lobel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"Esther","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_(drama)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Farrant Higham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Farrant_Higham"},{"link_name":"She Stoops to Conquer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_Stoops_to_Conquer"},{"link_name":"Godfrey Rolles Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Rolles_Driver"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emerton-32"},{"link_name":"Midsummer Night's Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream"},{"link_name":"Athalie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athalie"},{"link_name":"Edmond Patrick Charles Cotter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Cotter_(croquet_player)"},{"link_name":"Godiva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godiva_(poem)"},{"link_name":"Cain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cain_(play)"},{"link_name":"Ronald Syme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Syme"},{"link_name":"The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_Sigurd_the_Volsung_and_the_Fall_of_the_Niblungs"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-millar-33"},{"link_name":"Denys Lionel Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denys_Page"},{"link_name":"Pompey the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tragedy_of_Pompey_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Noël Kilpatrick Hutton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Hutton"},{"link_name":"Cato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato,_a_Tragedy"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"John Saye Wingfield Twistleton-Wykeham-Fiennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fiennes_(lawyer)"},{"link_name":"W.S. Gilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.S._Gilbert"},{"link_name":"The Mikado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mikado"},{"link_name":"Faust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethe%27s_Faust"},{"link_name":"(William) Spencer Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Barrett"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Mourning Bride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mourning_Bride"},{"link_name":"Christopher Montague Woodhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Montague_Woodhouse"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Dover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Dover"},{"link_name":"Phèdre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A8dre"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1995-4"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1996-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1998-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1999-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2000-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2018-1-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2018-2-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2019-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2020-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2021-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Christopher Marlowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe"},{"link_name":"Tamburlaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamburlaine"}],"text":"1857: Joseph Henry Warner (Balliol) for Homeric verse: Milton's Paradise Lost 6.56-98.[8]\n1858: Reginald Broughton (Balliol) for comic iambics: Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part I, Act 2 Sc. 4.[9]\n1859: George Rankine Luke (Balliol) for hexameter verse: Morte D'Arthur.[10]\n1860: Chaloner William Chute (Balliol) for tragic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Richard III, Act 4, Sc. 4.[11]\n1861: James Bryce (Trinity) for Theocritean verse: The May Queen: a Greek idyll (from Tennyson).[12]\n1862: Robert William Raper (Trinity) for comic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part II, Act 4, Sc. 3.[13]\n1863: Charles John Pearson for Homeric verse: Paradise Lost 6.824-877.[14]\n1864: Evelyn Abbott (Balliol) for tragic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Pericles, Act 5, Sc. 1.\n1865: Ernest James Myers[15] (Balliol and Wadham) for a Theocritean idyll: Ægon et Milo, qui ad Olympicum certamen profecti erant, domum redeuntes, inter se loquuntur.\n1866: George Nutt (New College) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 1. Sc. 2.[16]\n1867: Alexander James Montgomerie Bell (Balliol) for Homeric hexameters: Necryomanteia sive Dante Poeta apud Inferos.[17]\n1868: Richard Lewis Nettleship (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Shelley's Prometheus Unbound, Act 2, Sc. 4.\n1869: John Arthur Godley (Balliol) for Theocritean verse: Shakespeare's Cymbeline, Act 4, Sc. 2.[18][19]\n1870: Walter Sumner Gibson (Balliol) for comic iambic verse: Henry IV, Part II, Act 5, Sc. 1.\n1871: Edward Byron Nicholson (Trinity, and Bodley's librarian) for heroic hexameters: Ἄστρων νυκτέρων ὁμήγυρις.[20]\n1872: Thomas Agar (Christ Church) for tragic iambic verse: Byron's Manfred, Act 1, \"The Spirits I have raised...\"\n1873: Alfred Joshua Butler for Homeric verse: Paradise Lost 4.634-705.\n1874: Edward Maclaine Field (Trinity) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part I, Act 5 Sc. 4.\n1875: Thomas Herbert Warren (Balliol and Magdalen) for an idyll: The Ruins of Athens.\n1876: Arthur Elam Haigh (Corpus Christi) for tragic iambics: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Act 1, Sc. 2.[21]\n1877: Sidney Graves Hamilton (Balliol and Hertford) for Homeric hexameters: Paradise Lost 4.223-287.[22]\n1878: Alfred Denis Godley (Balliol) for comic iambics: the Hampshire farmer's address in Rejected Addresses.\n1879: Alfred Temple Roberts (Magdalen) for idyllic hexameters: Milton's Lycidas 5.132.\n1880: Ernest Alfred Upcott (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Paradise Lost 4.32-113.\n1881: Christopher Cookson (Corpus Christi) for idyllic hexameter's: Matthew Arnold's Thyrsis.\n1882: William Ross Hardie (Balliol) for comic iambics: Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, Act 2, Sc. 5[23]\n1883: Cecil Henry St Leger Russell[24] (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: The Death of Zohrab and Rustum.\n1884: Harry Hammond House (Corpus Christi) for iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 1, Sc. 1.[25]\n1885: John Undershell Powell (St. John's) for idyllic hexameters\" Shelley's Adonaïs 39–66.\n1886: Gilbert Murray (St. John's) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 3, Sc. 2.\n1887: Frederick William Hall (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: Paradise Lost 6.746-785.\n1888: Frank Fletcher (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Shelley's Cenci, Act 5, Sc. 4.\n1889: René Louis Alphonse Du Pontet (Trinity) for hexameters on Columbus.[26][27]\n1890: William Martin Geldart (Balliol) for comic iambics: Henry V, Act 2, Sc. 3.\n1891: William Frederick Lofthouse (Trinity) for idyllic hexameters: 'Country Cousins at the Jubilee' (Et quæ tanta fuit Romam tibi causa vivendi).\n1892: Wilfred Ormrod Bailey (Trinity) for tragic iambics: Milton's Samson Agonistes 1570–1660.\n1893: Herbert Sidebotham (Balliol) for idyllic hexameters: Lycidas 15–84.\n1894: George Stuart Robertson (New College) for comic iambic verse: Henry IV, Part II, Act 2, Sc. 2.\n1895: Frank Lloyd Edwards (New College) for tragic iambic verse: Matthew Arnold's Merope.\n1896: Edward L. D. Cole (Balliol) for hexameters: Virgil's Aeneid 2.162-249.[28]\n1897: W. F. Nicholson (Balliol) for Theocritean hexameters: Thomson's Castle of Indolence 1.2-12.\n1898: James Alexander Webster (Magdalen) for iambic verse: Marlowe's Edward II, Act 5, Sc. 1.\n1899: Harold Trevor Baker (New College) for comic iambic verse: Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humour, Act 1, Sc. 4.\n1900: Julius Victor Scholderer (Trinity) for hexameters: R.L. Stevenson's Rahéro.\n1901: Frederick Lewisohn (Trinity) for Theocritean verse: Milton's Comus 244–330.\n1902: Edward William Macleay Grigg (New College) for iambic verse: Richard III, Act 1, Sc. 2.[29][30]\n1903: H. L. Henderson (Christ Church) for comic iambics: Henry IV, Part II, Act 3, Sc. 2.\n1904: Cyril Charles Martindale (Pope's Hall [now Campion Hall]) for hexameters: Virgil's Georgics 4.450-547.\n1905: F. A. B. Newman (Univ) for Theocritean hexameters: Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar: Aegloga Sexta.\n1906: Leslie Whitaker Hunter (New College) for elegiac verse: Tennyson's Lotos-Eaters.[31]\n1907: William Alexander Bain (Christ Church) for tragic iambics: Byron's Marino Faliero, Act 4, Sc. 2.\n1908: Ronald Arbuthnott Knox[3] (Balliol) for Theocritean hexameters: Robert Browning's Pippa Passes III. 'Evening: Talk By the Way'.\n1909: Algernon E. F. Spencer (Christ Church) for comic iambics: Sheridan's School for Scandal, Act 4, Sc. 1.\n1910: Roderick McKenzie (Trinity) for Homeric hexameters: Virgil's Aeneid 2.268-385.\n1911: Edgar Lobel[3] (Balliol) for tragic iambics: Racine's Esther 3.1-3.\n1912: Thomas Farrant Higham for Theocritean hexameters: George Meredith's Love in the Valley 1–9.\n1913: George Dunn (Corpus Christi) for elegiacs: Pope's Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady.\n1914: Frank Newton Tribe for tragic iambics: Browning's Strafford, Act 5, Sc. 2, lines 268-end.\n1915: Reuben Cohen for comic iambics: Oliver Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer, Act 2.\n1916: Godfrey Rolles Driver[32] (New College) for A.H. Clough's Amour de Voyage [printed 1919].\n1920: John Blackburne Poynton for Browning's Balaustion's Adventure, lines 11-139.\n1921: Asher Hyman for hexameters: from Virgil's 4th Georgic, lines 425–527.\n1922: Robert Graham Cockrane Levens for Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream, Act 3, Sc. 1.\n1923: Cedric A. L. Cliffe for Racine's Athalie, Act 2, Sc. 5.\n1924: Edmond Patrick Charles Cotter for Tennyson's Godiva.\n1925: Henri Nicolas de Villiers for iambics: Byron's Cain, Act 3.\n1927: Ronald Syme (Oriel) for Homeric hexameters: a passage of Morris's The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs.[33]\n1928: Denys Lionel Page for Greek tragic iambics: John Masefield's Pompey the Great, Act 2, Sc. 1.[34][35]\n1929: Noël Kilpatrick Hutton for 'The Sad Shepherd', from Yeats's \"The Wild Swans at Coole\".\n1930: Brian Davidson for a translation of Addison's Cato, 4.4-5.1.[36]\n1931: John Saye Wingfield Twistleton-Wykeham-Fiennes for comic verse: W.S. Gilbert's The Mikado, or The Town of Titipu.\n1932: Archibald David Manisty Ross for 'The Story of Glam', from The Saga of Grettir the Strong.\n1933: Thomas Hunter Steen Wyllie for the 'Prologue in Heaven' from Goethe's Faust.\n1934: (William) Spencer Barrett[37] (Christ Church) for Congreve's Mourning Bride.\n1935: A. T. G. Holmes for Tennyson's Tithonus.\n1937: H. Thomson for Sheridan's The Rivals, Act 3, Sc. 1.\n1938: Christopher Montague Woodhouse (New College) for Pope's Sappho to Phaon 2.179-end.\n1939: Kenneth Dover (Balliol) for lines from Racine's Phèdre, Act 1, Sc. 1, lines 1–133.\n1995: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: Martin Revermann of Corpus Christi).[4]\n1996: Jeremy Grant[38] (Worcester).\n1998: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: Letizia Palladini of Balliol).[39]\n1999: Luke Pitcher[40] (Somerville).\n2000: Laura Bender[41] (Magdalen).\n2016: Andrew Jones[42] (Queen's) for tragic trimeter: Virgil's Aeneid 4.9-38.\n2018: Joost Botman[43] (Queen's) & Phillip Bone[44] (Exeter) for tragic and comic trimeter respectively: a passage from Shakespeare's A Winter's Tale.\n2019: Jason Webber[45] (Exeter) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Shakespeare's Measure for Measure.\n2020: Nicholas Stone[46] (Christ Church) for tragicomic trimeter: a passage from Wordsworth's 'The Brothers Poem'.\n2021: Benjamin Goodrick[47] (Trinity) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Shakespeare's Richard the Third.\n2022: Althea Sovani (Somerville)\n2023: David Dunn[48] (Balliol) for tragic trimeter: a passage from Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine","title":"Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Henry Nettleship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Nettleship"},{"link_name":"James Bryce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce"},{"link_name":"Charles Bigg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bigg"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Charles John Pearson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_John_Pearson"},{"link_name":"William Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wallace_(Scottish_philosopher)"},{"link_name":"Ἀμαζόνες","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazons"},{"link_name":"John Arthur Godley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Godley,_1st_Baron_Kilbracken"},{"link_name":"Φειδίας","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phidias"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Derry"},{"link_name":"Ἀναξίμανδρος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximander"},{"link_name":"David Samuel Margoliouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Samuel_Margoliouth"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Warren Hastings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Hastings"},{"link_name":"William Ross Hardie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hardie"},{"link_name":"Rhetoricam et Poeticam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-foster-russell-24"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Walter Ashburner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Ashburner"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Murray"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"Mesolonghi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolonghi"},{"link_name":"Frederick William Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_Hall_(academic)"},{"link_name":"Henry Stuart Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Stuart_Jones"},{"link_name":"Husain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussein_ibn_Ali"},{"link_name":"Philip Herbert Hanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Herbert_Hanson"},{"link_name":"Νικίας","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicias"},{"link_name":"Ἀριστοφάνης","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes"},{"link_name":"George Stuart Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Robertson"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Wordsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordsworth"},{"link_name":"Heathcote William Garrod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathcote_William_Garrod"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TT19051902-29"},{"link_name":"Robert William Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_William_Chapman_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"William Moir Calder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Moir_Calder"},{"link_name":"Thomas Williams Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Williams_Phillips"},{"link_name":"Διογένης","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope"},{"link_name":"John Davidson Beazley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Davidson_Beazley"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Godfrey Rolles Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godfrey_Rolles_Driver"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emerton-32"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Basil Edward Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Edward_Butler"},{"link_name":"Ἡράκλειτος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus"},{"link_name":"Eddington's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_Eddington"},{"link_name":"lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanes_Lecture#1920s"},{"link_name":"Ronald Syme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Syme"},{"link_name":"Thomas More","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More"},{"link_name":"Utopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)"},{"link_name":"Platonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-millar-33"},{"link_name":"Colin Hardie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Hardie"},{"link_name":"Leo Tolstoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy"},{"link_name":"The First Step","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_First_Step_(by_Leo_Tolstoy)"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"John Langshaw Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Langshaw_Austin"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Areopagitica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagitica"},{"link_name":"Thou Shalt Not Kill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou_Shalt_Not_Kill_(by_Leo_Tolstoy)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Henry Arthur Pears Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Arthur_Pears_Fisher"},{"link_name":"A.E. Housman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.E._Housman"},{"link_name":"Theophrastus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus#Characters"},{"link_name":"John Frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1794_Treason_Trials#John_Frost"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Morse"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"},{"link_name":"Armand D'Angour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_D%27Angour"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1995-4"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1996-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1998-39"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1999-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2000-41"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2020-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2021-47"}],"text":"1857: Robert Dobie Wilson (Balliol) for Empedocles, Dialogues Græcus.\n1858: George Rankine Luke (Balliol) for Nicias, sive De superstitione.[49]\n1859: Henry Nettleship (Corpus Christi and Lincoln) for Pygmaeorum Civitas.\n1860: James Bryce (Trinity and Oriel) for The Plague of London, in the style of Herodotus or Plato.\n1861: Charles Bigg (Corpus Christi and Christ Church)[50] for Milo, sive de Gymnastica.\n1862: Charles John Pearson (Corpus Christi) for Timæus Novus, sive De Geologia: Dialogus Platonicus.\n1863: Augustine Ley (Christ Church) for Marco Polo: Narratio ad Examplar Herodoteum.\n1864: A Platonic Dialogue, Socrates apud inferos more suo Atheniensum principes reipublicæ interrogat. [Not awarded.]\n1865: William Henry Simcox (Queen's) for Sancti Ludovici mors, res gestæ, ingenium, after Thucydides.\n1866: Francis de Paravicini (Balliol and Christ Church) for Cratylus, sive de hominum sermonis origine.\n1867: William Wallace (Balliol and later Merton) for The Aztecs in Herodotean style.\n1868: Alfred Goodwin (Balliol) for Ἀμαζόνες ἀντιάνειραι, a Platonic dialogue.\n1869: Robert Lowes Clarke (Balliol) for The Reign of Terror, in the style of Thucydides.\n1870: John Arthur Godley (Balliol) for Φειδίας ἢ περὶ ἀνδριαντοποιΐας: a Platonic dialogue.[51]\n1871: George Edward Jeans (Pembroke and Hertford) for Iceland: in Herodotean prose[52]\n1872: Alfred Joshua Butler (Trinity and Brasenose) for Ullane sint reconditioris doctrinæ vestigia apud Homerum reperienda?\n1873: William Wardlaw Waddell (Balliol) for The Siege of Londonderry, in the style of Thucydides.\n1874: [No Candidate], A Platonic dialogue, \"Esse aliquid manes\". De spectris et simulacris mortuorum quid revera sentiendum sit.\n1875: Edward Maclaine Field (Trinity) for The Sources of the Nile. Prose in the Style of Herodotus (Viator Anglus Nili fontes explorans quæ viderit narrat.).\n1876: George Spencer Bower (New College) for a Platonic dialogue, Socrates Aristophanes Sophocles de Arte Poetarum inter se colloquuntur.\n1877: Arthur Elam Haigh for The Popish Plot, in the style of Thucydides.\n1878: Philip Edward Raynor (New College) for a Platonic dialogue, Ἀναξίμανδρος ἢ περὶ ζῴων γενέσεως.\n1879: David Samuel Margoliouth (New College) for Japanorum reipublicæ conversio.\n1880: William Yorke Fausset[53] (Balliol) for a Platonic dialogue, De Œconomia quam vocant Politica.\n1881: Richard Edmund Mitcheson (St. John's) for Speeches in accusation and defence of Warren Hastings.\n1882: William Ross Hardie for a Platonic dialogue, Δημηγορία, Τίς ἐστιν ἡ ποιητική (Inter Rhetoricam et Poeticam quid intersit).\n1883: William Edward Long (Magdlalen) for The Wandering Jew, in the style of Herodotus.\n1884: Cecil Henry St Leger Russell (Trinity) for The Athenian state: a platonic dialogue.[24][54]\n1885: Walter Ashburner (Balliol and Merton) for The Spanish Armada in the style of Thucydides.\n1886: Michael Henry Mansel Wood (Trinity) for Prometheus sive De hominum natura et origine, a Platonic dialogue.\n1887: Gilbert Murray[3] (St. John's) for Mesolonghi Capta (in the Historical Register (1900) as Missolonghi Capta).\n1888: Frederick William Hall (Trinity) for Πότερον ἐὰν ἀπόληται τὸ κακὸν οὐδὲ πεινῆν ἔτι ἔστι ἢ διψῆν, ἤ τι ἄλλο τῶν τοιούτων... (or De origine Mali).\n1889: Reginald Carter (Balliol) for The Battle of Inkermann, in the style of Thucydides.\n1890: Henry Stuart Jones (Balliol) for Δάμων ἢ περὶ μουσικῆς or De origine et vi artis musicæ.\n1891: Julian James Cotton (Corpus Christi) for The Story of Husain and the Mohurram Celebration in the East.\n1892: Philip Herbert Hanson (Balliol) for Νικίας: Τῆς ἄνω ὁδοῦ ἀεὶ ἐσόμεθα.\n1893: Wilfred Ormrod Bailey (Trinity) for A supposed speech of Abraham Lincoln on the occasion of his second election to the presidency of the United States, in the style of Thucydides.\n1894: Herbert Sidebotham for Ἀριστοφάνης ἢ περὶ τοῦ γελοίου.\n1895: George Stuart Robertson (New College) for Herodotus in Britain.[55]\n1896: Prose in the manner of Socrates: A Defence of Despotism. [Not awarded.]\n1897: Edward Launcelot Davey Cole (Balliol) for Wordsworth 'Of the Principles of Poetry' and the 'Lyrical Ballads'.\n1898: Ernest Ely Genner (Balliol) for On the Causes and Conditions of Naval Supremacy.\n1899: Frederick Herbert Williamson (Balliol) for The Principle of Isolation in British Foreign Policy.\n1900 Heathcote William Garrod (Balliol) for Erasmus on the Renascence of Literature.\n1902: James McLean Watson (Oriel) for Relations Between a Mother Country and her Colonies.[29]\n1903: Robert William Chapman[56] (Oriel) for Advantages of an Academy of Letters.\n1904: William Moir Calder (Christ Church) for The Possibility of a Federal Union of the English-Speaking Peoples.\n1905: Thomas Williams Phillips (Jesus) for Imperatores Divus Iulius et Napoleon de rebus a se domi militiaeque gestis apud inferos colloquuntur.\n1906: Hugh McKinnon Wood (Balliol) for Διογένης ἢ περὶ παρρησίας.\n1907: John Davidson Beazley (Balliol) for Herodotus at the Zoo.[57]\n1908: Leslie Whitaker Hunter (New College) for Warren Hastings' Defence of his Administration in India.\n1909: George Douglas Brooks (Worcester) for The Relation between Art and Morality.\n1911: George Leicester Marriott (Exeter) for A Dialogue Between Socrates, Agathon and Aristophanes, τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀνδρὸς εἶναι κωμῳδίαν καὶ τραγῳδίαν ἐπίστασθαι ποιεῖν.\n1912: Cecil John Ellingham for Πορφυρίων Δίης Τύραννος.\n1913: Godfrey Rolles Driver[32] (New College) for Στάσεως ἐν Βρεταννοῖς γενομένης, λέγει μὲν ὁ προστάτης τοῦ δήμου, ἀντιλέγει δὲ ὁ στρατηγός...\n1914: Harry Samuels for Crates, sive De vita simplici, a dialogue.\n1915: Robert Walter Theodore Gordon Scott for Panama.\n1921: Christian James Fordyce (Balliol) for Herodotus in Ireland: being part of the third book of his account of Britain.\n1922: William Francis Ross Hardie (Balliol) for A Lucianic dialogue between Socrates in Hades and certain men of the present day.[58]\n1923: Basil Edward Butler for Ἡράκλειτος, a translation of a passage from Prof. Eddington's Romanes lecture (1922).\n1926: Ronald Syme (Oriel) for a section of Thomas More's Utopia into Platonic prose.[33]\n1927: Colin Hardie (Balliol).\n1930: Peter J. McGowen for a translation of Leo Tolstoy's The First Step, chapter 7.[59]\n1931: John Langshaw Austin[60] (Balliol).\n1932: Humphry Gilbert Bohun Lynch (Merton) for a translation of the Areopagitica.\n1933: Arthur Frederick Hall for Boswell's Life of Johnson (Everyman Edition, vol. 1, pp. 272–275) in the style of Lucian.\n1934: W.H. Walsh for Envoys from Russia and Japan seek alliance with Chinese Republic.\n1936: John Godfrey Griffith for a translation of Tolstoy's Thou Shalt Not Kill.[61]\n1937: Henry Arthur Pears Fisher for Burke's Letters on a Regicide Peace.\n1938: Vincent Turner for A.E. Housman's Introductory Lecture (1892).\n1939: David Penistan Simpson for Characters in the Style of Theophrastus: the Snob, the Prig, and the Pedant.\n1948: John Francis Bligh for Thomas Erskine's Speech in Defence of Mr. John Frost, 1793.\n1952: Jeremy Morse[3]\n1981: Armand D'Angour (Merton).\n1995: Deborah W. Rooke (Regent's Park).[4]\n1996: Holger Gzella (Worcester).[38]\n1997: Martin Revermann (Corpus Christi).\n1998: Sinead Willis (New College).[39][62]\n1999: Letizia Poli-Palladini (Balliol).[40]\n2000: Luke Pitcher (Somerville).[41]\n2002: Oliver Thomas (New College).\n2009: Christopher White (Magdalen).\n2019: Lucas Jones (Magdalen).[63]\n2020: Jason Webber[46] (Magdalen).\n2021: Nicholas Stone[47] (Christ Church).\n2022: Lucas Barron (Magdalen).\n2023: Althea Sovani (Somerville).","title":"Winners of the Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1996-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1998-39"}],"text":"1996: Ben Rowland (Balliol).[38]\n1997: Nicholas Larkin (Brasenose).\n1998: No prize awarded (but honourably mentioned: David Hodgkinson, Balliol).[39]\n2007: Sarah Cullinan (Oriel).\n2008: Robert Colborn (New College).\n2009: Scott Liddle (New College).\n2014: Supratik Baralay (Wadham College).","title":"Winners of the Gaisford Essay Prize"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Maxwell Gaskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Maxwell_Gaskin"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1998-39"},{"link_name":"Tobias Reinhardt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobias_Reinhardt"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz1999-40"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thomas-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gaz2017-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"text":"1987: Richard Maxwell Gaskin (St Edmund Hall), Tragedy and Subjectivity in Virgil’s Aeneid.[64]\n1998: No prize awarded.[39]\n1999: Letizia Poli-Palladini (Balliol) and Tobias Reinhardt (Corpus Christi) jointly.[40]\n2002: Wolfgang David Cirilo de Melo (jointly), for work on the Latin verb system.[65]\n2008: Oliver Thomas (New College and Balliol).[66]\n2014: Thomas Nelson (University).\n2015: Ella Grunberger-Kirsh (Exeter).\n2017: Timothy Foot (Merton) and Elinor Garnett (Christ Church) jointly.[67]\n2021: Charles Baker (New College).[68]\n2023: Christopher G. Lu (Balliol College).","title":"Winners of the Gaisford Dissertation Prize"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Davidson Beazley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Beazley"},{"link_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"George Stuart Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Robertson"},{"link_name":"Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_(university_sport)"},{"link_name":"1896 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"shot put","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_put"},{"link_name":"discus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discus"},{"link_name":"tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis"},{"link_name":"Bronze Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Medal"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc_oxford-3"}],"text":"John Davidson Beazley's winning entry for the 1907 Greek Prose prize, Herodotus at the Zoo, was reprinted by Blackwell in 1911 and later appeared in a collection of classical parodies produced in Switzerland in 1968. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography calls it \"an enchanting work\".[69]George Stuart Robertson won the prize for Greek Verse in 1894 with a translation of a hundred lines of Shakespeare into comic iambic verse, and the next year he won the prize for Greek Prose and a Blue for hammer throwing. He heard about the 1896 Summer Olympics, the first of the modern era, and later explained \"Greek classics were my proper academic field, so I could hardly resist a go at the Olympics, could I?\" On arrival in Athens, he found to his dismay that his discipline of hammer throwing was not to be competed in, so in the spirit of amateurism he entered the shot put, the discus and the tennis. In the discus, he recorded the Games' worst ever throw, and in the tennis doubles he lost his only match but nevertheless won a Bronze Medal. In a ceremony after the Games, Robertson recited an ode to athletic prowess which he had composed in Greek.[70]Between 1953 and 1956, C. G. R. Leach won all four University prizes for composition in classical languages – the Gaisford Greek Verse and Prose prizes, and the Chancellor's Prizes for Latin Verse and Prose – while his brother J. H. C. Leach won three and was runner-up for a fourth.[3]","title":"Notable winning entries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Max Beerbohm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Beerbohm"},{"link_name":"Zuleika Dobson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuleika_Dobson"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Eton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eton_College"},{"link_name":"Mods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honour_Moderations"},{"link_name":"the Stanhope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhope_essay_prize"},{"link_name":"Newdigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newdigate_Prize"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"text":"In Max Beerbohm's satirical tragedy of undergraduate life at Oxford, Zuleika Dobson (1911), the hero, called the Duke of Dorset,[71] has won one of the Prizes:At Eton he had been called \"Peacock\", and this nick-name had followed him up to Oxford. It was not wholly apposite, however. For, whereas the peacock is a fool even among birds, the Duke had already taken (besides a particularly brilliant First in Mods) the Stanhope, the Newdigate, the Lothian, and the Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse.[72]","title":"In fiction"}]
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[{"image_text":"Thomas Gaisford","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Thomas_Gaisford_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/220px-Thomas_Gaisford_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Bowdoin Prizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowdoin_Prizes"}]
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[{"reference":"Stray, Christopher (2007). \"Non-identical twins: classics at nineteenth-century Oxford and Cambridge\". In Stray, Christopher (ed.). Oxford Classics: Teaching and Learning, 1800-2000. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4725-3782-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4725-3782-9","url_text":"978-1-4725-3782-9"}]},{"reference":"Hibbert, Christopher; Hibbert, Edward, eds. (1988). \"Prizes and scholarships\". The Encyclopaedia of Oxford. London: Macmillan. pp. 338–340. ISBN 0-333-39917-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-39917-X","url_text":"0-333-39917-X"}]},{"reference":"\"Schedule\". University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 22 April 2003. Retrieved 19 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030422224551/http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/354-051b.shtml","url_text":"\"Schedule\""},{"url":"http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/354-051b.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Part 18: Gaisford Fund\". Schedule. University of Oxford. Retrieved 19 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://governance.admin.ox.ac.uk/legislation/part-18-gaisford-fund","url_text":"\"Part 18: Gaisford Fund\""}]},{"reference":"\"University intelligence\". The Times. No. 36771. London. 19 May 1902. p. 8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Balliol undergraduate wins Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse\". ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 21 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.balliol.ox.ac.uk/news/2023/may/balliol-undergraduate-wins-gaisford-prize-greek-verse#:~:text=The%20Gaisford%20Prize%20was%20founded,the%20undergraduate%20and%20masters%20level.","url_text":"\"Balliol undergraduate wins Gaisford Prize for Greek Verse\""}]},{"reference":"\"Richard Gaskin's CV\" – via www.academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://liverpool.academia.edu/RichardGaskin/CurriculumVitae","url_text":"\"Richard Gaskin's CV\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turpentine
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Turpentine
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["1 Etymology","2 Source trees","3 Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine","3.1 Sulfate turpentine","4 Industrial and other end uses","4.1 Solvent","4.2 Lighting","4.3 Source of organic compounds","4.4 Folk medicine","4.5 Niche uses","5 Hazards","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Liquid distilled from pine resin
This article is about oil of turpentine. For crude turpentine, see oleoresin. For other uses, see turpentine (disambiguation).
Turpentine
Turpentine distilled at the Georgia Museum of Agriculture & Historic Village as it was done circa 1900
Identifiers
CAS Number
9005-90-7
ECHA InfoCard
100.029.407
EC Number
232-688-5
PubChem CID
48418114
UNII
XJ6RUH0O4G
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID6027680
Properties
Chemical formula
C10H16
Molar mass
136.238 g·mol−1
Appearance
Viscous liquid
Odor
Resinous
Melting point
−55 °C (−67 °F; 218 K)
Boiling point
154 °C (309 °F; 427 K)
Solubility in water
20 mg/L
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
1
3
0
Flash point
35 °C (95 °F; 308 K)
Autoignitiontemperature
220 °C (428 °F; 493 K)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
Infobox references
Chemical compound
Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine and, colloquially, turps) is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Principally used as a specialized solvent, it is also a source of material for organic syntheses.
Turpentine is composed of terpenes, primarily the monoterpenes alpha- and beta-pinene, with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, limonene, and terpinolene.
Substitutes include white spirit or other petroleum distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different.
Etymology
The word turpentine derives (via French and Latin) from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine, in turn the feminine form (to conform to the feminine gender of the Greek word, which means "resin") of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the terebinth tree.
Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. Chios turpentine, Cyprus turpentine, and Persian turpentine), it now refers to that of coniferous trees, namely crude turpentine (e.g. Venice turpentine is the oleoresin of larch), or the volatile oil part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the later usage is much more common today.
Source trees
"Herty system" in use on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936
Chipping a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), circa 1906–20
"Cat face" on a pine tree
Turpentine distillery at Manlyn, North Carolina
Important pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Masson's pine (Pinus massoniana), Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).
To tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, harvesters used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine (oleoresin) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Harvesters wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying paraquat herbicides to the exposed wood.
The V-shaped cuts are called "catfaces" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree indicate it was used to collect resin for turpentine production.
Turpentine (and rosin) are produced as naval stores. Pine trees especially in North Carolina were tapped for sap which was doubly distilled to make turpentine and rosin (aka resin)–hence the name tar heel. The trees were scored with a ledge called a "box" to collect the sap. Large numbers of slaves were used to score the trees, collect and process the sap. Historian Jeremy B. Zallen describes this as industrial slavery, which was different from the more common instance of slaves in agriculture. By the 1840s camphine (also spelled camphene) became one of the dominant lamp fuels in the US.
The pine trees of North Carolina were well suited to camphine production. The business also provided additional need for slaves as production expanded. Backwoods became more productive. Slaves were often leased in winter when agriculture was slower. The value of many was protected by life insurance. Wilmington became a center of the camphine industry. In cities, gas lighting was also available, but used by the upper classes. Camphine was the fuel of the average family.
Zallen reports that after Ft. Sumter, turpentine producers were cut off from major markets. Emancipation left them without manpower to collect and process turpentine. The camps were flammable. Many were burned in William Tecumseh Sherman's march from Savannah to Goldsboro.
Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine
Crude turpentine collected from the trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still. Molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out. Such turpentine is called gum turpentine. The term gum turpentine may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion.
Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from destructive distillation of pine wood, such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using the light end of the heavy naphtha fraction (boiling between 90 and 115 °C or 195 and 240 °F) from a crude oil refinery. Such turpentine is called wood turpentine. Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery.
Sulfate turpentine
When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp. Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds.
Industrial and other end uses
Solvent
As a solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints, for producing varnishes, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely been replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes obtained from petroleum such as white spirit. A solution of turpentine and beeswax or carnauba wax has long been used as a furniture wax.
Lighting
Spirits of turpentine, called camphine, was burned in lamps with glass chimneys in the 1830s through the 1860s. Turpentine blended with grain alcohol was known as burning fluid. Both were used as domestic lamp fuels, gradually replacing whale oil, until kerosene, gas lighting and electric lights began to predominate.
Source of organic compounds
Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin.
Folk medicine
Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene, were used in folk medicine for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for lice, and when mixed with animal fat, as a chest rub or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments. Vicks chest rubs still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient.
Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the Age of Discovery. It was one of several products carried aboard Ferdinand Magellan's fleet during the first circumnavigation of the globe. Taken internally it was used as a treatment for intestinal parasites. This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity.
Turpentine enemas, a very harsh purgative, had formerly been used for stubborn constipation or impaction. They were also given punitively to political dissenters in post-independence Argentina.
Niche uses
Turpentine is also added to many cleaning and sanitary products due to its antiseptic properties and its "clean scent".
In early 19th-century America, spirits of turpentine (camphine) was burned in lamps as a cheap alternative to whale oil. It produced a bright light but had a strong odour. Camphine and burning fluid (a mix of alcohol and turpentine) served as the dominant lamp fuels replacing whale oil until the advent of kerosene, electric lights and gas lighting.
Honda motorcycles, first manufactured in 1946, ran on a blend of gasoline and turpentine, due to the scarcity of gasoline in Japan following World War II.
In his book If Only They Could Talk, veterinarian and author James Herriot describes the use of the reaction of turpentine with resublimed iodine to "drive the iodine into the tissue", or perhaps just impress the watching customer with a spectacular treatment (a dense cloud of purple smoke).
Turpentine was added extensively into gin during the Gin Craze.
Hazards
NFPA 704fire diamond
1
3
0
As an organic solvent, turpentine's vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the lungs and respiratory system, as well as the central nervous system when inhaled, and cause damage to the renal system when ingested, among other things. Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, tachycardia, unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and chemical pneumonia.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100 ppm (560 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the recommended exposure limit (REL). At levels of 800 ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is immediately dangerous to life and health.
See also
Galipot – Resin of turpentine obtained from pine trees
McCranie's Turpentine Still – a historic site in Willacoochee, Georgia
Naval stores industry – part of shipbuildingPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Patent medicine – over-the-counter "proprietary" medications
Retsina – Greek wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin
Russia leather – a water-resistant leather curried after tanning with a birch oil distillate similar to turpentine
References
^ a b Record of Turpentine in the GESTIS Substance Database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
^ Mayer, Ralph (1991). The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques (Fifth ed.). New York: Viking. p. 404. ISBN 0-670-83701-6.
^ a b Kent, James A. Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry (Eighth Edition) Van Nostrand Reinhold Company (1983) ISBN 0-442-20164-8 p.569
^ "Solvents". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2002. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_437. ISBN 978-3527306732.
^ Barnhart, R. K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7.
^ Skeat, Walter W. (1882). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 579.
^ Mills, John S.; White, Raymond (1977). "Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification". Studies in Conservation. 22 (1): 12–31. doi:10.2307/1505670. ISSN 0039-3630. JSTOR 1505670.
^ Mahood, S. A. (1921-03-01). "Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis)". Journal of Forestry. 19 (3): 274–282. doi:10.1093/jof/19.3.274 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISSN 0022-1201.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
^ "Turpentine". Britannica. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
^ a b Kent p.571
^ Prizer, Tom (June 11, 2010). "Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners | Daily Yonder | Keep It Rural". dailyyonder.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2015. Retrieved June 5, 2012.
^ a b Zallen, Jeremy (2019). American Lucifers: The Dark History of Artificial Light, 1750-1865. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
^ "Turpentine". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-05-16.
^ Kent pp.571&572
^ Stenius, Per, ed. (2000). "2". Forest Products Chemistry. Papermaking Science and Technology. Vol. 3. Finland: Fapet Oy : Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and TAPPI. pp. 73–76. ISBN 952-5216-03-9.
^ Kent p.572
^ "Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu)". CBC News. 2003-04-10. Event occurs at 03:20. Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2018-12-29. A turpentine and hot water, and , and put it on their chest and back. --Elsie Miller (nee Smith)
^ Sarah Rieger (December 29, 2018). "100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis". CBC News. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018.
^ "DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment". dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-05-05. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
^ Laurence Bergreen (2003). Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe. HarperCollins. ISBN 0066211735. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
^ "Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation". American Memory Timeline. The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2017-02-06.
^ "ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE". www.inchem.org. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-04-02.
^ "Turpentine enema". Biology-Online Dictionary. Biology-Online. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-04-21. Retrieved 2019-12-26.
^ "Ribbons and Rituals". In "Problems in Modern Latin American History". Ed. Chasteen and Wood. Oxford, UK: Scholarly Resources, 2005. p. 97, ISBN 9781442218598 and 9781442218604
^ Charles H. Haswell. "Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860)". Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
^ "The "Whale Oil Myth"". PBS NewsHour. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
^ "Honda History". Smokeriders.com. Archived from the original on 2009-04-28. Retrieved 2009-09-17.
^ If Only They Could Talk. 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2018 – via www.amazon.co.uk., summarised at "James Herriot Books". Retrieved 28 June 2018.
^ Rohrer, Finlo (28 July 2014). "When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
^ "Turpentine". International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-04-02.
^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Turpentine.
Wikisource has the text of the 1879 American Cyclopædia article Turpentine.
Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Turpentine.
Inchem.org, IPCS INCHEM Turpentine classification, hazard, and property table.
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine
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For crude turpentine, see oleoresin. For other uses, see turpentine (disambiguation).Chemical compoundTurpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine and, colloquially, turps)[2] is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Principally used as a specialized solvent, it is also a source of material for organic syntheses.Turpentine is composed of terpenes, primarily the monoterpenes alpha- and beta-pinene, with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, limonene, and terpinolene.[3]Substitutes include white spirit or other petroleum distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different.[4]","title":"Turpentine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"feminine gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender"},{"link_name":"terebinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terebinth"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Chios turpentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistacia_lentiscus"},{"link_name":"Cyprus turpentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_turpentine"},{"link_name":"Persian turpentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistacia_atlantica"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"coniferous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer"},{"link_name":"crude turpentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_turpentine"},{"link_name":"oleoresin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleoresin"},{"link_name":"larch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larch"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"volatile oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_oil"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The word turpentine derives (via French and Latin) from the Greek word τερεβινθίνη terebinthine, in turn the feminine form (to conform to the feminine gender of the Greek word, which means \"resin\") of an adjective (τερεβίνθινος) derived from the Greek noun (τερέβινθος) for the terebinth tree.[5]Although the word originally referred to the resinous exudate of terebinth trees (e.g. Chios turpentine, Cyprus turpentine, and Persian turpentine),[6][7] it now refers to that of coniferous trees, namely crude turpentine (e.g. Venice turpentine is the oleoresin of larch),[8] or the volatile oil part thereof, namely oil (spirit) of turpentine; the later usage is much more common today.[9]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CupGutterSystem.jpg"},{"link_name":"Herty system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Herty"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chipping_a_turpentine_tree.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turpentine_face_Clinch_Co,_GA,_US,_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V48_D518_Turpentine_still_at_Manlyn_North_Carolina.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pinus pinaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_pinaster"},{"link_name":"Pinus halepensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_halepensis"},{"link_name":"Pinus massoniana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_massoniana"},{"link_name":"Pinus merkusii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_merkusii"},{"link_name":"longleaf pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longleaf_pine"},{"link_name":"Pinus taeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_taeda"},{"link_name":"Pinus elliottii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_elliottii"},{"link_name":"Pinus ponderosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_ponderosa"},{"link_name":"oleoresin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleoresin"},{"link_name":"paraquat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraquat"},{"link_name":"herbicides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicide"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-k71-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"naval stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_stores"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zallen-12"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"rosin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosin"},{"link_name":"tar heel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_heel"},{"link_name":"slaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave"},{"link_name":"camphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphine"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zallen-12"},{"link_name":"life insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_insurance"},{"link_name":"Wilmington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmington,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"gas lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaslight"},{"link_name":"Ft. Sumter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ft._Sumter"},{"link_name":"Emancipation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation"},{"link_name":"William Tecumseh Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman"},{"link_name":"march","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Goldsboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsboro,_North_Carolina"}],"text":"\"Herty system\" in use on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936Chipping a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), circa 1906–20\"Cat face\" on a pine treeTurpentine distillery at Manlyn, North CarolinaImportant pines for turpentine production include: maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), Masson's pine (Pinus massoniana), Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).To tap into the sap producing layers of the tree, harvesters used a series of hacks to remove the pine bark. Once debarked, pine trees secrete crude turpentine (oleoresin) onto the surface of the wound as a protective measure to seal the opening, resist exposure to micro-organisms and insects, and prevent vital sap loss. Harvesters wounded trees in V-shaped streaks down the length of the trunks to channel the crude turpentine into containers. It was then collected and processed into spirits of turpentine. Crude turpentine yield may be increased by as much as 40% by applying paraquat herbicides to the exposed wood.[10]The V-shaped cuts are called \"catfaces\" for their resemblance to a cat's whiskers. These marks on a pine tree indicate it was used to collect resin for turpentine production.[11]Turpentine (and rosin) are produced as naval stores.[12] Pine trees especially in North Carolina were tapped for sap which was doubly distilled to make turpentine and rosin (aka resin)–hence the name tar heel. The trees were scored with a ledge called a \"box\" to collect the sap. Large numbers of slaves were used to score the trees, collect and process the sap. Historian Jeremy B. Zallen describes this as industrial slavery, which was different from the more common instance of slaves in agriculture. By the 1840s camphine (also spelled camphene) became one of the dominant lamp fuels in the US.[12]The pine trees of North Carolina were well suited to camphine production. The business also provided additional need for slaves as production expanded. Backwoods became more productive. Slaves were often leased in winter when agriculture was slower. The value of many was protected by life insurance. Wilmington became a center of the camphine industry. In cities, gas lighting was also available, but used by the upper classes. Camphine was the fuel of the average family.Zallen reports that after Ft. Sumter, turpentine producers were cut off from major markets. Emancipation left them without manpower to collect and process turpentine. The camps were flammable. Many were burned in William Tecumseh Sherman's march from Savannah to Goldsboro.","title":"Source trees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Crude turpentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_turpentine"},{"link_name":"steam distillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_distillation"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"rosin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-k71-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"destructive distillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destructive_distillation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-k69-3"},{"link_name":"naphtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphtha"},{"link_name":"oil refinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery"},{"link_name":"extraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_phase_extraction"},{"link_name":"vacuum distillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_distillation"},{"link_name":"energy recovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_recovery"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Crude turpentine collected from the trees may be evaporated by steam distillation in a copper still. Molten rosin remains in the still bottoms after turpentine has been distilled out.[10] Such turpentine is called gum turpentine.[13] The term gum turpentine may also refer to crude turpentine, which may cause some confusion.Turpentine may alternatively be extracted from destructive distillation of pine wood,[3] such as shredded pine stumps, roots, and slash, using the light end of the heavy naphtha fraction (boiling between 90 and 115 °C or 195 and 240 °F) from a crude oil refinery. Such turpentine is called wood turpentine. Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery.[14]","title":"Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wood pulp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_pulp"},{"link_name":"pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine"},{"link_name":"coniferous trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coniferous_trees"},{"link_name":"Kraft process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft_process"},{"link_name":"digesters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraft_process#Cooking"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sten-15"},{"link_name":"sulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Sulfate turpentine","text":"When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp.[15] Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require additional treatment measures to remove traces of sulfur compounds.[16]","title":"Converting crude turpentine to oil of turpentine"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"paints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint"},{"link_name":"varnishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varnish"},{"link_name":"turpentine substitutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turpentine_substitute"},{"link_name":"petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum"},{"link_name":"white spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_spirit"},{"link_name":"beeswax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeswax"},{"link_name":"carnauba wax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnauba_wax"}],"sub_title":"Solvent","text":"As a solvent, turpentine is used for thinning oil-based paints, for producing varnishes, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Its use as a solvent in industrialized nations has largely been replaced by the much cheaper turpentine substitutes obtained from petroleum such as white spirit. A solution of turpentine and beeswax or carnauba wax has long been used as a furniture wax.","title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"camphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphine"},{"link_name":"grain alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_alcohol"},{"link_name":"whale oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_oil"},{"link_name":"kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"gas lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_lighting"},{"link_name":"electric lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_lights"}],"sub_title":"Lighting","text":"Spirits of turpentine, called camphine, was burned in lamps with glass chimneys in the 1830s through the 1860s. Turpentine blended with grain alcohol was known as burning fluid. Both were used as domestic lamp fuels, gradually replacing whale oil, until kerosene, gas lighting and electric lights began to predominate.","title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"camphor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphor"},{"link_name":"linalool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linalool"},{"link_name":"alpha-terpineol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpineol"},{"link_name":"geraniol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraniol"},{"link_name":"alpha-pinene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-pinene"},{"link_name":"beta-pinene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-pinene"},{"link_name":"diterpenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diterpene"},{"link_name":"triterpenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triterpene"},{"link_name":"rosin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosin"}],"sub_title":"Source of organic compounds","text":"Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin.","title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coal oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_oil"},{"link_name":"folk medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_medicine"},{"link_name":"lice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lice"},{"link_name":"animal fat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fat"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Vicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicks_VapoRub"},{"link_name":"chest rubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_rub"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Age of Discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Magellan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan"},{"link_name":"first circumnavigation of the globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_circumnavigation_of_the_globe"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"intestinal parasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_parasite"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"enemas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enema"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Folk medicine","text":"Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene, were used in folk medicine for abrasions and wounds, as a treatment for lice, and when mixed with animal fat, as a chest rub or inhaler for nasal and throat ailments.[17][18] Vicks chest rubs still contain turpentine in their formulations, although not as an active ingredient.[19]Turpentine, now understood to be dangerous for consumption, was a common medicine among seamen during the Age of Discovery. It was one of several products carried aboard Ferdinand Magellan's fleet during the first circumnavigation of the globe.[20] Taken internally it was used as a treatment for intestinal parasites. This is dangerous, due to the chemical's toxicity.[21][22]Turpentine enemas, a very harsh purgative, had formerly been used for stubborn constipation or impaction.[23] They were also given punitively to political dissenters in post-independence Argentina.[24]","title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"antiseptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiseptic"},{"link_name":"camphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphine"},{"link_name":"whale oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_oil"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"burning fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphine"},{"link_name":"kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"electric lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_lights"},{"link_name":"gas lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_lighting"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"If Only They Could Talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Creatures_Great_and_Small_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"James Herriot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Herriot"},{"link_name":"resublimed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Gin Craze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin_Craze"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Niche uses","text":"Turpentine is also added to many cleaning and sanitary products due to its antiseptic properties and its \"clean scent\".\nIn early 19th-century America, spirits of turpentine (camphine) was burned in lamps as a cheap alternative to whale oil. It produced a bright light but had a strong odour.[25] Camphine and burning fluid (a mix of alcohol and turpentine) served as the dominant lamp fuels replacing whale oil until the advent of kerosene, electric lights and gas lighting.[26]\nHonda motorcycles, first manufactured in 1946, ran on a blend of gasoline and turpentine, due to the scarcity of gasoline in Japan following World War II.[27]\nIn his book If Only They Could Talk, veterinarian and author James Herriot describes the use of the reaction of turpentine with resublimed iodine to \"drive the iodine into the tissue\", or perhaps just impress the watching customer with a spectacular treatment (a dense cloud of purple smoke).[28]\nTurpentine was added extensively into gin during the Gin Craze.[29]","title":"Industrial and other end uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compound"},{"link_name":"lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs"},{"link_name":"central nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"renal system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_system"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"tachycardia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachycardia"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"chemical pneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_pneumonitis"},{"link_name":"Occupational Safety and Health Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration"},{"link_name":"permissible exposure limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissible_exposure_limit"},{"link_name":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health"},{"link_name":"recommended exposure limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommended_exposure_limit"},{"link_name":"immediately dangerous to life and health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDLH"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"As an organic solvent, turpentine's vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the lungs and respiratory system, as well as the central nervous system when inhaled, and cause damage to the renal system when ingested, among other things.[30] Ingestion can cause burning sensations, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, confusion, convulsions, diarrhea, tachycardia, unconsciousness, respiratory failure,[31] and chemical pneumonia.The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for turpentine exposure in the workplace as 100 ppm (560 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The same threshold was adopted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as the recommended exposure limit (REL). At levels of 800 ppm (4480 mg/m3), turpentine is immediately dangerous to life and health.[32]","title":"Hazards"}]
|
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"},{"image_text":"\"Herty system\" in use on turpentine trees in Northern Florida, circa 1936","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/CupGutterSystem.jpg/220px-CupGutterSystem.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chipping a turpentine tree in Georgia (US), circa 1906–20","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chipping_a_turpentine_tree.jpg/220px-Chipping_a_turpentine_tree.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"Cat face\" on a pine tree","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Turpentine_face_Clinch_Co%2C_GA%2C_US%2C_2.jpg/220px-Turpentine_face_Clinch_Co%2C_GA%2C_US%2C_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Turpentine distillery at Manlyn, North Carolina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/PSM_V48_D518_Turpentine_still_at_Manlyn_North_Carolina.jpg/220px-PSM_V48_D518_Turpentine_still_at_Manlyn_North_Carolina.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Galipot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galipot"},{"title":"McCranie's Turpentine Still","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCranie%27s_Turpentine_Still"},{"title":"Naval stores industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_stores_industry"},{"title":"Patent medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_medicine"},{"title":"Retsina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retsina"},{"title":"Russia leather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_leather"}]
|
[{"reference":"Mayer, Ralph (1991). The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques (Fifth ed.). New York: Viking. p. 404. ISBN 0-670-83701-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artistshandbooko00maye_0/page/404","url_text":"The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/artistshandbooko00maye_0/page/404","url_text":"404"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-83701-6","url_text":"0-670-83701-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Solvents\". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2002. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_437. ISBN 978-3527306732.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullmann%27s_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry","url_text":"Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a24_437","url_text":"10.1002/14356007.a24_437"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527306732","url_text":"978-3527306732"}]},{"reference":"Barnhart, R. K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-270084-7","url_text":"0-06-270084-7"}]},{"reference":"Skeat, Walter W. (1882). A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 579.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/conciseetymologi002983mbp/page/579/mode/2up","url_text":"A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language"}]},{"reference":"Mills, John S.; White, Raymond (1977). \"Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification\". Studies in Conservation. 22 (1): 12–31. doi:10.2307/1505670. ISSN 0039-3630. JSTOR 1505670.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505670","url_text":"\"Natural Resins of Art and Archaeology Their Sources, Chemistry, and Identification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1505670","url_text":"10.2307/1505670"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3630","url_text":"0039-3630"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1505670","url_text":"1505670"}]},{"reference":"Mahood, S. A. (1921-03-01). \"Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis)\". Journal of Forestry. 19 (3): 274–282. doi:10.1093/jof/19.3.274 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISSN 0022-1201.","urls":[{"url":"https://academic.oup.com/jof/article-abstract/19/3/274/4752261","url_text":"\"Larch (Venice) Turpentine from Western Larch (Larix occidentalis)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjof%2F19.3.274","url_text":"10.1093/jof/19.3.274"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1201","url_text":"0022-1201"}]},{"reference":"\"Turpentine\". Britannica. Retrieved 2022-03-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine","url_text":"\"Turpentine\""}]},{"reference":"Prizer, Tom (June 11, 2010). \"Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners | Daily Yonder | Keep It Rural\". dailyyonder.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2015. Retrieved June 5, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150726100250/https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788","url_text":"\"Catfaces: Totems of Georgia's Turpentiners | Daily Yonder | Keep It Rural\""},{"url":"https://www.dailyyonder.com/totems-georgias-lost-turpentine-industry/2010/06/10/2788","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zallen, Jeremy (2019). American Lucifers: The Dark History of Artificial Light, 1750-1865. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Turpentine\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/turpentine","url_text":"\"Turpentine\""}]},{"reference":"Stenius, Per, ed. (2000). \"2\". Forest Products Chemistry. Papermaking Science and Technology. Vol. 3. Finland: Fapet Oy : Published in cooperation with the Finnish Paper Engineers' Association and TAPPI. pp. 73–76. ISBN 952-5216-03-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAPPI","url_text":"TAPPI"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/952-5216-03-9","url_text":"952-5216-03-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu)\". CBC News. 2003-04-10. Event occurs at 03:20. Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2018-12-29. A turpentine and hot water, and [wring hot towels out of there], and put it on their chest and back. --Elsie Miller (nee Smith)","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926/","url_text":"\"Surviving 'The Spanish Lady' (Spanish flu)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200807221113/https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1606945926","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sarah Rieger (December 29, 2018). \"100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis\". CBC News. Archived from the original on December 29, 2018. Retrieved December 29, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081","url_text":"\"100 years ago, a train carrying Spanish flu pulled into Calgary. Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181229183935/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment\". dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2021-05-05. Retrieved 2021-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc","url_text":"\"DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210505064609/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Laurence Bergreen (2003). Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe. HarperCollins. ISBN 0066211735. Retrieved 2009-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Bergreen","url_text":"Laurence Bergreen"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg","url_text":"Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0066211735","url_text":"0066211735"}]},{"reference":"\"Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation\". American Memory Timeline. The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2017-02-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html","url_text":"\"Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031310/https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE\". www.inchem.org. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","url_text":"\"ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Turpentine enema\". Biology-Online Dictionary. Biology-Online. 7 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-04-21. Retrieved 2019-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Turpentine_enema","url_text":"\"Turpentine enema\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190421005931/https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Turpentine_enema","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Charles H. Haswell. \"Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860)\". Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2008-10-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm","url_text":"\"Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111316/https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The \"Whale Oil Myth\"\". PBS NewsHour. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w","url_text":"\"The \"Whale Oil Myth\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190510142257/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Honda History\". Smokeriders.com. Archived from the original on 2009-04-28. Retrieved 2009-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html","url_text":"\"Honda History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090428051223/https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"If Only They Could Talk. 28 June 2012. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2018 – via www.amazon.co.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk","url_text":"If Only They Could Talk"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210213010934/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"James Herriot Books\". Retrieved 28 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://jamesherriotbooks.blogspot.com/2008/08/if-only-they-could-talk-ch-3.html/","url_text":"\"James Herriot Books\""}]},{"reference":"Rohrer, Finlo (28 July 2014). \"When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017","url_text":"\"When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180719043601/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms\". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","url_text":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Turpentine\". International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","url_text":"\"Turpentine\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine\". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-11-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","url_text":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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Within weeks, Alberta was in crisis\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181229183935/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/spanish-flu-alberta-history-1.4948081","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc","external_links_name":"\"DailyMed - VICKS VAPORUB (camphor- synthetic, eucalyptus oil, and menthol ointment\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210505064609/https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e69a7c9b-fd04-4109-a7c8-6edfd83855fc","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/overedgeofworl00berg","external_links_name":"Over the edge of the world : Magellan's terrifying circumnavigation of the globe"},{"Link":"https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html","external_links_name":"\"Home Remedies - American Memory Timeline- Classroom Presentation\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031310/https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/riseind/rural/remedies.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","external_links_name":"\"ICSC 1063 - TURPENTINE\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Turpentine_enema","external_links_name":"\"Turpentine enema\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190421005931/https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Turpentine_enema","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm","external_links_name":"\"Reminiscences of New York By an Octogenarian (1816 - 1860)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080724111316/https://www.jmisc.net/octo/octo-17.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w","external_links_name":"\"The \"Whale Oil Myth\"\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190510142257/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/this-post-is-hopelessly-long-w","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html","external_links_name":"\"Honda History\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090428051223/https://smokeriders.com/History/Honda_History/body_honda_history.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk","external_links_name":"If Only They Could Talk"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210213010934/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Only-They-Could-Talk-Collectors-ebook/dp/B008I33ZWQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1530212880&sr=8-1&keywords=if+only+they+could+talk","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://jamesherriotbooks.blogspot.com/2008/08/if-only-they-could-talk-ch-3.html/","external_links_name":"\"James Herriot Books\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017","external_links_name":"\"When gin was full of sulphuric acid and turpentine\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180719043601/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28486017","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","external_links_name":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine - Symptoms\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","external_links_name":"\"Turpentine\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060427165609/https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","external_links_name":"\"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208123745/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1063.htm","external_links_name":"Inchem.org"},{"Link":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0648.html","external_links_name":"CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Turpentine"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4272508-2","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572894","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starry_weever
|
Starry weever
|
["1 Description","2 Behaviour","3 References"]
|
Species of fish
Starry weever
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Actinopterygii
Order:
Trachiniformes
Family:
Trachinidae
Genus:
Trachinus
Species:
T. radiatus
Binomial name
Trachinus radiatusCuvier, 1829
Synonyms
Pseudotrachinus pardalis Bleeker, 1861
Pseudotrachinus radiatus (Cuvier, 1829)
Trachinus pardalis (Bleeker, 1861)
Trachinus vainus Rafinesque, 1810
The starry weever, or streaked weever, Trachinus radiatus, is a fish of the family Trachinidae widespread in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar to the Gulf of Guinea, and probably further south; it is also known from the Mediterranean Sea. A marine subtropical fish, it grows up to 50 cm (20 in) in length.
Description
The starry weever is moderately laterally compressed. The eyes are small, the snout is short and blunt, and the operculum bears a robust venomous spine. Five fan-shaped groups of bony ridges are on the top of the head just behind the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the anterior portion has six or seven spines and the posterior portion has no spines, but 24 to 29 soft rays. The anal fin has two spines and 25 to 29 soft rays. This fish can grow to a maximum length around 50 cm (20 in), but a more common length is 25 cm (10 in). The dorsal colouring is generally whitish, yellowish, or grey, sometimes with some violet or pinkish shades on the head and neck. Numerous brownish or blackish speckles are on the back and sides, some, especially on the flanks near the lateral line, forming ring shapes.
Behaviour
Like other members of the weever family, the starry weever lives on the seabed, burying itself in the sediment so that only its eyes and the anterior dorsal fin are above the surface. Poison glands are located at the base of this fin and on the spine on the gill cover. This fish is an ambush predator, remaining stationary in the sand ready to grab any passing prey of suitable size with its wide, upward-pointing mouth. Its diet consists largely of shrimp and other crustaceans, and small fish.
References
^ Carpenter, K.E.; Smith-Vaniz, W.F.; de Bruyne, G. & de Morais, L. (2015). "Trachinus radiatus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T198720A42691969. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T198720A42691969.en.
^ a b c The living marine resources of the Eastern Central Atlantic. Volume 4: Bony fishes part 2 (Perciformes). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2018. p. 2779. ISBN 978-92-5-109267-5.
^ a b Šoljan, Tonko (1963). Fishes of the Adriatic: (Ribe Jadrana). NOLIT Publishing House. pp. 236–237.
^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2018). "Trachinus radiatus" in FishBase. February 2018 version.
^ Dehaan, Avi; Ben-Meir, Patrick; Sagi, Amiram (1991). "A "Scorpion Fish" (Trachinus vipera) Sting: Fishermen's Hazard". British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 48 (10): 718–720. doi:10.1136/oem.48.10.718. JSTOR 27727334. PMC 1012067. PMID 1931733.
Taxon identifiersTrachinus radiatus
Wikidata: Q1265618
Wikispecies: Trachinus radiatus
ADW: Trachinus_radiatus
BOLD: 86832
CoL: 7CLF2
FishBase: 5037
GBIF: 2386474
iNaturalist: 120699
IRMNG: 10706041
ITIS: 170994
IUCN: 198720
NCBI: 349662
OBIS: 127083
Open Tree of Life: 674570
Plazi: EAB07E59-E562-20A8-5297-9901B04F439E
WoRMS: 127083
ZooBank: B9D6A69E-192A-4256-BCE6-0EA7FE4029E8
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAO-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soljan-3"},{"link_name":"fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish"},{"link_name":"Trachinidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trachinidae"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Gibraltar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"subtropical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropical"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FishBase-4"}],"text":"The starry weever,[2] or streaked weever,[3] Trachinus radiatus, is a fish of the family Trachinidae widespread in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar to the Gulf of Guinea, and probably further south; it is also known from the Mediterranean Sea. A marine subtropical fish, it grows up to 50 cm (20 in) in length.[4]","title":"Starry weever"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lateral line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_line"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAO-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soljan-3"}],"text":"The starry weever is moderately laterally compressed. The eyes are small, the snout is short and blunt, and the operculum bears a robust venomous spine. Five fan-shaped groups of bony ridges are on the top of the head just behind the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the anterior portion has six or seven spines and the posterior portion has no spines, but 24 to 29 soft rays. The anal fin has two spines and 25 to 29 soft rays. This fish can grow to a maximum length around 50 cm (20 in), but a more common length is 25 cm (10 in). The dorsal colouring is generally whitish, yellowish, or grey, sometimes with some violet or pinkish shades on the head and neck. Numerous brownish or blackish speckles are on the back and sides, some, especially on the flanks near the lateral line, forming ring shapes.[2][3]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weever"},{"link_name":"ambush predator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambush_predator"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"shrimp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrimp"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAO-2"}],"text":"Like other members of the weever family, the starry weever lives on the seabed, burying itself in the sediment so that only its eyes and the anterior dorsal fin are above the surface. Poison glands are located at the base of this fin and on the spine on the gill cover. This fish is an ambush predator, remaining stationary in the sand ready to grab any passing prey of suitable size with its wide, upward-pointing mouth.[5] Its diet consists largely of shrimp and other crustaceans, and small fish.[2]","title":"Behaviour"}]
|
[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Bear
|
Golden Bear
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["1 History","2 The award","3 Winners","4 Multiple winners","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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Highest prize awarded at the Berlin International Film Festival
For other uses, see Golden Bear (disambiguation).
AwardGolden BearGoldener Bär (German)LocationBerlinCountryGermanyPresented byBerlin International Film FestivalFirst awarded1951Last awarded2024WinnerDahomey by Mati DiopWebsitewww.berlinale.de
The Golden Bear (German: Goldener Bär) is the highest prize awarded for the best film at the Berlin International Film Festival. The bear is the heraldic animal of Berlin, featured on both the coat of arms and flag of Berlin.
History
The winners of the first Berlin International Film Festival in 1951 were determined by a West German panel, with five winners of the Golden Bear, divided by categories and genres.
Between 1952 and 1955, the winners of the Golden Bear were determined by the audience members.
In 1956, the Fédération Internationale des Associations de Producteurs de Films formally accredited the festival, and since then, the Golden Bear has been awarded by an international jury.
The award
The statuette shows a bear standing on its hind legs and is based on the 1932 design by German sculptor Renée Sintenis of Berlin's heraldic mascot that later became the symbol of the festival. It has been manufactured since either the first or third edition by art foundry Hermann Noack.
The original award was redesigned in a larger version in 1960, with the left arm of the bear raised as opposed to the right in the former model.
As of 2010, the bear is 20 cm (7.9 in) high and is fixed onto a base where the winning name is engraved. The figurine consists of a bronze core, which is then plated with a layer of gold. The total weight of the award is 4 kg (8.8 lb).
Winners
Mati Diop with the Golden Bear for Dahomey in 2024
Nicolas Philibert with the Golden Bear for On the Adamant in 2023
Carla Simón with the Golden Bear for Alcarràs in 2022
Adina Pintilie with the Golden Bear for Touch Me Not in 2018
Year
English Title
Original title
Director(s)
Production Country
1951: West German Jury Vote
1951 (1st)
Four in a Jeep (Drama)
Die Vier im Jeep
Leopold Lindtberg
Switzerland
Without Leaving an Address (Comedy)
...Sans laisser d'adresse
Jean-Paul Le Chanois
France
In Beaver Valley (Documentary)
James Algar
United States
Justice Is Done (Thriller & Adventure)
Justice est faite
André Cayatte
France
Cinderella (Music Film)
Wilfred Jackson
United States
1952–1955: Audience Vote
1952 (2nd)
One Summer of Happiness
Hon dansade en sommar
Arne Mattsson
Sweden
1953 (3rd)
The Wages of Fear
Le salaire de la peur
Henri-Georges Clouzot
France, Italy
1954 (4th)
Hobson's Choice
David Lean
United Kingdom
1955 (5th)
Die Ratten
Robert Siodmak
West Germany
1956–present: International Jury
1956 (6th)
Invitation to the Dance
Gene Kelly
United States
1957 (7th)
12 Angry Men
Sidney Lumet
1958 (8th)
Wild Strawberries
Smultronstället
Ingmar Bergman
Sweden
1959 (9th)
Les Cousins
Claude Chabrol
France
1960s
1960 (10th)
El Lazarillo de Tormes
César Fernández Ardavín
Spain
1961 (11th)
La Notte
Michelangelo Antonioni
Italy
1962 (12th)
A Kind of Loving
John Schlesinger
United Kingdom
1963 (13th)
Bushido, Samurai Saga
武士道残酷物語
Tadashi Imai
Japan
To Bed or Not to Bed
Il diavolo
Gian Luigi Polidoro
Italy
1964 (14th)
Dry Summer
Susuz yaz
Metin Erksan
Turkey
1965 (15th)
Alphaville
Alphaville, une étrange aventure de Lemmy Caution
Jean-Luc Godard
France, Italy
1966 (16th)
Cul-de-Sac
Roman Polanski
United Kingdom
1967 (17th)
The Departure
Le départ
Jerzy Skolimowski
Belgium
1968 (18th)
Who Saw Him Die?
Ole dole doff
Jan Troell
Sweden
1969 (19th)
Early Works
Rani radovi
Želimir Žilnik
Yugoslavia
1970s
1970 (20th)
No awards given because of the controversy surrounding Michael Verhoeven's anti-war film o.k., which led to the resignation of the international jury before the end of the festival.
1971 (21st)
The Garden of the Finzi-Continis
Il giardino dei Finzi Contini
Vittorio De Sica
West Germany, Italy
1972 (22nd)
The Canterbury Tales
I racconti di Canterbury
Pier Paolo Pasolini
Italy
1973 (23rd)
Distant Thunder
অশনি সংকেত
Satyajit Ray
India
1974 (24th)
The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz
Ted Kotcheff
Canada
1975 (25th)
Adoption
Örökbefogadás
Márta Mészáros
Hungary
1976 (26th)
Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson
Robert Altman
United States
1977 (27th)
The Ascent
Восхождение
Larisa Shepitko
Soviet Union
1978 (28th)
Ascensor
Tomás Muñoz
Spain
Las truchas
José Luis García Sánchez
What Max Said
Las palabras de Max
Emilio Martínez-Lázaro
1979 (29th)
David
Peter Lilienthal
West Germany
1980s
1980 (30th)
Heartland
Richard Pearce
United States
Palermo or Wolfsburg
Palermo oder Wolfsburg
Werner Schroeter
West Germany
1981 (31st)
Deprisa, deprisa
Carlos Saura
Spain
1982 (32nd)
Veronika Voss
Die Sehnsucht der Veronika Voss
Rainer Werner Fassbinder
West Germany
1983 (33rd)
Ascendancy
Edward Bennett
United Kingdom
La colmena
Mario Camus
Spain
1984 (34th)
Love Streams
John Cassavetes
United States
1985 (35th)
Wetherby
David Hare
United Kingdom
The Woman and the Stranger
Die Frau und der Fremde
Rainer Simon
East Germany
1986 (36th)
Stammheim
Stammheim – Die Baader-Meinhof-Gruppe vor Gericht
Reinhard Hauff
West Germany
1987 (37th)
The Theme
Teмa
Gleb Panfilov
Soviet Union
1988 (38th)
Red Sorghum
红高粱
Zhang Yimou
China
1989 (39th)
Rain Man
Barry Levinson
United States
1990s
1990 (40th)
Larks on a String
Skřivánci na niti
Jiří Menzel
Czechoslovakia
Music Box
Costa-Gavras
United States
1991 (41st)
The House of Smiles
La casa del sorriso
Marco Ferreri
Italy
1992 (42nd)
Grand Canyon
Lawrence Kasdan
United States
1993 (43rd)
The Wedding Banquet
喜宴
Ang Lee
Taiwan, United States
Woman Sesame Oil Maker
香魂女
Xie Fei
China
1994 (44th)
In the Name of the Father
Jim Sheridan
United Kingdom, Ireland
1995 (45th)
The Bait
L'appât
Bertrand Tavernier
France
1996 (46th)
Sense and Sensibility
Ang Lee
United States
1997 (47th)
The People vs. Larry Flynt
Miloš Forman
1998 (48th)
Central Station
Central do Brasil
Walter Salles
Brazil, France
1999 (49th)
The Thin Red Line
Terrence Malick
United States
2000s
2000 (50th)
Magnolia
Paul Thomas Anderson
United States
2001 (51st)
Intimacy
Patrice Chéreau
France
2002 (52nd)
Bloody Sunday
Paul Greengrass
United Kingdom, Ireland
Spirited Away
千と千尋の神隠し
Hayao Miyazaki
Japan
2003 (53rd)
In This World
Michael Winterbottom
United Kingdom
2004 (54th)
Head-On
Gegen die Wand
Fatih Akin
Germany
2005 (55th)
U-Carmen eKhayelitsha
Mark Dornford-May
South Africa
2006 (56th)
Grbavica
Jasmila Žbanić
Bosnia and Herzegovina
2007 (57th)
Tuya's Marriage
图雅的婚事
Wang Quan'an
China
2008 (58th)
Elite Squad
Tropa de Elite
José Padilha
Brazil
2009 (59th)
The Milk of Sorrow
La teta asustada
Claudia Llosa
Spain, Peru
2010s
2010 (60th)
Honey
Bal
Semih Kaplanoğlu
Turkey
2011 (61st)
A Separation
جدایی نادر از سیمین
Asghar Farhadi
Iran
2012 (62nd)
Caesar Must Die
Cesare deve morire
Paolo and Vittorio Taviani
Italy
2013 (63rd)
Child's Pose
Poziția copilului
Călin Peter Netzer
Romania
2014 (64th)
Black Coal, Thin Ice
白日焰火
Diao Yinan
China
2015 (65th)
Taxi
تاکسی
Jafar Panahi
Iran
2016 (66th)
Fire at Sea
Fuocoammare
Gianfranco Rosi
Italy
2017 (67th)
On Body and Soul
Testről és lélekről
Ildikó Enyedi
Hungary
2018 (68th)
Touch Me Not
Nu mă atinge-mă
Adina Pintilie
Romania
2019 (69th)
Synonyms
Synonymes
Nadav Lapid
France, Israel
2020s
2020 (70th)
There Is No Evil
شیطان وجود ندارد
Mohammad Rasoulof
Iran
2021 (71st)
Bad Luck Banging or Loony Porn
Babardeală cu bucluc sau porno balamuc
Radu Jude
Romania
2022 (72nd)
Alcarràs
Carla Simón
Spain, Italy
2023 (73rd)
On the Adamant
Sur l'Adamant
Nicolas Philibert
France, Japan
2024
(74th)
Dahomey
Mati Diop
France, Senegal, Benin
Multiple winners
As of 2023, only Ang Lee has won the award twice, in 1993 with The Wedding Banquet, and in 1996 with Sense and Sensibility.
See also
Golden Lion, the highest prize awarded at the Venice Film Festival
Palme d'Or, the highest prize awarded at the Cannes Film Festival
Silver Bear and other awards at the Berlin International Film Festival
References
^ "Juries 1951".
^ a b "- Berlinale – Archive – Annual Archives – 1952 – Juries".
^ "Eventful Berlinale". deutschland.de. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
^ François, Emmanuelle (2 March 2018). "The woman behind the Bär". Exberliner. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
^ "Making of the bear: Berlin International Film Festival trophy". Daily Sabah. 7 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
^ "Große kleine Tiere". Cicero (in German). Retrieved 9 April 2019.
^ English, James F. (2008). The Economy of Prestige: prizes, awards, and the circulation of cultural value. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-674-03043-5.
^ Günther, Ulrich (19 February 2010). "Berlinale Cineasten blicken auf den Bären". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 9 April 2019.
^ "In pictures". Novinite. 8 February 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
^ "Berlinale 1970: Prize Winners". berlinale.de. Retrieved 7 March 2010.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Berlinale.
Berlinale website
IMDb
vteBerlin International Film FestivalAwardsMain competition
Golden Bear
Grand Jury Prize
Jury Prize
Director
Screenplay
Leading Performance
Supporting Performance
Outstanding Artistic Contribution
Other awards
Honorary Golden Bear
Short Film Golden Bear
Short Film Silver Bear
Encounters
Retired awards
Alfred Bauer Prize
Actor
Actress
Independent awards
FIPRESCI Award
Prize of the Ecumenical Jury
Shooting Stars Award
Teddy Award
By year
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
List of Berlin International Film Festival jury presidents
vteBerlin International Film Festival Golden Bear1951–1975
Cinderella (1951)
Four in a Jeep (1951)
In Beaver Valley (1951)
Justice Is Done (1951)
Without Leaving an Address (1951)
One Summer of Happiness (1952)
The Wages of Fear (1953)
Hobson's Choice (1954)
Die Ratten (1955)
Invitation to the Dance (1956)
12 Angry Men (1957)
Wild Strawberries (1958)
Les Cousins (1959)
El Lazarillo de Tormes (1960)
La Notte (1961)
A Kind of Loving (1962)
Bushido, Samurai Saga (1963)
To Bed or Not to Bed (1963)
Dry Summer (1964)
Alphaville (1965)
Cul-de-sac (1966)
The Departure (1967)
Who Saw Him Die? (1968)
Early Works (1969)
The Garden of the Finzi-Continis (1971)
The Canterbury Tales (1972)
Distant Thunder (1973)
The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (1974)
Adoption (1975)
1976–2000
Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976)
The Ascent (1977)
Ascensor (1978)
Las truchas (1978)
What Max Said (1978)
David (1979)
Heartland (1980)
Palermo or Wolfsburg (1980)
Deprisa, Deprisa (1981)
Veronika Voss (1982)
Ascendancy (1983)
La colmena (1983)
Love Streams (1984)
Wetherby (1985)
The Woman and the Stranger (1985)
Stammheim (1986)
The Theme (1987)
Red Sorghum (1988)
Rain Man (1989)
Larks on a String (1990)
Music Box (1990)
The House of Smiles (1991)
Grand Canyon (1992)
The Wedding Banquet (1993)
Woman Sesame Oil Maker (1993)
In the Name of the Father (1994)
The Bait (1995)
Sense and Sensibility (1996)
The People vs. Larry Flynt (1997)
Central Station (1998)
The Thin Red Line (1999)
Magnolia (2000)
2001–present
Intimacy (2001)
Bloody Sunday (2002)
Spirited Away (2002)
In This World (2003)
Head-On (2004)
U-Carmen eKhayelitsha (2005)
Grbavica (2006)
Tuya's Marriage (2007)
Elite Squad (2008)
The Milk of Sorrow (2009)
Honey (2010)
A Separation (2011)
Caesar Must Die (2012)
Child's Pose (2013)
Black Coal, Thin Ice (2014)
Taxi (2015)
Fire at Sea (2016)
On Body and Soul (2017)
Touch Me Not (2018)
Synonyms (2019)
There Is No Evil (2020)
Bad Luck Banging or Loony Porn (2021)
Alcarràs (2022)
On the Adamant (2023)
Dahomey (2024)
|
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The bear is the heraldic animal of Berlin, featured on both the coat of arms and flag of Berlin.","title":"Golden Bear"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jury-2"},{"link_name":"Fédération Internationale des Associations de Producteurs de Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIAPF"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jury-2"}],"text":"The winners of the first Berlin International Film Festival in 1951 were determined by a West German panel, with five winners of the Golden Bear, divided by categories and genres.[1]Between 1952 and 1955, the winners of the Golden Bear were determined by the audience members.[2]In 1956, the Fédération Internationale des Associations de Producteurs de Films formally accredited the festival, and since then, the Golden Bear has been awarded by an international jury.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear"},{"link_name":"Renée Sintenis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Sintenis"},{"link_name":"heraldic mascot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-facts-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Hermann Noack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Noack"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-statuette-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cicero-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prestige-7"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_Bear&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Berlinale-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weigh-9"}],"text":"The statuette shows a bear standing on its hind legs and is based on the 1932 design by German sculptor Renée Sintenis of Berlin's heraldic mascot that later became the symbol of the festival. It has been manufactured since either the first[3] or third[4] edition by art foundry Hermann Noack.[5]The original award was redesigned in a larger version in 1960,[6] with the left arm of the bear raised as opposed to the right in the former model.[7]As of 2010[update], the bear is 20 cm (7.9 in) high and is fixed onto a base where the winning name is engraved.[8] The figurine consists of a bronze core, which is then plated with a layer of gold. The total weight of the award is 4 kg (8.8 lb).[9]","title":"The award"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MKr354597_Mati_Diop_(Goldener_B%C3%A4r_der_Berlinale_2024).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mati Diop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mati_Diop"},{"link_name":"Dahomey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahomey_(film)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicolas_Philibert_with_Golden_Bear,_Berlinale_2023-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Philibert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Philibert"},{"link_name":"On the Adamant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Adamant"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carla_Sim%C3%B3n_Winner_of_the_Golden_Bear_for_Best_Film_2022_Nr_5.JPG"},{"link_name":"Carla Simón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Sim%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Alcarràs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcarr%C3%A0s_(film)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MJK_16773_Adina_Pintilie_(Touch_Me_Not)_crop.jpg"},{"link_name":"Adina Pintilie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adina_Pintilie"},{"link_name":"Touch Me Not","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_Me_Not"}],"text":"Mati Diop with the Golden Bear for Dahomey in 2024Nicolas Philibert with the Golden Bear for On the Adamant in 2023Carla Simón with the Golden Bear for Alcarràs in 2022Adina Pintilie with the Golden Bear for Touch Me Not in 2018","title":"Winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ang Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang_Lee"},{"link_name":"1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd_Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"The Wedding Banquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wedding_Banquet"},{"link_name":"1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/46th_Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Sense and Sensibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibility_(film)"}],"text":"As of 2023, only Ang Lee has won the award twice, in 1993 with The Wedding Banquet, and in 1996 with Sense and Sensibility.","title":"Multiple winners"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Mati Diop with the Golden Bear for Dahomey in 2024","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/MKr354597_Mati_Diop_%28Goldener_B%C3%A4r_der_Berlinale_2024%29.jpg/150px-MKr354597_Mati_Diop_%28Goldener_B%C3%A4r_der_Berlinale_2024%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nicolas Philibert with the Golden Bear for On the Adamant in 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Nicolas_Philibert_with_Golden_Bear%2C_Berlinale_2023-1.jpg/150px-Nicolas_Philibert_with_Golden_Bear%2C_Berlinale_2023-1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Carla Simón with the Golden Bear for Alcarràs in 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Carla_Sim%C3%B3n_Winner_of_the_Golden_Bear_for_Best_Film_2022_Nr_5.JPG/150px-Carla_Sim%C3%B3n_Winner_of_the_Golden_Bear_for_Best_Film_2022_Nr_5.JPG"},{"image_text":"Adina Pintilie with the Golden Bear for Touch Me Not in 2018","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/MJK_16773_Adina_Pintilie_%28Touch_Me_Not%29_crop.jpg/150px-MJK_16773_Adina_Pintilie_%28Touch_Me_Not%29_crop.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Golden Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Lion"},{"title":"Venice Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival"},{"title":"Palme d'Or","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palme_d%27Or"},{"title":"Cannes Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival"},{"title":"Silver Bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Bear_for_Best_Director"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Juries 1951\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1951/04_jury_1951/04_Jury_1951.html","url_text":"\"Juries 1951\""}]},{"reference":"\"- Berlinale – Archive – Annual Archives – 1952 – Juries\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1952/04_jury_1952/04_Jury_1952.html","url_text":"\"- Berlinale – Archive – Annual Archives – 1952 – Juries\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eventful Berlinale\". deutschland.de. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/berlinale-2020-ten-fascinating-facts","url_text":"\"Eventful Berlinale\""}]},{"reference":"François, Emmanuelle (2 March 2018). \"The woman behind the Bär\". Exberliner. Retrieved 23 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.exberliner.com/politics/renee-sintenis/","url_text":"\"The woman behind the Bär\""}]},{"reference":"\"Making of the bear: Berlin International Film Festival trophy\". Daily Sabah. 7 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailysabah.com/gallery/making-of-the-bear-berlin-international-film-festival-trophy/images?gallery_image=81729","url_text":"\"Making of the bear: Berlin International Film Festival trophy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Große kleine Tiere\". Cicero (in German). Retrieved 9 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cicero.de/kultur/berlinale-baer-renee-sintenis-grosse-kleine-tiere/48275","url_text":"\"Große kleine Tiere\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero_(magazine)","url_text":"Cicero"}]},{"reference":"English, James F. (2008). The Economy of Prestige: prizes, awards, and the circulation of cultural value. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-674-03043-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vY3UOFDA2sAC&q=Goldener+B%C3%A4r+Renee+Sintenis+1960&pg=PA167","url_text":"The Economy of Prestige: prizes, awards, and the circulation of cultural value"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03043-5","url_text":"978-0-674-03043-5"}]},{"reference":"Günther, Ulrich (19 February 2010). \"Berlinale Cineasten blicken auf den Bären\". Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 9 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/berlinale-2010/berlinale-cineasten-blicken-auf-den-baeren-1942246.html","url_text":"\"Berlinale Cineasten blicken auf den Bären\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurter_Allgemeine_Zeitung","url_text":"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung"}]},{"reference":"\"In pictures\". Novinite. 8 February 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.novinite.com/inpictures/2652/Three+golden+%27Berlinale%27+bears+seen+at+Noack+casting+company+in+Berlin%2C+Germany%2C+08+February+2010.+Every+bear+weighs+some+four+kilograms+and+consists+of+a+bronze+core%2C+which+is+then+either+plated+with","url_text":"\"In pictures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novinite","url_text":"Novinite"}]},{"reference":"\"Berlinale 1970: Prize Winners\". berlinale.de. Retrieved 7 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.berlinale.de/en/archive/jahresarchive/1970/02_programm_1970/02_programm_1970.html","url_text":"\"Berlinale 1970: Prize Winners\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.berlinale.de/","external_links_name":"www.berlinale.de"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golden_Bear&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1951/04_jury_1951/04_Jury_1951.html","external_links_name":"\"Juries 1951\""},{"Link":"http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1952/04_jury_1952/04_Jury_1952.html","external_links_name":"\"- Berlinale – Archive – Annual Archives – 1952 – Juries\""},{"Link":"https://www.deutschland.de/en/topic/culture/berlinale-2020-ten-fascinating-facts","external_links_name":"\"Eventful Berlinale\""},{"Link":"https://www.exberliner.com/politics/renee-sintenis/","external_links_name":"\"The woman behind the Bär\""},{"Link":"https://www.dailysabah.com/gallery/making-of-the-bear-berlin-international-film-festival-trophy/images?gallery_image=81729","external_links_name":"\"Making of the bear: Berlin International Film Festival trophy\""},{"Link":"https://www.cicero.de/kultur/berlinale-baer-renee-sintenis-grosse-kleine-tiere/48275","external_links_name":"\"Große kleine Tiere\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vY3UOFDA2sAC&q=Goldener+B%C3%A4r+Renee+Sintenis+1960&pg=PA167","external_links_name":"The Economy of Prestige: prizes, awards, and the circulation of cultural value"},{"Link":"https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/berlinale-2010/berlinale-cineasten-blicken-auf-den-baeren-1942246.html","external_links_name":"\"Berlinale Cineasten blicken auf den Bären\""},{"Link":"https://www.novinite.com/inpictures/2652/Three+golden+%27Berlinale%27+bears+seen+at+Noack+casting+company+in+Berlin%2C+Germany%2C+08+February+2010.+Every+bear+weighs+some+four+kilograms+and+consists+of+a+bronze+core%2C+which+is+then+either+plated+with","external_links_name":"\"In pictures\""},{"Link":"https://www.berlinale.de/en/archive/jahresarchive/1970/02_programm_1970/02_programm_1970.html","external_links_name":"\"Berlinale 1970: Prize Winners\""},{"Link":"http://www.berlinale.de/","external_links_name":"Berlinale website"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/event/ev0000091/","external_links_name":"IMDb"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lee_(Australian_actor)
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Mark Lee (Australian actor)
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["1 Career","2 Personal life","3 Filmography","3.1 Film","3.2 Television","4 Theatre","5 Directing","6 References","7 External links"]
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Australian actor and director
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2021)
Mark LeeBorn1958 (age 65–66)Sydney, New South Wales, AustraliaOccupation(s)Actor, directorSpouseMarianneChildren2
Mark Lee (born 1958) is an Australian theatre and film actor and director, and singer. He played the lead role in the 1981 film Gallipoli, alongside Mel Gibson. Since then, Lee has worked extensively in Australian film, television and theatre.
Career
He originally worked as a model and coffee house singer. His film debut was in 1979 in the film Strange Holiday (based on the novel by Jules Verne). After his success in Gallipoli (1981) he spent some time as a musician, playing and singing as front man in popular Sydney bands like One Way Ticket and The Idle Poor, performed in company with his Conservatorium-trained, violin-playing younger brother, David.
Lee also spent some years acting in, and frequently simultaneously directing, amateur plays.
He starred in the 1987 Australian television drama Vietnam (one of Nicole Kidman's early roles) and the 1988 gay cult film The Everlasting Secret Family. He also starred as a gay man in Sex Is a Four Letter Word. Lee also worked with James Belushi in the remake of Sahara in 1995. In 2000 he starred in Nowhere to Land as the antagonist Phillip Decon.
Apart from Gallipoli, most of his work has drawn little notice outside of Australia, save for a short film Stranger So Familiar, shown in the 2005 Reno Film Festival.
In 2001, he starred in the one-man show The Time Machine, adapted by Frank Gauntlett from the novelette by H. G. Wells, and directed by Penny Young. He also appeared in the acclaimed and controversial production of The Miracle Rose at Belvoir Street Theatre in Sydney, directed by film and theatre Robert Chuter.
His feature film directorial debut was an Australian film titled The Bet, released in 2007. He also made a documentary Mountains to the Sea, about a couple of pub bands, and directed the play Unit 46 in 1999.
In 2012, he reprised his role in The Time Machine at The Old 505 Theatre, Sydney.
In 2013/2014, he toured Australia in the theatrical production of a play based upon Agatha Christie's A Murder Is Announced, playing the character of Inspector Craddock. In 2013, he featured in the TV mini-series Paper Giants: Magazine Wars. Since 2015, he has had a recurring role in the TV series A Place To Call Home.
As of 2019, he is acting as Rick Booth (Dean's biological father) on Seven's Home and Away.
Personal life
Lee enjoys cooking and traveling with his wife Marianne. The couple have two daughters.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Type
1969
Strange Holiday
Costar
TV movie, based on the novel by Jules Verne
1974
Lindsay's Boy
Kevin Lindsay
TV movie
1981
Gallipoli
Archy Hamilton
Feature film
1982
The Best of Friends
Bruce
Feature film
1983
The City's Edge
Jim Wentworth
Feature film
1986
News Report on a Journey to a Bright Future
David McGee
TV movie
1987
Emma's War
John Davidson
TV movie
1988
The Everlasting Secret Family
Youth
Feature film
The Riddle of the Stinson
Co-pilot Bert Shepherd
TV movie
1995
Sahara
Jimmy Doyle
TV movie
Blackwater Trail
Chris
TV movie
Sex Is a Four Letter Word
John
Feature film
1998
Chameleon
Milo
TV movie
1999
Chameleon II: Death Match
Steven Myers
TV movie
Without Warning
David
TV movie
2000
Nowhere to Land
Phillip Decon
TV movie
2001
One Born Every Minute
Ned Kelly
Short film
2002
Tree
Dad
Short flm
The Shot
Short film
The Junction Boys
Jack Gilmore
TV movie
El Burro
David
Short film
2004
Black Jack
Black Jack
Short film
The Wallet
Pete
Short film
2005
Stranger So Familiar
Feature film
2009
Shadows of the Past
Jack Kelly
Feature film
At This Moment
Dad
Short film
2011
The Last Race
Clive Kershaw
Short film
Cupid
Neptune
Short film
2014
The Gift
John
Short film
Wraith Woods
Stramger
Short film
2018
Shooter
Jim
Short film
Bring Me Back Ma
Mike
Short film
2020
Trapped
James
Short film
Television
Year
Title
Role
Type
1974
The Evil Touch
Andrew
TV series, 1 episode
1975
Behind the Legend
Maurice Kellerman
TV series, 1 episode
The Seven Ages of Man
TV series, 1 episode
1976
Number 96
Robin Dunmore
TV series, 4 episodes
1977
The Restless Years
Lee Prentice
TV series
1977-79
Bailey's Bird
Nick
TV series, 26 episodes
1978
Case for the Defence
Barry
TV series, 1 episode
1987
Vietnam
Laurie Fellows
TV miniseries, 10 episodes
1988
The Flying Doctors
Stewart Collins
TV series, 1 episode
1989
Naked Under Capricorn
Tim Roberts
TV miniseries, 1 episode
1992
A Country Practice
Dr Paul Beardsley
TV series, 2 episodes
Boney
Dave O’Dwyer
TV series, 1 episode
1994
G.P.
Daniel Wallace
TV series, 1 episode
1996-97
City Life
Nick Vogel
TV series, 3 episodes
1996-2000
Water Rats
Travis Dewar / Harry Pierce
TV series, 2 episodes
1996-2019
Home and Away
Rick Booth, Stuart Mitchell, Orson Cardillo
TV series, 20 episodes
1997
Twisted Tales
Frank
TV series, 1 episode
1998
Murder Call
Ian Blanfield
TV series, 1 episode
All Saints
Chen Wai
TV series, 1 episode
1998-2000
Tales of the South Seas
Reverend Colin Trent
TV miniseries, 22 episodes
1999
SeaChange
BrettCauchi
TV series, 1 episode
2000-01
Beastmaster
Hjalmar
TV series, 6 episodes
2001
Blonde
Porn Dealer
TV miniseries, 2 episodes
Stingers
Leon King
TV series, 1 episode
Ponderosa
Captain John Reilly
TV series, 1 episode
2004
The Mystery of Natalie Wood
William Russell
Miniseries
Out There
TV series, 6 episodes
2011
Crownies
Geoffrey McMahon
TV series, 4 episodes
2012
Redfern Now
Barman
TV series, 1 episode
2013
Packed to the Rafters
Duncan Galloway
TV series, 5 episodes
Paper Giants: Magazine Wars
Richard Walsh
TV miniseries, 2 episodes
2015
A Place To Call Home
Sir Richard Bennett
TV series
2021-23
La Brea
Silas
TV series, 20 episodes
Theatre
Year
Title
Role
Type
2001
The Time Machine
The Miracle Rose
Belvoir Street Theatre
2012
The Time Machine
The Old 505 Theatre, Sydney
2013/2014
A Murder Is Announced
Inspector Craddock
Australian tour
Directing
Year
Title
Type
2007
The Bet
Feature film
Mountains to the Sea
Documentary
1999
Unit 46
Play
References
^ a b c d Michael Ferguson and Michael S. Ferguson Idol Worship: A Shameless Celebration of Male Beauty in the Movies, p. 215, at Google Books
^ Maslin, Janet (1989). "Reviews/Film; An Australian Tale of Sex And the Power It Confers". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^ IMdB
^ "The Time Machine | theatre australia". www.theatre.asn.au. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
^ "On the Couch with Mark Lee". Australian Arts Review. 5 April 2018. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
^ Maslin, Janet (1989). "Reviews/Film; An Australian Tale of Sex And the Power It Confers". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
^ IMdB
^ "The Time Machine | theatre australia". www.theatre.asn.au. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
External links
Mark Lee at IMDb
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
Spain
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Poland
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gallipoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipoli_(1981_film)"},{"link_name":"Mel Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel_Gibson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idol-1"}],"text":"Mark Lee (born 1958) is an Australian theatre and film actor and director, and singer. He played the lead role in the 1981 film Gallipoli, alongside Mel Gibson.[1] Since then, Lee has worked extensively in Australian film, television and theatre.","title":"Mark Lee (Australian actor)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idol-1"},{"link_name":"Jules Verne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Verne"},{"link_name":"Nicole Kidman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Kidman"},{"link_name":"The Everlasting Secret Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Everlasting_Secret_Family"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idol-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sex Is a Four Letter Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_Is_a_Four_Letter_Word"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"James Belushi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Belushi"},{"link_name":"Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"H. G. Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._G._Wells"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Robert Chuter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Chuter"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie"},{"link_name":"A Murder Is Announced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Murder_Is_Announced"},{"link_name":"Paper Giants: Magazine Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_Giants:_Magazine_Wars"},{"link_name":"A Place To Call Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Place_to_Call_Home_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Seven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Network"},{"link_name":"Home and Away","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_and_Away"}],"text":"He originally worked as a model and coffee house singer.[1] His film debut was in 1979 in the film Strange Holiday (based on the novel by Jules Verne). After his success in Gallipoli (1981) he spent some time as a musician, playing and singing as front man in popular Sydney bands like One Way Ticket and The Idle Poor, performed in company with his Conservatorium-trained, violin-playing younger brother, David.Lee also spent some years acting in, and frequently simultaneously directing, amateur plays.He starred in the 1987 Australian television drama Vietnam (one of Nicole Kidman's early roles) and the 1988 gay cult film The Everlasting Secret Family.[1][2] He also starred as a gay man in Sex Is a Four Letter Word.[3] Lee also worked with James Belushi in the remake of Sahara in 1995. In 2000 he starred in Nowhere to Land as the antagonist Phillip Decon.Apart from Gallipoli, most of his work has drawn little notice outside of Australia, save for a short film Stranger So Familiar, shown in the 2005 Reno Film Festival.In 2001, he starred in the one-man show The Time Machine, adapted by Frank Gauntlett from the novelette by H. G. Wells, and directed by Penny Young.[4] He also appeared in the acclaimed and controversial production of The Miracle Rose at Belvoir Street Theatre in Sydney, directed by film and theatre Robert Chuter.His feature film directorial debut was an Australian film titled The Bet, released in 2007. He also made a documentary Mountains to the Sea, about a couple of pub bands, and directed the play Unit 46 in 1999.In 2012, he reprised his role in The Time Machine at The Old 505 Theatre, Sydney.In 2013/2014, he toured Australia in the theatrical production of a play based upon Agatha Christie's A Murder Is Announced, playing the character of Inspector Craddock. In 2013, he featured in the TV mini-series Paper Giants: Magazine Wars. Since 2015, he has had a recurring role in the TV series A Place To Call Home.As of 2019, he is acting as Rick Booth (Dean's biological father) on Seven's Home and Away.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Lee enjoys cooking and traveling with his wife Marianne. The couple have two daughters.[5]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Theatre"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Directing"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Bizzell
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Patricia Bizzell
|
["1 Areas of Scholarly Focus","2 Influential Works","3 Professional experience","3.1 Teaching positions","3.2 Professional affiliations and activities","3.3 Academic background","4 Prizes and external grants received","5 Books published","6 References","7 External links"]
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American academic
Patricia Bizzell is a professor of English, emerita, and former Chairperson of the English Department at the College of the Holy Cross, United States, where she taught from 1978 to 2019. She founded and directed the Writer's Workshop, a peer tutoring facility, and a writing-across-the-curriculum program. She directed the College Honors and English Honors programs and taught first-year composition, rhetoric and public speaking, nineteenth-century American literature, and women's literature. A scholar and writer, Bizzell has authored or co-authored half a dozen books, written dozens of articles and book chapters, composed more than a dozen book reviews and review essays, and presented a large number of papers at academic conferences. Bizzell is the 2008 winner of the CCCC Exemplar Award, and former president of Rhetoric Society of America.
Areas of Scholarly Focus
Bizzell's research interests include the question of how the increasing diversification of academic discourses affects the teaching of writing to college students, with a special focus on students that she terms "basic writers." Bizzell, throughout her career, has focused on students coming from traditionally disadvantaged economic and social backgrounds in order to study how rhetoric and composition can be effectively taught to students coming from a diverse range of backgrounds.
Bizzell is also the subject of a profile chapter in Women's Ways of Making It in Rhetoric and Composition, edited by Michelle Balliff, Diane Davis, and Roxanne Mountford. The book aims to share both the successes and failures of women in the field of rhetoric and composition, with the aim of inspiring other women to enter the field. The book covers a range of topics from encountering sexism in the workplace and balancing a career and family life, issues that are further addressed in the chapter on Bizzell. This chapter offers further insight into Bizzell's scholarly interests and areas of research.
Influential Works
Bizzell has written numerous books, book chapters, and articles throughout her career. Some of her most influential works are outlined below.
In Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness, Bizzell traces her experiences as of teaching first-year college composition courses. The essays, written over a number of years, come together to provide insights into how her teaching and thinking about pedagogy have changed over the years. Compiling the essays in this way traces a trajectory of how thinking about and implementing teaching practices have evolved for Bizzell over her number of years of experience. The essay collection has an extensive focus on what happens when students from diverse backgrounds are asked to use language in specific ways in college classrooms, tracing practices and pedagogies that have been successful in her own classrooms over the years.
Bizzell's article "Cognition, Convention, and Certainty: What We Need to Know About Writing" explores the relationship between students' ability to engage in thoughtful contemplation and their writing abilities. The relationship between thought and language, according to Bizzell, needs to be given more careful consideration in the composition classroom. It is only by helping students learn to frame their thinking that teachers can help them to be productive and successful writers.
"What Happens When Basic Writers Come to College?" tries to answer one of the research questions that seems to be most central to Bizzell's research. This article examines what happens when students with diverse backgrounds, dialects, and class standings come together in a college composition classroom. Bizzell, using her own teaching experience as part of her research, delves into how these students can find success in college classrooms and settings.
Professional experience
Teaching positions
Chair, Department of English, College of the Holy Cross, 2001-2005
Professor of English, Holy Cross, 1988–present: composition, rhetoric, American Literature
Director, English Honors Program, 1999-2000
Director, College Honors Program, 1994-1998
Director, Writing Programs, 1981-1994 (Writer's Workshop and Writing-across-the-Curriculum Program)
Associate Professor, Holy Cross, 1981-1988
Assistant Professor, Holy Cross, 1978–81
Assistant Professor, Rutgers University, 1975–78, and Director, Remedial Writing Program, 1975–77, and Teacher Training Program, 1977–78
Professional affiliations and activities
President, Rhetoric Society of America, 2004-2006
Program Chair, RSA 2004 biennial national conference
President, Board of Directors, Alliance of Rhetoric Societies, 2006 (ARS)
Academic background
Ph.D. in English Literature, Rutgers University, 1975.
B.A. summa cum laude, Wellesley College, 1970.
Enrolled in the M.J.L.S. (Masters, Jewish Liberal Studies) program at Hebrew College
Prizes and external grants received
Winner, National Council of Teachers of English Outstanding Book Award, 1992, for The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present (co-authored with Bruce Herzberg).
Winner, National Council of Writing Program Administrators Best Book Award, 2000, for Coming of Age: The Advanced Writing Curriculum, eds. Linda Shamoon, Sandra Jamieson, Rebecca Howard, and Robert Schwegler, which included Bizzell's essay "Writing as a Means of Social Change".
Books published
Bizzell, Patricia (1992). Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 295. ISBN 0-8229-5485-0.
Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (1995). Negotiating Difference: Readings in Multicultural American Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 963. ISBN 0-312-06846-8. (Alternate title: Negotiating Difference: Cultural Case Studies for Composition)
Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2001). Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, The (2nd ed.; 1st ed. 1990 ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 1673. ISBN 0-312-14839-9.
Bizzell, Patricia; Schroeder, Christopher; Fox, Helen, eds. (2002). ALT DIS: Alternative Discourses and the Academy. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann-Boynton/Cook. p. 224. ISBN 0-86709-516-4.
Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Reynolds, Nedra (2003). The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing (6th ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-312-40501-4.
Bizzell, Patricia, ed. (2005). Rhetorical Agendas: Political, Ethical, Spiritual . Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 400. ISBN 0-8058-5311-1.
Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Hacker, Diana (2005). Negotiating Difference & Pocket Style Manual 4e (Package ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-45814-2.
Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Barnet, Sylvan; Badau, Hugo (2006). Rhetorical Tradition 2e & From Critical Thinking to Argument (Package ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-46336-7.
Bizzell, Patricia; Lunsford, Andrea A.; Herzberg, Bruce (2006). St. Martin's Handbook 5e with 2003 MLA Update & Exercises CD-ROM & Negotiating Difference (Hardcover). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-46021-X.
References
^ a b "Patricia Bizzell Archives". MLA Style Center. Retrieved 2021-03-12.
^ a b "College of the Holy Cross - Archives & Special Collections". 2008-12-03. Archived from the original on 2008-12-03. Retrieved 2021-03-12.
^ "Patricia Bizzell". upittpress.org. Retrieved 2021-03-15.
^ a b Ballif, Michelle (2008). Women's ways of making it in rhetoric and composition. D. Diane Davis, Roxanne Mountford. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-92984-1. OCLC 213371249.
^ Bizzell, Patricia (1992). Academic discourse and critical consciousness. Pittsburgh. ISBN 978-0-8229-7155-9. OCLC 887803263.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "Cognition, Convention, and Certainty", Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness, University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 75–104, doi:10.2307/j.ctt7zwb7k.7, ISBN 978-0-8229-7155-9, retrieved 2021-04-06
^ Bizzell, Patricia (1986). "What Happens When Basic Writers Come to College?". College Composition and Communication. 37 (3): 294–301. doi:10.2307/358046. JSTOR 358046.
External links
Prof. Patricia Bizzell's home page at Holy Cross
Rhetoric Society of America
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Netherlands
|
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She directed the College Honors and English Honors programs and taught first-year composition, rhetoric and public speaking, nineteenth-century American literature, and women's literature.[2] A scholar and writer, Bizzell has authored or co-authored half a dozen books, written dozens of articles and book chapters, composed more than a dozen book reviews and review essays, and presented a large number of papers at academic conferences.[2] Bizzell is the 2008 winner of the CCCC Exemplar Award, and former president of Rhetoric Society of America.[1]","title":"Patricia Bizzell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"basic writers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_writing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"text":"Bizzell's research interests include the question of how the increasing diversification of academic discourses affects the teaching of writing to college students, with a special focus on students that she terms \"basic writers.\"[3] Bizzell, throughout her career, has focused on students coming from traditionally disadvantaged economic and social backgrounds in order to study how rhetoric and composition can be effectively taught to students coming from a diverse range of backgrounds.Bizzell is also the subject of a profile chapter in Women's Ways of Making It in Rhetoric and Composition, edited by Michelle Balliff, Diane Davis, and Roxanne Mountford.[4] The book aims to share both the successes and failures of women in the field of rhetoric and composition, with the aim of inspiring other women to enter the field. The book covers a range of topics from encountering sexism in the workplace and balancing a career and family life, issues that are further addressed in the chapter on Bizzell.[4] This chapter offers further insight into Bizzell's scholarly interests and areas of research.","title":"Areas of Scholarly Focus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first-year college composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-year_composition"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Bizzell has written numerous books, book chapters, and articles throughout her career. Some of her most influential works are outlined below.In Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness, Bizzell traces her experiences as of teaching first-year college composition courses. The essays, written over a number of years, come together to provide insights into how her teaching and thinking about pedagogy have changed over the years. Compiling the essays in this way traces a trajectory of how thinking about and implementing teaching practices have evolved for Bizzell over her number of years of experience. The essay collection has an extensive focus on what happens when students from diverse backgrounds are asked to use language in specific ways in college classrooms, tracing practices and pedagogies that have been successful in her own classrooms over the years.[5]Bizzell's article \"Cognition, Convention, and Certainty: What We Need to Know About Writing\" explores the relationship between students' ability to engage in thoughtful contemplation and their writing abilities. The relationship between thought and language, according to Bizzell, needs to be given more careful consideration in the composition classroom. It is only by helping students learn to frame their thinking that teachers can help them to be productive and successful writers.[6]\"What Happens When Basic Writers Come to College?\" tries to answer one of the research questions that seems to be most central to Bizzell's research. This article examines what happens when students with diverse backgrounds, dialects, and class standings come together in a college composition classroom. Bizzell, using her own teaching experience as part of her research, delves into how these students can find success in college classrooms and settings.[7]","title":"Influential Works"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Professional experience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"College of the Holy Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_the_Holy_Cross"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"}],"sub_title":"Teaching positions","text":"Chair, Department of English, College of the Holy Cross, 2001-2005\nProfessor of English, Holy Cross, 1988–present: composition, rhetoric, American Literature\nDirector, English Honors Program, 1999-2000\nDirector, College Honors Program, 1994-1998\nDirector, Writing Programs, 1981-1994 (Writer's Workshop and Writing-across-the-Curriculum Program)\nAssociate Professor, Holy Cross, 1981-1988\nAssistant Professor, Holy Cross, 1978–81\nAssistant Professor, Rutgers University, 1975–78, and Director, Remedial Writing Program, 1975–77, and Teacher Training Program, 1977–78","title":"Professional experience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rhetoric Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric_Society_of_America"},{"link_name":"Alliance of Rhetoric Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alliance_of_Rhetoric_Societies&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Professional affiliations and activities","text":"President, Rhetoric Society of America, 2004-2006\nProgram Chair, RSA 2004 biennial national conference\nPresident, Board of Directors, Alliance of Rhetoric Societies, 2006 (ARS)","title":"Professional experience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hebrew College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_College"}],"sub_title":"Academic background","text":"Ph.D. in English Literature, Rutgers University, 1975.\nB.A. summa cum laude, Wellesley College, 1970.\nEnrolled in the M.J.L.S. (Masters, Jewish Liberal Studies) program at Hebrew College","title":"Professional experience"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Council of Teachers of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Teachers_of_English"}],"text":"Winner, National Council of Teachers of English Outstanding Book Award, 1992, for The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present (co-authored with Bruce Herzberg).\nWinner, National Council of Writing Program Administrators Best Book Award, 2000, for Coming of Age: The Advanced Writing Curriculum, eds. Linda Shamoon, Sandra Jamieson, Rebecca Howard, and Robert Schwegler, which included Bizzell's essay \"Writing as a Means of Social Change\".","title":"Prizes and external grants received"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/academicdiscours0000bizz"},{"link_name":"295","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/academicdiscours0000bizz/page/295"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8229-5485-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8229-5485-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-06846-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-06846-8"},{"link_name":"Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, The","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/rhetoricaltradit0000unse/page/1673"},{"link_name":"1673","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/rhetoricaltradit0000unse/page/1673"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-14839-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-14839-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86709-516-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86709-516-4"},{"link_name":"The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bedfordbibliogra00reyn/page/275"},{"link_name":"275","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bedfordbibliogra00reyn/page/275"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-40501-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-40501-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8058-5311-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-5311-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-45814-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-45814-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-46336-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-46336-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-46021-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-46021-X"}],"text":"Bizzell, Patricia (1992). Academic Discourse and Critical Consciousness. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 295. ISBN 0-8229-5485-0.\nBizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (1995). Negotiating Difference: Readings in Multicultural American Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 963. ISBN 0-312-06846-8. (Alternate title: Negotiating Difference: Cultural Case Studies for Composition)\nBizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2001). Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, The (2nd ed.; 1st ed. 1990 ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 1673. ISBN 0-312-14839-9.\nBizzell, Patricia; Schroeder, Christopher; Fox, Helen, eds. (2002). ALT DIS: Alternative Discourses and the Academy. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann-Boynton/Cook. p. 224. ISBN 0-86709-516-4.\nBizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Reynolds, Nedra (2003). The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing (6th ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-312-40501-4.\nBizzell, Patricia, ed. (2005). Rhetorical Agendas: Political, Ethical, Spiritual [Proceedings of the 2004 Rhetoric Society of America Conference]. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 400. ISBN 0-8058-5311-1.\nBizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Hacker, Diana (2005). Negotiating Difference & Pocket Style Manual 4e (Package ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-45814-2.\nBizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce; Barnet, Sylvan; Badau, Hugo (2006). Rhetorical Tradition 2e & From Critical Thinking to Argument (Package ed.). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-46336-7.\nBizzell, Patricia; Lunsford, Andrea A.; Herzberg, Bruce (2006). St. Martin's Handbook 5e with 2003 MLA Update & Exercises CD-ROM & Negotiating Difference (Hardcover). Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-46021-X.","title":"Books published"}]
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[]
| null |
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College Composition and Communication. 37 (3): 294–301. doi:10.2307/358046. JSTOR 358046.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/358046","url_text":"\"What Happens When Basic Writers Come to College?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F358046","url_text":"10.2307/358046"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/358046","url_text":"358046"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_paradox
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Twin paradox
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["1 History","2 Specific example","2.1 Earth perspective","2.2 Travellers' perspective","2.3 Conclusion","3 Resolution of the paradox in special relativity","3.1 Role of acceleration","3.2 Relativity of simultaneity","4 A non-spacetime approach","5 The equivalence of biological aging and clock time-keeping","6 What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift","6.1 The asymmetry in the Doppler shifted images","7 Calculation of elapsed time from the Doppler diagram","7.1 The distinction between what they see and what they calculate","7.2 Simultaneity in the Doppler shift calculation","8 Viewpoint of the traveling twin","9 Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths","10 Difference in elapsed times: how to calculate it from the ship","11 A rotational version","12 No twin paradox in an absolute frame of reference","13 See also","14 Primary sources","15 Secondary sources","16 Further reading","17 External links"]
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Thought experiment in special relativity
"Clock problem" redirects here. For mathematical problems involving the positions of the hands on a clock face, see Clock angle problem.
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{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }}
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In physics, the twin paradox is a thought experiment in special relativity involving identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has aged more. This result appears puzzling because each twin sees the other twin as moving, and so, as a consequence of an incorrect and naive application of time dilation and the principle of relativity, each should paradoxically find the other to have aged less. However, this scenario can be resolved within the standard framework of special relativity: the travelling twin's trajectory involves two different inertial frames, one for the outbound journey and one for the inbound journey. Another way of looking at it is to realize the travelling twin is undergoing acceleration, which makes them a non-inertial observer. In both views there is no symmetry between the spacetime paths of the twins. Therefore, the twin paradox is not actually a paradox in the sense of a logical contradiction. There is still debate as to the resolution of the twin paradox.
Starting with Paul Langevin in 1911, there have been various explanations of this paradox. These explanations "can be grouped into those that focus on the effect of different standards of simultaneity in different frames, and those that designate the acceleration as the main reason". Max von Laue argued in 1913 that since the traveling twin must be in two separate inertial frames, one on the way out and another on the way back, this frame switch is the reason for the aging difference. Explanations put forth by Albert Einstein and Max Born invoked gravitational time dilation to explain the aging as a direct effect of acceleration. However, it has been proven that neither general relativity, nor even acceleration, are necessary to explain the effect, as the effect still applies if two astronauts pass each other at the turnaround point and synchronize their clocks at that point. The situation at the turnaround point can be thought of as where a pair of observers, one travelling away from the starting point and another travelling toward it, pass by each other, and where the clock reading of the first observer is transferred to that of the second one, both maintaining constant speed, with both trip times being added at the end of their journey.
History
Further information: History of special relativity § Time dilation and twin paradox
In his famous paper on special relativity in 1905, Albert Einstein deduced that for two stationary and synchronous clocks that are placed at points A and B, if the clock at A is moved along the line AB and stops at B, the clock that moved from A would lag behind the clock at B. He stated that this result would also apply if the path from A to B was polygonal or circular. Einstein considered this to be a natural consequence of special relativity, not a paradox as some suggested, and in 1911, he restated and elaborated on this result as follows (with physicist Robert Resnick's comments following Einstein's):
Einstein: If we placed a living organism in a box ... one could arrange that the organism, after any arbitrary lengthy flight, could be returned to its original spot in a scarcely altered condition, while corresponding organisms which had remained in their original positions had already long since given way to new generations. For the moving organism, the lengthy time of the journey was a mere instant, provided the motion took place with approximately the speed of light.
Resnick: If the stationary organism is a man and the traveling one is his twin, then the traveler returns home to find his twin brother much aged compared to himself. The paradox centers on the contention that, in relativity, either twin could regard the other as the traveler, in which case each should find the other younger—a logical contradiction. This contention assumes that the twins' situations are symmetrical and interchangeable, an assumption that is not correct. Furthermore, the accessible experiments have been done and support Einstein's prediction.
In 1911, Paul Langevin gave a "striking example" by describing the story of a traveler making a trip at a Lorentz factor of γ = 100 (99.995% the speed of light). The traveler remains in a projectile for one year of his time, and then reverses direction. Upon return, the traveler will find that he has aged two years, while 200 years have passed on Earth. During the trip, both the traveler and Earth keep sending signals to each other at a constant rate, which places Langevin's story among the Doppler shift versions of the twin paradox. The relativistic effects upon the signal rates are used to account for the different aging rates. The asymmetry that occurred because only the traveler underwent acceleration is used to explain why there is any difference at all, because "any change of velocity, or any acceleration has an absolute meaning".
Max von Laue (1911, 1913) elaborated on Langevin's explanation. Using Hermann Minkowski's spacetime formalism, Laue went on to demonstrate that the world lines of the inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events. He also wrote that the asymmetric aging is completely accounted for by the fact that the astronaut twin travels in two separate frames, while the Earth twin remains in one frame, and the time of acceleration can be made arbitrarily small compared with the time of inertial motion. Eventually, Lord Halsbury and others removed any acceleration by introducing the "three-brother" approach. The traveling twin transfers his clock reading to a third one, traveling in the opposite direction. Another way of avoiding acceleration effects is the use of the relativistic Doppler effect (see § What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift below).
Neither Einstein nor Langevin considered such results to be problematic: Einstein only called it "peculiar" while Langevin presented it as a consequence of absolute acceleration. Both men argued that, from the time differential illustrated by the story of the twins, no self-contradiction could be constructed. In other words, neither Einstein nor Langevin saw the story of the twins as constituting a challenge to the self-consistency of relativistic physics.
Specific example
Consider a space ship traveling from Earth to the nearest star system: a distance d = 4 light years away, at a speed v = 0.8c (i.e., 80% of the speed of light).
To make the numbers easy, the ship is assumed to attain full speed in a negligible time upon departure (even though it would actually take about 9 months accelerating at 1 g to get up to speed). Similarly, at the end of the outgoing trip, the change in direction needed to start the return trip is assumed to occur in a negligible time. This can also be modelled by assuming that the ship is already in motion at the beginning of the experiment and that the return event is modelled by a Dirac delta distribution acceleration.
The parties will observe the situation as follows:
Earth perspective
The Earth-based mission control reasons about the journey this way: the round trip will take t = 2d/v = 10 years in Earth time (i.e. everybody who stays on Earth will be 10 years older when the ship returns). The amount of time as measured on the ship's clocks and the aging of the travelers during their trip will be reduced by the factor
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{\displaystyle \alpha =\scriptstyle {\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}
, the reciprocal of the Lorentz factor (time dilation). In this case α = 0.6 and the travelers will have aged only 0.6 × 10 = 6 years when they return.
Travellers' perspective
The ship's crew members also calculate the particulars of their trip from their perspective. They know that the distant star system and the Earth are moving relative to the ship at speed v during the trip. In their rest frame the distance between the Earth and the star system is α d = 0.6 × 4 = 2.4 light years (length contraction), for both the outward and return journeys. Each half of the journey takes α d / v = 2.4 / 0.8 = 3 years, and the round trip takes twice as long (6 years). Their calculations show that they will arrive home having aged 6 years. The travelers' final calculation about their aging is in complete agreement with the calculations of those on Earth, though they experience the trip quite differently from those who stay at home.
Conclusion
Readings on Earth's and spaceship's clocks
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No matter what method they use to predict the clock readings, everybody will agree about them. If twins are born on the day the ship leaves, and one goes on the journey while the other stays on Earth, they will meet again when the traveler is 6 years old and the stay-at-home twin is 10 years old.
Resolution of the paradox in special relativity
The paradoxical aspect of the twins' situation arises from the fact that at any given moment the travelling twin's clock is running slow in the earthbound twin's inertial frame, but based on the relativity principle one could equally argue that the earthbound twin's clock is running slow in the travelling twin's inertial frame. One proposed resolution is based on the fact that the earthbound twin is at rest in the same inertial frame throughout the journey, while the travelling twin is not: in the simplest version of the thought-experiment, the travelling twin switches at the midpoint of the trip from being at rest in an inertial frame which moves in one direction (away from the Earth) to being at rest in an inertial frame which moves in the opposite direction (towards the Earth). In this approach, determining which observer switches frames and which does not is crucial. Although both twins can legitimately claim that they are at rest in their own frame, only the traveling twin experiences acceleration when the spaceship engines are turned on. This acceleration, measurable with an accelerometer, makes his rest frame temporarily non-inertial. This reveals a crucial asymmetry between the twins' perspectives: although we can predict the aging difference from both perspectives, we need to use different methods to obtain correct results.
Role of acceleration
Although some solutions attribute a crucial role to the acceleration of the travelling twin at the time of the turnaround, others note that the effect also arises if one imagines two separate travellers, one outward-going and one inward-coming, who pass each other and synchronize their clocks at the point corresponding to "turnaround" of a single traveller. In this version, physical acceleration of the travelling clock plays no direct role; "the issue is how long the world-lines are, not how bent". The length referred to here is the Lorentz-invariant length or "proper time interval" of a trajectory which corresponds to the elapsed time measured by a clock following that trajectory (see Section Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths below). In Minkowski spacetime, the travelling twin must feel a different history of accelerations from the earthbound twin, even if this just means accelerations of the same size separated by different amounts of time, however "even this role for acceleration can be eliminated in formulations of the twin paradox in curved spacetime, where the twins can fall freely along space-time geodesics between meetings".
Relativity of simultaneity
Minkowski diagram of the twin paradox. There is a difference between the trajectories of the twins: the trajectory of the ship is equally divided between two different inertial frames, while the Earth-based twin stays in the same inertial frame.
For a moment-by-moment understanding of how the time difference between the twins unfolds, one must understand that in special relativity there is no concept of absolute present. For different inertial frames there are different sets of events that are simultaneous in that frame. This relativity of simultaneity means that switching from one inertial frame to another requires an adjustment in what slice through spacetime counts as the "present". In the spacetime diagram on the right, drawn for the reference frame of the Earth-based twin, that twin's world line coincides with the vertical axis (his position is constant in space, moving only in time). On the first leg of the trip, the second twin moves to the right (black sloped line); and on the second leg, back to the left. Blue lines show the planes of simultaneity for the traveling twin during the first leg of the journey; red lines, during the second leg. Just before turnaround, the traveling twin calculates the age of the Earth-based twin by measuring the interval along the vertical axis from the origin to the upper blue line. Just after turnaround, if he recalculates, he will measure the interval from the origin to the lower red line. In a sense, during the U-turn the plane of simultaneity jumps from blue to red and very quickly sweeps over a large segment of the world line of the Earth-based twin. When one transfers from the outgoing inertial frame to the incoming inertial frame there is a jump discontinuity in the age of the Earth-based twin (6.4 years in the example above).
A non-spacetime approach
As mentioned above, an "out and back" twin paradox adventure may incorporate the transfer of clock reading from an "outgoing" astronaut to an "incoming" astronaut, thus eliminating the effect of acceleration. Also, the physical acceleration of clocks does not contribute to the kinematical effects of special relativity. Rather, in special relativity, the time differential between two reunited clocks is produced purely by uniform inertial motion, as discussed in Einstein's original 1905 relativity paper, as well as in all subsequent kinematical derivations of the Lorentz transformations.
Because spacetime diagrams incorporate Einstein's clock synchronization (with its lattice of clocks methodology), there will be a requisite jump in the reading of the Earth clock time made by a "suddenly returning astronaut" who inherits a "new meaning of simultaneity" in keeping with a new clock synchronization dictated by the transfer to a different inertial frame, as explained in Spacetime Physics by John A. Wheeler.
If, instead of incorporating Einstein's clock synchronization (lattice of clocks), the astronaut (outgoing and incoming) and the Earth-based party regularly update each other on the status of their clocks by way of sending radio signals (which travel at light speed), then all parties will note an incremental buildup of asymmetry in time-keeping, beginning at the "turn around" point. Prior to the "turn around", each party regards the other party's clock to be recording time differently from his own, but the noted difference is symmetrical between the two parties. After the "turn around", the noted differences are not symmetrical, and the asymmetry grows incrementally until the two parties are reunited. Upon finally reuniting, this asymmetry can be seen in the actual difference showing on the two reunited clocks.
The equivalence of biological aging and clock time-keeping
All processes—chemical, biological, measuring apparatus functioning, human perception involving the eye and brain, the communication of force—are constrained by the speed of light. There is clock functioning at every level, dependent on light speed and the inherent delay at even the atomic level. Biological aging, therefore, is in no way different from clock time-keeping. This means that biological aging would be slowed in the same manner as a clock.
What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift
In view of the frame-dependence of simultaneity for events at different locations in space, some treatments prefer a more phenomenological approach, describing what the twins would observe if each sent out a series of regular radio pulses, equally spaced in time according to the emitter's clock. This is equivalent to asking, if each twin sent a video feed of themselves to each other, what do they see in their screens? Or, if each twin always carried a clock indicating his age, what time would each see in the image of their distant twin and his clock?
Shortly after departure, the traveling twin sees the stay-at-home twin with no time delay. At arrival, the image in the ship screen shows the staying twin as he was 1 year after launch, because radio emitted from Earth 1 year after launch gets to the other star 4 years afterwards and meets the ship there. During this leg of the trip, the traveling twin sees his own clock advance 3 years and the clock in the screen advance 1 year, so it seems to advance at 1⁄3 the normal rate, just 20 image seconds per ship minute. This combines the effects of time dilation due to motion (by factor ε = 0.6, five years on Earth are 3 years on ship) and the effect of increasing light-time-delay (which grows from 0 to 4 years).
Of course, the observed frequency of the transmission is also 1⁄3 the frequency of the transmitter (a reduction in frequency; "red-shifted"). This is called the relativistic Doppler effect. The frequency of clock-ticks (or of wavefronts) which one sees from a source with rest frequency frest is
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s
=
f
r
e
s
t
(
1
−
v
/
c
)
/
(
1
+
v
/
c
)
{\displaystyle f_{\mathrm {obs} }=f_{\mathrm {rest} }{\sqrt {\left({1-v/c}\right)/\left({1+v/c}\right)}}}
when the source is moving directly away. This is fobs = 1⁄3frest for v/c = 0.8.
As for the stay-at-home twin, he gets a slowed signal from the ship for 9 years, at a frequency 1⁄3 the transmitter frequency. During these 9 years, the clock of the traveling twin in the screen seems to advance 3 years, so both twins see the image of their sibling aging at a rate only 1⁄3 their own rate. Expressed in other way, they would both see the other's clock run at 1⁄3 their own clock speed. If they factor out of the calculation the fact that the light-time delay of the transmission is increasing at a rate of 0.8 seconds per second, both can work out that the other twin is aging slower, at 60% rate.
Then the ship turns back toward home. The clock of the staying twin shows "1 year after launch" in the screen of the ship, and during the 3 years of the trip back it increases up to "10 years after launch", so the clock in the screen seems to be advancing 3 times faster than usual.
When the source is moving towards the observer, the observed frequency is higher ("blue-shifted") and given by
f
o
b
s
=
f
r
e
s
t
(
1
+
v
/
c
)
/
(
1
−
v
/
c
)
{\displaystyle f_{\mathrm {obs} }=f_{\mathrm {rest} }{\sqrt {\left({1+v/c}\right)/\left({1-v/c}\right)}}}
This is fobs = 3frest for v/c = 0.8.
As for the screen on Earth, it shows that trip back beginning 9 years after launch, and the traveling clock in the screen shows that 3 years have passed on the ship. One year later, the ship is back home and the clock shows 6 years. So, during the trip back, both twins see their sibling's clock going 3 times faster than their own. Factoring out the fact that the light-time-delay is decreasing by 0.8 seconds every second, each twin calculates that the other twin is aging at 60% his own aging speed.
Light paths for images exchanged during tripLeft: Earth to ship. Right: Ship to Earth. Red lines indicate low frequency images are received, blue lines indicate high frequency images are received
The x–t (space–time) diagrams at left show the paths of light signals traveling between Earth and ship (1st diagram) and between ship and Earth (2nd diagram). These signals carry the images of each twin and his age-clock to the other twin. The vertical black line is the Earth's path through spacetime and the other two sides of the triangle show the ship's path through spacetime (as in the Minkowski diagram above). As far as the sender is concerned, he transmits these at equal intervals (say, once an hour) according to his own clock; but according to the clock of the twin receiving these signals, they are not being received at equal intervals.
After the ship has reached its cruising speed of 0.8c, each twin would see 1 second pass in the received image of the other twin for every 3 seconds of his own time. That is, each would see the image of the other's clock going slow, not just slow by the ε factor 0.6, but even slower because light-time-delay is increasing 0.8 seconds per second. This is shown in the figures by red light paths. At some point, the images received by each twin change so that each would see 3 seconds pass in the image for every second of his own time. That is, the received signal has been increased in frequency by the Doppler shift. These high frequency images are shown in the figures by blue light paths.
The asymmetry in the Doppler shifted images
The asymmetry between the Earth and the space ship is manifested in this diagram by the fact that more blue-shifted (fast aging) images are received by the ship. Put another way, the space ship sees the image change from a red-shift (slower aging of the image) to a blue-shift (faster aging of the image) at the midpoint of its trip (at the turnaround, 3 years after departure); the Earth sees the image of the ship change from red-shift to blue shift after 9 years (almost at the end of the period that the ship is absent). In the next section, one will see another asymmetry in the images: the Earth twin sees the ship twin age by the same amount in the red and blue shifted images; the ship twin sees the Earth twin age by different amounts in the red and blue shifted images.
Calculation of elapsed time from the Doppler diagram
The twin on the ship sees low frequency (red) images for 3 years. During that time, he would see the Earth twin in the image grow older by 3/3 = 1 year. He then sees high frequency (blue) images during the back trip of 3 years. During that time, he would see the Earth twin in the image grow older by 3 × 3 = 9 years. When the journey is finished, the image of the Earth twin has aged by 1 + 9 = 10 years.
The Earth twin sees 9 years of slow (red) images of the ship twin, during which the ship twin ages (in the image) by 9/3 = 3 years. He then sees fast (blue) images for the remaining 1 year until the ship returns. In the fast images, the ship twin ages by 1 × 3 = 3 years. The total aging of the ship twin in the images received by Earth is 3 + 3 = 6 years, so the ship twin returns younger (6 years as opposed to 10 years on Earth).
The distinction between what they see and what they calculate
To avoid confusion, note the distinction between what each twin sees and what each would calculate. Each sees an image of his twin which he knows originated at a previous time and which he knows is Doppler shifted. He does not take the elapsed time in the image as the age of his twin now.
If he wants to calculate when his twin was the age shown in the image (i.e. how old he himself was then), he has to determine how far away his twin was when the signal was emitted—in other words, he has to consider simultaneity for a distant event.
If he wants to calculate how fast his twin was aging when the image was transmitted, he adjusts for the Doppler shift. For example, when he receives high frequency images (showing his twin aging rapidly) with frequency
f
r
e
s
t
(
1
+
v
/
c
)
/
(
1
−
v
/
c
)
{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {f_{\mathrm {rest} }{\sqrt {\left({1+v/c}\right)/\left({1-v/c}\right)}}}}
, he does not conclude that the twin was aging that rapidly when the image was generated, any more than he concludes that the siren of an ambulance is emitting the frequency he hears. He knows that the Doppler effect has increased the image frequency by the factor 1 / (1 − v/c). Therefore, he calculates that his twin was aging at the rate of
f
r
e
s
t
(
1
+
v
/
c
)
/
(
1
−
v
/
c
)
×
(
1
−
v
/
c
)
=
f
r
e
s
t
1
−
v
2
/
c
2
≡
ϵ
f
r
e
s
t
{\displaystyle f_{\mathrm {rest} }{\sqrt {\left({1+v/c}\right)/\left({1-v/c}\right)}}\times \left(1-v/c\right)=f_{\mathrm {rest} }{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\equiv \epsilon f_{\mathrm {rest} }}
when the image was emitted. A similar calculation reveals that his twin was aging at the same reduced rate of εfrest in all low frequency images.
Simultaneity in the Doppler shift calculation
It may be difficult to see where simultaneity came into the Doppler shift calculation, and indeed the calculation is often preferred because one does not have to worry about simultaneity. As seen above, the ship twin can convert his received Doppler-shifted rate to a slower rate of the clock of the distant clock for both red and blue images. If he ignores simultaneity, he might say his twin was aging at the reduced rate throughout the journey and therefore should be younger than he is. He is now back to square one, and has to take into account the change in his notion of simultaneity at the turnaround. The rate he can calculate for the image (corrected for Doppler effect) is the rate of the Earth twin's clock at the moment it was sent, not at the moment it was received. Since he receives an unequal number of red and blue shifted images, he should realize that the red and blue shifted emissions were not emitted over equal time periods for the Earth twin, and therefore he must account for simultaneity at a distance.
Viewpoint of the traveling twin
During the turnaround, the traveling twin is in an accelerated reference frame. According to the equivalence principle, the traveling twin may analyze the turnaround phase as if the stay-at-home twin were freely falling in a gravitational field and as if the traveling twin were stationary. A 1918 paper by Einstein presents a conceptual sketch of the idea. From the viewpoint of the traveler, a calculation for each separate leg, ignoring the turnaround, leads to a result in which the Earth clocks age less than the traveler. For example, if the Earth clocks age 1 day less on each leg, the amount that the Earth clocks will lag behind amounts to 2 days. The physical description of what happens at turnaround has to produce a contrary effect of double that amount: 4 days' advancing of the Earth clocks. Then the traveler's clock will end up with a net 2-day delay on the Earth clocks, in agreement with calculations done in the frame of the stay-at-home twin.
The mechanism for the advancing of the stay-at-home twin's clock is gravitational time dilation. When an observer finds that inertially moving objects are being accelerated with respect to themselves, those objects are in a gravitational field insofar as relativity is concerned. For the traveling twin at turnaround, this gravitational field fills the universe. In a weak field approximation, clocks tick at a rate of t' = t (1 + Φ / c2) where Φ is the difference in gravitational potential. In this case, Φ = gh where g is the acceleration of the traveling observer during turnaround and h is the distance to the stay-at-home twin. The rocket is firing towards the stay-at-home twin, thereby placing that twin at a higher gravitational potential. Due to the large distance between the twins, the stay-at-home twin's clocks will appear to be sped up enough to account for the difference in proper times experienced by the twins. It is no accident that this speed-up is enough to account for the simultaneity shift described above. The general relativity solution for a static homogeneous gravitational field and the special relativity solution for finite acceleration produce identical results.
Other calculations have been done for the traveling twin (or for any observer who sometimes accelerates), which do not involve the equivalence principle, and which do not involve any gravitational fields. Such calculations are based only on the special theory, not the general theory, of relativity. One approach calculates surfaces of simultaneity by considering light pulses, in accordance with Hermann Bondi's idea of the k-calculus. A second approach calculates a straightforward but technically complicated integral to determine how the traveling twin measures the elapsed time on the stay-at-home clock. An outline of this second approach is given in a separate section below.
Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths
Further information: Hyperbolic motion (relativity)
Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of coordinate time T and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, T=2); Phase 2 (a=0, T=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2T=4); Phase 5 (a=0, T=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, T=2). The twins meet at T=12 and τ=9.33. The blue numbers indicate the coordinate time T in the inertial frame of the stay-at-home-twin, the red numbers the proper time τ of the rocket-twin, and "a" is the proper acceleration. The thin red lines represent lines of simultaneity in terms of the different momentary inertial frames of the rocket-twin. The points marked by blue numbers 2, 4, 8 and 10 indicate the times when the acceleration changes direction.
The following paragraph shows several things:
how to employ a precise mathematical approach in calculating the differences in the elapsed time
how to prove exactly the dependency of the elapsed time on the different paths taken through spacetime by the twins
how to quantify the differences in elapsed time
how to calculate proper time as a function (integral) of coordinate time
Let clock K be associated with the "stay at home twin".
Let clock K' be associated with the rocket that makes the trip.
At the departure event both clocks are set to 0.
Phase 1: Rocket (with clock K') embarks with constant proper acceleration a during a time Ta as measured by clock K until it reaches some velocity V.
Phase 2: Rocket keeps coasting at velocity V during some time Tc according to clock K.
Phase 3: Rocket fires its engines in the opposite direction of K during a time Ta according to clock K until it is at rest with respect to clock K. The constant proper acceleration has the value −a, in other words the rocket is decelerating.
Phase 4: Rocket keeps firing its engines in the opposite direction of K, during the same time Ta according to clock K, until K' regains the same speed V with respect to K, but now towards K (with velocity −V).
Phase 5: Rocket keeps coasting towards K at speed V during the same time Tc according to clock K.
Phase 6: Rocket again fires its engines in the direction of K, so it decelerates with a constant proper acceleration a during a time Ta, still according to clock K, until both clocks reunite.
Knowing that the clock K remains inertial (stationary), the total accumulated proper time Δτ of clock K' will be given by the integral function of coordinate time Δt
Δ
τ
=
∫
1
−
(
v
(
t
)
/
c
)
2
d
t
{\displaystyle \Delta \tau =\int {\sqrt {1-(v(t)/c)^{2}}}\ dt\ }
where v(t) is the coordinate velocity of clock K' as a function of t according to clock K, and, e.g. during phase 1, given by
v
(
t
)
=
a
t
1
+
(
a
t
c
)
2
.
{\displaystyle v(t)={\frac {at}{\sqrt {1+\left({\frac {at}{c}}\right)^{2}}}}.}
This integral can be calculated for the 6 phases:
Phase 1
:
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle :\quad c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)\,}
Phase 2
:
T
c
1
−
V
2
/
c
2
{\displaystyle :\quad T_{c}\ {\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}
Phase 3
:
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle :\quad c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)\,}
Phase 4
:
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle :\quad c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)\,}
Phase 5
:
T
c
1
−
V
2
/
c
2
{\displaystyle :\quad T_{c}\ {\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}
Phase 6
:
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle :\quad c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)\,}
where a is the proper acceleration, felt by clock K' during the acceleration phase(s) and where the following relations hold between V, a and Ta:
V
=
a
T
a
/
1
+
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
2
{\displaystyle V=a\ T_{a}/{\sqrt {1+(a\ T_{a}/c)^{2}}}}
a
T
a
=
V
/
1
−
V
2
/
c
2
{\displaystyle a\ T_{a}=V/{\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}
So the traveling clock K' will show an elapsed time of
Δ
τ
=
2
T
c
1
−
V
2
/
c
2
+
4
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle \Delta \tau =2T_{c}{\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}+4c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)}
which can be expressed as
Δ
τ
=
2
T
c
/
1
+
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
2
+
4
c
/
a
arsinh
(
a
T
a
/
c
)
{\displaystyle \Delta \tau =2T_{c}/{\sqrt {1+(a\ T_{a}/c)^{2}}}+4c/a\ {\text{arsinh}}(a\ T_{a}/c)}
whereas the stationary clock K shows an elapsed time of
Δ
t
=
2
T
c
+
4
T
a
{\displaystyle \Delta t=2T_{c}+4T_{a}\,}
which is, for every possible value of a, Ta, Tc and V, larger than the reading of clock K':
Δ
t
>
Δ
τ
{\displaystyle \Delta t>\Delta \tau \,}
Difference in elapsed times: how to calculate it from the ship
Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of proper time τ and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, τ=2); Phase 2 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2τ=4); Phase 5 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, τ=2). The twins meet at T=17.3 and τ=12.
In the standard proper time formula
Δ
τ
=
∫
0
Δ
t
1
−
(
v
(
t
)
c
)
2
d
t
,
{\displaystyle \Delta \tau =\int _{0}^{\Delta t}{\sqrt {1-\left({\frac {v(t)}{c}}\right)^{2}}}\ dt,\ }
Δτ represents the time of the non-inertial (travelling) observer K' as a function of the elapsed time Δt of the inertial (stay-at-home) observer K for whom observer K' has velocity v(t) at time t.
To calculate the elapsed time Δt of the inertial observer K as a function of the elapsed time Δτ of the non-inertial observer K', where only quantities measured by K' are accessible, the following formula can be used:
Δ
t
2
=
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
]
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
−
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
]
,
{\displaystyle \Delta t^{2}=\left\,\left,\ }
where a(τ) is the proper acceleration of the non-inertial observer K' as measured by himself (for instance with an accelerometer) during the whole round-trip. The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality can be used to show that the inequality Δt > Δτ follows from the previous expression:
Δ
t
2
=
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
]
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
−
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
]
>
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
e
−
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
]
2
=
[
∫
0
Δ
τ
d
τ
¯
]
2
=
Δ
τ
2
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Delta t^{2}&=\left\,\left\\&>\left^{2}=\left^{2}=\Delta \tau ^{2}.\end{aligned}}}
Using the Dirac delta function to model the infinite acceleration phase in the standard case of the traveller having constant speed v during the outbound and the inbound trip, the formula produces the known result:
Δ
t
=
1
1
−
v
2
c
2
Δ
τ
.
{\displaystyle \Delta t={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\tfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\Delta \tau .\ }
In the case where the accelerated observer K' departs from K with zero initial velocity, the general equation reduces to the simpler form:
Δ
t
=
∫
0
Δ
τ
e
±
∫
0
τ
¯
a
(
τ
′
)
d
τ
′
d
τ
¯
,
{\displaystyle \Delta t=\int _{0}^{\Delta \tau }e^{\pm \int _{0}^{\bar {\tau }}a(\tau ')d\tau '}\,d{\bar {\tau }},\ }
which, in the smooth version of the twin paradox where the traveller has constant proper acceleration phases, successively given by a, −a, −a, a, results in
Δ
t
=
4
a
sinh
(
a
4
Δ
τ
)
{\displaystyle \Delta t={\tfrac {4}{a}}\sinh({\tfrac {a}{4}}\Delta \tau )\ }
where the convention c = 1 is used, in accordance with the above expression with acceleration phases Ta = Δt/4 and inertial (coasting) phases Tc = 0.
A rotational version
Twins Bob and Alice inhabit a space station in circular orbit around a massive body in space. Bob suits up and exits the station. While Alice remains inside the station, continuing to orbit with it as before, Bob uses a rocket propulsion system to cease orbiting and hover where he was. When the station completes an orbit and returns to Bob, he rejoins Alice. Alice is now younger than Bob. In addition to rotational acceleration, Bob must decelerate to become stationary and then accelerate again to match the orbital speed of the space station.
No twin paradox in an absolute frame of reference
Einstein's conclusion of an actual difference in registered clock times (or aging) between reunited parties caused Paul Langevin to posit an actual, albeit experimentally indiscernible, absolute frame of reference:
In 1911, Langevin wrote: "A uniform translation in the aether has no experimental sense. But because of this it should not be concluded, as has sometimes happened prematurely, that the concept of aether must be abandoned, that the aether is non-existent and inaccessible to experiment. Only a uniform velocity relative to it cannot be detected, but any change of velocity ... has an absolute sense."
In 1913, Henri Poincaré's posthumous Last Essays were published and there he had restated his position: "Today some physicists want to adopt a new convention. It is not that they are constrained to do so; they consider this new convention more convenient; that is all. And those who are not of this opinion can legitimately retain the old one."
In the relativity of Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz, which assumes an absolute (though experimentally indiscernible) frame of reference, no paradox arises due to the fact that clock slowing (along with length contraction and velocity) is regarded as an actuality, hence the actual time differential between the reunited clocks.
In that interpretation, a party at rest with the totality of the cosmos (at rest with the barycenter of the universe, or at rest with a possible ether) would have the maximum rate of time-keeping and have non-contracted length. All the effects of Einstein's special relativity (consistent light-speed measure, as well as symmetrically measured clock-slowing and length-contraction across inertial frames) fall into place.
That interpretation of relativity, which John A. Wheeler calls "ether theory B (length contraction plus time contraction)", did not gain as much traction as Einstein's, which simply disregarded any deeper reality behind the symmetrical measurements across inertial frames. There is no physical test which distinguishes one interpretation from the other.
In 2005, Robert B. Laughlin (Physics Nobel Laureate, Stanford University), wrote about the nature of space: "It is ironic that Einstein's most creative work, the general theory of relativity, should boil down to conceptualizing space as a medium when his original premise was that no such medium existed ... The word 'ether' has extremely negative connotations in theoretical physics because of its past association with opposition to relativity. This is unfortunate because, stripped of these connotations, it rather nicely captures the way most physicists actually think about the vacuum. ... Relativity actually says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of matter pervading the universe, only that any such matter must have relativistic symmetry (i.e., as measured)."
In Special Relativity (1968), A. P. French wrote: "Note, though, that we are appealing to the reality of A's acceleration, and to the observability of the inertial forces associated with it. Would such effects as the twin paradox (specifically -- the time keeping differential between reunited clocks) exist if the framework of fixed stars and distant galaxies were not there? Most physicists would say no. Our ultimate definition of an inertial frame may indeed be that it is a frame having zero acceleration with respect to the matter of the universe at large."
See also
Bell's spaceship paradox
Clock hypothesis
Ehrenfest paradox
Herbert Dingle
Ladder paradox
List of paradoxes
Supplee's paradox
Time dilation
Time for the Stars
Primary sources
^ Einstein, Albert (1905). "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Annalen der Physik. 17 (10): 891 (end of §4). Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.
^ Einstein, Albert (1911). "Die Relativitäts-Theorie". Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift. 56: 1–14.
^ Langevin, P. (1911), "The evolution of space and time", Scientia, X: 31–54 (translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973 from the original French: "L'évolution de l'espace et du temps").
^ von Laue, Max (1911). "Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung (Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation)". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 13: 118–120.
^ von Laue, Max (1913). Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity) (2 ed.). Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 298055497.
^ von Laue, Max (1913). "Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity)". Jahrbücher der Philosophie. 1: 99–128.
^ "We are going to see this absolute character of the acceleration manifest itself in another form." ("Nous allons voir se manifester sous une autre forme ce caractère absolu de l'accélération."), page 82 of Langevin1911
^ Einstein, A. (1918) "dialog about objections against the theory of relativity", Die Naturwissenschaften 48, pp. 697–702, 29 November 1918
Secondary sources
^ Crowell, Benjamin (2000). The Modern Revolution in Physics (illustrated ed.). Light and Matter. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-9704670-6-5. Extract of page 23
^ Serway, Raymond A.; Moses, Clement J.; Moyer, Curt A. (2004). Modern Physics (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-111-79437-8. Extract of page 21
^ D'Auria, Riccardo; Trigiante, Mario (2011). From Special Relativity to Feynman Diagrams: A Course of Theoretical Particle Physics for Beginners (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 541. ISBN 978-88-470-1504-3. Extract of page 541
^ Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (2013). Gravitation and Spacetime (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-139-61954-7. Extract of page 176
^ Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (2005). Foundations of Modern Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-853096-1. Extract of page 203
^ P. Mohazzabi, Q. Luo; J. of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 2021, 9, 2187-2192
^ a b Debs, Talal A.; Redhead, Michael L.G. (1996). "The twin "paradox" and the conventionality of simultaneity". American Journal of Physics. 64 (4): 384–392. Bibcode:1996AmJPh..64..384D. doi:10.1119/1.18252.
^ Miller, Arthur I. (1981). Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911). Reading: Addison–Wesley. pp. 257–264. ISBN 0-201-04679-2.
^ Max Jammer (2006). Concepts of Simultaneity: From Antiquity to Einstein and Beyond. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-8018-8422-5.
^ Schutz, Bernard (2003). Gravity from the Ground Up: An Introductory Guide to Gravity and General Relativity (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0.Extract of page 207
^ Baez, John (1996). "Can Special Relativity Handle Acceleration?". Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "How does relativity theory resolve the Twin Paradox?". Scientific American.
^ David Halliday et al., The Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley and Sons, 1997
^ Paul Davies About Time, Touchstone 1995, ppf 59.
^ John Simonetti. "Frequently Asked Questions About Special Relativity - The Twin Paradox". Virginia Tech Physics. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ Resnick, Robert (1968). "Supplementary Topic B: The Twin Paradox". Introduction to Special Relativity. place:New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 201. ISBN 0-471-71725-8. LCCN 67031211.. via August Kopff, Hyman Levy (translator), The Mathematical Theory of Relativity (London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1923), p. 52, as quoted by G.J. Whitrow, The Natural Philosophy of Time (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961), p. 215.
^ J.B. Kennedy (2014). Space, Time and Einstein: An Introduction (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-48944-3. Extract of page 39
^ Richard A. Mould (2001). Basic Relativity (illustrated, herdruk ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-387-95210-9. Extract of page 39
^ a b c d E. Minguzzi (2005) - Differential aging from acceleration: An explicit formula - Am. J. Phys. 73: 876-880 arXiv:physics/0411233 (Notation of source variables was adapted to match this article's.)
^ Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook Of Engineering Physics, Part I. PHI Learning Pvt. p. 74. ISBN 978-8120338623. Extract of page 74
^ Sardesai, P. L. (2004). Introduction to Relativity. New Age International. pp. 27–28. ISBN 8122415202. Extract of page 27
^ a b c Ohanian, Hans (2001). Special relativity: a modern introduction. Lakeville, MN: Physics Curriculum and Instruction. ISBN 0971313415.
^ a b c Harris, Randy (2008). Modern Physics. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805303087.
^ a b Rindler, W (2006). Introduction to special relativity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198567318.
^ Weidner, Richard (1985). Physics. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205111556.
^ a b Einstein, A., Lorentz, H.A., Minkowski, H., and Weyl, H. (1923). Arnold Sommerfeld. ed. The Principle of Relativity. Dover Publications: Mineola, NY. pp. 38–49.
^ a b c Kogut, John B. (2012). Introduction to Relativity: For Physicists and Astronomers. Academic Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-08-092408-3. Extract of page 35
^ a b Maudlin, Tim (2012). Philosophy of physics : space and time. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 77–83. ISBN 9780691143095.
^ a b Wheeler, J., Taylor, E. (1992). Spacetime Physics, second edition. W. H. Freeman: New York, pp. 38, 170-171.
^ Einstein, A., Lorentz, H.A., Minkowski, H., and Weyl, H. (1923). Arnold Sommerfeld. ed. The Principle of Relativity. Dover Publications: Mineola, NY. p. 38.
^ William Geraint Vaughan Rosser (1991). Introductory Special Relativity, Taylor & Francis Inc. USA, pp. 67-68.
^ Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1992). Spacetime Physics (2nd, illustrated ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7167-2327-1.
^ Jones, Preston; Wanex, L.F. (February 2006). "The clock paradox in a static homogeneous gravitational field". Foundations of Physics Letters. 19 (1): 75–85. arXiv:physics/0604025. Bibcode:2006FoPhL..19...75J. doi:10.1007/s10702-006-1850-3. S2CID 14583590.
^ Dolby, Carl E. & Gull, Stephen F (2001). "On Radar Time and the Twin 'Paradox'". American Journal of Physics. 69 (12): 1257–1261. arXiv:gr-qc/0104077. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69.1257D. doi:10.1119/1.1407254. S2CID 119067219.
^ C. Lagoute and E. Davoust (1995) The interstellar traveler, Am. J. Phys. 63:221-227
^ Michael Paul Hobson, George Efstathiou, Anthony N. Lasenby (2006). General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ISBN 0-521-82951-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) See exercise 9.25 on page 227.
^ Langevin, P. (1911), "The evolution of space and time", Scientia, X: p.47 (translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973).
^ Poincaré, Henri. (1913), Mathematics and science: last essays (Dernières pensées).
^ Wheeler, J., Taylor, E. (1992). Spacetime Physics, second edition. W. H. Freeman: New York, p. 88.
^ Laughlin, Robert B. (2005). A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down. Basic Books, NY, NY. pp. 120–121.
^ French, A.P. (1968). Special Relativity. W.W. Norton, New York. p. 156.
Further reading
The ideal clock
The ideal clock is a clock whose action depends only on its instantaneous velocity, and is independent of any acceleration of the clock.
Wolfgang Rindler (2006). "Time dilation". Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-19-856731-6.
Gravitational time dilation; time dilation in circular motion
John A Peacock (2001). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-42270-1.
Silvio Bonometto; Vittorio Gorini; Ugo Moschella (2002). Modern Cosmology. CRC Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-7503-0810-9.
Patrick Cornille (2003). Advanced Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics. World Scientific. p. 180. ISBN 981-238-367-0.
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Special relativity
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Twin paradox.
Twin Paradox overview Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine in the Usenet Physics FAQ
The twin paradox: Is the symmetry of time dilation paradoxical? From Einsteinlight: Relativity in animations and film clips.
FLASH Animations: from John de Pillis. (Scene 1): "View" from the Earth twin's point of view. (Scene 2): "View" from the traveling twin's point of view.
Relativity Science Calculator - Twin Clock Paradox
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clock angle problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_angle_problem"},{"link_name":"thought experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment"},{"link_name":"special relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation"},{"link_name":"principle of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"inertial frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration"},{"link_name":"paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Paul Langevin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langevin"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Debs_Redhead-7"},{"link_name":"Max von Laue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"Max Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born"},{"link_name":"gravitational time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jammer-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"observers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_(special_relativity)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"\"Clock problem\" redirects here. For mathematical problems involving the positions of the hands on a clock face, see Clock angle problem.In physics, the twin paradox is a thought experiment in special relativity involving identical twins, one of whom makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has aged more. This result appears puzzling because each twin sees the other twin as moving, and so, as a consequence of an incorrect[1][2] and naive[3][4] application of time dilation and the principle of relativity, each should paradoxically find the other to have aged less. However, this scenario can be resolved within the standard framework of special relativity: the travelling twin's trajectory involves two different inertial frames, one for the outbound journey and one for the inbound journey.[5] Another way of looking at it is to realize the travelling twin is undergoing acceleration, which makes them a non-inertial observer. In both views there is no symmetry between the spacetime paths of the twins. Therefore, the twin paradox is not actually a paradox in the sense of a logical contradiction. There is still debate as to the resolution of the twin paradox.[6]Starting with Paul Langevin in 1911, there have been various explanations of this paradox. These explanations \"can be grouped into those that focus on the effect of different standards of simultaneity in different frames, and those that designate the acceleration [experienced by the travelling twin] as the main reason\".[7] Max von Laue argued in 1913 that since the traveling twin must be in two separate inertial frames, one on the way out and another on the way back, this frame switch is the reason for the aging difference.[8] Explanations put forth by Albert Einstein and Max Born invoked gravitational time dilation to explain the aging as a direct effect of acceleration.[9] However, it has been proven that neither general relativity,[10][11][12][13][14] nor even acceleration, are necessary to explain the effect, as the effect still applies if two astronauts pass each other at the turnaround point and synchronize their clocks at that point. The situation at the turnaround point can be thought of as where a pair of observers, one travelling away from the starting point and another travelling toward it, pass by each other, and where the clock reading of the first observer is transferred to that of the second one, both maintaining constant speed, with both trip times being added at the end of their journey.[15]","title":"Twin paradox"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of special relativity § Time dilation and twin paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_special_relativity#Time_dilation_and_twin_paradox"},{"link_name":"special relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock"},{"link_name":"[A 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox"},{"link_name":"Robert Resnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Resnick"},{"link_name":"[A 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Paul Langevin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langevin"},{"link_name":"Lorentz factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[A 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Max von Laue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue"},{"link_name":"Hermann Minkowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Minkowski"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"world lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line"},{"link_name":"proper time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time"},{"link_name":"inertial motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"[A 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laue1913-22"},{"link_name":"[A 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[A 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Halsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Giffard,_3rd_Earl_of_Halsbury"},{"link_name":"§ What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#What_it_looks_like:_the_relativistic_Doppler_shift"},{"link_name":"[A 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Further information: History of special relativity § Time dilation and twin paradoxIn his famous paper on special relativity in 1905, Albert Einstein deduced that for two stationary and synchronous clocks that are placed at points A and B, if the clock at A is moved along the line AB and stops at B, the clock that moved from A would lag behind the clock at B. He stated that this result would also apply if the path from A to B was polygonal or circular.[A 1] Einstein considered this to be a natural consequence of special relativity, not a paradox as some suggested, and in 1911, he restated and elaborated on this result as follows (with physicist Robert Resnick's comments following Einstein's):[A 2][16]Einstein: If we placed a living organism in a box ... one could arrange that the organism, after any arbitrary lengthy flight, could be returned to its original spot in a scarcely altered condition, while corresponding organisms which had remained in their original positions had already long since given way to new generations. For the moving organism, the lengthy time of the journey was a mere instant, provided the motion took place with approximately the speed of light.\nResnick: If the stationary organism is a man and the traveling one is his twin, then the traveler returns home to find his twin brother much aged compared to himself. The paradox centers on the contention that, in relativity, either twin could regard the other as the traveler, in which case each should find the other younger—a logical contradiction. This contention assumes that the twins' situations are symmetrical and interchangeable, an assumption that is not correct. Furthermore, the accessible experiments have been done and support Einstein's prediction.In 1911, Paul Langevin gave a \"striking example\" by describing the story of a traveler making a trip at a Lorentz factor of γ = 100 (99.995% the speed of light). The traveler remains in a projectile for one year of his time, and then reverses direction. Upon return, the traveler will find that he has aged two years, while 200 years have passed on Earth. During the trip, both the traveler and Earth keep sending signals to each other at a constant rate, which places Langevin's story among the Doppler shift versions of the twin paradox. The relativistic effects upon the signal rates are used to account for the different aging rates. The asymmetry that occurred because only the traveler underwent acceleration is used to explain why there is any difference at all,[17][18] because \"any change of velocity, or any acceleration has an absolute meaning\".[A 3]Max von Laue (1911, 1913) elaborated on Langevin's explanation. Using Hermann Minkowski's spacetime formalism, Laue went on to demonstrate that the world lines of the inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events. He also wrote that the asymmetric aging is completely accounted for by the fact that the astronaut twin travels in two separate frames, while the Earth twin remains in one frame, and the time of acceleration can be made arbitrarily small compared with the time of inertial motion.[A 4][A 5][A 6] Eventually, Lord Halsbury and others removed any acceleration by introducing the \"three-brother\" approach. The traveling twin transfers his clock reading to a third one, traveling in the opposite direction. Another way of avoiding acceleration effects is the use of the relativistic Doppler effect (see § What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift below).Neither Einstein nor Langevin considered such results to be problematic: Einstein only called it \"peculiar\" while Langevin presented it as a consequence of absolute acceleration.[A 7] Both men argued that, from the time differential illustrated by the story of the twins, no self-contradiction could be constructed. In other words, neither Einstein nor Langevin saw the story of the twins as constituting a challenge to the self-consistency of relativistic physics.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1 g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity"},{"link_name":"Dirac delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta"},{"link_name":"distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minguzzi-26"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Consider a space ship traveling from Earth to the nearest star system: a distance d = 4 light years away, at a speed v = 0.8c (i.e., 80% of the speed of light).To make the numbers easy, the ship is assumed to attain full speed in a negligible time upon departure (even though it would actually take about 9 months accelerating at 1 g to get up to speed). Similarly, at the end of the outgoing trip, the change in direction needed to start the return trip is assumed to occur in a negligible time. This can also be modelled by assuming that the ship is already in motion at the beginning of the experiment and that the return event is modelled by a Dirac delta distribution acceleration.[19]The parties will observe the situation as follows:[20][21]","title":"Specific example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lorentz factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor"},{"link_name":"time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation"}],"sub_title":"Earth perspective","text":"The Earth-based mission control reasons about the journey this way: the round trip will take t = 2d/v = 10 years in Earth time (i.e. everybody who stays on Earth will be 10 years older when the ship returns). The amount of time as measured on the ship's clocks and the aging of the travelers during their trip will be reduced by the factor \n \n \n \n α\n =\n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha =\\scriptstyle {\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}\n \n, the reciprocal of the Lorentz factor (time dilation). In this case α = 0.6 and the travelers will have aged only 0.6 × 10 = 6 years when they return.","title":"Specific example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"length contraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_contraction"}],"sub_title":"Travellers' perspective","text":"The ship's crew members also calculate the particulars of their trip from their perspective. They know that the distant star system and the Earth are moving relative to the ship at speed v during the trip. In their rest frame the distance between the Earth and the star system is α d = 0.6 × 4 = 2.4 light years (length contraction), for both the outward and return journeys. Each half of the journey takes α d / v = 2.4 / 0.8 = 3 years, and the round trip takes twice as long (6 years). Their calculations show that they will arrive home having aged 6 years. The travelers' final calculation about their aging is in complete agreement with the calculations of those on Earth, though they experience the trip quite differently from those who stay at home.","title":"Specific example"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Conclusion","text":"No matter what method they use to predict the clock readings, everybody will agree about them. If twins are born on the day the ship leaves, and one goes on the journey while the other stays on Earth, they will meet again when the traveler is 6 years old and the stay-at-home twin is 10 years old.","title":"Specific example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ohanian-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris-30"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rindler-31"}],"text":"The paradoxical aspect of the twins' situation arises from the fact that at any given moment the travelling twin's clock is running slow in the earthbound twin's inertial frame, but based on the relativity principle one could equally argue that the earthbound twin's clock is running slow in the travelling twin's inertial frame.[22][23][24] One proposed resolution is based on the fact that the earthbound twin is at rest in the same inertial frame throughout the journey, while the travelling twin is not: in the simplest version of the thought-experiment, the travelling twin switches at the midpoint of the trip from being at rest in an inertial frame which moves in one direction (away from the Earth) to being at rest in an inertial frame which moves in the opposite direction (towards the Earth). In this approach, determining which observer switches frames and which does not is crucial. Although both twins can legitimately claim that they are at rest in their own frame, only the traveling twin experiences acceleration when the spaceship engines are turned on. This acceleration, measurable with an accelerometer, makes his rest frame temporarily non-inertial. This reveals a crucial asymmetry between the twins' perspectives: although we can predict the aging difference from both perspectives, we need to use different methods to obtain correct results.","title":"Resolution of the paradox in special relativity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ohanian-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris-30"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rindler-31"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weidner-32"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Einstein,_A._1923_pp._38-33"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kogut-34"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minguzzi-26"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maudlin-35"},{"link_name":"Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Difference_in_elapsed_time_as_a_result_of_differences_in_twins'_spacetime_paths"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maudlin-35"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Debs_Redhead-7"}],"sub_title":"Role of acceleration","text":"Although some solutions attribute a crucial role to the acceleration of the travelling twin at the time of the turnaround,[22][23][24][25] others note that the effect also arises if one imagines two separate travellers, one outward-going and one inward-coming, who pass each other and synchronize their clocks at the point corresponding to \"turnaround\" of a single traveller. In this version, physical acceleration of the travelling clock plays no direct role;[26][27][19] \"the issue is how long the world-lines are, not how bent\".[28] The length referred to here is the Lorentz-invariant length or \"proper time interval\" of a trajectory which corresponds to the elapsed time measured by a clock following that trajectory (see Section Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths below). In Minkowski spacetime, the travelling twin must feel a different history of accelerations from the earthbound twin, even if this just means accelerations of the same size separated by different amounts of time,[28] however \"even this role for acceleration can be eliminated in formulations of the twin paradox in curved spacetime, where the twins can fall freely along space-time geodesics between meetings\".[7]","title":"Resolution of the paradox in special relativity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twin_Paradox_Minkowski_Diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"Minkowski diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_diagram"},{"link_name":"relativity of simultaneity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ohanian-29"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kogut-34"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler,_J._1992_pp._38,_170-36"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Einstein_et_al_1923-37"},{"link_name":"example","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Specific_example"}],"sub_title":"Relativity of simultaneity","text":"Minkowski diagram of the twin paradox. There is a difference between the trajectories of the twins: the trajectory of the ship is equally divided between two different inertial frames, while the Earth-based twin stays in the same inertial frame.For a moment-by-moment understanding of how the time difference between the twins unfolds, one must understand that in special relativity there is no concept of absolute present. For different inertial frames there are different sets of events that are simultaneous in that frame. This relativity of simultaneity means that switching from one inertial frame to another requires an adjustment in what slice through spacetime counts as the \"present\". In the spacetime diagram on the right, drawn for the reference frame of the Earth-based twin, that twin's world line coincides with the vertical axis (his position is constant in space, moving only in time). On the first leg of the trip, the second twin moves to the right (black sloped line); and on the second leg, back to the left. Blue lines show the planes of simultaneity for the traveling twin during the first leg of the journey; red lines, during the second leg. Just before turnaround, the traveling twin calculates the age of the Earth-based twin by measuring the interval along the vertical axis from the origin to the upper blue line. Just after turnaround, if he recalculates, he will measure the interval from the origin to the lower red line. In a sense, during the U-turn the plane of simultaneity jumps from blue to red and very quickly sweeps over a large segment of the world line of the Earth-based twin. When one transfers from the outgoing inertial frame to the incoming inertial frame there is a jump discontinuity in the age of the Earth-based twin[22][23][27][29][30] (6.4 years in the example above).","title":"Resolution of the paradox in special relativity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kinematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematical"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Einstein,_A._1923_pp._38-33"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler,_J._1992_pp._38,_170-36"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"As mentioned above, an \"out and back\" twin paradox adventure may incorporate the transfer of clock reading from an \"outgoing\" astronaut to an \"incoming\" astronaut, thus eliminating the effect of acceleration. Also, the physical acceleration of clocks does not contribute to the kinematical effects of special relativity. Rather, in special relativity, the time differential between two reunited clocks is produced purely by uniform inertial motion, as discussed in Einstein's original 1905 relativity paper,[26] as well as in all subsequent kinematical derivations of the Lorentz transformations.Because spacetime diagrams incorporate Einstein's clock synchronization (with its lattice of clocks methodology), there will be a requisite jump in the reading of the Earth clock time made by a \"suddenly returning astronaut\" who inherits a \"new meaning of simultaneity\" in keeping with a new clock synchronization dictated by the transfer to a different inertial frame, as explained in Spacetime Physics by John A. Wheeler.[29]If, instead of incorporating Einstein's clock synchronization (lattice of clocks), the astronaut (outgoing and incoming) and the Earth-based party regularly update each other on the status of their clocks by way of sending radio signals (which travel at light speed), then all parties will note an incremental buildup of asymmetry in time-keeping, beginning at the \"turn around\" point. Prior to the \"turn around\", each party regards the other party's clock to be recording time differently from his own, but the noted difference is symmetrical between the two parties. After the \"turn around\", the noted differences are not symmetrical, and the asymmetry grows incrementally until the two parties are reunited. Upon finally reuniting, this asymmetry can be seen in the actual difference showing on the two reunited clocks.[31]","title":"A non-spacetime approach"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"All processes—chemical, biological, measuring apparatus functioning, human perception involving the eye and brain, the communication of force—are constrained by the speed of light. There is clock functioning at every level, dependent on light speed and the inherent delay at even the atomic level. Biological aging, therefore, is in no way different from clock time-keeping.[32] This means that biological aging would be slowed in the same manner as a clock.","title":"The equivalence of biological aging and clock time-keeping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kogut-34"},{"link_name":"relativistic Doppler effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Doppler_effect"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rstd4.gif"}],"text":"In view of the frame-dependence of simultaneity for events at different locations in space, some treatments prefer a more phenomenological approach, describing what the twins would observe if each sent out a series of regular radio pulses, equally spaced in time according to the emitter's clock.[27] This is equivalent to asking, if each twin sent a video feed of themselves to each other, what do they see in their screens? Or, if each twin always carried a clock indicating his age, what time would each see in the image of their distant twin and his clock?Shortly after departure, the traveling twin sees the stay-at-home twin with no time delay. At arrival, the image in the ship screen shows the staying twin as he was 1 year after launch, because radio emitted from Earth 1 year after launch gets to the other star 4 years afterwards and meets the ship there. During this leg of the trip, the traveling twin sees his own clock advance 3 years and the clock in the screen advance 1 year, so it seems to advance at 1⁄3 the normal rate, just 20 image seconds per ship minute. This combines the effects of time dilation due to motion (by factor ε = 0.6, five years on Earth are 3 years on ship) and the effect of increasing light-time-delay (which grows from 0 to 4 years).Of course, the observed frequency of the transmission is also 1⁄3 the frequency of the transmitter (a reduction in frequency; \"red-shifted\"). This is called the relativistic Doppler effect. The frequency of clock-ticks (or of wavefronts) which one sees from a source with rest frequency frest isf\n \n \n o\n b\n s\n \n \n \n =\n \n f\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n /\n \n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\mathrm {obs} }=f_{\\mathrm {rest} }{\\sqrt {\\left({1-v/c}\\right)/\\left({1+v/c}\\right)}}}when the source is moving directly away. This is fobs = 1⁄3frest for v/c = 0.8.As for the stay-at-home twin, he gets a slowed signal from the ship for 9 years, at a frequency 1⁄3 the transmitter frequency. During these 9 years, the clock of the traveling twin in the screen seems to advance 3 years, so both twins see the image of their sibling aging at a rate only 1⁄3 their own rate. Expressed in other way, they would both see the other's clock run at 1⁄3 their own clock speed. If they factor out of the calculation the fact that the light-time delay of the transmission is increasing at a rate of 0.8 seconds per second, both can work out that the other twin is aging slower, at 60% rate.Then the ship turns back toward home. The clock of the staying twin shows \"1 year after launch\" in the screen of the ship, and during the 3 years of the trip back it increases up to \"10 years after launch\", so the clock in the screen seems to be advancing 3 times faster than usual.When the source is moving towards the observer, the observed frequency is higher (\"blue-shifted\") and given byf\n \n \n o\n b\n s\n \n \n \n =\n \n f\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n /\n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\mathrm {obs} }=f_{\\mathrm {rest} }{\\sqrt {\\left({1+v/c}\\right)/\\left({1-v/c}\\right)}}}This is fobs = 3frest for v/c = 0.8.As for the screen on Earth, it shows that trip back beginning 9 years after launch, and the traveling clock in the screen shows that 3 years have passed on the ship. One year later, the ship is back home and the clock shows 6 years. So, during the trip back, both twins see their sibling's clock going 3 times faster than their own. Factoring out the fact that the light-time-delay is decreasing by 0.8 seconds every second, each twin calculates that the other twin is aging at 60% his own aging speed.Light paths for images exchanged during tripLeft: Earth to ship. Right: Ship to Earth. Red lines indicate low frequency images are received, blue lines indicate high frequency images are receivedThe x–t (space–time) diagrams at left show the paths of light signals traveling between Earth and ship (1st diagram) and between ship and Earth (2nd diagram). These signals carry the images of each twin and his age-clock to the other twin. The vertical black line is the Earth's path through spacetime and the other two sides of the triangle show the ship's path through spacetime (as in the Minkowski diagram above). As far as the sender is concerned, he transmits these at equal intervals (say, once an hour) according to his own clock; but according to the clock of the twin receiving these signals, they are not being received at equal intervals.After the ship has reached its cruising speed of 0.8c, each twin would see 1 second pass in the received image of the other twin for every 3 seconds of his own time. That is, each would see the image of the other's clock going slow, not just slow by the ε factor 0.6, but even slower because light-time-delay is increasing 0.8 seconds per second. This is shown in the figures by red light paths. At some point, the images received by each twin change so that each would see 3 seconds pass in the image for every second of his own time. That is, the received signal has been increased in frequency by the Doppler shift. These high frequency images are shown in the figures by blue light paths.","title":"What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"The asymmetry in the Doppler shifted images","text":"The asymmetry between the Earth and the space ship is manifested in this diagram by the fact that more blue-shifted (fast aging) images are received by the ship. Put another way, the space ship sees the image change from a red-shift (slower aging of the image) to a blue-shift (faster aging of the image) at the midpoint of its trip (at the turnaround, 3 years after departure); the Earth sees the image of the ship change from red-shift to blue shift after 9 years (almost at the end of the period that the ship is absent). In the next section, one will see another asymmetry in the images: the Earth twin sees the ship twin age by the same amount in the red and blue shifted images; the ship twin sees the Earth twin age by different amounts in the red and blue shifted images.","title":"What it looks like: the relativistic Doppler shift"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The twin on the ship sees low frequency (red) images for 3 years. During that time, he would see the Earth twin in the image grow older by 3/3 = 1 year. He then sees high frequency (blue) images during the back trip of 3 years. During that time, he would see the Earth twin in the image grow older by 3 × 3 = 9 years. When the journey is finished, the image of the Earth twin has aged by 1 + 9 = 10 years.The Earth twin sees 9 years of slow (red) images of the ship twin, during which the ship twin ages (in the image) by 9/3 = 3 years. He then sees fast (blue) images for the remaining 1 year until the ship returns. In the fast images, the ship twin ages by 1 × 3 = 3 years. The total aging of the ship twin in the images received by Earth is 3 + 3 = 6 years, so the ship twin returns younger (6 years as opposed to 10 years on Earth).","title":"Calculation of elapsed time from the Doppler diagram"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doppler effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect"}],"sub_title":"The distinction between what they see and what they calculate","text":"To avoid confusion, note the distinction between what each twin sees and what each would calculate. Each sees an image of his twin which he knows originated at a previous time and which he knows is Doppler shifted. He does not take the elapsed time in the image as the age of his twin now.If he wants to calculate when his twin was the age shown in the image (i.e. how old he himself was then), he has to determine how far away his twin was when the signal was emitted—in other words, he has to consider simultaneity for a distant event.\nIf he wants to calculate how fast his twin was aging when the image was transmitted, he adjusts for the Doppler shift. For example, when he receives high frequency images (showing his twin aging rapidly) with frequency \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n /\n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\scriptstyle {f_{\\mathrm {rest} }{\\sqrt {\\left({1+v/c}\\right)/\\left({1-v/c}\\right)}}}}\n \n, he does not conclude that the twin was aging that rapidly when the image was generated, any more than he concludes that the siren of an ambulance is emitting the frequency he hears. He knows that the Doppler effect has increased the image frequency by the factor 1 / (1 − v/c). Therefore, he calculates that his twin was aging at the rate off\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n /\n \n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n \n ×\n \n (\n \n 1\n −\n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n =\n \n f\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ≡\n ϵ\n \n f\n \n \n r\n e\n s\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{\\mathrm {rest} }{\\sqrt {\\left({1+v/c}\\right)/\\left({1-v/c}\\right)}}\\times \\left(1-v/c\\right)=f_{\\mathrm {rest} }{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\\equiv \\epsilon f_{\\mathrm {rest} }}when the image was emitted. A similar calculation reveals that his twin was aging at the same reduced rate of εfrest in all low frequency images.","title":"Calculation of elapsed time from the Doppler diagram"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Simultaneity in the Doppler shift calculation","text":"It may be difficult to see where simultaneity came into the Doppler shift calculation, and indeed the calculation is often preferred because one does not have to worry about simultaneity. As seen above, the ship twin can convert his received Doppler-shifted rate to a slower rate of the clock of the distant clock for both red and blue images. If he ignores simultaneity, he might say his twin was aging at the reduced rate throughout the journey and therefore should be younger than he is. He is now back to square one, and has to take into account the change in his notion of simultaneity at the turnaround. The rate he can calculate for the image (corrected for Doppler effect) is the rate of the Earth twin's clock at the moment it was sent, not at the moment it was received. Since he receives an unequal number of red and blue shifted images, he should realize that the red and blue shifted emissions were not emitted over equal time periods for the Earth twin, and therefore he must account for simultaneity at a distance.","title":"Calculation of elapsed time from the Doppler diagram"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"accelerated reference frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_reference_frame"},{"link_name":"equivalence principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle"},{"link_name":"[A 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"gravitational time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Hermann Bondi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Bondi"},{"link_name":"k-calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-calculus"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"separate section below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Difference_in_elapsed_times:_how_to_calculate_it_from_the_ship"}],"text":"During the turnaround, the traveling twin is in an accelerated reference frame. According to the equivalence principle, the traveling twin may analyze the turnaround phase as if the stay-at-home twin were freely falling in a gravitational field and as if the traveling twin were stationary. A 1918 paper by Einstein presents a conceptual sketch of the idea.[A 8] From the viewpoint of the traveler, a calculation for each separate leg, ignoring the turnaround, leads to a result in which the Earth clocks age less than the traveler. For example, if the Earth clocks age 1 day less on each leg, the amount that the Earth clocks will lag behind amounts to 2 days. The physical description of what happens at turnaround has to produce a contrary effect of double that amount: 4 days' advancing of the Earth clocks. Then the traveler's clock will end up with a net 2-day delay on the Earth clocks, in agreement with calculations done in the frame of the stay-at-home twin.The mechanism for the advancing of the stay-at-home twin's clock is gravitational time dilation. When an observer finds that inertially moving objects are being accelerated with respect to themselves, those objects are in a gravitational field insofar as relativity is concerned. For the traveling twin at turnaround, this gravitational field fills the universe. In a weak field approximation, clocks tick at a rate of t' = t (1 + Φ / c2) where Φ is the difference in gravitational potential. In this case, Φ = gh where g is the acceleration of the traveling observer during turnaround and h is the distance to the stay-at-home twin. The rocket is firing towards the stay-at-home twin, thereby placing that twin at a higher gravitational potential. Due to the large distance between the twins, the stay-at-home twin's clocks will appear to be sped up enough to account for the difference in proper times experienced by the twins. It is no accident that this speed-up is enough to account for the simultaneity shift described above. The general relativity solution for a static homogeneous gravitational field and the special relativity solution for finite acceleration produce identical results.[33]Other calculations have been done for the traveling twin (or for any observer who sometimes accelerates), which do not involve the equivalence principle, and which do not involve any gravitational fields. Such calculations are based only on the special theory, not the general theory, of relativity. One approach calculates surfaces of simultaneity by considering light pulses, in accordance with Hermann Bondi's idea of the k-calculus.[34] A second approach calculates a straightforward but technically complicated integral to determine how the traveling twin measures the elapsed time on the stay-at-home clock. An outline of this second approach is given in a separate section below.","title":"Viewpoint of the traveling twin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hyperbolic motion (relativity)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_motion_(relativity)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TwinParadoxProperAcceleration.svg"},{"link_name":"proper time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time"},{"link_name":"coordinate time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_time"},{"link_name":"proper acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_acceleration"},{"link_name":"proper time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time"},{"link_name":"coordinate time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_time"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Further information: Hyperbolic motion (relativity)Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of coordinate time T and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, T=2); Phase 2 (a=0, T=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2T=4); Phase 5 (a=0, T=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, T=2). The twins meet at T=12 and τ=9.33. The blue numbers indicate the coordinate time T in the inertial frame of the stay-at-home-twin, the red numbers the proper time τ of the rocket-twin, and \"a\" is the proper acceleration. The thin red lines represent lines of simultaneity in terms of the different momentary inertial frames of the rocket-twin. The points marked by blue numbers 2, 4, 8 and 10 indicate the times when the acceleration changes direction.The following paragraph shows several things:how to employ a precise mathematical approach in calculating the differences in the elapsed time\nhow to prove exactly the dependency of the elapsed time on the different paths taken through spacetime by the twins\nhow to quantify the differences in elapsed time\nhow to calculate proper time as a function (integral) of coordinate timeLet clock K be associated with the \"stay at home twin\".\nLet clock K' be associated with the rocket that makes the trip.\nAt the departure event both clocks are set to 0.Phase 1: Rocket (with clock K') embarks with constant proper acceleration a during a time Ta as measured by clock K until it reaches some velocity V.\nPhase 2: Rocket keeps coasting at velocity V during some time Tc according to clock K.\nPhase 3: Rocket fires its engines in the opposite direction of K during a time Ta according to clock K until it is at rest with respect to clock K. The constant proper acceleration has the value −a, in other words the rocket is decelerating.\nPhase 4: Rocket keeps firing its engines in the opposite direction of K, during the same time Ta according to clock K, until K' regains the same speed V with respect to K, but now towards K (with velocity −V).\nPhase 5: Rocket keeps coasting towards K at speed V during the same time Tc according to clock K.\nPhase 6: Rocket again fires its engines in the direction of K, so it decelerates with a constant proper acceleration a during a time Ta, still according to clock K, until both clocks reunite.Knowing that the clock K remains inertial (stationary), the total accumulated proper time Δτ of clock K' will be given by the integral function of coordinate time ΔtΔ\n τ\n =\n ∫\n \n \n 1\n −\n (\n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\tau =\\int {\\sqrt {1-(v(t)/c)^{2}}}\\ dt\\ }where v(t) is the coordinate velocity of clock K' as a function of t according to clock K, and, e.g. during phase 1, given byv\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n \n a\n t\n \n \n 1\n +\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n t\n \n c\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v(t)={\\frac {at}{\\sqrt {1+\\left({\\frac {at}{c}}\\right)^{2}}}}.}This integral can be calculated for the 6 phases:[35]Phase 1 \n \n \n \n :\n \n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)\\,}\n \n\nPhase 2 \n \n \n \n :\n \n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n V\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad T_{c}\\ {\\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}\n \n\nPhase 3 \n \n \n \n :\n \n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)\\,}\n \n\nPhase 4 \n \n \n \n :\n \n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)\\,}\n \n\nPhase 5 \n \n \n \n :\n \n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n V\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad T_{c}\\ {\\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}\n \n\nPhase 6 \n \n \n \n :\n \n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle :\\quad c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)\\,}where a is the proper acceleration, felt by clock K' during the acceleration phase(s) and where the following relations hold between V, a and Ta:V\n =\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n \n 1\n +\n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=a\\ T_{a}/{\\sqrt {1+(a\\ T_{a}/c)^{2}}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n =\n V\n \n /\n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n V\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a\\ T_{a}=V/{\\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}}So the traveling clock K' will show an elapsed time ofΔ\n τ\n =\n 2\n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n V\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n +\n 4\n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\tau =2T_{c}{\\sqrt {1-V^{2}/c^{2}}}+4c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)}which can be expressed asΔ\n τ\n =\n 2\n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n \n 1\n +\n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n +\n 4\n c\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n arsinh\n \n (\n a\n \n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n /\n \n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\tau =2T_{c}/{\\sqrt {1+(a\\ T_{a}/c)^{2}}}+4c/a\\ {\\text{arsinh}}(a\\ T_{a}/c)}whereas the stationary clock K shows an elapsed time ofΔ\n t\n =\n 2\n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n +\n 4\n \n T\n \n a\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t=2T_{c}+4T_{a}\\,}which is, for every possible value of a, Ta, Tc and V, larger than the reading of clock K':Δ\n t\n >\n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t>\\Delta \\tau \\,}","title":"Difference in elapsed time as a result of differences in twins' spacetime paths"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TwinParadoxProperAcceleration2.svg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minguzzi-26"},{"link_name":"proper acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_acceleration"},{"link_name":"Cauchy–Schwarz inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Schwarz_inequality"},{"link_name":"Dirac delta function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minguzzi-26"}],"text":"Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of proper time τ and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, τ=2); Phase 2 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2τ=4); Phase 5 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, τ=2). The twins meet at T=17.3 and τ=12.In the standard proper time formulaΔ\n τ\n =\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n c\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n t\n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\tau =\\int _{0}^{\\Delta t}{\\sqrt {1-\\left({\\frac {v(t)}{c}}\\right)^{2}}}\\ dt,\\ }Δτ represents the time of the non-inertial (travelling) observer K' as a function of the elapsed time Δt of the inertial (stay-at-home) observer K for whom observer K' has velocity v(t) at time t.To calculate the elapsed time Δt of the inertial observer K as a function of the elapsed time Δτ of the non-inertial observer K', where only quantities measured by K' are accessible, the following formula can be used:[19]Δ\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t^{2}=\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right]\\,\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{-\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right],\\ }where a(τ) is the proper acceleration of the non-inertial observer K' as measured by himself (for instance with an accelerometer) during the whole round-trip. The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality can be used to show that the inequality Δt > Δτ follows from the previous expression:Δ\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n >\n \n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n \n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n Δ\n \n τ\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Delta t^{2}&=\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right]\\,\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{-\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right]\\\\&>\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,e^{-\\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')\\,d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right]^{2}=\\left[\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }d{\\bar {\\tau }}\\right]^{2}=\\Delta \\tau ^{2}.\\end{aligned}}}Using the Dirac delta function to model the infinite acceleration phase in the standard case of the traveller having constant speed v during the outbound and the inbound trip, the formula produces the known result:Δ\n t\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n −\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n τ\n .\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {1-{\\tfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\\Delta \\tau .\\ }In the case where the accelerated observer K' departs from K with zero initial velocity, the general equation reduces to the simpler form:Δ\n t\n =\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n Δ\n τ\n \n \n \n e\n \n ±\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n a\n (\n \n τ\n ′\n \n )\n d\n \n τ\n ′\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n τ\n ¯\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t=\\int _{0}^{\\Delta \\tau }e^{\\pm \\int _{0}^{\\bar {\\tau }}a(\\tau ')d\\tau '}\\,d{\\bar {\\tau }},\\ }which, in the smooth version of the twin paradox where the traveller has constant proper acceleration phases, successively given by a, −a, −a, a, results in[19]Δ\n t\n =\n \n \n \n 4\n a\n \n \n \n sinh\n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n 4\n \n \n \n Δ\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t={\\tfrac {4}{a}}\\sinh({\\tfrac {a}{4}}\\Delta \\tau )\\ }where the convention c = 1 is used, in accordance with the above expression with acceleration phases Ta = Δt/4 and inertial (coasting) phases Tc = 0.","title":"Difference in elapsed times: how to calculate it from the ship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hobson-44"}],"text":"Twins Bob and Alice inhabit a space station in circular orbit around a massive body in space. Bob suits up and exits the station. While Alice remains inside the station, continuing to orbit with it as before, Bob uses a rocket propulsion system to cease orbiting and hover where he was. When the station completes an orbit and returns to Bob, he rejoins Alice. Alice is now younger than Bob.[36] In addition to rotational acceleration, Bob must decelerate to become stationary and then accelerate again to match the orbital speed of the space station.","title":"A rotational version"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Henri Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Hendrik Lorentz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"text":"Einstein's conclusion of an actual difference in registered clock times (or aging) between reunited parties caused Paul Langevin to posit an actual, albeit experimentally indiscernible, absolute frame of reference:In 1911, Langevin wrote: \"A uniform translation in the aether has no experimental sense. But because of this it should not be concluded, as has sometimes happened prematurely, that the concept of aether must be abandoned, that the aether is non-existent and inaccessible to experiment. Only a uniform velocity relative to it cannot be detected, but any change of velocity ... has an absolute sense.\"[37]In 1913, Henri Poincaré's posthumous Last Essays were published and there he had restated his position: \"Today some physicists want to adopt a new convention. It is not that they are constrained to do so; they consider this new convention more convenient; that is all. And those who are not of this opinion can legitimately retain the old one.\"[38]In the relativity of Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz, which assumes an absolute (though experimentally indiscernible) frame of reference, no paradox arises due to the fact that clock slowing (along with length contraction and velocity) is regarded as an actuality, hence the actual time differential between the reunited clocks.In that interpretation, a party at rest with the totality of the cosmos (at rest with the barycenter of the universe, or at rest with a possible ether) would have the maximum rate of time-keeping and have non-contracted length. All the effects of Einstein's special relativity (consistent light-speed measure, as well as symmetrically measured clock-slowing and length-contraction across inertial frames) fall into place.That interpretation of relativity, which John A. Wheeler calls \"ether theory B (length contraction plus time contraction)\", did not gain as much traction as Einstein's, which simply disregarded any deeper reality behind the symmetrical measurements across inertial frames. There is no physical test which distinguishes one interpretation from the other.[39]In 2005, Robert B. Laughlin (Physics Nobel Laureate, Stanford University), wrote about the nature of space: \"It is ironic that Einstein's most creative work, the general theory of relativity, should boil down to conceptualizing space as a medium when his original premise [in special relativity] was that no such medium existed ... The word 'ether' has extremely negative connotations in theoretical physics because of its past association with opposition to relativity. This is unfortunate because, stripped of these connotations, it rather nicely captures the way most physicists actually think about the vacuum. ... Relativity actually says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of matter pervading the universe, only that any such matter must have relativistic symmetry (i.e., as measured).\"[40]In Special Relativity (1968), A. P. French wrote: \"Note, though, that we are appealing to the reality of A's acceleration, and to the observability of the inertial forces associated with it. Would such effects as the twin paradox (specifically -- the time keeping differential between reunited clocks) exist if the framework of fixed stars and distant galaxies were not there? Most physicists would say no. Our ultimate definition of an inertial frame may indeed be that it is a frame having zero acceleration with respect to the matter of the universe at large.\"[41]","title":"No twin paradox in an absolute frame of reference"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1905AnP...322..891E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..891E"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/andp.19053221004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053221004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"\"Die Relativitäts-Theorie\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/vierteljahrsschr56natu"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Langevin, P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langevin"},{"link_name":"\"The evolution of space and time\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=7&int_ptnum=108&term_ptnum=302"},{"link_name":"Scientia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(Italian_journal)"},{"link_name":"L'évolution de l'espace et du temps\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=7&int_ptnum=10&term_ptnum=39&format=jpg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Laue1913_22-0"},{"link_name":"von Laue, Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Vieweg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieweg_Verlag"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"298055497","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/298055497"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"dialog about objections against the theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dialog_about_objections_against_the_theory_of_relativity"}],"text":"^ Einstein, Albert (1905). \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". Annalen der Physik. 17 (10): 891 (end of §4). Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.\n\n^ Einstein, Albert (1911). \"Die Relativitäts-Theorie\". Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift. 56: 1–14.\n\n^ Langevin, P. (1911), \"The evolution of space and time\", Scientia, X: 31–54 (translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973 from the original French: \"L'évolution de l'espace et du temps\").\n\n^ von Laue, Max (1911). \"Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung (Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation)\". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 13: 118–120.\n\n^ von Laue, Max (1913). Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity) (2 ed.). Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 298055497.\n\n^ von Laue, Max (1913). \"Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity)\". Jahrbücher der Philosophie. 1: 99–128.\n\n^ \"We are going to see this absolute character of the acceleration manifest itself in another form.\" (\"Nous allons voir se manifester sous une autre forme ce caractère absolu de l'accélération.\"), page 82 of Langevin1911\n\n^ Einstein, A. (1918) \"dialog about objections against the theory of relativity\", Die Naturwissenschaften 48, pp. 697–702, 29 November 1918","title":"Primary sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"The Modern Revolution in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=OMs-_JK-wncC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9704670-6-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9704670-6-5"},{"link_name":"Extract of page 23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=OMs-_JK-wncC&pg=PA23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Modern Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uTM8AAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-111-79437-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-79437-8"},{"link_name":"Extract of page 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=uTM8AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"From Special Relativity to Feynman Diagrams: A Course of Theoretical Particle Physics for Beginners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=R-qIh6kd8d0C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-88-470-1504-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-470-1504-3"},{"link_name":"Extract of page 541","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=R-qIh6kd8d0C&pg=PA541"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Gravitation and Spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JVQhAwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-139-61954-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-61954-7"},{"link_name":"Extract of page 176","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JVQhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA176"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Foundations of Modern Cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=s5MUDAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-853096-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853096-1"},{"link_name":"Extract of page 203","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=s5MUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA203"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Debs_Redhead_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Debs_Redhead_7-1"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1996AmJPh..64..384D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996AmJPh..64..384D"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1119/1.18252","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1119%2F1.18252"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. 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Efstathiou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Efstathiou"},{"link_name":"General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xma1QuTJphYC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-82951-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82951-8"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"exercise 9.25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xma1QuTJphYC&pg=PA227"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"}],"text":"^ Crowell, Benjamin (2000). The Modern Revolution in Physics (illustrated ed.). Light and Matter. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-9704670-6-5. Extract of page 23\n\n^ Serway, Raymond A.; Moses, Clement J.; Moyer, Curt A. (2004). Modern Physics (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-111-79437-8. Extract of page 21\n\n^ D'Auria, Riccardo; Trigiante, Mario (2011). From Special Relativity to Feynman Diagrams: A Course of Theoretical Particle Physics for Beginners (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 541. ISBN 978-88-470-1504-3. Extract of page 541\n\n^ Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (2013). Gravitation and Spacetime (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-139-61954-7. Extract of page 176\n\n^ Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (2005). Foundations of Modern Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-853096-1. Extract of page 203\n\n^ P. Mohazzabi, Q. Luo; J. of Applied Mathematics and Physics, 2021, 9, 2187-2192\n\n^ a b Debs, Talal A.; Redhead, Michael L.G. (1996). \"The twin \"paradox\" and the conventionality of simultaneity\". American Journal of Physics. 64 (4): 384–392. Bibcode:1996AmJPh..64..384D. doi:10.1119/1.18252.\n\n^ Miller, Arthur I. (1981). Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911). Reading: Addison–Wesley. pp. 257–264. ISBN 0-201-04679-2.\n\n^ Max Jammer (2006). Concepts of Simultaneity: From Antiquity to Einstein and Beyond. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-8018-8422-5.\n\n^ Schutz, Bernard (2003). Gravity from the Ground Up: An Introductory Guide to Gravity and General Relativity (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0.Extract of page 207\n\n^ Baez, John (1996). \"Can Special Relativity Handle Acceleration?\". Retrieved 30 May 2017.\n\n^ \"How does relativity theory resolve the Twin Paradox?\". Scientific American.\n\n^ David Halliday et al., The Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley and Sons, 1997\n\n^ Paul Davies About Time, Touchstone 1995, ppf 59.\n\n^ John Simonetti. \"Frequently Asked Questions About Special Relativity - The Twin Paradox\". Virginia Tech Physics. Retrieved 25 May 2020.\n\n^ Resnick, Robert (1968). \"Supplementary Topic B: The Twin Paradox\". Introduction to Special Relativity. place:New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 201. ISBN 0-471-71725-8. LCCN 67031211.. via August Kopff, Hyman Levy (translator), The Mathematical Theory of Relativity (London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1923), p. 52, as quoted by G.J. Whitrow, The Natural Philosophy of Time (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961), p. 215.\n\n^ J.B. Kennedy (2014). Space, Time and Einstein: An Introduction (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-48944-3. Extract of page 39\n\n^ Richard A. Mould (2001). Basic Relativity (illustrated, herdruk ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-387-95210-9. Extract of page 39\n\n^ a b c d E. Minguzzi (2005) - Differential aging from acceleration: An explicit formula - Am. J. Phys. 73: 876-880 arXiv:physics/0411233 (Notation of source variables was adapted to match this article's.)\n\n^ Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook Of Engineering Physics, Part I. PHI Learning Pvt. p. 74. ISBN 978-8120338623. Extract of page 74\n\n^ Sardesai, P. L. (2004). Introduction to Relativity. New Age International. pp. 27–28. ISBN 8122415202. Extract of page 27\n\n^ a b c Ohanian, Hans (2001). Special relativity: a modern introduction. Lakeville, MN: Physics Curriculum and Instruction. ISBN 0971313415.\n\n^ a b c Harris, Randy (2008). Modern Physics. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805303087.\n\n^ a b Rindler, W (2006). Introduction to special relativity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198567318.\n\n^ Weidner, Richard (1985). Physics. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205111556.\n\n^ a b Einstein, A., Lorentz, H.A., Minkowski, H., and Weyl, H. (1923). Arnold Sommerfeld. ed. The Principle of Relativity. Dover Publications: Mineola, NY. pp. 38–49.\n\n^ a b c Kogut, John B. (2012). Introduction to Relativity: For Physicists and Astronomers. Academic Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-08-092408-3. Extract of page 35\n\n^ a b Maudlin, Tim (2012). Philosophy of physics : space and time. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 77–83. ISBN 9780691143095.\n\n^ a b Wheeler, J., Taylor, E. (1992). Spacetime Physics, second edition. W. H. Freeman: New York, pp. 38, 170-171.\n\n^ Einstein, A., Lorentz, H.A., Minkowski, H., and Weyl, H. (1923). Arnold Sommerfeld. ed. The Principle of Relativity. Dover Publications: Mineola, NY. p. 38.\n\n^ William Geraint Vaughan Rosser (1991). Introductory Special Relativity, Taylor & Francis Inc. USA, pp. 67-68.\n\n^ Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1992). Spacetime Physics (2nd, illustrated ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7167-2327-1.\n\n^ Jones, Preston; Wanex, L.F. (February 2006). \"The clock paradox in a static homogeneous gravitational field\". Foundations of Physics Letters. 19 (1): 75–85. arXiv:physics/0604025. Bibcode:2006FoPhL..19...75J. doi:10.1007/s10702-006-1850-3. S2CID 14583590.\n\n^ Dolby, Carl E. & Gull, Stephen F (2001). \"On Radar Time and the Twin 'Paradox'\". American Journal of Physics. 69 (12): 1257–1261. arXiv:gr-qc/0104077. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69.1257D. doi:10.1119/1.1407254. S2CID 119067219.\n\n^ C. Lagoute and E. Davoust (1995) The interstellar traveler, Am. J. Phys. 63:221-227\n\n^ Michael Paul Hobson, George Efstathiou, Anthony N. Lasenby (2006). General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ISBN 0-521-82951-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) See exercise 9.25 on page 227.\n\n^ Langevin, P. (1911), \"The evolution of space and time\", Scientia, X: p.47 (translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973).\n\n^ Poincaré, Henri. (1913), Mathematics and science: last essays (Dernières pensées).\n\n^ Wheeler, J., Taylor, E. (1992). Spacetime Physics, second edition. W. H. Freeman: New York, p. 88.\n\n^ Laughlin, Robert B. (2005). A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down. Basic Books, NY, NY. pp. 120–121.\n\n^ French, A.P. (1968). Special Relativity. W.W. Norton, New York. p. 156.","title":"Secondary sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Time dilation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=0J_dwCmQThgC&pg=PA43"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-856731-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-856731-6"},{"link_name":"Cosmological Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=t8O-yylU0j0C&pg=PA7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-42270-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42270-1"},{"link_name":"Modern Cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jtyCC-b0SToC&pg=PA12"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7503-0810-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0810-9"},{"link_name":"Advanced Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=y8sSFTDkQ20C&pg=PA180"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"981-238-367-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-238-367-0"}],"text":"The ideal clockThe ideal clock is a clock whose action depends only on its instantaneous velocity, and is independent of any acceleration of the clock.Wolfgang Rindler (2006). \"Time dilation\". Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-19-856731-6.Gravitational time dilation; time dilation in circular motionJohn A Peacock (2001). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-42270-1.\nSilvio Bonometto; Vittorio Gorini; Ugo Moschella (2002). Modern Cosmology. CRC Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-7503-0810-9.\nPatrick Cornille (2003). Advanced Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics. World Scientific. p. 180. ISBN 981-238-367-0.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Minkowski diagram of the twin paradox. There is a difference between the trajectories of the twins: the trajectory of the ship is equally divided between two different inertial frames, while the Earth-based twin stays in the same inertial frame.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Twin_Paradox_Minkowski_Diagram.svg/333px-Twin_Paradox_Minkowski_Diagram.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Light paths for images exchanged during tripLeft: Earth to ship. Right: Ship to Earth. Red lines indicate low frequency images are received, blue lines indicate high frequency images are received","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Rstd4.gif/220px-Rstd4.gif"},{"image_text":"Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of coordinate time T and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, T=2); Phase 2 (a=0, T=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2T=4); Phase 5 (a=0, T=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, T=2). The twins meet at T=12 and τ=9.33. The blue numbers indicate the coordinate time T in the inertial frame of the stay-at-home-twin, the red numbers the proper time τ of the rocket-twin, and \"a\" is the proper acceleration. The thin red lines represent lines of simultaneity in terms of the different momentary inertial frames of the rocket-twin. The points marked by blue numbers 2, 4, 8 and 10 indicate the times when the acceleration changes direction.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/TwinParadoxProperAcceleration.svg/250px-TwinParadoxProperAcceleration.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Twin paradox employing a rocket following an acceleration profile in terms of proper time τ and by setting c=1: Phase 1 (a=0.6, τ=2); Phase 2 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 3-4 (a=-0.6, 2τ=4); Phase 5 (a=0, τ=2); Phase 6 (a=0.6, τ=2). The twins meet at T=17.3 and τ=12.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/TwinParadoxProperAcceleration2.svg/250px-TwinParadoxProperAcceleration2.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Bell's spaceship paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_spaceship_paradox"},{"title":"Clock hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_hypothesis"},{"title":"Ehrenfest paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrenfest_paradox"},{"title":"Herbert Dingle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Dingle"},{"title":"Ladder paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_paradox"},{"title":"List of paradoxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paradoxes"},{"title":"Supplee's paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplee%27s_paradox"},{"title":"Time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation"},{"title":"Time for the Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_for_the_Stars"}]
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[{"reference":"Einstein, Albert (1905). \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". Annalen der Physik. 17 (10): 891 (end of §4). Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/","url_text":"\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..891E","url_text":"1905AnP...322..891E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053221004","url_text":"10.1002/andp.19053221004"}]},{"reference":"Einstein, Albert (1911). \"Die Relativitäts-Theorie\". Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift. 56: 1–14.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/vierteljahrsschr56natu","url_text":"\"Die Relativitäts-Theorie\""}]},{"reference":"Langevin, P. (1911), \"The evolution of space and time\", Scientia, X: 31–54","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Langevin","url_text":"Langevin, P."},{"url":"http://amshistorica.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=7&int_ptnum=108&term_ptnum=302","url_text":"\"The evolution of space and time\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_(Italian_journal)","url_text":"Scientia"}]},{"reference":"von Laue, Max (1911). \"Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung (Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation)\". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 13: 118–120.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_von_Laue","url_text":"von Laue, Max"}]},{"reference":"von Laue, Max (1913). Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity) (2 ed.). Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 298055497.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieweg_Verlag","url_text":"Friedrich Vieweg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/298055497","url_text":"298055497"}]},{"reference":"von Laue, Max (1913). \"Das Relativitätsprinzip (The Principle of Relativity)\". Jahrbücher der Philosophie. 1: 99–128.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Crowell, Benjamin (2000). The Modern Revolution in Physics (illustrated ed.). Light and Matter. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-9704670-6-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OMs-_JK-wncC","url_text":"The Modern Revolution in Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9704670-6-5","url_text":"978-0-9704670-6-5"}]},{"reference":"Serway, Raymond A.; Moses, Clement J.; Moyer, Curt A. (2004). Modern Physics (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-111-79437-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uTM8AAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Modern Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-79437-8","url_text":"978-1-111-79437-8"}]},{"reference":"D'Auria, Riccardo; Trigiante, Mario (2011). From Special Relativity to Feynman Diagrams: A Course of Theoretical Particle Physics for Beginners (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 541. ISBN 978-88-470-1504-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R-qIh6kd8d0C","url_text":"From Special Relativity to Feynman Diagrams: A Course of Theoretical Particle Physics for Beginners"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-470-1504-3","url_text":"978-88-470-1504-3"}]},{"reference":"Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (2013). Gravitation and Spacetime (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-139-61954-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JVQhAwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Gravitation and Spacetime"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-61954-7","url_text":"978-1-139-61954-7"}]},{"reference":"Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (2005). Foundations of Modern Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-853096-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=s5MUDAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Foundations of Modern Cosmology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853096-1","url_text":"978-0-19-853096-1"}]},{"reference":"Debs, Talal A.; Redhead, Michael L.G. (1996). \"The twin \"paradox\" and the conventionality of simultaneity\". American Journal of Physics. 64 (4): 384–392. Bibcode:1996AmJPh..64..384D. doi:10.1119/1.18252.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996AmJPh..64..384D","url_text":"1996AmJPh..64..384D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.18252","url_text":"10.1119/1.18252"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Arthur I. (1981). Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911). Reading: Addison–Wesley. pp. 257–264. ISBN 0-201-04679-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteinss0000mill/page/257","url_text":"Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/alberteinsteinss0000mill/page/257","url_text":"257–264"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-04679-2","url_text":"0-201-04679-2"}]},{"reference":"Max Jammer (2006). Concepts of Simultaneity: From Antiquity to Einstein and Beyond. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-8018-8422-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Jammer","url_text":"Max Jammer"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vuTXBPvswOwC&pg=PA165","url_text":"Concepts of Simultaneity: From Antiquity to Einstein and Beyond"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-8422-5","url_text":"0-8018-8422-5"}]},{"reference":"Schutz, Bernard (2003). Gravity from the Ground Up: An Introductory Guide to Gravity and General Relativity (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P_T0xxhDcsIC","url_text":"Gravity from the Ground Up: An Introductory Guide to Gravity and General Relativity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45506-0","url_text":"978-0-521-45506-0"}]},{"reference":"Baez, John (1996). \"Can Special Relativity Handle Acceleration?\". Retrieved 30 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/acceleration.html","url_text":"\"Can Special Relativity Handle Acceleration?\""}]},{"reference":"\"How does relativity theory resolve the Twin Paradox?\". Scientific American.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-relativity-theor/","url_text":"\"How does relativity theory resolve the Twin Paradox?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American","url_text":"Scientific American"}]},{"reference":"John Simonetti. \"Frequently Asked Questions About Special Relativity - The Twin Paradox\". Virginia Tech Physics. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www1.phys.vt.edu/~jhs/faq/twins.html","url_text":"\"Frequently Asked Questions About Special Relativity - The Twin Paradox\""}]},{"reference":"Resnick, Robert (1968). \"Supplementary Topic B: The Twin Paradox\". Introduction to Special Relativity. place:New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 201. ISBN 0-471-71725-8. LCCN 67031211.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontosp0000resn","url_text":"Introduction to Special Relativity"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontosp0000resn/page/201","url_text":"201"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-71725-8","url_text":"0-471-71725-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/67031211","url_text":"67031211"}]},{"reference":"J.B. Kennedy (2014). Space, Time and Einstein: An Introduction (revised ed.). Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-48944-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bdjfBQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Space, Time and Einstein: An Introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-48944-3","url_text":"978-1-317-48944-3"}]},{"reference":"Richard A. Mould (2001). Basic Relativity (illustrated, herdruk ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-387-95210-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lfGE-wyJYIUC","url_text":"Basic Relativity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95210-9","url_text":"978-0-387-95210-9"}]},{"reference":"Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook Of Engineering Physics, Part I. PHI Learning Pvt. p. 74. ISBN 978-8120338623.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC&pg=PA74","url_text":"Textbook Of Engineering Physics, Part I"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120338623","url_text":"978-8120338623"}]},{"reference":"Sardesai, P. L. (2004). Introduction to Relativity. New Age International. pp. 27–28. ISBN 8122415202.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CX5GyYwnVLcC&pg=PA27","url_text":"Introduction to Relativity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8122415202","url_text":"8122415202"}]},{"reference":"Ohanian, Hans (2001). Special relativity: a modern introduction. Lakeville, MN: Physics Curriculum and Instruction. ISBN 0971313415.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0971313415","url_text":"0971313415"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Randy (2008). Modern Physics. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805303087.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805303087","url_text":"978-0805303087"}]},{"reference":"Rindler, W (2006). Introduction to special relativity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198567318.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198567318","url_text":"9780198567318"}]},{"reference":"Weidner, Richard (1985). Physics. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205111556.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/physics0000weid","url_text":"Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0205111556","url_text":"0205111556"}]},{"reference":"Kogut, John B. (2012). Introduction to Relativity: For Physicists and Astronomers. Academic Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-08-092408-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9AKPpSxiN4IC","url_text":"Introduction to Relativity: For Physicists and Astronomers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092408-3","url_text":"978-0-08-092408-3"}]},{"reference":"Maudlin, Tim (2012). Philosophy of physics : space and time. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 77–83. ISBN 9780691143095.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691143095","url_text":"9780691143095"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1992). Spacetime Physics (2nd, illustrated ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7167-2327-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/spacetimephysics00edwi_0","url_text":"Spacetime Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/spacetimephysics00edwi_0/page/150","url_text":"150"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2327-1","url_text":"978-0-7167-2327-1"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Preston; Wanex, L.F. (February 2006). \"The clock paradox in a static homogeneous gravitational field\". Foundations of Physics Letters. 19 (1): 75–85. arXiv:physics/0604025. Bibcode:2006FoPhL..19...75J. doi:10.1007/s10702-006-1850-3. S2CID 14583590.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0604025","url_text":"physics/0604025"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006FoPhL..19...75J","url_text":"2006FoPhL..19...75J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10702-006-1850-3","url_text":"10.1007/s10702-006-1850-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14583590","url_text":"14583590"}]},{"reference":"Dolby, Carl E. & Gull, Stephen F (2001). \"On Radar Time and the Twin 'Paradox'\". American Journal of Physics. 69 (12): 1257–1261. arXiv:gr-qc/0104077. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69.1257D. doi:10.1119/1.1407254. S2CID 119067219.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0104077","url_text":"gr-qc/0104077"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AmJPh..69.1257D","url_text":"2001AmJPh..69.1257D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1407254","url_text":"10.1119/1.1407254"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119067219","url_text":"119067219"}]},{"reference":"Michael Paul Hobson, George Efstathiou, Anthony N. Lasenby (2006). General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists. Cambridge University Press. p. 227. ISBN 0-521-82951-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Efstathiou","url_text":"George Efstathiou"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xma1QuTJphYC","url_text":"General Relativity: An Introduction for Physicists"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82951-8","url_text":"0-521-82951-8"}]},{"reference":"Wolfgang Rindler (2006). \"Time dilation\". Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-19-856731-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0J_dwCmQThgC&pg=PA43","url_text":"\"Time dilation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-856731-6","url_text":"0-19-856731-6"}]},{"reference":"John A Peacock (2001). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-42270-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=t8O-yylU0j0C&pg=PA7","url_text":"Cosmological Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42270-1","url_text":"0-521-42270-1"}]},{"reference":"Silvio Bonometto; Vittorio Gorini; Ugo Moschella (2002). Modern Cosmology. CRC Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-7503-0810-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jtyCC-b0SToC&pg=PA12","url_text":"Modern Cosmology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0810-9","url_text":"0-7503-0810-9"}]},{"reference":"Patrick Cornille (2003). Advanced Electromagnetism and Vacuum Physics. World Scientific. p. 180. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_Rome
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March on Rome
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["1 Background","2 March","3 Other participants","4 Commemorative medal","5 See also","6 References","7 Notes","8 External links"]
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1922 mass demonstration and coup d'état by the National Fascist Party in Rome, Italy
This article is about the incident in 1922. For the film by Dino Risi, see March on Rome (film). For earlier incidents during the late Roman Republic, see March on Rome (88 BC) and Caesar's civil war.You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Italian. (January 2024) Click for important translation instructions.
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For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.March on RomePart of Civil unrest in ItalyBenito Mussolini and his Blackshirts during the MarchDate28–31 October 1922LocationRome, ItalyActionMussolini's Blackshirts conquered strategic points across the country and gathered outside Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III refused to declare a state of emergency and transferred power to the Fascists.Result
Fascist coup d'état successful
Mussolini formed a new governmentBelligerents
Italian Government
Royal Guards
National Fascist Party
BlackshirtsCommanders and leaders
Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Facta Antonio Salandra Paolino Taddei Marcello Soleri Giovanni Giolitti
Benito Mussolini Emilio De Bono Italo Balbo Roberto Farinacci Cesare De Vecchi Michele BianchiPolitical support
Liberals Socialists Populars Communists
Fascists Nationalists
The March on Rome (Italian: Marcia su Roma) was an organized mass demonstration in October 1922 which resulted in Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy. In late October 1922, Fascist Party leaders planned a march on the capital. On 28 October, the fascist demonstrators and Blackshirt paramilitaries approached Rome; Prime Minister Luigi Facta wished to declare a state of siege, but this was overruled by King Victor Emmanuel III, who, fearing bloodshed, persuaded Facta to resign by threatening to abdicate. On 30 October 1922, the King appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict. On 31 October the fascist Blackshirts paraded in Rome, while Mussolini formed his coalition government.
Background
In March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first Italian Fasces of Combat (FIC) at the beginning of the so-called Red Biennium, a two-year long social conflict between the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the liberal and conservative ruling class. Mussolini suffered a defeat in the election of November 1919.
During the "two red years", there were numerous strikes, protests against rises in the cost of living, occupations of factories and land by industrial workers or agricultural laborers, and other types of clashes between socialists on one side and landowners and business owners on the other side. The government tried to play the role of neutral mediator, which dissatisfied both sides. Local elites felt themselves vulnerable and began to establish an alliance with the small Fascist movement, which contained many veterans of World War I and had a reputation for violence, in the hope of using Fascist paramilitary squads to destroy socialist organizations.
Since 1919, Fascist militias, known as squadristi or "Blackshirts" due to their uniforms, had been attacking socialist politicians and militants. In August 1920, the Blackshirt militia was used to break the general strike which started at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan, while in November 1920, after the assassination of Giulio Giordani (a right-wing municipal councillor in Bologna), the Blackshirts were active in the suppression of the socialist movement, which included a strong anarcho-syndicalist component, especially in the Po Valley.
Local elections in 1920 were won by the socialists in many towns, cities and villages across Italy, and in response Fascist militias attacked union organizers and municipal administrators, making it difficult for local governments to function. A local deputy from the town of Budrio sent a telegram to the prime minister in October 1921 to report that the Fascists had effectively taken over, that "unions and socialist clubs ordered to dissolve themselves within 48 hours or face physical destruction" and that the "life of the town is paralysed, authorities impotent". Similar situations also occurred in other towns across Northern and Central Italy from 1920 to 1922. The police repeatedly failed to intervene against Fascist violence, and in some cases police officers openly supported the Fascists and supplied them with weapons.
In the 1921 general election the Fascists ran within the National Blocs of Giovanni Giolitti, an anti-socialist coalition of liberals, conservatives and fascists. The Fascists won 35 seats and Mussolini was elected in the Parliament for the first time.
After a few weeks, Mussolini withdrew his support for Giolitti and his Italian Liberal Party (Partito Liberale Italiano, PLI) and attempted to work out a temporary truce with the Socialists by signing the so-called "Pact of Pacification" in the summer of 1921. The Pact led to many protests by the radical members of the Fascist movement, led by local leaders like Roberto Farinacci, who were known as Ras. In July 1921, Giolitti attempted to dissolve the Blackshirts, but he failed; while the Pact with the Socialists was nullified during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, during which Mussolini promoted a nationalist program and renamed his movement National Fascist Party (PNF), which enrolled 320,000 members by late 1921.
In August 1922, an anti-fascist general strike was organized throughout the country by the socialists. Mussolini declared that the Fascists would suppress the strike themselves if the government did not immediately intervene to stop it, which enabled him to position the Fascist Party as a defender of law and order. On 2 August, in Ancona, Fascist squads moved in from the countryside and razed all buildings occupied by socialists. This was then repeated in Genoa and other cities.
In Milan, on 3 and 4 August, there was street fighting between socialists and fascists; the fascists destroyed the printing presses of the socialist newspaper Avanti! and burned its buildings. Then, with the support of local business owners, they took over local government and expelled the elected socialist administration from the town hall.
The Italian national government in Rome did nothing to react to these developments, and its inaction prompted Mussolini to begin planning a march on Rome. From their new power base in Milan, the Fascists gathered the financial support of large companies who were determined to fight against "strikes, bolshevism and nationalization". A delegation from the General Confederation of Italian Industry met with Mussolini two days before the March on Rome. Also a few days before the march, Mussolini consulted with the U.S. Ambassador Richard Washburn Child about whether the U.S. government would object to Fascist participation in a future Italian government and Child gave him American support. When Mussolini learned that Prime Minister Luigi Facta had given Gabriele D'Annunzio the mission to organize a large demonstration on 4 November 1922 to celebrate the national victory during the war, he decided to immediately implement the March.
March
Emilio De Bono, Benito Mussolini, Italo Balbo and Cesare Maria De Vecchi.
On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared in front of 60,000 militants at a Fascist rally in Naples: "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy." On the following day, the Quadrumvirs, Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, were appointed by Mussolini at the head of the march, while he went to Milan. He did not participate in the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers, and he went to Rome the next day. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted with the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organizers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.
On 26 October, the former Prime Minister Antonio Salandra warned the then Prime Minister, Luigi Facta, that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would only become a minister of his government. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Luigi Facta (who had resigned but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the King about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the King would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order.
On the morning of 28 October, in Milan, Mussolini received a delegation of supportive industrialists at the Il Popolo d'Italia headquarters who urgently requested him to find a compromise with Antonio Salandra. Mussolini was then proposed to rule alongside Salandra, however he refused. Following an analysis of the footage of the time with the facial recognition technique, the presence alongside Mussolini of Raoul Vittorio Palermi, Grand Master of the Gran Loggia d'Italia, was also ascertained.
On 30 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right wing.
Fascists moving towards Rome.
The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while Fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 29 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power, in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the seizure of power which Fascism later celebrated but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasized free market and laissez faire economics. This proved overly optimistic, as the Great Depression struck Italy along with the rest of the world in 1929, and Mussolini responded to it by increasing the role of the state in the economy to avoid a banking crisis. By 1934, the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) had been created to rescue, restructure and finance banks and private companies that went bankrupt during the Great Depression, and by 1937 this Institute had become a major shareholder in Italian industry, controlling all the capital of the military steel sector, 40% of nonmilitary steel, and 30% of the electrical industry.
Back in 1922, in the aftermath of the March on Rome, Mussolini pretended to be willing to take a junior ministry in a Giolitti or Salandra cabinet, but then demanded the presidency of the Council of Ministers. Fearing a conflict with the fascists, the ruling class thus handed power to Mussolini, who went on to install the dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti – who had finished writing The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination – executed by Amerigo Dumini, accused of being the leader of the "Italian Ceka", though there is no evidence for such an organization existing.
Other participants
Giacomo Acerbo
Italo Balbo
Roberto Farinacci
Giovanni Giuriati
Serafino Mazzolini
Ettore Muti
Aurelio Padovani
Alessandro Pavolini
Carlo Scorza
Achille Starace
Harukichi Shimoi
Commemorative medal
The ribbon of the Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome.
At the end of 1923, participants in the march received authorization to wear the Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome (Italian: Medaglia commemorativa della Marcia su Roma). In a series of royal decrees between 1926 and 1938, the Kingdom of Italy expanded eligibility for the medal until by mid-1938 all members of the Blackshirts and the Italian Armed Forces were authorized to wear it.
See also
Beer Hall Putsch (similar action by the Nazi Party inspired by the March on Rome)
Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–26)
Peasant March
Red Shirts (Mexico)
Red Shirts (Thailand), Thailand
2010 Thai political protests
Save America March (USA)
March of the Iron Will
Joraku
References
Carsten, Francis Ludwig (1982). The Rise of Fascism. University of California Press.
Cassells, Alan. Fascist Italy. Arlington Heights, IL: H. Davidson, 1985.
Gallo, Max. Mussolini's Italy: Twenty Years of the Fascist Era. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
Leeds, Christpher. Italy under Mussolini. Hove, East Sussex: Wayland, 1988 (1972).
Chiapello, Duccio. Marcia e contromarcia su Roma. Marcello Soleri e la resa dello Stato liberale. Rome: Aracne, 2012.
Gentile, Emilio. E fu subito regime. Il fascismo italiano e la marcia su Roma. Rome-Bari: Laterza, 2012.
Notes
^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2008). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1919. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
^ "March on Rome | Italian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 297
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 29
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 30
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 31
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 31–33
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 33
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 33–34
^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 41–42
^ Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945, New York: Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
^ a b c d e f Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 308
^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 313
^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 314
^ "I "duci rivali": Mussolini e D'Annunzio a confronto" (in Italian). 30 June 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
^ Carsten (1982), p.62
^ Morgan, Philip (1995). Italian Fascism 1919-1945. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-333-53779-3.
^ Chiapello (2012), p.123
^ Carsten (1982), p.64
^ "La Marcia su Roma e l'avvio del Regime".
^ Melograni, Piero (1972). Gli industriali e Mussolini : rapporti tra Confindustria e fascismo dal 1919 al 1929. OCLC 469368426.
^ "The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism" (in Italian). Agenzia Giornalistica Italia. October 28, 2022.
^ "The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism. Thanks to a facial recognition". Wired. October 28, 2022.
^ Rossi, Ernesto (1966). Padroni del vapore e fascismo. Ed. Laterza. OCLC 254666529.
^ "28 ottobre 1922: è marcia su Roma" (in Italian). 25 October 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
^ Carsten (1982), p.76
^ T Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford University Press (2013) p. 58.
^ T Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford University Press (2013) p. 59.
^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
^ Royal Decree Number 273 of 31 January 1926, Uso delle decorazioni per il personale militare ("Use of decorations for military personnel"), published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia ("Official Gazette of the Kingdom of Italy") Number 49 of 1 March 1926 (in Italian).
^ Royal Decree Number 2485 of 1 November 1928 (in Italian).
^ Royal Decree No. 1179 of 15 July 1938 (in Italian).
External links
Mussolini's March on Rome – Original reports from The Times
The March on Rome entry at Tiscali reference (archived 7 November 2005)
Map of Europe and Italian Fascist seizure of power at omniatlas
Keserich, Charles (1972). "The Fiftieth Year of the "March on Rome": Recent Interpretations of Facism". The History Teacher. 6 (1): 135–142. doi:10.2307/492632. JSTOR 492632.
Jensen, Richard Bach (4 July 2021). "Uncanny Precedent: The March on Rome". Terrorism and Political Violence. 33 (5): 903–906. doi:10.1080/09546553.2021.1932334. S2CID 236457468.
Sarti, Roland (April 1968). "Fascism and the Industrial Leadership in Italy before the March on Rome". ILR Review. 21 (3): 400–417. doi:10.1177/001979396802100306. S2CID 154342983.
Albanese, Giulia (July 2012). "Reconsidering the March on Rome". European History Quarterly. 42 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1177/0265691412448165. S2CID 147015081.
Ellery, Eloise (1928). "Fascisti Celebrate Sixth Anniversary of March on Rome". Current History. 29 (3): 504–507. doi:10.1525/curh.1928.29.3.504. JSTOR 45333060. S2CID 249814575.
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"March on Rome (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_Rome_(film)"},{"link_name":"March on Rome (88 BC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_Rome_(88_BC)"},{"link_name":"Caesar's civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"mass demonstration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_demonstration"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"National Fascist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Blackshirt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackshirts"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Luigi Facta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Facta"},{"link_name":"state of siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_siege"},{"link_name":"King Victor Emmanuel III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Victor_Emmanuel_III"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This article is about the incident in 1922. For the film by Dino Risi, see March on Rome (film). For earlier incidents during the late Roman Republic, see March on Rome (88 BC) and Caesar's civil war.The March on Rome (Italian: Marcia su Roma) was an organized mass demonstration in October 1922 which resulted in Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy. In late October 1922, Fascist Party leaders planned a march on the capital. On 28 October, the fascist demonstrators and Blackshirt paramilitaries approached Rome; Prime Minister Luigi Facta wished to declare a state of siege, but this was overruled by King Victor Emmanuel III, who, fearing bloodshed, persuaded Facta to resign by threatening to abdicate. On 30 October 1922, the King appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict. On 31 October the fascist Blackshirts paraded in Rome, while Mussolini formed his coalition government.[1][2]","title":"March on Rome"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian Fasces of Combat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Fasces_of_Combat"},{"link_name":"Red Biennium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biennio_Rosso"},{"link_name":"Italian Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party"},{"link_name":"the election of November 1919","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919_Italian_general_election"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"squadristi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squadrismo"},{"link_name":"Blackshirts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackshirts"},{"link_name":"general strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_strike"},{"link_name":"Alfa Romeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfa_Romeo"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna"},{"link_name":"anarcho-syndicalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalist"},{"link_name":"Po Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Valley"},{"link_name":"union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_union"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Budrio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budrio"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"1921 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921_Italian_general_election"},{"link_name":"National Blocs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Blocs"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Giolitti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti"},{"link_name":"anti-socialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-socialist"},{"link_name":"Italian Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Pact of Pacification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact_of_Pacification"},{"link_name":"Roberto Farinacci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Farinacci"},{"link_name":"Ras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerarca"},{"link_name":"nationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist"},{"link_name":"National Fascist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Fascist_Party"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"anti-fascist general strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Italian_general_strike"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"Ancona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancona"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Avanti!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avanti!_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernItalyp308-12"},{"link_name":"bolshevism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevism"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"General Confederation of Italian Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Confederation_of_Italian_Industry"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Richard Washburn Child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Washburn_Child"},{"link_name":"Luigi Facta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Facta"},{"link_name":"Gabriele D'Annunzio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio"},{"link_name":"celebrate the national victory during the war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Unity_and_Armed_Forces_Day"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first Italian Fasces of Combat (FIC) at the beginning of the so-called Red Biennium, a two-year long social conflict between the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the liberal and conservative ruling class. Mussolini suffered a defeat in the election of November 1919.[3][further explanation needed]During the \"two red years\", there were numerous strikes, protests against rises in the cost of living, occupations of factories and land by industrial workers or agricultural laborers, and other types of clashes between socialists on one side and landowners and business owners on the other side.[4] The government tried to play the role of neutral mediator, which dissatisfied both sides.[5] Local elites felt themselves vulnerable and began to establish an alliance with the small Fascist movement, which contained many veterans of World War I and had a reputation for violence, in the hope of using Fascist paramilitary squads to destroy socialist organizations.[6]Since 1919, Fascist militias, known as squadristi or \"Blackshirts\" due to their uniforms, had been attacking socialist politicians and militants. In August 1920, the Blackshirt militia was used to break the general strike which started at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan, while in November 1920, after the assassination of Giulio Giordani (a right-wing municipal councillor in Bologna), the Blackshirts were active in the suppression of the socialist movement, which included a strong anarcho-syndicalist component, especially in the Po Valley.Local elections in 1920 were won by the socialists in many towns, cities and villages across Italy, and in response Fascist militias attacked union organizers and municipal administrators, making it difficult for local governments to function.[7] A local deputy from the town of Budrio sent a telegram to the prime minister in October 1921 to report that the Fascists had effectively taken over, that \"unions and socialist clubs [were] ordered to dissolve themselves within 48 hours or face physical destruction\" and that the \"life of the town is paralysed, authorities impotent\".[8] Similar situations also occurred in other towns across Northern and Central Italy from 1920 to 1922.[9] The police repeatedly failed to intervene against Fascist violence, and in some cases police officers openly supported the Fascists and supplied them with weapons.[10]In the 1921 general election the Fascists ran within the National Blocs of Giovanni Giolitti, an anti-socialist coalition of liberals, conservatives and fascists. The Fascists won 35 seats and Mussolini was elected in the Parliament for the first time.After a few weeks, Mussolini withdrew his support for Giolitti and his Italian Liberal Party (Partito Liberale Italiano, PLI) and attempted to work out a temporary truce with the Socialists by signing the so-called \"Pact of Pacification\" in the summer of 1921. The Pact led to many protests by the radical members of the Fascist movement, led by local leaders like Roberto Farinacci, who were known as Ras. In July 1921, Giolitti attempted to dissolve the Blackshirts, but he failed; while the Pact with the Socialists was nullified during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921, during which Mussolini promoted a nationalist program and renamed his movement National Fascist Party (PNF), which enrolled 320,000 members by late 1921.[11]In August 1922, an anti-fascist general strike was organized throughout the country by the socialists. Mussolini declared that the Fascists would suppress the strike themselves if the government did not immediately intervene to stop it, which enabled him to position the Fascist Party as a defender of law and order.[12] On 2 August, in Ancona, Fascist squads moved in from the countryside and razed all buildings occupied by socialists.[12] This was then repeated in Genoa and other cities.[12]In Milan, on 3 and 4 August, there was street fighting between socialists and fascists; the fascists destroyed the printing presses of the socialist newspaper Avanti! and burned its buildings.[12] Then, with the support of local business owners, they took over local government and expelled the elected socialist administration from the town hall.[12]The Italian national government in Rome did nothing to react to these developments, and its inaction prompted Mussolini to begin planning a march on Rome.[12] From their new power base in Milan, the Fascists gathered the financial support of large companies who were determined to fight against \"strikes, bolshevism and nationalization\".[13] A delegation from the General Confederation of Italian Industry met with Mussolini two days before the March on Rome.[14] Also a few days before the march, Mussolini consulted with the U.S. Ambassador Richard Washburn Child about whether the U.S. government would object to Fascist participation in a future Italian government and Child gave him American support. When Mussolini learned that Prime Minister Luigi Facta had given Gabriele D'Annunzio the mission to organize a large demonstration on 4 November 1922 to celebrate the national victory during the war, he decided to immediately implement the March.[15]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg"},{"link_name":"Emilio De Bono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono"},{"link_name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"Italo Balbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo_Balbo"},{"link_name":"Cesare Maria De Vecchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Maria_De_Vecchi"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Quadrumvirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrumvirs"},{"link_name":"Emilio De Bono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono"},{"link_name":"Italo Balbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo_Balbo"},{"link_name":"Michele Bianchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Bianchi"},{"link_name":"Cesare Maria de Vecchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesare_Maria_de_Vecchi"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Dino Perrone Compagni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino_Perrone_Compagni"},{"link_name":"Antonio Salandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Salandra"},{"link_name":"Luigi Facta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Facta"},{"link_name":"state of siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_siege"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"King Victor Emmanuel III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Il Popolo d'Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"facial recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_recognition_system"},{"link_name":"Gran Loggia d'Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Loggia_d%27Italia"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:March_on_Rome_1922_-_Alle_porte_di_Roma.png"},{"link_name":"civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_war"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Statuto Albertino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statuto_Albertino"},{"link_name":"Fascism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Fascism"},{"link_name":"free market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market"},{"link_name":"laissez faire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laissez_faire"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"banking crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking_crisis"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istituto_per_la_Ricostruzione_Industriale"},{"link_name":"shareholder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shareholder"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Salandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Salandra"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Giacomo Matteotti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti"},{"link_name":"Amerigo Dumini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerigo_Dumini"}],"text":"Emilio De Bono, Benito Mussolini, Italo Balbo and Cesare Maria De Vecchi.On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared in front of 60,000 militants at a Fascist rally in Naples: \"Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy.\"[16] On the following day, the Quadrumvirs, Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi, were appointed by Mussolini at the head of the march, while he went to Milan. He did not participate in the march, though he allowed pictures to be taken of him marching along with the Fascist marchers, and he went to Rome the next day.[17] Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted with the preparations of the March of 18 October. Other organizers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori.On 26 October, the former Prime Minister Antonio Salandra warned the then Prime Minister, Luigi Facta, that Mussolini was demanding his resignation and that he was preparing to march on Rome. However, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would only become a minister of his government. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, Luigi Facta (who had resigned but continued to hold power) ordered a state of siege for Rome. Having had previous conversations with the King about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the King would agree.[18] However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order.[19]On the morning of 28 October, in Milan, Mussolini received a delegation of supportive industrialists at the Il Popolo d'Italia headquarters who urgently requested him to find a compromise with Antonio Salandra. Mussolini was then proposed to rule alongside Salandra, however he refused.[20][21] Following an analysis of the footage of the time with the facial recognition technique, the presence alongside Mussolini of Raoul Vittorio Palermi, Grand Master of the Gran Loggia d'Italia, was also ascertained.[22][23]On 30 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right wing.[24]Fascists moving towards Rome.The march itself was composed of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King in part feared a civil war since the squadristi had already taken control of the Po plain and most of the country, while Fascism was no longer seen as a threat to the establishment.[25] Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 29 October 1922, while some 25,000 Blackshirts were parading in Rome. Mussolini thus legally reached power, in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the seizure of power which Fascism later celebrated but rather the precipitating force behind a transfer of power within the framework of the constitution. This transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose early speeches and policies emphasized free market and laissez faire economics.[26] This proved overly optimistic, as the Great Depression struck Italy along with the rest of the world in 1929, and Mussolini responded to it by increasing the role of the state in the economy to avoid a banking crisis.[27] By 1934, the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) had been created to rescue, restructure and finance banks and private companies that went bankrupt during the Great Depression, and by 1937 this Institute had become a major shareholder in Italian industry, controlling all the capital of the military steel sector, 40% of nonmilitary steel, and 30% of the electrical industry.[28]Back in 1922, in the aftermath of the March on Rome, Mussolini pretended to be willing to take a junior ministry in a Giolitti or Salandra cabinet, but then demanded the presidency of the Council of Ministers.[29] Fearing a conflict with the fascists, the ruling class thus handed power to Mussolini, who went on to install the dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti – who had finished writing The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination – executed by Amerigo Dumini, accused of being the leader of the \"Italian Ceka\", though there is no evidence for such an organization existing.","title":"March"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Giacomo Acerbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Acerbo"},{"link_name":"Italo Balbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo_Balbo"},{"link_name":"Roberto Farinacci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Farinacci"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Giuriati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Giuriati"},{"link_name":"Serafino Mazzolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serafino_Mazzolini"},{"link_name":"Ettore Muti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettore_Muti"},{"link_name":"Aurelio Padovani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurelio_Padovani"},{"link_name":"Alessandro Pavolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Pavolini"},{"link_name":"Carlo Scorza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Scorza"},{"link_name":"Achille Starace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achille_Starace"},{"link_name":"Harukichi Shimoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harukichi_Shimoi"}],"text":"Giacomo Acerbo\nItalo Balbo\nRoberto Farinacci\nGiovanni Giuriati\nSerafino Mazzolini\nEttore Muti\nAurelio Padovani\nAlessandro Pavolini\nCarlo Scorza\nAchille Starace\nHarukichi Shimoi","title":"Other participants"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarciaSuRoma.png"},{"link_name":"Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_Medal_of_the_March_on_Rome"},{"link_name":"Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_Medal_of_the_March_on_Rome"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Blackshirts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackshirts"},{"link_name":"Italian Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"The ribbon of the Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome.At the end of 1923, participants in the march received authorization to wear the Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome (Italian: Medaglia commemorativa della Marcia su Roma). In a series of royal decrees between 1926 and 1938, the Kingdom of Italy expanded eligibility for the medal until by mid-1938 all members of the Blackshirts and the Italian Armed Forces were authorized to wear it.[30][31][32]","title":"Commemorative medal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-55394-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"March on Rome | Italian history\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.britannica.com/event/March-on-Rome"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ModernItalyp308_12-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"I \"duci rivali\": Mussolini e D'Annunzio a confronto\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.giornaledibrescia.it/tempo-libero/i-duci-rivali-mussolini-e-d-annunzio-a-confronto-1.3378268"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-333-53779-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-53779-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"\"La Marcia su Roma e l'avvio del Regime\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.carabinieri.it/media---comunicazione/il-carabiniere/la-rivista/anno-2013/maggio/speciale/la-marcia-su-roma-e-l-avvio-del-regime"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Gli industriali e Mussolini : rapporti tra Confindustria e fascismo dal 1919 al 1929","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//worldcat.org/oclc/469368426"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"469368426","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/469368426"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www-agi-it.translate.goog/cultura/news/2022-10-28/28-ottobre-marcia-su-roma-intervista-saccucci-18615989/?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp"},{"link_name":"Agenzia Giornalistica Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenzia_Giornalistica_Italia"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism. Thanks to a facial recognition\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www-wired-it.translate.goog/article/marcia-su-roma-fascismo-riconoscimento-facciale-massoni/amp/?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp"},{"link_name":"Wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"Padroni del vapore e fascismo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//worldcat.org/oclc/254666529"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"254666529","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/254666529"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"\"28 ottobre 1922: è marcia su Roma\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.avantionline.it/28-ottobre-1922-e-marcia-su-roma/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-55394-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"Gazzetta Ufficiale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazzetta_Ufficiale"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"}],"text":"^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2008). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1919. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.\n\n^ \"March on Rome | Italian history\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-25.\n\n^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 297\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 29\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 30\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 31\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 31–33\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, p. 33\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 33–34\n\n^ John Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, London and New York: Routledge, 1998, pp. 41–42\n\n^ Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945, New York: Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26\n\n^ a b c d e f Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 308\n\n^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 313\n\n^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press (1997) p. 314\n\n^ \"I \"duci rivali\": Mussolini e D'Annunzio a confronto\" (in Italian). 30 June 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2021.\n\n^ Carsten (1982), p.62\n\n^ Morgan, Philip (1995). Italian Fascism 1919-1945. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-333-53779-3.\n\n^ Chiapello (2012), p.123\n\n^ Carsten (1982), p.64\n\n^ \"La Marcia su Roma e l'avvio del Regime\".\n\n^ Melograni, Piero (1972). Gli industriali e Mussolini : rapporti tra Confindustria e fascismo dal 1919 al 1929. OCLC 469368426.\n\n^ \"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism\" (in Italian). Agenzia Giornalistica Italia. October 28, 2022.\n\n^ \"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism. Thanks to a facial recognition\". Wired. October 28, 2022.\n\n^ Rossi, Ernesto (1966). Padroni del vapore e fascismo. Ed. Laterza. OCLC 254666529.\n\n^ \"28 ottobre 1922: è marcia su Roma\" (in Italian). 25 October 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2021.\n\n^ Carsten (1982), p.76\n\n^ T Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford University Press (2013) p. 58.\n\n^ T Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford University Press (2013) p. 59.\n\n^ Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.\n\n^ Royal Decree Number 273 of 31 January 1926, Uso delle decorazioni per il personale militare (\"Use of decorations for military personnel\"), published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia (\"Official Gazette of the Kingdom of Italy\") Number 49 of 1 March 1926 (in Italian).\n\n^ Royal Decree Number 2485 of 1 November 1928 (in Italian).\n\n^ Royal Decree No. 1179 of 15 July 1938 (in Italian).","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Emilio De Bono, Benito Mussolini, Italo Balbo and Cesare Maria De Vecchi.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/220px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fascists moving towards Rome.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/March_on_Rome_1922_-_Alle_porte_di_Roma.png/220px-March_on_Rome_1922_-_Alle_porte_di_Roma.png"},{"image_text":"The ribbon of the Commemorative Medal of the March on Rome.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/MarciaSuRoma.png/150px-MarciaSuRoma.png"}]
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[{"title":"Beer Hall Putsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_Hall_Putsch"},{"title":"Nazi Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Party"},{"title":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"title":"Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–26)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascist_and_anti-Fascist_violence_in_Italy_(1919%E2%80%9326)"},{"title":"Peasant March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant_March"},{"title":"Red Shirts (Mexico)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Mexico)"},{"title":"Red Shirts (Thailand)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Thailand)"},{"title":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"title":"2010 Thai political protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Thai_political_protests"},{"title":"Save America March (USA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_America_March"},{"title":"March of the Iron Will","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_the_Iron_Will"},{"title":"Joraku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joraku"}]
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[{"reference":"Carsten, Francis Ludwig (1982). The Rise of Fascism. University of California Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press","url_text":"University of California Press"}]},{"reference":"Lyttelton, Adrian (2008). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1919. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0","url_text":"978-0-415-55394-0"}]},{"reference":"\"March on Rome | Italian history\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/event/March-on-Rome","url_text":"\"March on Rome | Italian history\""}]},{"reference":"\"I \"duci rivali\": Mussolini e D'Annunzio a confronto\" (in Italian). 30 June 2019. Retrieved 23 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.giornaledibrescia.it/tempo-libero/i-duci-rivali-mussolini-e-d-annunzio-a-confronto-1.3378268","url_text":"\"I \"duci rivali\": Mussolini e D'Annunzio a confronto\""}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Philip (1995). Italian Fascism 1919-1945. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-333-53779-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-53779-3","url_text":"0-333-53779-3"}]},{"reference":"\"La Marcia su Roma e l'avvio del Regime\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.carabinieri.it/media---comunicazione/il-carabiniere/la-rivista/anno-2013/maggio/speciale/la-marcia-su-roma-e-l-avvio-del-regime","url_text":"\"La Marcia su Roma e l'avvio del Regime\""}]},{"reference":"Melograni, Piero (1972). Gli industriali e Mussolini : rapporti tra Confindustria e fascismo dal 1919 al 1929. OCLC 469368426.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/469368426","url_text":"Gli industriali e Mussolini : rapporti tra Confindustria e fascismo dal 1919 al 1929"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/469368426","url_text":"469368426"}]},{"reference":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism\" (in Italian). Agenzia Giornalistica Italia. October 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www-agi-it.translate.goog/cultura/news/2022-10-28/28-ottobre-marcia-su-roma-intervista-saccucci-18615989/?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp","url_text":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenzia_Giornalistica_Italia","url_text":"Agenzia Giornalistica Italia"}]},{"reference":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism. Thanks to a facial recognition\". Wired. October 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www-wired-it.translate.goog/article/marcia-su-roma-fascismo-riconoscimento-facciale-massoni/amp/?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp","url_text":"\"The direction of Freemasonry behind the march on Rome and the rise of fascism. Thanks to a facial recognition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"}]},{"reference":"Rossi, Ernesto (1966). Padroni del vapore e fascismo. Ed. Laterza. OCLC 254666529.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/254666529","url_text":"Padroni del vapore e fascismo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/254666529","url_text":"254666529"}]},{"reference":"\"28 ottobre 1922: è marcia su Roma\" (in Italian). 25 October 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.avantionline.it/28-ottobre-1922-e-marcia-su-roma/","url_text":"\"28 ottobre 1922: è marcia su Roma\""}]},{"reference":"Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0","url_text":"978-0-415-55394-0"}]},{"reference":"Keserich, Charles (1972). \"The Fiftieth Year of the \"March on Rome\": Recent Interpretations of Facism\". The History Teacher. 6 (1): 135–142. doi:10.2307/492632. JSTOR 492632.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F492632","url_text":"10.2307/492632"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/492632","url_text":"492632"}]},{"reference":"Jensen, Richard Bach (4 July 2021). \"Uncanny Precedent: The March on Rome\". Terrorism and Political Violence. 33 (5): 903–906. doi:10.1080/09546553.2021.1932334. S2CID 236457468.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09546553.2021.1932334","url_text":"10.1080/09546553.2021.1932334"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236457468","url_text":"236457468"}]},{"reference":"Sarti, Roland (April 1968). \"Fascism and the Industrial Leadership in Italy before the March on Rome\". ILR Review. 21 (3): 400–417. doi:10.1177/001979396802100306. S2CID 154342983.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001979396802100306","url_text":"10.1177/001979396802100306"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154342983","url_text":"154342983"}]},{"reference":"Albanese, Giulia (July 2012). \"Reconsidering the March on Rome\". European History Quarterly. 42 (3): 403–421. doi:10.1177/0265691412448165. S2CID 147015081.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265691412448165","url_text":"10.1177/0265691412448165"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147015081","url_text":"147015081"}]},{"reference":"Ellery, Eloise (1928). \"Fascisti Celebrate Sixth Anniversary of March on Rome\". Current History. 29 (3): 504–507. doi:10.1525/curh.1928.29.3.504. JSTOR 45333060. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspended_sentence
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Suspended sentence
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["1 Australia","2 Canada","3 People's Republic of China","4 Finland","5 France","6 Ireland","7 Japan","8 Russia","9 United Kingdom","10 United States","11 See also","12 References"]
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Deferred sentence of imprisonment
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Criminal procedure
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Exclusionary rule1
Self-incrimination
Double jeopardy2
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Suspended
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Dangerous offender4, 5
Capital punishment
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Imprisonment
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Life licence6
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Miscarriage of justice
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Related areas of law
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1 US courts
2 Not in English/Welsh courts
3 Scottish courts
4 English/Welsh courts
5 Canadian courts
6 UK courts
vte
A suspended sentence is a sentence on conviction for a criminal offence, the serving of which the court orders to be deferred in order to allow the defendant to perform a period of probation. If the defendant does not break the law during that period and fulfills the particular conditions of the probation, the sentence is usually considered fulfilled. If the defendant commits another offence or breaks the terms of probation, the court can order the sentence to be served, in addition to any sentence for the new offence.
Australia
See also: Punishment in Australia
In Australia, suspended sentences are commonly imposed in order to alleviate the strain on overcrowded prisons. For example, an individual may be sentenced to a six-month jail term, wholly suspended for six months; if they commit any other offence during that year, the original jail term is immediately applied in addition to any other sentence.
As of 1 September, 2014, suspended sentences no longer exist in Victoria, and in its place are community correction orders, which can be for a fixed term to ensure good behaviour.
Canada
Further information: Criminal sentencing in Canada § Probation and suspended sentences
People's Republic of China
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In the People's Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong and Macau), both suspended sentences and suspended sentencing (Chinese: 缓刑, also translated as a sentence "with reprieve") are featured in the criminal law. In the first situation, a fixed-term sentence of three years or below can be suspended. In the second situation, sentencing does not immediately follow the guilty verdict, but instead is determined after a period of probation.
Death sentences can also be suspended (called a "death sentence with reprieve"), so that an offender who does not intentionally re-offend during the two-year suspension period of release would have the sentence commuted to a life sentence.
Finland
A suspended sentence is called ehdollinen vankeusrangaistus in Finnish, which translates to "conditional imprisonment". When a sentence of imprisonment, which can be at most two years, is imposed conditionally, the enforcement of the sentence is postponed for a probation period. The length of the probation period is at least one and at most three years. The probation period begins at the pronouncement or the issue of the judgment. When conditional imprisonment is imposed, the convicted person shall be notified, in connection with the pronouncement or the issue of the judgment, of the date when the probation period ends and of the grounds on which the sentence may be ordered to be enforced. A sentence of conditional imprisonment may be combined with fines or, if the sentence is longer than eight months, with community service of at least 14 and up to 120 hours. Additional surveillance of the convicted can also be ordered, if it is seen as necessary to reduce recurrent criminal behaviour.
The court may order the enforcement of conditional imprisonment if the convicted person commits an offence during the probation period and the charge has been brought within one year of the end of the probation period. In this event, the conditional sentence to be enforced, the sentence for the offence committed during the probation period and the sentences of imprisonment for the other offences considered in the same trial shall be joined as one unconditional sentence of imprisonment. The court may also order that conditional imprisonment be enforced only in part, in which case the remainder of the sentence shall continue to be conditional, subject to the same probation period.
France
The Loi Béranger (Béranger bill) was introduced in March 26, 1891 in the French penal code. It was amended in 1958 and 1983. It allows for three types of suspended sentence:
sursis simple (simple suspended sentence) – introduced in 1891. The only condition is to not commit any felony for a certain period of time after the final sentencing. Usually this period is 5 years. This can be proscribed to any legal entity, including companies and people.
sursis probatoire (suspended sentence with probation) – introduced in 1958. this is reserved only to people. It contains checks and balances, and may be combined with other requirements. Before 2020, this was known as sursis probatoire avec mise à l'épreuve.
sursis assorti avec obligation d'accomplir un travail d'intéret géneral (suspended sentence combined with mandatory community service) – introduced in 1983.
Ireland
In the law of the Republic of Ireland, the 2006 law by which a suspended sentence is activated was ruled unconstitutional in 2016. The 2006 law required that a court decision on whether to activate the suspended sentence be made as soon as a later conviction was handed down, even if there was an appeal pending for the later conviction. Subsequent legislation introduced in 2017 corrected the deficiencies identified, introducing an effective appeal mechanism.
Japan
Suspended sentences (執行猶予, shikkō yūyo) are common practice in Japan and can be applied in cases where a sentence is for up to 3 years in prison and/or 500,000 yen in fines. Any criminal activity during the period of the suspended sentence will result in the cancellation of the sentence and imprisonment for the prescribed term.
Russia
In Russia suspended sentence (Russian: условный срок, lit. 'conditional sentence or probation') is commonplace and its application is stipulated by an Article 73 of the Russian Criminal Code. The suspended sentences may not be applied to child offenders (minors aged 14 or less when the offence was committed), to those who have committed a serious or very serious crime (the definition of which is given by Article 15 of the same Code as of 2019), or in case of crime recurrence. The judge may also impose additional restrictions on how the probation must be served. Initial sentence is enforced in case of convicted failing to fulfill conditions of the probation.
United Kingdom
A custodial sentence may, at the discretion of the sentencing judge or magistrates, be suspended for up to two years if the term of imprisonment is under two years and the offender agrees to comply with court requirements, which may include a curfew, performing unpaid work, and/or engaging in an appropriate rehabilitation programme. In 2017, 5% of convictions resulted in a suspended sentence, compared to 7% immediate custodial sentences.
The sentencing guidelines indicate that it is appropriate for a sentence to be suspended if there is strong personal mitigation and/or a realistic prospect of rehabilitation, but suspended sentences should not be used for offenders who pose a risk to the public or who have a history of poor compliance with court orders.
United States
In the United States, it is common practice for judges to hand down suspended sentences to first-time offenders who have committed a minor crime, and for prosecutors to recommend suspended sentences as part of a plea bargain. They are often given to mitigate the effect of penalties.
In some jurisdictions, the criminal record of the guilty party will still carry the offense, even after probation is adequately served. It is important to note that suspending a sentence does not completely remove the conviction from a person's record. While it may be hidden from the public, it is not hidden from law enforcement. In other cases, the process of deferred adjudication prevents the conviction from appearing on a person's criminal record, once probation had been completed.
In military trials governed by the Uniform Code of Military Justice, officers meting out non-judicial punishment may suspend the punishment they order.
See also
Deferred sentence
References
^ "Suspended sentences scrapped in all Victorian courts". the Guardian. Australian Associated Press. 1 September 2014. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
^ "Rikoslaki (39/1889), 2 b luku" . Finlex. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
^ "Yhdyskuntapalvelu - Rikosseuraamuslaitos". Rikosseuraamuslaitos. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
^ "Nuorten ehdollisen vankeuden valvonta - Rikosseuraamuslaitos". Rikosseuraamuslaitos. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
^ "Aikuisten ehdollisen vankeuden valvonta - Rikosseuraamuslaitos". Rikosseuraamuslaitos. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
^ "Suspended sentence law deemed 'unconstitutional'". RTÉ.ie. 19 April 2016. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
^ Carolan, Mary (20 April 2016). "Suspended sentences are rendered useless by ruling". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
^ "Criminal Justice Act 2006 ". Revised Acts. Ireland: Law Reform Commission. 11 February 2016. §99. Power to suspend sentence. Archived from the original on 13 May 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
^ "Criminal Justice (Suspended Sentences of Imprisonment) Act 2017". The Department of Justice and Equality. Archived from the original on 2019-11-08. Retrieved 2019-11-14.
^ "裁判手続 刑事事件Q&A 執行猶予が付いているとどうなるのですか" (in Japanese). Supreme Court of Japan. 2005. Archived from the original on July 9, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2013.
^ a b "УК РФ Статья 73. Условное осуждение" . www.consultant.ru (in Russian). consultant.ru. Archived from the original on 2019-06-05. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
^ "Criminal Code, Article 73. Conditional Sentence" (PDF). p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-15. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
^ Sentencing Council. "Suspended sentences". Sentencing Council. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
^ Ministry of Justice (17 May 2018). "MoJ Sentencing Statistics". Archived from the original on 27 May 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
^ "Custodial sentences – Sentencing". Archived from the original on 2021-08-09. Retrieved 2021-08-09.
^ "What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?". Retrieved 2021-12-08.
^ "Suspended Sentence Law & Legal Definition". Legal Terms, Definitions, and Dictionary. USLegal.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ "Definitions: Understanding Legal Words". Manitoba Courts. 23 October 2006. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
^ "What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?". Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ "What is Suspended Sentence for Felony?". Legal Terms, Definitions, and Dictionary. FelonyFriendlies. Archived from the original on 20 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
^ "Appendix 2, Uniform Code of Military Justice" (PDF). 20 December 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
Authority control databases: National
Japan
Czech Republic
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For example, an individual may be sentenced to a six-month jail term, wholly suspended for six months; if they commit any other offence during that year, the original jail term is immediately applied in addition to any other sentence.As of 1 September, 2014, suspended sentences no longer exist in Victoria, and in its place are community correction orders, which can be for a fixed term to ensure good behaviour.[1]","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Criminal sentencing in Canada § Probation and suspended sentences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_sentencing_in_Canada#Probation_and_suspended_sentences"}],"text":"Further information: Criminal sentencing in Canada § Probation and suspended sentences","title":"Canada"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"probation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probation"},{"link_name":"Death sentences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_punishment"},{"link_name":"death sentence with reprieve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_sentence_with_reprieve"}],"text":"In the People's Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong and Macau), both suspended sentences and suspended sentencing (Chinese: 缓刑, also translated as a sentence \"with reprieve\") are featured in the criminal law. In the first situation, a fixed-term sentence of three years or below can be suspended. In the second situation, sentencing does not immediately follow the guilty verdict, but instead is determined after a period of probation.Death sentences can also be suspended (called a \"death sentence with reprieve\"), so that an offender who does not intentionally re-offend during the two-year suspension period of release would have the sentence commuted to a life sentence.","title":"People's Republic of China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"A suspended sentence is called ehdollinen vankeusrangaistus in Finnish, which translates to \"conditional imprisonment\".[2] When a sentence of imprisonment, which can be at most two years, is imposed conditionally, the enforcement of the sentence is postponed for a probation period. The length of the probation period is at least one and at most three years. The probation period begins at the pronouncement or the issue of the judgment. When conditional imprisonment is imposed, the convicted person shall be notified, in connection with the pronouncement or the issue of the judgment, of the date when the probation period ends and of the grounds on which the sentence may be ordered to be enforced. A sentence of conditional imprisonment may be combined with fines or, if the sentence is longer than eight months, with community service of at least 14 and up to 120 hours.[3] Additional surveillance of the convicted can also be ordered, if it is seen as necessary to reduce recurrent criminal behaviour. [4][5]The court may order the enforcement of conditional imprisonment if the convicted person commits an offence during the probation period and the charge has been brought within one year of the end of the probation period. In this event, the conditional sentence to be enforced, the sentence for the offence committed during the probation period and the sentences of imprisonment for the other offences considered in the same trial shall be joined as one unconditional sentence of imprisonment. The court may also order that conditional imprisonment be enforced only in part, in which case the remainder of the sentence shall continue to be conditional, subject to the same probation period.","title":"Finland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Béranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_B%C3%A9renger"},{"link_name":"French penal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_p%C3%A9nal_(France)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Loi Béranger (Béranger bill) was introduced in March 26, 1891 in the French penal code. It was amended in 1958 and 1983. It allows for three types of suspended sentence:sursis simple (simple suspended sentence) – introduced in 1891. The only condition is to not commit any felony for a certain period of time after the final sentencing. Usually this period is 5 years.[citation needed] This can be proscribed to any legal entity, including companies and people.\nsursis probatoire (suspended sentence with probation) – introduced in 1958. this is reserved only to people. It contains checks and balances, and may be combined with other requirements. Before 2020, this was known as sursis probatoire avec mise à l'épreuve.\nsursis assorti avec obligation d'accomplir un travail d'intéret géneral (suspended sentence combined with mandatory community service) – introduced in 1983.","title":"France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"law of the Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"unconstitutional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"appeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_(law)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In the law of the Republic of Ireland, the 2006 law by which a suspended sentence is activated was ruled unconstitutional in 2016. The 2006 law required that a court decision on whether to activate the suspended sentence be made as soon as a later conviction was handed down, even if there was an appeal pending for the later conviction.[6][7][8] Subsequent legislation introduced in 2017 corrected the deficiencies identified, introducing an effective appeal mechanism. [9]","title":"Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Suspended sentences (執行猶予, shikkō yūyo) are common practice in Japan and can be applied in cases where a sentence is for up to 3 years in prison and/or 500,000 yen in fines. Any criminal activity during the period of the suspended sentence will result in the cancellation of the sentence and imprisonment for the prescribed term.[10]","title":"Japan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"Russian Criminal Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Code_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"crime recurrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recidivism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"}],"text":"In Russia suspended sentence (Russian: условный срок, lit. 'conditional sentence or probation') is commonplace and its application is stipulated by an Article 73 of the Russian Criminal Code.[11][12] The suspended sentences may not be applied to child offenders (minors aged 14 or less when the offence was committed), to those who have committed a serious or very serious crime (the definition of which is given by Article 15 of the same Code as of 2019), or in case of crime recurrence.[11] The judge may also impose additional restrictions on how the probation must be served. Initial sentence is enforced in case of convicted failing to fulfill conditions of the probation.","title":"Russia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unpaid work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpaid_work"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"A custodial sentence may, at the discretion of the sentencing judge or magistrates, be suspended for up to two years if the term of imprisonment is under two years and the offender agrees to comply with court requirements, which may include a curfew, performing unpaid work, and/or engaging in an appropriate rehabilitation programme.[13] In 2017, 5% of convictions resulted in a suspended sentence, compared to 7% immediate custodial sentences.[14]The sentencing guidelines indicate that it is appropriate for a sentence to be suspended if there is strong personal mitigation and/or a realistic prospect of rehabilitation, but suspended sentences should not be used for offenders who pose a risk to the public or who have a history of poor compliance with court orders.[15]","title":"United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"prosecutors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecutor"},{"link_name":"plea bargain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plea_bargain"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"criminal record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_record"},{"link_name":"probation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"deferred adjudication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferred_adjudication"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Uniform Code of Military Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"In the United States, it is common practice for judges to hand down suspended sentences[16] to first-time offenders who have committed a minor crime, and for prosecutors to recommend suspended sentences as part of a plea bargain. They are often given to mitigate the effect of penalties.[17]In some jurisdictions, the criminal record of the guilty party will still carry the offense, even after probation is adequately served.[18] It is important to note that suspending a sentence does not completely remove the conviction from a person's record. While it may be hidden from the public, it is not hidden from law enforcement.[19] In other cases, the process of deferred adjudication prevents the conviction from appearing on a person's criminal record, once probation had been completed.[20]In military trials governed by the Uniform Code of Military Justice, officers meting out non-judicial punishment may suspend the punishment they order.[21]","title":"United States"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Deferred sentence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferred_sentence"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Suspended sentences scrapped in all Victorian courts\". the Guardian. Australian Associated Press. 1 September 2014. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/01/suspended-prison-sentences-now-banned-in-all-victorian-courts","url_text":"\"Suspended sentences scrapped in all Victorian courts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180408210327/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/01/suspended-prison-sentences-now-banned-in-all-victorian-courts","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Rikoslaki (39/1889), 2 b luku\" [Penal Code (39/1889), Chapter 2b]. Finlex. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. 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Retrieved June 26, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.courts.go.jp/saiban/qa_keizi/qa_keizi_28/index.html","url_text":"\"裁判手続 刑事事件Q&A 執行猶予が付いているとどうなるのですか\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Japan","url_text":"Supreme Court of Japan"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130709031808/http://www.courts.go.jp/saiban/qa_keizi/qa_keizi_28/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"УК РФ Статья 73. Условное осуждение\" [Criminal Code Article 73. Suspended sentence]. www.consultant.ru (in Russian). consultant.ru. Archived from the original on 2019-06-05. Retrieved 2019-08-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/1fc6797cfe603f5b327aa4ea29644309db22717d/","url_text":"\"УК РФ Статья 73. Условное осуждение\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190605194846/http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/1fc6797cfe603f5b327aa4ea29644309db22717d/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Criminal Code, Article 73. Conditional Sentence\" (PDF). p. 28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-15. Retrieved 2019-08-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imolin.org/doc/amlid/Russian_Federation_Criminal_Code.pdf#targetText=The%20tasks%20of%20the%20present,also%20the%20prevention%20of%20crimes.","url_text":"\"Criminal Code, Article 73. Conditional Sentence\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200415021058/https://www.imolin.org/doc/amlid/Russian_Federation_Criminal_Code.pdf#targetText=The%20tasks%20of%20the%20present,also%20the%20prevention%20of%20crimes.","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sentencing Council. \"Suspended sentences\". Sentencing Council. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/sentencing-and-the-council/types-of-sentence/suspended-sentences/","url_text":"\"Suspended sentences\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210516195302/https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/sentencing-and-the-council/types-of-sentence/suspended-sentences/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ministry of Justice (17 May 2018). \"MoJ Sentencing Statistics\". Archived from the original on 27 May 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/criminal-justice-statistics-quarterly","url_text":"\"MoJ Sentencing Statistics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180527025326/https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/criminal-justice-statistics-quarterly","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Custodial sentences – Sentencing\". Archived from the original on 2021-08-09. Retrieved 2021-08-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/droppable/item/custodial-sentences/","url_text":"\"Custodial sentences – Sentencing\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210809002620/https://www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/droppable/item/custodial-sentences/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?\". Retrieved 2021-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://excellentcriminaldefense.com/what-is-a-suspended-imposition-of-sentence/","url_text":"\"What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Suspended Sentence Law & Legal Definition\". Legal Terms, Definitions, and Dictionary. USLegal.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://definitions.uslegal.com/s/suspended-sentence/","url_text":"\"Suspended Sentence Law & Legal Definition\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110111084423/http://definitions.uslegal.com/s/suspended-sentence/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Definitions: Understanding Legal Words\". Manitoba Courts. 23 October 2006. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 23 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.manitobacourts.mb.ca/definitions.html","url_text":"\"Definitions: Understanding Legal Words\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110706185051/http://www.manitobacourts.mb.ca/definitions.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?\". Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://excellentcriminaldefense.com/what-is-a-suspended-imposition-of-sentence/","url_text":"\"What is a Suspended Imposition of Sentence?\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is Suspended Sentence for Felony?\". Legal Terms, Definitions, and Dictionary. FelonyFriendlies. Archived from the original on 20 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://felonyfriendlyjobs.org/suspended-sentence-for-felony/","url_text":"\"What is Suspended Sentence for Felony?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191020181647/https://felonyfriendlyjobs.org/suspended-sentence-for-felony/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Appendix 2, Uniform Code of Military Justice\" (PDF). 20 December 2019. Retrieved 26 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://jsc.defense.gov/Portals/99/Documents/UCMJ%20-%2020December2019.pdf","url_text":"\"Appendix 2, Uniform Code of Military Justice\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Bryant
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Joe Bryant
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["1 Professional career","1.1 San Diego Clippers (1979–1982)","1.2 Houston Rockets (1982-1983)","1.3 Europe (1983–1992)","2 Coaching career","2.1 Akiba Hebrew Academy (1992–1993)","2.2 La Salle Explorers (1993–1996)","2.3 Diablos (2003)","2.4 Los Angeles Sparks (2005–2007)","2.5 Tokyo Apache (2007–2008)","2.6 Sebastiani Rieti (2009–2010)","2.7 Levanga Hokkaido (2010–2011)","2.8 Bangkok Cobras (2012–2013)","2.9 Rising Fukuoka (2015)","3 Head coaching record","3.1 WNBA","3.2 Japan","4 Personal life","5 References","6 External links"]
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American basketball head coach and retired player (born 1954)
Not to be confused with Joe Bryant Jr..
Joe BryantBryant coaching Levanga Hokkaido in 2010Personal informationBorn (1954-10-19) October 19, 1954 (age 69)Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.Listed height6 ft 9 in (2.06 m)Listed weight185 lb (84 kg)Career informationHigh schoolJohn Bartram(Philadelphia, Pennsylvania)CollegeLa Salle (1973–1975)NBA draft1975: 1st round, 14th overall pickSelected by the Golden State WarriorsPlaying career1975–1991PositionPower forward / small forwardNumber23, 22Coaching career1992–2015Career historyAs player:1975–1979Philadelphia 76ers1979–1982San Diego Clippers1982–1983Houston Rockets1983–1986AMG Sebastiani Rieti1986–1987Standa Reggio Calabria1987–1989Olimpia Pistoia1989–1991Reggiana1991MulhouseAs coach:1992–1993Akiba Hebrew Academy1993–1996La Salle (assistant)2003–2004Las Vegas Rattlers2004–2005Boston Frenzy2005–2007Los Angeles Sparks2007–2009Tokyo Apache2010–2011Levanga Hokkaido2011Los Angeles Sparks2012Bangkok Cobras2013Chang Thailand Slammers2014–2015Rizing Fukuoka
Career NBA statisticsPoints5,252 (8.7 ppg)Rebounds2,441 (4.0 rpg)Assists1,049 (1.7 apg)
Stats at NBA.comStats at Basketball-Reference.com
Joseph Washington Bryant (born October 19, 1954), nicknamed "Jellybean", is an American former professional basketball player and coach. He played for the Philadelphia 76ers, San Diego Clippers, and Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He also played for several teams in Italy and one in France. Bryant was the head coach of the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks from 2005 to 2007 and returned to that position for the remainder of the 2011 WNBA season. Bryant has also coached in Italy, Japan, and Thailand. His son, legendary basketball player Kobe Bryant, was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame.
Professional career
San Diego Clippers (1979–1982)
Before the 1979–1980 season, the Sixers traded Bryant to the San Diego Clippers, where he spent three seasons. In the first game of the 1979–1980 season, played at home against the Los Angeles Lakers, Bryant memorably had a slam dunk over center Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Despite the dunk and a 46-point effort by teammate Lloyd Free (also his teammate on the Sixers), the Lakers prevailed on a game-winning sky hook by Abdul-Jabbar.
Houston Rockets (1982-1983)
Following the 1981 season, Bryant played one season for the Houston Rockets.
Europe (1983–1992)
Bryant played overseas in Italy and France from 1982 to 1992. He ended his playing career in 1992.
Coaching career
Akiba Hebrew Academy (1992–1993)
Bryant's first coaching position, after returning from Europe, was when he was deployed with the U.S. Armed Forces in Italy. In the 1992–1993 season, he served as the head coach of the women's varsity team at Akiba Hebrew Academy in Lower Merion, Pennsylvania.
La Salle Explorers (1993–1996)
In June 1993, he left Akiba and accepted an assistant coach position at his alma mater, La Salle University. On May 7, 1996, Bryant resigned from La Salle after his son Kobe announced his intentions to enter the NBA out of high school.
Diablos (2003)
Bryant served as coach for the Diablos during the 2003 season of SlamBall, in which the team posted a record of 4–6 and finished seventh place.
Los Angeles Sparks (2005–2007)
On August 22, 2005, Bryant, who was an assistant coach for the WNBA team Los Angeles Sparks, was named the head coach, succeeding previous coach (and former 76ers teammate) Henry Bibby. During the 2006 season, he led the Sparks to a 25–9 record and a Conference Finals berth. However, in April 2007, Bryant was replaced as Sparks head coach by Michael Cooper, who had previously helmed the team in 1999–2004.
Tokyo Apache (2007–2008)
Bryant spent the 2007–2008 season coaching the Tokyo Apache of the Japanese BJ League, during which the team was the runner-up in the playoffs.
Sebastiani Rieti (2009–2010)
On July 3, 2009, Bryant signed a contract with his first Italian club, Sebastiani Rieti. The 2009–2010 season was also the club's last.
Levanga Hokkaido (2010–2011)
Bryant served as the head coach of Japanese professional basketball team Levanga Hokkaido during the 2010–2011 JBL season.
Bangkok Cobras (2012–2013)
In January 2012, Bryant was hired as coach of the Bangkok Cobras in the ASEAN Basketball League (ABL). He coached for the 2012–2013 season.
Rising Fukuoka (2015)
Bryant served as the head coach of Rizing Fukuoka of the BJ League during 2015.
Head coaching record
Legend
Regular season
G
Games coached
W
Games won
L
Games lost
W–L %
Win–loss %
Playoffs
PG
Playoff games
PW
Playoff wins
PL
Playoff losses
PW–L %
Playoff win–loss %
WNBA
Team
Year
G
W
L
W–L%
Finish
PG
PW
PL
PW–L%
Result
Los Angeles Sparks
2005
6
4
2
.667
4th in Western
2
0
2
.000
Lost Conference Semifinals
Los Angeles Sparks
2006
34
25
9
.735
1st in Western
5
2
3
.400
Lost Conference Finals
Los Angeles Sparks
2011
24
11
13
.458
5th in Western
–
–
–
–
–
Japan
Team
Year
G
W
L
W–L%
Finish
PG
PW
PL
PW–L%
Result
Tokyo Apache
2005–2006
40
20
20
.500
3rd
–
–
–
–
–
Tokyo Apache
2006–2007
40
12
28
.300
8th
–
–
–
–
–
Tokyo Apache
2007–2008
44
27
17
.614
2nd in Eastern
2
1
1
.500
Runners-up
Tokyo Apache
2008–2009
52
33
19
.635
2nd in Eastern
4
3
1
.750
Runners-up
Rera Kamuy Hokkaido
2010–2011
22
6
16
.273
Fired
–
–
–
–
–
Rizing Fukuoka
2014–2015
32
9
23
.281
9th in Western
–
–
–
–
–
Personal life
In 1975, Bryant married Pam Cox, sister of former NBA player Chubby Cox. Their son, Kobe, was also an NBA player, who was subsequently inducted into the Hall of Fame. Bryant also has two daughters, Sharia and Shaya. Through his wife Pam, he is the uncle-in-law of professional basketball player John Cox IV.
References
^ Martinez, Nico (January 29, 2020). "Kobe's Father, Joe Bryant, Seen For The First Time Since Son and Granddaughter's Death". Fadeaway World. Retrieved February 1, 2020.
^ "ESPN.com – WNBA – Bryant out, Cooper Back in as Sparks Coach". ESPN.
^ Bryant was traded for what eventually turned out to be the first pick in the 1986 NBA draft, although prior to the draft the 76ers traded the pick to the Cleveland Cavaliers, who selected Brad Daugherty.
^ Charry, Rob (2004-02-27). "Coach Bryant? Akiba Once Led by Kobe's Dad". The Forward. The Forward. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
^ "Bryant Returns to LaSalle as Assistant". Philadelphia Daily News. Philadelphia Daily News. 1993-06-24.
^ "Bryant Quits La Salle Job". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 8, 1996. Retrieved August 22, 2020.
^ Maffioli, Luca (2009-07-03). "Joe Bryant nuovo coach di Rieti" (in Italian). Sport Blog. Archived from the original on 2010-09-27. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
^ Bangkok team hires Kobe’s dad Archived 2012-01-13 at the Wayback Machine
^ Bryant out as Rizing Fukuoka coach
External links
Joe Bryant at Basketball-Reference.com
Joe Bryant WNBA Coach Profile
Joe Bryant statistics in Italian Championship Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
vteLos Angeles Sparks
Founded in 1997
Based in Los Angeles, California
Franchise
Franchise
Current season
Arenas
Kia Forum
Crypto.com Arena
Head coaches
Linda Sharp
Julie Rousseau
Orlando Woolridge
Michael Cooper
Karleen Thompson
Ryan Weisenberg
Henry Bibby
Joe Bryant
Michael Cooper
Jennifer Gillom
Joe Bryant
Carol Ross
Penny Toler
Brian Agler
Derek Fisher
Fred Williams
Curt Miller
Administration
Owner: Guggenheim Partners
General Manager: Vacant
All-Stars
Alana Beard
Tamecka Dixon
Chelsea Gray
Chamique Holdsclaw
Jantel Lavender
Lisa Leslie
Mwadi Mabika
Taj McWilliams-Franklin
DeLisha Milton-Jones
Nneka Ogwumike
Candace Parker
Nikki Teasley
Tina Thompson
Kristi Toliver
Seasons
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
Playoff appearances
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
2010
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Conference Championships
2001
2002
2003
2016
2017
WNBA Championships
2001
2002
2016
Rivals
Detroit Shock
Houston Comets
New York Liberty
Minnesota Lynx
Phoenix Mercury
Sacramento Monarchs
Las Vegas Aces
Seattle Storm
Media
TV: Spectrum SportsNet (Los Angeles)
Announcers: Jim Watson, Mary Murphy
vte1975 NBA draftFirst round
David Thompson
Dave Meyers
Marvin Webster
Alvan Adams
Darryl Dawkins
Lionel Hollins
Rich Kelley
Junior Bridgeman
Gene Short
Bill Robinzine
Joe C. Meriweather
Frank Oleynick
Bob Bigelow
Joe Bryant
John Lambert
Ricky Sobers
Tom Boswell
Kevin Grevey
Second round
Bill Willoughby
Gus Williams
Bruce Seals
Clyde Mayes
Lloyd Free
Cornelius Cash
Bob Gross
Luther Burden
Walter Luckett
Dan Roundfield
Jim Blanks
Steve Green
Glenn Hansen
John Laskowski
Mel Utley
Larry Fogle
Allen Murphy
Jimmy Dan Conner
vteKobe BryantLife and events
Career achievements
Shaq–Kobe feud
Sexual assault case
Granity Studios
Helicopter crash and death
Films and games
Dear Basketball
Kobe Doin' Work
Kobe Bryant in NBA Courtside
NBA Courtside 2 Featuring Kobe Bryant
NBA 2K10
NBA 2K17
NBA 2K21
NBA 2K24
Honors and legacy
Statue of Kobe Bryant
Murals of Kobe Bryant
Kobe Bryant Day
Kobe Bryant Boulevard
Family
Gianna Bryant (daughter)
Vanessa Bryant (wife)
Joe Bryant (father)
Category
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joe Bryant Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Bryant_Jr."},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball"},{"link_name":"coach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coach_(basketball)"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia 76ers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_76ers"},{"link_name":"San Diego Clippers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Clippers#1978%E2%80%931984:_San_Diego_Clippers"},{"link_name":"Houston Rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Rockets"},{"link_name":"National Basketball Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"WNBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Sparks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WNBAWNBAJB1-2"},{"link_name":"2011 WNBA season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_WNBA_season"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Kobe Bryant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_Bryant"},{"link_name":"Basketball Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naismith_Memorial_Basketball_Hall_of_Fame"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Joe Bryant Jr..Joseph Washington Bryant (born October 19, 1954), nicknamed \"Jellybean\",[1] is an American former professional basketball player and coach. He played for the Philadelphia 76ers, San Diego Clippers, and Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He also played for several teams in Italy and one in France. Bryant was the head coach of the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks from 2005 to 2007[2] and returned to that position for the remainder of the 2011 WNBA season. Bryant has also coached in Italy, Japan, and Thailand. His son, legendary basketball player Kobe Bryant, was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame.","title":"Joe Bryant"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Professional career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"San Diego Clippers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Clippers#1909-1999:_San_Diego_Clippers"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Kareem Abdul-Jabbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareem_Abdul-Jabbar"},{"link_name":"Lloyd Free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_B._Free"}],"sub_title":"San Diego Clippers (1979–1982)","text":"Before the 1979–1980 season, the Sixers traded Bryant to the San Diego Clippers,[3] where he spent three seasons. In the first game of the 1979–1980 season, played at home against the Los Angeles Lakers, Bryant memorably had a slam dunk over center Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Despite the dunk and a 46-point effort by teammate Lloyd Free (also his teammate on the Sixers), the Lakers prevailed on a game-winning sky hook by Abdul-Jabbar.","title":"Professional career"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Houston Rockets (1982-1983)","text":"Following the 1981 season, Bryant played one season for the Houston Rockets.","title":"Professional career"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Europe (1983–1992)","text":"Bryant played overseas in Italy and France from 1982 to 1992. He ended his playing career in 1992.","title":"Professional career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Akiba Hebrew Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akiba_Hebrew_Academy"},{"link_name":"Lower Merion, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Merion,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Akiba Hebrew Academy (1992–1993)","text":"Bryant's first coaching position, after returning from Europe, was when he was deployed with the U.S. Armed Forces in Italy. In the 1992–1993 season, he served as the head coach of the women's varsity team at Akiba Hebrew Academy in Lower Merion, Pennsylvania.[4]","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"La Salle University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Salle_Explorers_men%27s_basketball"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Kobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_Bryant"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"La Salle Explorers (1993–1996)","text":"In June 1993, he left Akiba and accepted an assistant coach position at his alma mater, La Salle University.[5] On May 7, 1996, Bryant resigned from La Salle after his son Kobe announced his intentions to enter the NBA out of high school.[6]","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SlamBall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slamball"}],"sub_title":"Diablos (2003)","text":"Bryant served as coach for the Diablos during the 2003 season of SlamBall, in which the team posted a record of 4–6 and finished seventh place.","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WNBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Sparks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks"},{"link_name":"Henry Bibby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Bibby"},{"link_name":"Michael Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Cooper"}],"sub_title":"Los Angeles Sparks (2005–2007)","text":"On August 22, 2005, Bryant, who was an assistant coach for the WNBA team Los Angeles Sparks, was named the head coach, succeeding previous coach (and former 76ers teammate) Henry Bibby. During the 2006 season, he led the Sparks to a 25–9 record and a Conference Finals berth. However, in April 2007, Bryant was replaced as Sparks head coach by Michael Cooper, who had previously helmed the team in 1999–2004.","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tokyo Apache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Apache"},{"link_name":"BJ League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj_league"}],"sub_title":"Tokyo Apache (2007–2008)","text":"Bryant spent the 2007–2008 season coaching the Tokyo Apache of the Japanese BJ League, during which the team was the runner-up in the playoffs.","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sebastiani Rieti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuova_AMG_Sebastiani_Basket_Rieti"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rieti_coach-7"}],"sub_title":"Sebastiani Rieti (2009–2010)","text":"On July 3, 2009, Bryant signed a contract with his first Italian club, Sebastiani Rieti.[7] The 2009–2010 season was also the club's last.","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Levanga Hokkaido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanga_Hokkaido"},{"link_name":"JBL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Basketball_League"}],"sub_title":"Levanga Hokkaido (2010–2011)","text":"Bryant served as the head coach of Japanese professional basketball team Levanga Hokkaido during the 2010–2011 JBL season.","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bangkok Cobras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Cobras"},{"link_name":"ASEAN Basketball League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN_Basketball_League"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Bangkok Cobras (2012–2013)","text":"In January 2012, Bryant was hired as coach of the Bangkok Cobras in the ASEAN Basketball League (ABL). He coached for the 2012–2013 season.[8]","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rizing Fukuoka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rizing_Fukuoka"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Rising Fukuoka (2015)","text":"Bryant served as the head coach of Rizing Fukuoka of the BJ League during 2015.[9]","title":"Coaching career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Head coaching record"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"WNBA","title":"Head coaching record"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Japan","title":"Head coaching record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chubby Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chubby_Cox"},{"link_name":"Kobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_Bryant"},{"link_name":"John Cox IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cox_(basketball,_born_1981)"}],"text":"In 1975, Bryant married Pam Cox, sister of former NBA player Chubby Cox. Their son, Kobe, was also an NBA player, who was subsequently inducted into the Hall of Fame. Bryant also has two daughters, Sharia and Shaya. Through his wife Pam, he is the uncle-in-law of professional basketball player John Cox IV.","title":"Personal life"}]
|
[]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawahar_Kala_Kendra
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Jawahar Kala Kendra
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["1 Architecture","2 Theatre, Museum and Activities","3 Gallery","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 26°52′34″N 75°48′33″E / 26.8762°N 75.8091°E / 26.8762; 75.8091This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Building in Jaipur, IndiaJawahar Kala Kendraजवाहर कला केंद्रThe Jawahar Kala Kendra, designed by Charles Correa, in Jaipur, RajasthanLocation within JaipurShow map of JaipurLocation within RajasthanShow map of RajasthanGeneral informationAddress2, Jawahar Lal Nehru Marg, Opposite Opp Commerce College, Jhalana Doongri, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302004, IndiaTown or cityJaipurCountryIndiaConstruction started1986; 38 years ago (1986)Completed1992; 32 years ago (1992)OwnerGovernment of RajasthanDesign and constructionArchitect(s)Charles Correa
The Jawahar Kala Kendra (JKK) is a multi-arts center located in the city of Jaipur, India. It was built by the Government of Rajasthan to preserve Rajasthani arts and crafts. The center has eight blocks housing museums, an amphitheater, a closed auditorium, a library, art display rooms, a cafeteria, a small hostel, and an art studio. It also houses two permanent art galleries and three others, and it hosts its yearly theatre festival.
Architecture
Vastu shastra-inspired plan adapted and evolved by modern architect Charles Correa in the design of Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, Rajasthan.
Jawahar Kala Kendra was built to resemble a red fort, with no windows on its facade. The design was prepared by the architect Charles Correa in 1986 and the building was ready in 1992. The plan is inspired by the original city plan of Jaipur, consisting of nine squares with a central square left open. The Jawahar Kala Kendra adapts and applies concepts from ancient architectural principles called the Vastu Vidya.
The architecture of Jawahar Kala Kendra follows the Indian classical principle Vastu Purush Mandala. In this style, the plan of the building is conceived as a model of the Cosmos. The specific Mandala invoked in Jawahar Kala Kendra is the Navagraha. The plan consists of nine squares, each representing a planet, including two imaginary ones, Rahu and Ketu.
The centre is an analogue of the original city plan of Jaipur, drawn up by Maharaja Jai Singh II, a scholar, mathematician, and astronomer, in the mid-17th century. His city plan, guided by the Shilpa Shastras, was based on the ancient Vedic mandala. Due to the presence of a hill, one of the squares was transposed to the east, and two squares were amalgamated to house the palace. Maharaja Jai Singh had one of the squares moved due to the presence of a hill in his design of the Jaipur city plan. Correa invoked the original mandala while innovatively using one square as the main entrance.
Correa's plan for the Kendra directly invokes the original navagraha or nine house mandala. One of the squares is pivoted to recall the original city plan and create the entrance. The plan of Jaipur city is based on the nine square Yantra in which one square is displaced, and two central squares are combined. The squares are defined by an 8-meter-high wall, symbolizing the fortification wall along the old city of Jaipur.
Hastakar Yantra, Jawahar Kala Kendra
The idea was to create a cultural complex imbued with an intrinsic local context and historical ambience. Crossing the lush garden, one foray into a series of open-air pavilions as one enters the courtyard. Archways lead to painted domes, amphitheaters, cafés, and art galleries that all seemed spatially aligned as if enveloping the structure. There is a mural of a palm reading at the entrance to the theatre which illustrates the association of astrology and astronomy by naming the planets on the mounds of the hand. Ancient traditions, Medieval Mughal aesthetics, and contemporary and evolving artistic sensibilities find representation in Jawahar Kala Kendra in its architecture, design, and activities.
Theatre, Museum and Activities
Rangayan, Mihir, Open Theatre, are a few of the many theatres housed in JKK. The building has eight squares and one main entrance. Each square is assigned to one planet in the plan and design. The square assigned to planet Brihaspati houses the library; planet Mangala houses the administrative offices; planet Budha houses the museum, which boasts a collection of miniature paintings, jewellery, photographs, musical instruments, and other cultural artifacts. Ketu houses other museum objects, among which an ornate antique carriage is prized.
Traditional wooden statues of Rajasthani crafts and traditional terracotta wall panels are also exhibited. Planet Shukra houses the theatres, while planet Shani houses the art galleries, such as Sukriti, Surekh, Parijat, Chaturdik, etc. Rahu is the square that facilitates documentation and research. The central square is dedicated to the Surya, just as the sun is the centre of the universe. It also serves as an open-air theatre called ‘Madhyavati.’ The astrological symbol of each planet is illustrated in a mural on the adjoining wall of each corresponding section. The ground plan includes two museums, a folk art centre, a studio, a closed theatre known as ‘Rangayan,’ and an open-air theatre known as ‘Madhyavati.’
At Jawahar Kala Kendra, many local traditional folk theatres like Khayals, Rammats, and Tamashas are performed. Lok Rang, the national folk festival, is also held here annually. Its library houses 20,000 books on Art, Architecture, Culture, Sculpture, Music, Drama, and other related subjects. Monographs on studies of various art forms such as Ghumar, Kanhaiya, and Dhrupad have been published, along with a major publication on Wall Paintings of Rajasthan, Treasures of Albert Hall Museum, Abhaneri, etc. Summer schools for dance, theatre, music, painting, etc., are regularly conducted to train children. Renowned artists are invited for residency programs.
Gallery
Sign at the entry
Entryway
Amphitheatre
Amphitheatre
Amphitheatre
Pergola
Door painted in Rajasthani Art
Hastkaar Yantra based on medieval Rajasthani painting
Central courtyard, Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur
Ceiling of entrance foyer at Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur
Display Area, Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur
Planet Budh
Planet Chandra
Planet Ketu
References
^ "Jawahar Kala Kendra". Architectuul. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
^ a b Sachdev, Vibhuti; Tillotson, Giles (2004). Building Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City. pp. 155–160. ISBN 978-1861891372.
^ Charles Correa: Exhibitions and Museums website.
^ Jawahar Kala Kendra Britannica.com
^ Vibhuti Chakrabarti. Indian Architectural Theory: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya. Routledge. pp. 86–92.
^ Jain, Ashok Kumar (2 November 2015). "Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)". International Journal of Environmental Studies. 72 (6): 903–907. doi:10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593. ISSN 0020-7233.
^ Jain, Ashok Kumar (2 November 2015). "Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)". International Journal of Environmental Studies. 72 (6): 903–907. doi:10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593. ISSN 0020-7233.
^ Parsons, Ella (2019). "Jawahar Kala Kendra". World Literature Today. 93 (1): 112–112. doi:10.1353/wlt.2019.0146. ISSN 1945-8134.
External links
Jawahar Kala Kendra A Case-study by students of School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi
26°52′34″N 75°48′33″E / 26.8762°N 75.8091°E / 26.8762; 75.8091
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jaipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaipur"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Government of Rajasthan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Rajasthan"},{"link_name":"Rajasthani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Building in Jaipur, IndiaThe Jawahar Kala Kendra (JKK) is a multi-arts center located in the city of Jaipur, India. It was built by the Government of Rajasthan to preserve Rajasthani arts and crafts.[1] The center has eight blocks housing museums, an amphitheater, a closed auditorium, a library, art display rooms, a cafeteria, a small hostel, and an art studio. It also houses two permanent art galleries and three others, and it hosts its yearly theatre festival.","title":"Jawahar Kala Kendra"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_06.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vastu shastra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra"},{"link_name":"Charles Correa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Correa"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vsgt2-2"},{"link_name":"Charles Correa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Correa"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Vastu Vidya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vsgt2-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Navagraha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navagraha"},{"link_name":"Rahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahu"},{"link_name":"Ketu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketu_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Maharaja Jai Singh II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawai_Jai_Singh"},{"link_name":"Shilpa Shastras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shilpa_Shastras"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapping_Fortunes.jpg"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Mughal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire"}],"text":"Vastu shastra-inspired plan adapted and evolved by modern architect Charles Correa in the design of Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, Rajasthan.[2]Jawahar Kala Kendra was built to resemble a red fort, with no windows on its facade. The design was prepared by the architect Charles Correa in 1986 and the building was ready in 1992.[3] The plan is inspired by the original city plan of Jaipur, consisting of nine squares with a central square left open.[4] The Jawahar Kala Kendra adapts and applies concepts from ancient architectural principles called the Vastu Vidya.[2][5]The architecture of Jawahar Kala Kendra follows the Indian classical principle Vastu Purush Mandala. In this style, the plan of the building is conceived as a model of the Cosmos. The specific Mandala invoked in Jawahar Kala Kendra is the Navagraha. The plan consists of nine squares, each representing a planet, including two imaginary ones, Rahu and Ketu. [6]The centre is an analogue of the original city plan of Jaipur, drawn up by Maharaja Jai Singh II, a scholar, mathematician, and astronomer, in the mid-17th century. His city plan, guided by the Shilpa Shastras, was based on the ancient Vedic mandala. Due to the presence of a hill, one of the squares was transposed to the east, and two squares were amalgamated to house the palace. Maharaja Jai Singh had one of the squares moved due to the presence of a hill in his design of the Jaipur city plan. Correa invoked the original mandala while innovatively using one square as the main entrance.[7]Correa's plan for the Kendra directly invokes the original navagraha or nine house mandala. One of the squares is pivoted to recall the original city plan and create the entrance. The plan of Jaipur city is based on the nine square Yantra in which one square is displaced, and two central squares are combined. The squares are defined by an 8-meter-high wall, symbolizing the fortification wall along the old city of Jaipur.Hastakar Yantra, Jawahar Kala KendraThe idea was to create a cultural complex imbued with an intrinsic local context and historical ambience. Crossing the lush garden, one foray into a series of open-air pavilions as one enters the courtyard. Archways lead to painted domes, amphitheaters, cafés, and art galleries that all seemed spatially aligned as if enveloping the structure. There is a mural of a palm reading at the entrance to the theatre which illustrates the association of astrology and astronomy by naming the planets on the mounds of the hand.[8] Ancient traditions, Medieval Mughal aesthetics, and contemporary and evolving artistic sensibilities find representation in Jawahar Kala Kendra in its architecture, design, and activities.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brihaspati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihaspati"},{"link_name":"Mangala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangala"},{"link_name":"Budha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budha"},{"link_name":"Shukra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shukra"},{"link_name":"Shani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shani"},{"link_name":"Rahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahu"},{"link_name":"Surya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya"}],"text":"Rangayan, Mihir, Open Theatre, are a few of the many theatres housed in JKK. The building has eight squares and one main entrance. Each square is assigned to one planet in the plan and design. The square assigned to planet Brihaspati houses the library; planet Mangala houses the administrative offices; planet Budha houses the museum, which boasts a collection of miniature paintings, jewellery, photographs, musical instruments, and other cultural artifacts. Ketu houses other museum objects, among which an ornate antique carriage is prized.Traditional wooden statues of Rajasthani crafts and traditional terracotta wall panels are also exhibited. Planet Shukra houses the theatres, while planet Shani houses the art galleries, such as Sukriti, Surekh, Parijat, Chaturdik, etc. Rahu is the square that facilitates documentation and research. The central square is dedicated to the Surya, just as the sun is the centre of the universe. It also serves as an open-air theatre called ‘Madhyavati.’ The astrological symbol of each planet is illustrated in a mural on the adjoining wall of each corresponding section. The ground plan includes two museums, a folk art centre, a studio, a closed theatre known as ‘Rangayan,’ and an open-air theatre known as ‘Madhyavati.’At Jawahar Kala Kendra, many local traditional folk theatres like Khayals, Rammats, and Tamashas are performed. Lok Rang, the national folk festival, is also held here annually. Its library houses 20,000 books on Art, Architecture, Culture, Sculpture, Music, Drama, and other related subjects. Monographs on studies of various art forms such as Ghumar, Kanhaiya, and Dhrupad have been published, along with a major publication on Wall Paintings of Rajasthan, Treasures of Albert Hall Museum, Abhaneri, etc. Summer schools for dance, theatre, music, painting, etc., are regularly conducted to train children. Renowned artists are invited for residency programs.","title":"Theatre, Museum and Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_27.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_26.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JKK_08.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_18.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_19.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JKK_18.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JKK_20.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapping_Fortunes.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Central_courtyard,_Jawahar_Kala_Kendra,_Jaipur,_Rajasthan.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceiling,_Entrance_Foyer,_Jwahar_Kala_Kendra.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Display_Gallery,_Jawahar_Kala_Kendra.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planet_budha.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planet_chandra.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Planet_ketu.JPG"}],"text":"Sign at the entry\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEntryway\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAmphitheatre\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAmphitheatre\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAmphitheatre\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPergola\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDoor painted in Rajasthani Art\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHastkaar Yantra based on medieval Rajasthani painting\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCentral courtyard, Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCeiling of entrance foyer at Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDisplay Area, Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPlanet Budh\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPlanet Chandra\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPlanet Ketu","title":"Gallery"}]
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[{"image_text":"Vastu shastra-inspired plan adapted and evolved by modern architect Charles Correa in the design of Jawahar Kala Kendra, Jaipur, Rajasthan.[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_06.jpg/220px-2022_July_-_JawaharKalaKendra_Jaipur_06.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hastakar Yantra, Jawahar Kala Kendra","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mapping_Fortunes.jpg/220px-Mapping_Fortunes.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Jawahar Kala Kendra\". Architectuul. Retrieved 9 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://architectuul.com/architecture/jawahar-kala-kendra","url_text":"\"Jawahar Kala Kendra\""}]},{"reference":"Sachdev, Vibhuti; Tillotson, Giles (2004). Building Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City. pp. 155–160. ISBN 978-1861891372.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Tillotson","url_text":"Tillotson, Giles"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/buildingjaipurma00sach_849","url_text":"Building Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/buildingjaipurma00sach_849/page/n156","url_text":"155"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1861891372","url_text":"978-1861891372"}]},{"reference":"Vibhuti Chakrabarti. Indian Architectural Theory: Contemporary Uses of Vastu Vidya. Routledge. pp. 86–92.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jain, Ashok Kumar (2 November 2015). \"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\". International Journal of Environmental Studies. 72 (6): 903–907. doi:10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593. ISSN 0020-7233.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593","url_text":"\"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207233.2015.1077593","url_text":"10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7233","url_text":"0020-7233"}]},{"reference":"Jain, Ashok Kumar (2 November 2015). \"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\". International Journal of Environmental Studies. 72 (6): 903–907. doi:10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593. ISSN 0020-7233.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593","url_text":"\"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207233.2015.1077593","url_text":"10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7233","url_text":"0020-7233"}]},{"reference":"Parsons, Ella (2019). \"Jawahar Kala Kendra\". World Literature Today. 93 (1): 112–112. doi:10.1353/wlt.2019.0146. ISSN 1945-8134.","urls":[{"url":"https://muse.jhu.edu/summary","url_text":"\"Jawahar Kala Kendra\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwlt.2019.0146","url_text":"10.1353/wlt.2019.0146"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1945-8134","url_text":"1945-8134"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jawahar_Kala_Kendra¶ms=26.8762_N_75.8091_E_","external_links_name":"26°52′34″N 75°48′33″E / 26.8762°N 75.8091°E / 26.8762; 75.8091"},{"Link":"https://architectuul.com/architecture/jawahar-kala-kendra","external_links_name":"\"Jawahar Kala Kendra\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/buildingjaipurma00sach_849","external_links_name":"Building Jaipur: The Making of an Indian City"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/buildingjaipurma00sach_849/page/n156","external_links_name":"155"},{"Link":"http://www.charlescorrea.net/","external_links_name":"Charles Correa: Exhibitions and Museums"},{"Link":"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/138593/82203/A-section-of-the-Jawahar-Kala-Kendra-arts-centre-designed","external_links_name":"Jawahar Kala Kendra"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593","external_links_name":"\"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207233.2015.1077593","external_links_name":"10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7233","external_links_name":"0020-7233"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593","external_links_name":"\"Charles Correa (1st September 1930–16th June 2015)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207233.2015.1077593","external_links_name":"10.1080/00207233.2015.1077593"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7233","external_links_name":"0020-7233"},{"Link":"https://muse.jhu.edu/summary","external_links_name":"\"Jawahar Kala Kendra\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwlt.2019.0146","external_links_name":"10.1353/wlt.2019.0146"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1945-8134","external_links_name":"1945-8134"},{"Link":"http://archinomy.com/case-studies/1867/jawahar-kala-kendra-jaipur-india","external_links_name":"Jawahar Kala Kendra"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jawahar_Kala_Kendra¶ms=26.8762_N_75.8091_E_","external_links_name":"26°52′34″N 75°48′33″E / 26.8762°N 75.8091°E / 26.8762; 75.8091"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_(unit)
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Einstein (unit)
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["1 References"]
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Obsolete unit with conflicting definitions
The einstein (symbol E) is an obsolete unit with two conflicting definitions. It was originally defined as the energy in one mole of photons (6.022×1023 photons). Because energy is inversely proportional to wavelength, the unit is frequency dependent. This unit is not part of the International System of Units (SI) and is redundant with the joule. If it were still in use, as of the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, its value would be related to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation by
1 einstein = 1 mol × NA h f = 1 mol × 6.02214076×1023 mol−1 × 6.62607015×10−34 J⋅s × f = 3.9903127128934321×10−10 J⋅s × f,
where NA is the Avogadro constant, h is the Planck constant, and f is the frequency.
Sometime later, the unit was used differently in studies of photosynthesis to mean one mole of photons, rather than the energy in one mole of photons. As such, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was formerly often reported in microeinsteins per second per square meter (μE⋅m−2⋅s−1). This usage is also not part of the SI and when used this way it is redundant with the mole.
Since the unit does not have a standard definition and is not part of the SI system, it has long been considered obsolete. The same information about photosynthetically active radiation can be conveyed using the SI convention by stating something such as "a photon flux of 1500 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1".
This unit was named after physicist Albert Einstein.
References
^ W. Albert Noyes and P. A. Leighton, The photochemistry of gases. p. 14. Rochester, New York. 1940. Viking
^ Albrecht Folsing, Albert Einstein: a biography. p. 299. New York. 1997. Viking
^ a b Incoll, L. D., S. P. Long, and M. A. Ashmore. 1981. "SI units in publications in plant science". Commentaries in Plant Science. 2: pp. 83–96.
^ K. J. McCree (1981), Photosynthetically Active Radiation, Springer, In photobiology, a mole (Avagadro's number, 6.022×1023) of photons is commonly referred to as an einstein (E)
^ Amos Richmond, ed. (2004), Handbook of Microalgal Culture, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-632-05953-2, This unit is called an Einstein (E = 6.023×1023 quanta).
^ a b D.R. Hershey (1991), The American Biology Teacher, JSTOR, ... uses the obsolete unit Einstein (E) instead of mol, where 1 E was defined as a mole of photons.
This history of chemistry article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This electromagnetism-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_unit"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"mole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)"},{"link_name":"photons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"International System of Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"2019 redefinition of the SI base units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_redefinition_of_the_SI_base_units"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation"},{"link_name":"Avogadro constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro_constant"},{"link_name":"Planck constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_constant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Incoll-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"photosynthetically active radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthetically_active_radiation"},{"link_name":"mole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Incoll-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"}],"text":"The einstein (symbol E) is an obsolete unit with two conflicting definitions. It was originally defined as the energy in one mole of photons (6.022×1023 photons).[1][2] Because energy is inversely proportional to wavelength, the unit is frequency dependent. This unit is not part of the International System of Units (SI) and is redundant with the joule. If it were still in use, as of the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, its value would be related to the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation by1 einstein = 1 mol × NA h f = 1 mol × 6.02214076×1023 mol−1 × 6.62607015×10−34 J⋅s × f = 3.9903127128934321×10−10 J⋅s × f,where NA is the Avogadro constant, h is the Planck constant, and f is the frequency.Sometime later, the unit was used differently in studies of photosynthesis to mean one mole of photons, rather than the energy in one mole of photons.[3][4][5][6] As such, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was formerly often reported in microeinsteins per second per square meter (μE⋅m−2⋅s−1). This usage is also not part of the SI and when used this way it is redundant with the mole.Since the unit does not have a standard definition and is not part of the SI system, it has long been considered obsolete.[3][6] The same information about photosynthetically active radiation can be conveyed using the SI convention by stating something such as \"a photon flux of 1500 μmol⋅m−2⋅s−1\".This unit was named after physicist Albert Einstein.","title":"Einstein (unit)"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"K. J. McCree (1981), Photosynthetically Active Radiation, Springer, In photobiology, a mole (Avagadro's number, 6.022×1023) of photons is commonly referred to as an einstein (E)","urls":[]},{"reference":"Amos Richmond, ed. (2004), Handbook of Microalgal Culture, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-632-05953-2, This unit is called an Einstein (E = 6.023×1023 quanta).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-632-05953-2","url_text":"0-632-05953-2"}]},{"reference":"D.R. Hershey (1991), The American Biology Teacher, JSTOR, ... uses the obsolete unit Einstein (E) instead of mol, where 1 E was defined as a mole of photons.","urls":[]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(unit)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Einstein_(unit)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_polar_wander
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Apparent polar wander
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["1 History","2 Paleomagnetic poles","3 Rock magnetism","3.1 Blocking temperature","4 Tracks","5 References"]
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Apparent polar wander (APW) is the perceived movement of the Earth's paleomagnetic poles relative to a continent while regarding the continent being studied as fixed in position. It is frequently displayed on the present latitude-longitude map as a path connecting the locations of geomagnetic poles, inferred at distinct times using paleomagnetic techniques.
In reality, the relative polar movement can be either real polar wander or continental drift (or a combination of both). Data from around the globe are needed in order to isolate or distinguish between the two. Nevertheless, the magnetic poles rarely stray far from the geographic poles of the planet; rather they tend to follow true polar wander. Therefore, the concept of apparent polar wander is useful in plate tectonics, since it can retrace the relative motion of continents, as well as the formation and break-up of supercontinents.
History
It has been known for a long time that the geomagnetic field varies through time, and records of its direction and magnitude have been kept in different locations since the 1800s. The technique of drawing apparent polar wander was first developed by Creer et al. (1954), and was a major step taken towards the acceptance of the plate tectonics theory. Since then many discoveries have been made in that field, and apparent polar wander has become better understood with the evolution of the theory and of the geocentric axial dipole (GAD) model. As of 2010, there were over 10,000 paleomagnetic poles recorded in the database.
Paleomagnetic poles
Much research in paleomagnetism is aimed at finding paleomagnetic poles for different continents and at different epochs, in order to assemble them in apparent polar wander path (APWP) tracks. Paleomagnetic poles have the advantage that they should have the same value at each observing locality on the basis of the geocentric axial dipole model. Thus they can be used to compare paleomagnetic results from widely separated localities.
Rock magnetism
Fossil magnetization in rocks is key to locate a paleomagnetic pole. At the time of formation, some rocks conserve the direction of the magnetic field. The inclination (Im) and declination vectors (Dm) are preserved and therefore the paleolatitude (λp) and paleolongitude (φp) of the pole can be found.
Blocking temperature
The reason the characteristics of the field are conserved comes from the concept of blocking temperature (also known as closure temperature in geochronology). This temperature is where the system becomes blocked against thermal agitation at lower temperatures. Therefore, some minerals exhibit remnant magnetization. One problem that arises in the determination of remnant (or fossil) magnetization is that if the temperature rises above this point, the magnetic history is destroyed. However, in theory it should be possible to relate the magnetic blocking temperature to the isotopic closure temperature, such that it could be checked whether or not a sample can be used.
Tracks
Often, APWP tracks represent the motion of a plate relative to a fixed point (paleomagnetic pole). The usual pattern observed consists of long, gently curved segments linked by short, sharply curved segments. Those respectively correspond to time intervals of constant plate motion versus changing plate motion.
These segments are described by the rotation about a pivot point, which is called the paleomagnetic Euler pole (see Euler's rotation theorem). The relative motion between two plates is also described by the rotation about an Euler pole. In recent times it is easier to determine finite rotations as transforms and ridges are respectively perpendicular and parallel to the direction of a finite rotation pole. In this way reconstructions of the last 200 million years (Ma) rely mostly on marine geophysical data. For dates before that, other ways have to be used, like paleomagnetic poles and fit of geological observations.
Determining paleomagnetic poles is a complicated process since with increasing time more uncertainties come into play. The reliability of poles has been subject to debate for many years. Paleomagnetic poles are usually a group mean determined from different samples, in order to average out the secular variation over time to respect GAD hypothesis. The treatment of data is a big step and involves a lot of statistical calculations to obtain a valid paleomagnetic pole.
When applied to continents, it is possible to define finite rotation with paleomagnetic poles; that is, describe the certain motion of a continent based on records of its paleomagnetic poles. However, there are two major problems for constraining finite rotation:
Because of random magnetic reversals, the north magnetic pole at a given time could either be in the North or South hemisphere. Without context, it is impossible to know which is the north-seeking direction of the magnetic vectors. Again, in recent times there is often a better context, but after 300 Ma it becomes increasingly difficult.
The paleolongitude cannot be constrained from the pole alone. This is why data from different locations are needed, as it reduces the degrees of freedom. With the apparent polar wander path of high fidelity, however, paleolongitude could be constrained by the paleomagnetic Euler rotations (rotation poles and angles) estimated from the circle modelling to the APWP tracks.
The goal of much paleomagnetic research is to assemble poles in APWPs for the different continental fragments, which is the first step in reconstructing the paleogeography. The two main issues in this construction are the selection of reliable poles (criteria V90, BC02) and curve fitting. The first issue has been addressed with general selection criteria. The common ones have been described by Van der Voo (1990; V90). These include the uncertainty on ages, the number of samples, positive field tests to constrain the age of magnetization relative to the age of the rock (e.g. fold test), and pole positions. Besse and Courtillot (2002; BC02) brought some modifications to these criteria for particular applications.
Once poles are selected and attributed a certain degree of reliability, the task of curve fitting remains, in order to define apparent polar wander paths. Different approaches have been used for this process: Discrete windows, key poles, moving windows, splines, paleomagnetic Euler pole (PEP) analysis, master path, and inclination-only data. These differ in the way poles are separated, the relative importance attributed to some poles and the general shape of resulting curves.
References
^ Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A.; Vine, Frederick J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3 ed.). Chichester: Wiley. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8.
^ a b c d e f Tauxe, Lisa (2010). Essentials of Paleomagnetism. University of California. ISBN 9780520260313.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ a b c d e f g McElhinny, M.; McFadden, P. (2000). Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0080513461.
^ Wu, L.; Kravchinsky V.A. (2014). "Derivation of paleo-longitude from the geometric parametrization of apparent polar wander path: implication for absolute plate motion reconstruction". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (13): 4503–4511. Bibcode:2014GeoRL..41.4503W. doi:10.1002/2014GL060080.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polar wander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_wander"},{"link_name":"continental drift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"},{"link_name":"true polar wander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_polar_wander"},{"link_name":"plate tectonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics"}],"text":"In reality, the relative polar movement can be either real polar wander or continental drift (or a combination of both).[2] Data from around the globe are needed in order to isolate or distinguish between the two. Nevertheless, the magnetic poles rarely stray far from the geographic poles of the planet; rather they tend to follow true polar wander. Therefore, the concept of apparent polar wander is useful in plate tectonics, since it can retrace the relative motion of continents, as well as the formation and break-up of supercontinents.","title":"Apparent polar wander"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apparent_polar_wander&action=edit"},{"link_name":"paleomagnetic poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleomagnetic_pole"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"}],"text":"It has been known for a long time that the geomagnetic field varies through time, and records of its direction and magnitude have been kept in different locations since the 1800s.[2] The technique of drawing apparent polar wander was first developed by Creer et al. (1954), and was a major step taken towards the acceptance of the plate tectonics theory. Since then many discoveries have been made in that field, and apparent polar wander has become better understood with the evolution of the theory and of the geocentric axial dipole (GAD) model. As of 2010[update], there were over 10,000 paleomagnetic poles recorded in the database.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"paleomagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleomagnetism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"}],"text":"Much research in paleomagnetism is aimed at finding paleomagnetic poles for different continents and at different epochs, in order to assemble them in apparent polar wander path (APWP) tracks.[2] Paleomagnetic poles have the advantage that they should have the same value at each observing locality on the basis of the geocentric axial dipole model.[3] Thus they can be used to compare paleomagnetic results from widely separated localities.","title":"Paleomagnetic poles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"}],"text":"Fossil magnetization in rocks is key to locate a paleomagnetic pole. At the time of formation, some rocks conserve the direction of the magnetic field. The inclination (Im) and declination vectors (Dm) are preserved and therefore the paleolatitude (λp) and paleolongitude (φp) of the pole can be found.[3]","title":"Rock magnetism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"closure temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_temperature"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"}],"sub_title":"Blocking temperature","text":"The reason the characteristics of the field are conserved comes from the concept of blocking temperature (also known as closure temperature in geochronology). This temperature is where the system becomes blocked against thermal agitation at lower temperatures.[3] Therefore, some minerals exhibit remnant magnetization. One problem that arises in the determination of remnant (or fossil) magnetization is that if the temperature rises above this point, the magnetic history is destroyed. However, in theory it should be possible to relate the magnetic blocking temperature to the isotopic closure temperature, such that it could be checked whether or not a sample can be used.[3]","title":"Rock magnetism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"},{"link_name":"Euler's rotation theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_rotation_theorem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tauxe-2010-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WuKravchinsky14-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M&M-2000-3"}],"text":"Often, APWP tracks represent the motion of a plate relative to a fixed point (paleomagnetic pole). The usual pattern observed consists of long, gently curved segments linked by short, sharply curved segments. Those respectively correspond to time intervals of constant plate motion versus changing plate motion.[3]These segments are described by the rotation about a pivot point, which is called the paleomagnetic Euler pole (see Euler's rotation theorem). The relative motion between two plates is also described by the rotation about an Euler pole. In recent times it is easier to determine finite rotations as transforms and ridges are respectively perpendicular and parallel to the direction of a finite rotation pole.[2] In this way reconstructions of the last 200 million years (Ma) rely mostly on marine geophysical data. For dates before that, other ways have to be used, like paleomagnetic poles and fit of geological observations.Determining paleomagnetic poles is a complicated process since with increasing time more uncertainties come into play. The reliability of poles has been subject to debate for many years. Paleomagnetic poles are usually a group mean determined from different samples, in order to average out the secular variation over time to respect GAD hypothesis.[2] The treatment of data is a big step and involves a lot of statistical calculations to obtain a valid paleomagnetic pole.When applied to continents, it is possible to define finite rotation with paleomagnetic poles; that is, describe the certain motion of a continent based on records of its paleomagnetic poles. However, there are two major problems for constraining finite rotation:[3]Because of random magnetic reversals, the north magnetic pole at a given time could either be in the North or South hemisphere. Without context, it is impossible to know which is the north-seeking direction of the magnetic vectors. Again, in recent times there is often a better context, but after 300 Ma it becomes increasingly difficult.\nThe paleolongitude cannot be constrained from the pole alone. This is why data from different locations are needed, as it reduces the degrees of freedom. With the apparent polar wander path of high fidelity, however, paleolongitude could be constrained by the paleomagnetic Euler rotations (rotation poles and angles) estimated from the circle modelling to the APWP tracks.[4]The goal of much paleomagnetic research is to assemble poles in APWPs for the different continental fragments, which is the first step in reconstructing the paleogeography. The two main issues in this construction are the selection of reliable poles (criteria V90, BC02) and curve fitting.[3] The first issue has been addressed with general selection criteria. The common ones have been described by Van der Voo (1990; V90). These include the uncertainty on ages, the number of samples, positive field tests to constrain the age of magnetization relative to the age of the rock (e.g. fold test), and pole positions. Besse and Courtillot (2002; BC02) brought some modifications to these criteria for particular applications.Once poles are selected and attributed a certain degree of reliability, the task of curve fitting remains, in order to define apparent polar wander paths. Different approaches have been used for this process: Discrete windows, key poles, moving windows, splines, paleomagnetic Euler pole (PEP) analysis, master path, and inclination-only data. These differ in the way poles are separated, the relative importance attributed to some poles and the general shape of resulting curves.","title":"Tracks"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A.; Vine, Frederick J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3 ed.). Chichester: Wiley. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0777-8","url_text":"978-1-4051-0777-8"}]},{"reference":"Tauxe, Lisa (2010). Essentials of Paleomagnetism. University of California. ISBN 9780520260313.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520260313","url_text":"9780520260313"}]},{"reference":"McElhinny, M.; McFadden, P. (2000). Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0080513461.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080513461","url_text":"978-0080513461"}]},{"reference":"Wu, L.; Kravchinsky V.A. (2014). \"Derivation of paleo-longitude from the geometric parametrization of apparent polar wander path: implication for absolute plate motion reconstruction\". Geophysical Research Letters. 41 (13): 4503–4511. Bibcode:2014GeoRL..41.4503W. doi:10.1002/2014GL060080.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014GeoRL..41.4503W","url_text":"2014GeoRL..41.4503W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2014GL060080","url_text":"10.1002/2014GL060080"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apparent_polar_wander&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014GeoRL..41.4503W","external_links_name":"2014GeoRL..41.4503W"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2014GL060080","external_links_name":"10.1002/2014GL060080"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_dynasties
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Dynasties of China
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["1 Terminology","2 History","2.1 Start of dynastic rule","2.2 Dynastic transition","2.3 End of dynastic rule","3 Political legitimacy","4 Agnatic lineages","5 Classification","5.1 Central Plain dynasties","5.2 Unified dynasties","5.3 Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties","6 Naming convention","6.1 Official nomenclature","6.2 Retroactive nomenclature","7 Territorial extent","8 List of major Chinese dynasties","9 Timelines","9.1 Timeline of major historical periods","9.2 Timeline of major regimes","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","12.1 Citations","12.2 Sources","13 External links"]
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Part of a series on theHistory of China
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Liao (916–1125)
Western Xia (1038–1227)
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Qing (1644–1912)
Modern
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For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC, and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties. Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.
Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization. Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period. For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".
The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography. The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.
The term "Tiāncháo" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties. As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").
Terminology
The Chinese character 朝 (cháo) originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:
朝 (cháo; 'dynasty')
朝代 (cháodài; 'dynastic era')
王朝 (wángcháo; 'royal dynasty')
皇朝 (huángcháo; 'imperial dynasty')
History
Start of dynastic rule
A depiction of Yu, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the Southern Song court painter Ma Lin.
As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China. In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors. By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs. This concept, known as jiā tiānxià (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.
Dynastic transition
An illustration of the Battle of Shanhai Pass, a decisive battle fought during the Ming–Qing transition. The victorious Qing dynasty extended its rule into China proper thereafter.
The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule. This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.
Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation. The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.
One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime. For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662. The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683. Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively. This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.
Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by Li Mi), Qin (秦; by Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by Lin Shihong), Wu (吳; by Li Zitong), Yan (燕; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.
Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the "two crownings, three respects" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former. Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.
According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories. This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.
End of dynastic rule
A photograph of the Xuantong Emperor, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.
Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution. While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.
During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao. Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace. Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.
The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later. The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days. Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime. Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.
Political legitimacy
Imperial seal of the Qing dynasty with "Dà Qīng Dìguó zhī xǐ" (大清帝國之璽; "Seal of the Great Qing Empire") rendered in seal script. Seals were a symbol of political authority and legitimacy.
China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.
Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.
Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:
Three Kingdoms
The Cao Wei, the Shu Han, and the Eastern Wu considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others.
The Emperor Xian of Han abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei; hence, the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in orthodox historiography.
The Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.
The Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the Southern Song scholar Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.
Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms
The Eastern Jin viewed itself as a continuation of the Western Jin, and thus legitimate.
Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han-Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy.
Northern and Southern dynasties
All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "dǎoyí" (島夷; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "suǒlǔ" (索虜; "barbarians with braids").
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty.
The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang.
The Later Jin succeeded the Later Tang and accepted it as a legitimate regime.
The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Since the Song dynasty, Chinese historiography has generally considered the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, to be legitimate.
Liao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty
Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it
Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty.
The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy.
The succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin.
Ming dynasty and Northern Yuan
The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.
Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of Taisun Khan, Choros Esen, and Dayan Khan.
The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.
Qing dynasty and Southern Ming
The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.
The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.
The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.
The Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.
The Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of Huá (華; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.
Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved. From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.
Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time. Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:
Xia dynasty → Shang dynasty → Western Zhou → Eastern Zhou → Qin dynasty → Western Han → Eastern Han → Cao Wei → Western Jin → Eastern Jin → Liu Song → Southern Qi → Liang dynasty → Chen dynasty → Sui dynasty → Tang dynasty → Later Liang → Later Tang → Later Jin → Later Han → Later Zhou → Northern Song → Southern Song → Yuan dynasty → Ming dynasty → Qing dynasty
These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.
Agnatic lineages
The Emperor Guangwu of Han (top) and the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (bottom) were descended from a common paternal ancestor but are typically considered by historians to be the founders of two separate dynasties.
There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.
Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.
The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:
Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou
The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty
The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou
Western Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song
The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the Han dynasty
The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han
The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han
The Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu
Western Jin and Eastern Jin
The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynasty
The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya
Han-Zhao and Hu Xia
The Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)
The Han-Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers
Former Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan
The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong
The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan
Northern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei
The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)
The Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa Pigu
The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei
Southern Qi and Liang dynasty
The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao
The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi
Western Liang and Tang dynasty
The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li
The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang
Later Han and Northern Han
The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu
The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han
Liao dynasty and Western Liao
The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü
The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao
Northern Song and Southern Song
The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the Song dynasty
The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song
Yuan dynasty and Northern Yuan
The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin
The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan
Ming dynasty and Southern Ming
The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu
The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor
Later Jin and Qing dynasty
The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro
The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty
Classification
A German map of the Chinese Empire during the height of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty is considered to be a "Central Plain dynasty", a "unified dynasty", and a "conquest dynasty".
Central Plain dynasties
The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain. This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.
Unified dynasties
"Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).
The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao. Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.
Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.
Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties
Main article: Conquest dynasty
According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.
"Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (滲透王朝; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society. For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.
"Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities. For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.
These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.
Naming convention
Official nomenclature
It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty. During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.
The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:
The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation
e.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation
The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty
e.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the Chen dynasty
The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty
e.g., the Former Yan was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient State of Yan located in the same region
The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable
e.g., the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title "Zhou" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the Zhou dynasty
A term with auspicious or other significant connotations
e.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, "dà zāi Qián Yuán" (大哉乾元; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal")
There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.
The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty. However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "dà". It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it. For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as "Dai Tō" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".
While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title. Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed "Zhōngguó"—and its Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" (ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing". "Zhōngguó", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.
The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.
Retroactive nomenclature
In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin".
When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes. Frequently used prefixes include:
Cardinal direction
"Northern" (北; běi): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan
"Southern" (南; nán): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang
"Eastern" (東; dōng): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei
"Western" (西; xī): e.g., Western Liang, Western Liao
Sequence
"Former" (前; qián): e.g., Former Qin, Former Shu
"Later" (後; hòu): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han
Surname of the ruling family
e.g., Wu Zhou, Ma Chu
Other types of prefixes
e.g., Shu Han (the prefix "Shu" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at Sichuan), Hu Xia (the prefix "Hu", meaning "barbarian", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin)
A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu".
Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song. In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.
In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".
Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.
Territorial extent
Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the modern Chinese borders.
While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.
At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong), Taiwan, Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria), Sakhalin, Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia), Vietnam, Tibet, Xinjiang, as well as parts of Central Asia, the Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, and Siberia.
Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source. This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh. In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.
Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system. The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.
The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.
List of major Chinese dynasties
This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.
Major dynasties of China
Dynasty
Ruling house
Period of rule
Rulers
Name(English / Chinese / Hanyu Pinyin / Wade–Giles / Bopomofo)
Surname(English / Chinese)
Ethnicity
Status
Year
Term
Founder
Last monarch
List / Family tree
Semi-legendary
Xia dynasty夏朝Xià CháoHsia4 Ch῾ao2ㄒㄧㄚˋ ㄔㄠˊ
Si姒
Huaxia
Royal
2070–1600 BC
470 years
Yu of Xia
Jie of Xia
(list)(tree)
Ancient China
Shang dynasty商朝Shāng CháoShang1 Ch῾ao2ㄕㄤ ㄔㄠˊ
Zi子
Huaxia
Royal
1600–1046 BC
554 years
Tang of Shang
Zhou of Shang
(list)(tree)
Western Zhou西周Xī ZhōuHsi1 Chou1ㄒㄧ ㄓㄡ
Ji姬
Huaxia
Royal
1046–771 BC
275 years
Wu of Zhou
You of Zhou
(list)(tree)
Eastern Zhou東周Dōng ZhōuTung1 Chou1ㄉㄨㄥ ㄓㄡ
Ji姬
Huaxia
Royal
770–256 BC
514 years
Ping of Zhou
Nan of Zhou
(list)(tree)
Early Imperial China
Qin dynasty秦朝Qín CháoCh῾in2 Ch῾ao2ㄑㄧㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Ying嬴
Huaxia
Imperial(221–207 BC)Royal(207 BC)
221–207 BC
14 years
Qin Shi Huang
Ying Ziying
(list)(tree)
Western Han西漢Xī HànHsi1 Han4ㄒㄧ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Han
Imperial
202 BC–AD 9
211 years
Gao of Han
Liu Ying
(list)(tree)
Xin dynasty新朝Xīn CháoHsin1 Ch῾ao2ㄒㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ
Wang王
Han
Imperial
AD 9–23
14 years
Wang Mang
(list)(tree)
Eastern Han東漢Dōng HànTung1 Han4ㄉㄨㄥ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Han
Imperial
AD 25–220
195 years
Guangwu of Han
Xian of Han
(list)(tree)
Three Kingdoms三國Sān GuóSan1 Kuo2ㄙㄢ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
AD 220–280
60 years
(list)(tree)
Cao Wei曹魏Cáo WèiTs῾ao2 Wei4ㄘㄠˊ ㄨㄟˋ
Cao曹
Han
Imperial
AD 220–266
46 years
Wen of Cao Wei
Yuan of Cao Wei
(list)(tree)
Shu Han蜀漢Shǔ HànShu3 Han4ㄕㄨˇ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Han
Imperial
AD 221–263
42 years
Zhaolie of Shu Han
Huai of Shu Han
(list)(tree)
Eastern Wu東吳Dōng WúTung1 Wu2ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨˊ
Sun孫
Han
Royal(AD 222–229)Imperial(AD 229–280)
AD 222–280
58 years
Da of Eastern Wu
Sun Hao
(list)(tree)
Western Jin西晉Xī JìnHsi1 Chin4ㄒㄧ ㄐㄧㄣˋ
Sima司馬
Han
Imperial
AD 266–316
50 years
Wu of Jin
Min of Jin
(list)(tree)
Eastern Jin東晉Dōng JìnTung1 Chin4ㄉㄨㄥ ㄐㄧㄣˋ
Sima司馬
Han
Imperial
AD 317–420
103 years
Yuan of Jin
Gong of Jin
(list)(tree)
Sixteen Kingdoms十六國Shíliù GuóShih2-liu4 Kuo2ㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
AD 304–439
135 years
(list)(tree)
Han-Zhao漢趙Hàn ZhàoHan4 Chao4ㄏㄢˋ ㄓㄠˋ
Liu劉
Xiongnu
Royal(AD 304–308)Imperial(AD 308–329)
AD 304–329
25 years
Guangwen of Han-Zhao
Liu Yao
(list)(tree)
Cheng-Han成漢Chéng HànCh῾eng2 Han4ㄔㄥˊ ㄏㄢˋ
Li李
Di
Princely(AD 304–306)Imperial(AD 306–347)
AD 304–347
43 years
Wu of Cheng-Han
Li Shi
(list)(tree)
Later Zhao後趙Hòu ZhàoHou4 Chao4ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄠˋ
Shi石
Jie
Royal(AD 319–330)Imperial(AD 330–351)Princely(AD 351)
AD 319–351
32 years
Ming of Later Zhao
Shi Zhi
(list)(tree)
Former Liang前涼Qián LiángCh῾ien2 Liang2ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Zhang張
Han
Princely(AD 320–354, AD 355–363)Imperial(AD 354–355)Ducal(AD 363–376)
AD 320–376
56 years
Cheng of Former Liang
Dao of Former Liang
(list)(tree)
Former Yan前燕Qián YānCh῾ien2 Yen1ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄧㄢ
Murong慕容
Xianbei
Princely(AD 337–353)Imperial(AD 353–370)
AD 337–370
33 years
Wenming of Former Yan
You of Former Yan
(list)(tree)
Former Qin前秦Qián QínCh῾ien2 Ch῾in2ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄑㄧㄣˊ
Fu苻
Di
Imperial
AD 351–394
43 years
Jingming of Former Qin
Fu Chong
(list)(tree)
Later Yan後燕Hòu YānHou4 Yen1ㄏㄡˋ ㄧㄢ
Murong慕容
Xianbei
Princely(AD 384–386)Imperial(AD 386–409)
AD 384–409
25 years
Chengwu of Later Yan
Zhaowen of Later YanHuiyi of Yan
(list)(tree)
Later Qin後秦Hòu QínHou4 Ch῾in2ㄏㄡˋ ㄑㄧㄣˊ
Yao姚
Qiang
Royal(AD 384–386)Imperial(AD 386–417)
AD 384–417
33 years
Wuzhao of Later Qin
Yao Hong
(list)(tree)
Western Qin西秦Xī QínHsi1 Ch῾in2ㄒㄧ ㄑㄧㄣˊ
Qifu乞伏
Xianbei
Princely
AD 385–400, AD 409–431
37 years
Xuanlie of Western Qin
Qifu Mumo
(list)(tree)
Later Liang後涼Hòu LiángHou4 Liang2ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Lü呂
Di
Ducal(AD 386–389)Princely(AD 389–396)Imperial(AD 396–403)
AD 386–403
17 years
Yiwu of Later Liang
Lü Long
(list)(tree)
Southern Liang南涼Nán LiángNan2 Liang2ㄋㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Tufa禿髮
Xianbei
Princely
AD 397–404, AD 408–414
13 years
Wu of Southern Liang
Jing of Southern Liang
(list)(tree)
Northern Liang北涼Běi LiángPei3 Liang2ㄅㄟˇ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Juqu沮渠
Lushuihu
Ducal(AD 397–399, AD 401–412)Princely(AD 399–401, AD 412–439)
AD 397–439
42 years
Duan Ye
Ai of Northern Liang
(list)(tree)
Southern Yan南燕Nán YānNan2 Yen1ㄋㄢˊ ㄧㄢ
Murong慕容
Xianbei
Princely(AD 398–400)Imperial(AD 400–410)
AD 398–410
12 years
Xianwu of Southern Yan
Murong Chao
(list)(tree)
Western Liang西涼Xī LiángHsi1 Liang2ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Li李
Han
Ducal
AD 400–421
21 years
Wuzhao of Western Liang
Li Xun
(list)(tree)
Hu Xia胡夏Hú XiàHu2 Hsia4ㄏㄨˊ ㄒㄧㄚˋ
Helian赫連
Xiongnu
Imperial
AD 407–431
24 years
Wulie of Hu Xia
Helian Ding
(list)(tree)
Northern Yan北燕Běi YānPei3 Yen1ㄅㄟˇ ㄧㄢ
Feng馮
Han
Imperial
AD 407–436
29 years
Huiyi of YanWencheng of Northern Yan
Zhaocheng of Northern Yan
(list)(tree)
Northern dynasties北朝Běi CháoPei3 Ch῾ao2ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ
AD 386–581
195 years
(list)(tree)
Northern Wei北魏Běi WèiPei3 Wei4ㄅㄟˇ ㄨㄟˋ
Tuoba拓跋
Xianbei
Princely(AD 386–399)Imperial(AD 399–535)
AD 386–535
149 years
Daowu of Northern Wei
Xiaowu of Northern Wei
(list)(tree)
Eastern Wei東魏Dōng WèiTung1 Wei4ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨㄟˋ
Yuan元
Xianbei
Imperial
AD 534–550
16 years
Xiaojing of Eastern Wei
(list)(tree)
Western Wei西魏Xī WèiHsi1 Wei4ㄒㄧ ㄨㄟˋ
Yuan元
Xianbei
Imperial
AD 535–557
22 years
Wen of Western Wei
Gong of Western Wei
(list)(tree)
Northern Qi北齊Běi QíPei3 Ch῾i2ㄅㄟˇ ㄑㄧˊ
Gao高
Han
Imperial
AD 550–577
27 years
Wenxuan of Northern Qi
Gao Heng
(list)(tree)
Northern Zhou北周Běi ZhōuPei3 Chou1ㄅㄟˇ ㄓㄡ
Yuwen宇文
Xianbei
Imperial
AD 557–581
24 years
Xiaomin of Northern Zhou
Jing of Northern Zhou
(list)(tree)
Southern dynasties南朝Nán CháoNan2 Ch῾ao2ㄋㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ
AD 420–589
169 years
(list)(tree)
Liu Song劉宋Liú SòngLiu2 Sung4ㄌㄧㄡˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ
Liu劉
Han
Imperial
AD 420–479
59 years
Wu of Liu Song
Shun of Liu Song
(list)(tree)
Southern Qi南齊Nán QíNan2 Ch῾i2ㄋㄢˊ ㄑㄧˊ
Xiao蕭
Han
Imperial
AD 479–502
23 years
Gao of Southern Qi
He of Southern Qi
(list)(tree)
Liang dynasty梁朝Liáng CháoLiang2 Ch῾ao2ㄌㄧㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Xiao蕭
Han
Imperial
AD 502–557
55 years
Wu of Liang
Jing of Liang
(list)(tree)
Chen dynasty陳朝Chén CháoCh῾en2 Ch῾ao2ㄔㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Chen陳
Han
Imperial
AD 557–589
32 years
Wu of Chen
Chen Shubao
(list)(tree)
Middle Imperial China
Sui dynasty隋朝Suí CháoSui2 Ch῾ao2ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Yang楊
Han
Imperial
AD 581–619
38 years
Wen of Sui
Gong of Sui
(list)(tree)
Tang dynasty唐朝Táng CháoT῾ang2 Ch῾ao2ㄊㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Li李
Han
Imperial
AD 618–690, AD 705–907
274 years
Gaozu of Tang
Ai of Tang
(list)(tree)
Wu Zhou武周Wǔ ZhōuWu3 Chou1ㄨˇ ㄓㄡ
Wu武
Han
Imperial
AD 690–705
15 years
Shengshen of Wu Zhou
(list)(tree)
Five Dynasties五代Wǔ DàiWu3 Tai4ㄨˇ ㄉㄞˋ
AD 907–960
53 years
(list)(tree)
Later Liang後梁Hòu LiángHou4 Liang2ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ
Zhu朱
Han
Imperial
AD 907–923
16 years
Taizu of Later Liang
Zhu Youzhen
(list)(tree)
Later Tang後唐Hòu TángHou4 T῾ang2ㄏㄡˋ ㄊㄤˊ
Li李
Shatuo
Imperial
AD 923–937
14 years
Zhuangzong of Later Tang
Li Congke
(list)(tree)
Later Jin後晉Hòu JìnHou4 Chin4ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣˋ
Shi石
Shatuo
Imperial
AD 936–947
11 years
Gaozu of Later Jin
Chu of Later Jin
(list)(tree)
Later Han後漢Hòu HànHou4 Han4ㄏㄡˋ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Shatuo
Imperial
AD 947–951
4 years
Gaozu of Later Han
Yin of Later Han
(list)(tree)
Later Zhou後周Hòu ZhōuHou4 Chou1ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄡ
Guo郭
Han
Imperial
AD 951–960
9 years
Taizu of Later Zhou
Gong of Later Zhou
(list)(tree)
Ten Kingdoms十國Shí GuóShih2 Kuo2ㄕˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
AD 907–979
72 years
(list)(tree)
Former Shu前蜀Qián ShǔCh῾ien2 Shu3ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄕㄨˇ
Wang王
Han
Imperial
AD 907–925
18 years
Gaozu of Former Shu
Wang Yan
(list)(tree)
Yang Wu楊吳Yáng WúYang2 Wu2ㄧㄤˊ ㄨˊ
Yang楊
Han
Princely(AD 907–919)Royal(AD 919–927)Imperial(AD 927–937)
AD 907–937
30 years
Liezu of Yang Wu
Rui of Yang Wu
(list)(tree)
Ma Chu馬楚Mǎ ChǔMa3 Ch῾u3ㄇㄚˇ ㄔㄨˇ
Ma馬
Han
Royal(AD 907–930)Princely(AD 930–951)
AD 907–951
44 years
Wumu of Ma Chu
Ma Xichong
(list)(tree)
Wuyue吳越WúyuèWu2-yüeh4ㄨˊ ㄩㄝˋ
Qian錢
Han
Royal(AD 907–932, AD 937–978)Princely(AD 934–937)
AD 907–978
71 years
Taizu of Wuyue
Zhongyi of Qin
(list)(tree)
Min閩MǐnMin3ㄇㄧㄣˇ
Wang王
Han
Princely(AD 909–933, AD 944–945)Imperial(AD 933–944, AD 945)
AD 909–945
36 years
Taizu of Min
Tiande
(list)(tree)
Southern Han南漢Nán HànNan2 Han4ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Han
Imperial
AD 917–971
54 years
Gaozu of Southern Han
Liu Chang
(list)(tree)
Jingnan荊南JīngnánChing1-nan2ㄐㄧㄥ ㄋㄢˊ
Gao高
Han
Princely
AD 924–963
39 years
Wuxin of Chu
Gao Jichong
(list)(tree)
Later Shu後蜀Hòu ShǔHou4 Shu3ㄏㄡˋ ㄕㄨˇ
Meng孟
Han
Imperial
AD 934–965
31 years
Gaozu of Later Shu
Gongxiao of Chu
(list)(tree)
Southern Tang南唐Nán TángNan2 T῾ang2ㄋㄢˊ ㄊㄤˊ
Li李
Han
Imperial(AD 937–958)Royal(AD 958–976)
AD 937–976
37 years
Liezu of Southern Tang
Li Yu
(list)(tree)
Northern Han北漢Běi HànPei3 Han4ㄅㄟˇ ㄏㄢˋ
Liu劉
Shatuo
Imperial
AD 951–979
28 years
Shizu of Northern Han
Yingwu of Northern Han
(list)(tree)
Liao dynasty遼朝Liáo CháoLiao2 Ch῾ao2ㄌㄧㄠˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Yelü耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪)
Khitan
Imperial
AD 916–1125
209 years
Taizu of Liao
Tianzuo of Liao
(list)(tree)
Western Liao西遼Xī LiáoHsi1 Liao2ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄠˊ
Yelü耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪)
Khitan
Royal(AD 1124–1132)Imperial(AD 1132–1218)
AD 1124–1218
94 years
Dezong of Western Liao
Kuchlug
(list)(tree)
Northern Song北宋Běi SòngPei3 Sung4ㄅㄟˇ ㄙㄨㄥˋ
Zhao趙
Han
Imperial
AD 960–1127
167 years
Taizu of Song
Qinzong of Song
(list)(tree)
Southern Song南宋Nán SòngNan2 Sung4ㄋㄢˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ
Zhao趙
Han
Imperial
AD 1127–1279
152 years
Gaozong of Song
Zhao Bing
(list)(tree)
Western Xia西夏Xī XiàHsi1 Hsia4ㄒㄧ ㄒㄧㄚˋ
Weiming嵬名𗼨𗆟
Tangut
Imperial
AD 1038–1227
189 years
Jingzong of Western Xia
Li Xian
(list)(tree)
Jin dynasty金朝Jīn CháoChin1 Ch῾ao2ㄐㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ
Wanyan完顏
Jurchen
Imperial
AD 1115–1234
119 years
Taizu of Jin
Wanyan Chenglin
(list)(tree)
Late Imperial China
Yuan dynasty元朝Yuán CháoYüan2 Ch῾ao2ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Borjigin孛兒只斤ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ
Mongol
Imperial
AD 1271–1368
97 years
Shizu of Yuan
Huizong of Yuan
(list)(tree)
Northern Yuan北元Běi YuánPei3 Yüan2ㄅㄟˇ ㄩㄢˊ
Borjigin孛兒只斤ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ
Mongol
Imperial
AD 1368–1635
267 years
Huizong of Yuan
Borjigin Erke Khongghor
(list)(tree)
Ming dynasty明朝Míng CháoMing2 Ch῾ao2ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ
Zhu朱
Han
Imperial
AD 1368–1644
276 years
Hongwu
Chongzhen
(list)(tree)
Southern Ming南明Nán MíngNan2 Ming2ㄋㄢˊ ㄇㄧㄥˊ
Zhu朱
Han
Imperial
AD 1644–1662
18 years
Hongguang
Yongli
(list)(tree)
Later Jin後金Hòu JīnHou4 Chin1ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣ
Aisin Gioro愛新覺羅ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ
Jurchen
Royal
AD 1616–1636
20 years
Tianming
Taizong of Qing
(list)(tree)
Qing dynasty清朝Qīng CháoCh῾ing1 Ch῾ao2ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ
Aisin Gioro愛新覺羅ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ
Manchu
Imperial
AD 1636–1912
276 years
Taizong of Qing
Xuantong
(list)(tree)
Legend Dynasties of relatively great significance
Major time periods
Dynasties counted among the "Three Kingdoms"
Dynasties counted among the "Sixteen Kingdoms"
Dynasties counted among the "Northern dynasties" within the broader "Northern and Southern dynasties"
Dynasties counted among the "Southern dynasties" within the broader "Northern and Southern dynasties"
Dynasties counted among the "Five Dynasties" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"
Dynasties counted among the "Ten Kingdoms" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"
Criteria for inclusionThis list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of "China" in the study of Chinese historical geography. These were:
Dynastic regimes that existed within the fengjian system: e.g., State of Deng, State of Huo, State of Chu, State of Yiqu
Dynastic regimes that existed within the jimi system: e.g., Xuanque Prefecture (玄闕州), Zhulong Prefecture (燭龍州), Maolian Guard (毛憐衛), Jianzhou Left Guard (建州左衛)
Dynastic regimes that existed within the tusi system: e.g., Chiefdom of Bozhou, Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Yongning, Chiefdom of Tsanlha
Localized dynastic regimes: e.g., Nanyue, Tuyuhun, Dali Kingdom, Kingdom of Tungning
Short-lived dynastic regimes: e.g., Zhai Wei, Northern Liao, Chen Han, Shun dynasty
Regional dynastic regimes that ruled an area historically or currently associated with "China": e.g., Rouran Khaganate, Tibetan Empire, Bohai, Kara-Khanid Khanate
Dynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list:
Dynasties outside of "China" with full or partial Chinese ancestry: e.g., Early Lý dynasty of Vietnam, Thonburi dynasty of Siam
Dynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of "China": e.g., Đinh dynasty of Vietnam, First Shō dynasty of the Ryukyu Islands
Dynasties outside of "China" which identified themselves as "China": e.g., Joseon dynasty of Korea, Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam
Dynasties that ruled Sinicized states outside of "China": e.g., Baekje dynasty of Korea, Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam
Timelines
Further information: Timeline of Chinese history
Timeline of major historical periods
Xia–Shang–W. ZhouSpring and AutumnWarring StatesQin–HanJin–Northern and Southern DynastiesSui–TangFive Dynasties–Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–YuanMing–QingROC–PRC
Timeline of major regimes
Legend Protodynastic rulers
Dynastic regimes
Non-dynastic regimes
See also
China portalHistory portalMonarchy portal
1911 Revolution
Administration of territory in dynastic China
Ancient Chinese states
Chinese expansionism
Chinese historiography
Chinese sovereign
Conquest dynasty
Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties
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Eighteen Kingdoms
Emperor at home, king abroad
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Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)
Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)
Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)
Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle)
Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)
Fanzhen
Fengjian
Golden ages of China
Historical capitals of China
Jiedushi
Jimi system
List of Chinese monarchs
List of Confucian states and dynasties
List of Mongol states
List of recipients of tribute from China
List of tributary states of China
List of Vietnamese dynasties
Little China (ideology)
Mandate of Heaven
Monarchy of China
Names of China
Pax Sinica
Sinosphere
Six Dynasties
Succession to the Chinese throne
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
Tianxia
Timeline of Chinese history
Tributary system of China
Tusi
Twenty-Four Histories
Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project
Zhonghua minzu
Notes
^ a b While the Xia dynasty is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the Book of Documents mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the "Tang" (唐) and the "Yu" (虞) dynasties. The former is sometimes called the "Ancient Tang" (古唐) to distinguish it from other dynasties named "Tang". Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested, Yu the Great would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.
^ All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the Chinese monarchy.
^ a b As per contemporary historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in Dadu. However, the Han-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de facto disintegration of the Mongol Empire.
^ While the character 王 (wáng) is translated as "king", this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles, such as "emperor".
^ In AD 1906, the Qing dynasty initiated a series of reforms under the auspices of the Empress Xiaoqinxian to transition to a constitutional monarchy. On 27 August 1908, the Outline of the Constitution Compiled by Imperial Order was promulgated and served as a preliminary version of a full constitution originally intended to take effect 10 years later. On 3 November 1911, as a response to the ongoing Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty issued the Nineteen Major Articles of Good Faith on the Constitution which limited the power of the Qing emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy. The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown on 12 February 1912.
^ A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example, Wang Mang of the Xin dynasty was a nephew of the Empress Xiaoyuan who in turn was the spouse of the Western Han ruler, the Emperor Yuan of Han.
^ The term "kingdom" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the Cao Wei held the title huángdì (皇帝; "emperor") during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the "Three Kingdoms". Similarly, monarchs of the Western Qin, one of the "Sixteen Kingdoms", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as "prince" in English writings).
^ As proposed by scholars such as Fu Sinian and Ray Huang, there were three major Chinese empires historically. The "First Chinese Empire" (中華第一帝國) included the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Cao Wei, the Western Jin, the Eastern Jin, the Liu Song, the Southern Qi, the Liang dynasty, and the Chen dynasty. The "Second Chinese Empire" (中華第二帝國) encompassed the Northern Wei, the Western Wei, the Northern Zhou, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, the Later Zhou, the Northern Song, and the Southern Song. The "Third Chinese Empire" (中華第三帝國) consisted of the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. Accordingly, the terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" need not necessarily refer to imperial dynasties that had unified China proper.
^ "Anterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Former".
^ "Latter" or "Posterior" is employed in some sources in place of "Later".
^ The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.
^ a b The English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of Mandarin romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the Qing dynasty is rendered as "Ch῾ing dynasty" in Wade–Giles.
^ a b The Chinese characters shown are in Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the Eastern Han are written as "東漢" in Traditional Chinese and "东汉" in Simplified Chinese.
^ While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage. For instance, the Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaoyichun.
^ The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the Chen dynasty held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status.
^ The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the Later Jin was officially established by the Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the temple name "Jingzu" (靖祖) and the posthumous name "Emperor Xiao'an" (孝安皇帝).
^ In addition to the ancestral name Si (姒), the ruling house of the Xia dynasty also bore the lineage name Xiahou (夏后).
^ a b Youqiong Yi, surnamed Youqiong (有窮), was of Dongyi descent. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Yun Zhuo, surnamed Yun (妘), was of Dongyi descent. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b c The dates given for the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Western Zhou prior to the start of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are derived from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project.
^ a b The rule of the Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin. Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years.
^ a b The rule of the Shang dynasty was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin. Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years.
^ a b The Western Zhou (西周) and the Eastern Zhou (東周) are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty (周朝; Zhōu Cháo; Chou1 Ch῾ao2; ㄓㄡ ㄔㄠˊ).
^ a b The rule of the Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin. Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.
^ a b c The terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" usually refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had unified China proper.
^ In addition to the ancestral name Ying (嬴), the ruling house of the Qin dynasty also bore the lineage name Zhao (趙).
^ a b The Western Han (西漢) and the Eastern Han (東漢) are collectively known as the Han dynasty (漢朝; Hàn Cháo; Han4 Ch῾ao2; ㄏㄢˋ ㄔㄠˊ).
^ a b Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the Emperor Gao of Han was proclaimed "King of Han", to be the start of the Western Han. Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.
^ Liu Ying was not officially enthroned and maintained the title huáng tàizǐ (皇太子; "crown prince") during the regency of Wang Mang. The last Western Han monarch who was officially enthroned was the Emperor Ping of Han.
^ a b The Western Jin (西晉) and the Eastern Jin (東晉) are collectively known as the Jin dynasty (晉朝; Jìn Cháo; Chin4 Ch῾ao2; ㄐㄧㄣˋ ㄔㄠˊ).
^ a b c The names of the Jin dynasty (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the Jin dynasty (金朝) of the Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
^ a b The Sixteen Kingdoms are also referred to as the "Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians" (五胡十六國; Wǔ Hú Shíliù Guó), although not all dynasties counted among the 16 were ruled by the "Five Barbarians".
^ The ruling house of the Han-Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮). Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao.
^ As Jin Zhun, surnamed Jin (靳), was not a member of the Liu (劉) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b c Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han declared the era name "Jianchu" (建初), to be the start of the Cheng-Han. Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years.
^ The ruling house of the Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu (蒲). The Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin subsequently adopted Fu (苻) as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.
^ a b c Some historians consider AD 350, the year in which the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed "Prince of Three Qins", to be the start of the Former Qin. Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.
^ As Lan Han, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.
^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan could either be the last Later Yan monarch or the founder of the Northern Yan depending on the historian's characterization.
^ The Western Qin was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
^ a b The names of the Later Liang (後涼) of the Lü clan and the Later Liang (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Liang".
^ The ruling house of the Southern Liang initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa (禿髮) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.
^ The Southern Liang was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The Prince Jing of Southern Liang was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
^ a b Duan Ye, surnamed Duan (段), was of Han descent. The enthronement of the Prince Wuxuan of Northern Liang was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ The ruling house of the Hu Xia initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮). Liu (劉) was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia. The Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.
^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan. The enthronement of the Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.
^ The ruling house of the Northern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 after the establishment of the Northern Wei.
^ The ruling house of the Eastern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Eastern Wei.
^ The ruling house of the Western Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Western Wei, only for the Emperor Gong of Western Wei to restore the surname Tuoba in AD 554 after the establishment of the Western Wei.
^ The ruling house of the Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family. The Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty.
^ The ruling house of the Tang dynasty initially bore the surname Li (李). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Daye (大野) upon the family. Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty.
^ The Tang dynasty was interrupted by the Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.
^ The ruling house of the Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪). The Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.
^ The Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Li Congke was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b The names of the Later Jin (後晉) of the Shi clan and the Later Jin (後金) of the Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
^ The Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b c Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu was proclaimed "Prince of Wu", to be the start of the Yang Wu. Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.
^ As Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.
^ The ruling house of the Jingnan initially bore the surname Gao (高). The Prince Wuxin of Chu subsequently adopted Zhu (朱) as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.
^ The ruling house of the Southern Tang initially bore the surname Li (李). The Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Xu (徐) as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.
^ a b Liu Ji'en was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Xue (薛), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b The Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of Han descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan. His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Liao was proclaimed "Khagan of the Khitans", to be the start of the Liao dynasty. Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.
^ a b Kuchlug, originally without surname, was of Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b Some historians consider AD 1132, the year in which the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao was proclaimed "Gurkhan", to be the start of the Western Liao. Accordingly, the Western Liao lasted 86 years.
^ a b The Northern Song (北宋) and the Southern Song (南宋) are collectively known as the Song dynasty (宋朝; Sòng Cháo; Sung4 Ch῾ao2; ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄔㄠˊ).
^ The ruling house of the Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.
^ The ruling house of the Yuan dynasty initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.
^ a b Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the Emperor Shizu of Yuan was proclaimed "Khagan of the Great Mongol State" and declared the era name "Zhongtong" (中統), to be the start of the Yuan dynasty. Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.
^ The ruling house of the Northern Yuan initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan.
^ a b Choros Esen, surnamed Choros (綽羅斯), was of Oirat descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.
^ a b c Traditional Chinese historiography considers the Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name "Great Yuan" was abolished. Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the Tianyuan Emperor or the Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as "Dada" (韃靼)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.
^ a b c Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the Dingwu Emperor came to an end, to be the end of the Southern Ming. Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.
^ The Jurchen ethnic group was renamed "Manchu" in AD 1635 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing.
^ The Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor After His Abdication allowed the Xuantong Emperor to retain his imperial title and enjoy other privileges following his abdication, resulting in the existence of a titular court in the Forbidden City known as the "Remnant Court of the Abdicated Qing Imperial Family" (遜清皇室小朝廷) between AD 1912 and AD 1924. Following the Beijing Coup, Feng Yuxiang revoked the privileges and abolished the titular court in AD 1924.
^ The Qing dynasty was briefly restored between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when Zhang Xun reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne. Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history.
^ As proposed by scholars such as Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent of "China" as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the First Opium War. At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:
Tannu Uriankhai in the north;
Stanovoy Range and Sakhalin in the northeast;
Taiwan and its adjacent islands in the southeast;
Hainan and the South China Sea Islands in the south;
Pamir Mountains in the west;
Lake Balkhash in the northwest.
Modern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history. Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China. Regions outside of the above geographical boundaries but were under Chinese rule during various historical periods are included in the histories of the respective Chinese dynasties.
^ The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above.
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Sources
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Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 9780998888309. Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history).
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dynasties of China.
Columbia University. The Dynasties Song
Tan Qixiang. The Historical Atlas of China
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Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Tangut characters.This article contains Mongolian script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of text in Mongolian script.This article contains Manchu text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Manchu alphabet.For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC,[1] and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[7]Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.[8] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.[9] For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as \"Ming porcelain\".[10]The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.[11] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c]The term \"Tiāncháo\" (天朝; \"Celestial Dynasty\" or \"Heavenly Dynasty\") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.[20][21] As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as \"Tiāncháo Shàngguó\" (天朝上國; \"Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State\") or \"Tiāncháo Dàguó\" (天朝大國; \"Celestial Dynasty of the Great State\").","title":"Dynasties of China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Terminology-25"}],"text":"The Chinese character 朝 (cháo) originally meant \"morning\" or \"today\". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:朝 (cháo; 'dynasty')\n朝代 (cháodài; 'dynastic era')\n王朝 (wángcháo; 'royal dynasty')[d]\n皇朝 (huángcháo; 'imperial dynasty')[22]","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Southern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127%E2%80%931279"},{"link_name":"Ma Lin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Lin_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Xia dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Yu the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yu-27"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pre-Xia-7"},{"link_name":"absolute power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JiaTianxia1-28"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constitution-32"},{"link_name":"Chinese throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Throne"},{"link_name":"consort kins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consort_kin"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JiaTianxia2-33"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ConsortKin-35"},{"link_name":"tiānxià","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianxia"},{"link_name":"pre-Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors"},{"link_name":"abdication system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdication_system"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JiaTianxia1-28"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GongTianxia-36"}],"sub_title":"Start of dynastic rule","text":"A depiction of Yu, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the Southern Song court painter Ma Lin.As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[23][a] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.[24][e] By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.[28][f] This concept, known as jiā tiānxià (家天下; \"All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family\"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; \"All under Heaven belongs to the public\") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.[24][30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanhaiguan.gif"},{"link_name":"Battle of Shanhai Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shanhai_Pass"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticCycle1-37"},{"link_name":"dynastic cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticCycle1-37"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticCycle2-38"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticCycle3-39"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition1-40"},{"link_name":"Liao dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Jin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"China proper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_proper"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han"},{"link_name":"Cao Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei"},{"link_name":"Southern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Qi"},{"link_name":"Liang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"usurpers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usurper"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Usurpation-41"},{"link_name":"historical timelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName1-42"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Mandate of Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven"},{"link_name":"Emperor Taizong of Qing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Taiji"},{"link_name":"Later Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)"},{"link_name":"Ming imperial family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Zhu"},{"link_name":"Southern Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition2-43"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition3-44"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Tungning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition4-45"},{"link_name":"Ming–Qing transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_from_Ming_to_Qing"},{"link_name":"Shun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shun_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Xi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Li Zicheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zicheng"},{"link_name":"Zhang Xianzhong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Xianzhong"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition5-46"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition6-47"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition7-48"},{"link_name":"Sui–Tang transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_from_Sui_to_Tang"},{"link_name":"Sui dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Li Mi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Mi_(Sui_dynasty)"},{"link_name":"Xue Ju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xue_Ju"},{"link_name":"Yuwen Huaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuwen_Huaji"},{"link_name":"Shen Faxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen_Faxing"},{"link_name":"Liang Shidu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_Shidu"},{"link_name":"Dou Jiande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dou_Jiande"},{"link_name":"Wang Shichong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Shichong"},{"link_name":"Zhu Can","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Can"},{"link_name":"Lin Shihong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lin_Shihong"},{"link_name":"Li Zitong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Zitong"},{"link_name":"Gao Kaidao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao_Kaidao"},{"link_name":"Fu Gongshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu_Gongshi"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Transition8-49"},{"link_name":"noble titles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_nobility"},{"link_name":"two crownings, three respects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_nobility#Two_crownings_and_three_respects"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wenxuan_of_Northern_Qi"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PrinceOfZhongshan-50"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chai_Rong"},{"link_name":"Emperor Renzong of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Renzong_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Later Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Zhou"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DukeOfChongyi-51"},{"link_name":"Twenty-Four Histories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TwentyFourHistories-52"},{"link_name":"Xinhai Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"the attempt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_History_of_Qing"},{"link_name":"Chinese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"political division of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Chinas"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_China"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_area_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoryOfQing-53"}],"sub_title":"Dynastic transition","text":"An illustration of the Battle of Shanhai Pass, a decisive battle fought during the Ming–Qing transition. The victorious Qing dynasty extended its rule into China proper thereafter.The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[31] This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.[31][32][33]Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[34] The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.[35]One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[36] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.[37][38] The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[39] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[40][41][42] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by Li Mi), Qin (秦; by Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by Lin Shihong), Wu (吳; by Li Zitong), Yan (燕; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[43]Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the \"two crownings, three respects\" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title \"Prince of Zhongshan\" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former.[44] Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title \"Duke of Chongyi\" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.[45]According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.[46] This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[47]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Puyi_(1922).jpg"},{"link_name":"Xuantong Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puyi"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticRule-54"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-XinhaiRevolution-55"},{"link_name":"Manchu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_people"},{"link_name":"孔令貽","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E4%BB%A4%E8%B2%BD"},{"link_name":"Duke of Yansheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Yansheng"},{"link_name":"Confucius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius"},{"link_name":"Liang Qichao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_Qichao"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KongLingyi-56"},{"link_name":"Anhui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhui"},{"link_name":"Hebei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebei"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Marquis of Extended Grace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZhuYuxun-57"},{"link_name":"Empire of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)"},{"link_name":"Yuan Shikai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_Shikai"},{"link_name":"National Protection War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Protection_War"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration1-58"},{"link_name":"Manchu Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_Restoration"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration2-59"},{"link_name":"Manchukuo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo"},{"link_name":"Empire of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MonarchyRestoration3-60"},{"link_name":"Xuantong Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puyi"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticRule-54"}],"sub_title":"End of dynastic rule","text":"A photograph of the Xuantong Emperor, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[48][49] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[50] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[51] Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.[52] The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.[53] Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[54] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[48]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"seal script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_script"},{"link_name":"court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_court"},{"link_name":"Three Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Sixteen Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Northern and Southern dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties"},{"link_name":"Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period"},{"link_name":"political legitimacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)"},{"link_name":"Mandate of Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy1-61"},{"link_name":"Hua–Yi distinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction"},{"link_name":"Chinese culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture"},{"link_name":"正統","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E7%B5%B1"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kingdom-62"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy2-63"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy3-64"},{"link_name":"Cao Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei"},{"link_name":"Shu Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_Han"},{"link_name":"Eastern Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Wu"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xian of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wen of Cao Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Pi"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han"},{"link_name":"Western Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266%E2%80%93316)"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Southern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127%E2%80%931279"},{"link_name":"Zhu Xi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Xi"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy4-65"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy5-66"},{"link_name":"Eastern Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317%E2%80%93420)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy6-67"},{"link_name":"Han-Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han-Zhao"},{"link_name":"Later Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Zhao"},{"link_name":"Former Qin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_Qin"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy7-68"},{"link_name":"Northern dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Northern_dynasties"},{"link_name":"Southern dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties#Southern_dynasties"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy8-69"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy9-70"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"Later Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Liang_(Five_Dynasties)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"Later Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Tang"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"Later Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"Southern Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tang"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Five Dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Five_Dynasties"},{"link_name":"Ten Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period#Ten_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy10-71"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy11-72"},{"link_name":"Liao dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Jin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy12-73"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy13-74"},{"link_name":"Northern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960%E2%80%931127"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_Khitai"},{"link_name":"History of Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Liao"},{"link_name":"History of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Song_(book)"},{"link_name":"History of Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Jin"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy14-75"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy15-76"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy16-77"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Northern Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Yuan"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy17-78"},{"link_name":"Taisun Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taisun_Khan"},{"link_name":"Choros Esen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esen_Taishi"},{"link_name":"Dayan Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayan_Khan"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy18-79"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy14-A-80"},{"link_name":"Southern Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy19-81"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Tungning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning"},{"link_name":"Joseon dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon"},{"link_name":"Later Lê dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy20-82"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy21-83"},{"link_name":"Tokugawa shogunate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy22-84"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy23-85"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy24-86"},{"link_name":"Ouyang Xiu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy25-87"},{"link_name":"Later Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Zhou"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy25-87"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy11-72"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy11-72"},{"link_name":"Xia dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Shang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Eastern Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Qin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han"},{"link_name":"Liu Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Southern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Qi"},{"link_name":"Liang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Chen dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Sui dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Later Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"Taipei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei"},{"link_name":"One-China principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_China"},{"link_name":"sole legitimate representative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_mandate#Mainland_China_and_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legitimacy26-88"}],"text":"Imperial seal of the Qing dynasty with \"Dà Qīng Dìguó zhī xǐ\" (大清帝國之璽; \"Seal of the Great Qing Empire\") rendered in seal script. Seals were a symbol of political authority and legitimacy.China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[55] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as \"legitimate\" or \"orthodox\" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; \"dynasty\"); \"illegitimate\" or \"unorthodox\" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either \"state\" or \"kingdom\"[g]), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[56]Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:Three Kingdoms[57]\nThe Cao Wei, the Shu Han, and the Eastern Wu considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others.\nThe Emperor Xian of Han abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei; hence, the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in orthodox historiography.\nThe Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.\nThe Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the Southern Song scholar Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.[58][59]\nEastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms[60]\nThe Eastern Jin viewed itself as a continuation of the Western Jin, and thus legitimate.\nSeveral of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han-Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy.\nNorthern and Southern dynasties[61]\nAll dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as \"dǎoyí\" (島夷; \"island dwelling barbarians\"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors \"suǒlǔ\" (索虜; \"barbarians with braids\").[62][63]\nFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms[64]\nHaving directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty.[64]\nThe Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang.[64]\nThe Later Jin succeeded the Later Tang and accepted it as a legitimate regime.[64]\nThe Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.[64]\nSince the Song dynasty, Chinese historiography has generally considered the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, to be legitimate.[64][65]\nLiao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty[66]\nFollowing the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it[67]\nBoth the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty.\nThe Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy.\nThe succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin.[68][69][70]\nMing dynasty and Northern Yuan[71]\nThe Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.\nNorthern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name \"Great Yuan\" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of Taisun Khan, Choros Esen, and Dayan Khan.[72]\nThe historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.[73]\nQing dynasty and Southern Ming[74]\nThe Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.\nThe Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.\nThe Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.\nThe Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.[75][76]\nThe Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of Huá (華; \"China\"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.[77][78][79]Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[80] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[80]Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[65] Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[65]Xia dynasty → Shang dynasty → Western Zhou → Eastern Zhou → Qin dynasty → Western Han → Eastern Han → Cao Wei → Western Jin → Eastern Jin → Liu Song → Southern Qi → Liang dynasty → Chen dynasty → Sui dynasty → Tang dynasty → Later Liang → Later Tang → Later Jin → Later Han → Later Zhou → Northern Song → Southern Song → Yuan dynasty → Ming dynasty → Qing dynastyThese historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[81]","title":"Political legitimacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Han_Guangwu_Di.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Liu_Bei_Tang.jpg"},{"link_name":"Emperor Guangwu of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bei"},{"link_name":"patrilineal relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_kin"},{"link_name":"Western Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Eastern Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Zhou dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Longest-13"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhou-89"},{"link_name":"King Ping of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Ping_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"King You of Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_You_of_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Western Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han"},{"link_name":"Shu Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_Han"},{"link_name":"Liu Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Han-90"},{"link_name":"Emperor Guangwu of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gao of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Jing of Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bei"},{"link_name":"Book of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wu of Liu Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Prince Yuan of Chu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Jiao_(prince)"},{"link_name":"Western Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266%E2%80%93316)"},{"link_name":"Eastern Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317%E2%80%93420)"},{"link_name":"Jin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jin-91"},{"link_name":"Emperor Yuan of Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xuan of Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Yi"},{"link_name":"Prince Wu of Langya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Han-Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han-Zhao"},{"link_name":"Hu Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"House of Luandi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luandi"},{"link_name":"Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Yuan_(Han-Zhao)"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helian_Bobo"},{"link_name":"Liu Qiangqu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiangqu"},{"link_name":"Liu Qubei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubei"},{"link_name":"History of the Northern Dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties"},{"link_name":"Former Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_Yan"},{"link_name":"Later Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Yan"},{"link_name":"Southern Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Yan"},{"link_name":"Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murong_Chui"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wenming of Former Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murong_Huang"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murong_De"},{"link_name":"Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Southern Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"Eastern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Western Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Wei"},{"link_name":"House of Tuoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuoba"},{"link_name":"Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Prince Wu of Southern Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufa_Wugu"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuoba_Jiefen"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuoba_Liwei"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SouthernLiang-92"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wen of Western Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Western_Wei"},{"link_name":"Southern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Qi"},{"link_name":"Liang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wu of Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gao of Southern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gao_of_Southern_Qi"},{"link_name":"Western Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"House of Li","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Li"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gaozu of Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozu_of_Tang"},{"link_name":"Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Gao"},{"link_name":"Later Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)"},{"link_name":"Northern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Han"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shizu of Northern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Chong"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gaozu of Later Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Zhiyuan"},{"link_name":"Liao dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_Khitai"},{"link_name":"House of Yelü","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yel%C3%BC"},{"link_name":"Emperor Dezong of Western Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Dashi"},{"link_name":"Emperor Taizu of Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaoji"},{"link_name":"Northern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960%E2%80%931127"},{"link_name":"Southern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127%E2%80%931279"},{"link_name":"House of Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Zhao"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Song-93"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gaozong of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Emperor Huizong of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Emperor Qinzong of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Qinzong"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Northern Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Yuan"},{"link_name":"House of Borjigin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borjigin"},{"link_name":"Emperor Huizong of Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toghon_Tem%C3%BCr"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Southern Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ming"},{"link_name":"House of Zhu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Zhu"},{"link_name":"Hongguang Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Yousong"},{"link_name":"Wanli Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanli_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Later Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"House of Aisin Gioro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro"},{"link_name":"Emperor Taizong of Qing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Taiji"}],"text":"The Emperor Guangwu of Han (top) and the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (bottom) were descended from a common paternal ancestor but are typically considered by historians to be the founders of two separate dynasties.There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou\n\nThe Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty[11][82]\nThe founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou\nWestern Han, Eastern Han, Shu Han, and Liu Song\nThe Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the Han dynasty[83]\nThe first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han\nThe founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han\nThe Book of Song states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu\nWestern Jin and Eastern Jin\nThe Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynasty[84]\nThe Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya\nHan-Zhao and Hu Xia\nThe Han-Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively)\nThe Han-Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han-Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the History of the Northern Dynasties, Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei were brothers\nFormer Yan, Later Yan, and Southern Yan\nThe Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong\nThe founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan\nThe first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan\nNorthern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei\nThe Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)\nThe Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa Pigu[85]\nThe only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei\nThe Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei\nSouthern Qi and Liang dynasty\nThe Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao\nThe founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi\nWestern Liang and Tang dynasty\nThe Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li\nThe founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang\nLater Han and Northern Han\nThe Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu\nThe first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han\nLiao dynasty and Western Liao\nThe Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü\nThe Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao\nNorthern Song and Southern Song\nThe Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the Song dynasty[86]\nThe first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the Emperor Huizong of Song; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song\nYuan dynasty and Northern Yuan\nThe Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin\nThe Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan\nMing dynasty and Southern Ming\nThe Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu\nThe Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor\nLater Jin and Qing dynasty\nThe Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro\nThe Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty","title":"Agnatic lineages"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg"},{"link_name":"height","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Qing_era"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"}],"text":"A German map of the Chinese Empire during the height of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty is considered to be a \"Central Plain dynasty\", a \"unified dynasty\", and a \"conquest dynasty\".","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Central Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongyuan"},{"link_name":"Yellow River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River"},{"link_name":"中原王朝","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8E%9F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D"},{"link_name":"capital cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_capitals_of_China"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CentralPlainDynasties-94"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CentralPlainDynasties-94"}],"sub_title":"Central Plain dynasties","text":"The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. \"Central Plain dynasties\" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[87] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[87]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-95"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChineseEmpire2-96"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChineseEmpire1-97"},{"link_name":"Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gongyang_Zhuan"},{"link_name":"Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi_(state)"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatUnity1-98"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatUnity2-99"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatUnity3-100"},{"link_name":"Mencius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatUnity4-101"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatUnity5-102"},{"link_name":"Qin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han"},{"link_name":"Xin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xin_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han"},{"link_name":"Western Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266%E2%80%93316)"},{"link_name":"Sui dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Wu Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)"},{"link_name":"Northern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960%E2%80%931127"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties1-103"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties2-104"},{"link_name":"Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteen_Prefectures"},{"link_name":"Liao dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Western Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Xia"},{"link_name":"Hetao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetao"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties1-103"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UnifiedDynasties3-105"}],"sub_title":"Unified dynasties","text":"\"Unified dynasties\" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. \"China proper\" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term \"China\". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the \"Chinese Empire\" or the \"Empire of China\" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).[88][89][h]The concept of \"great unity\" or \"grand unification\" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[90][91][92] Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.[93][94]Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.[95][96] The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.[95][97]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Karl August Wittfogel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_August_Wittfogel"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-106"},{"link_name":"滲透王朝","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BB%B2%E9%80%8F%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-106"},{"link_name":"Han-Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han-Zhao"},{"link_name":"Northern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Xiongnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu"},{"link_name":"Xianbei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xianbei"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-106"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-106"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest2-107"},{"link_name":"Liao dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Khitan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khitan_people"},{"link_name":"Mongol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest1-106"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfiltrationConquest3-108"}],"sub_title":"Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties","text":"According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.[98]\"Infiltration dynasties\" or \"dynasties of infiltration\" (滲透王朝; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.[98] For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.[98]\"Conquest dynasties\" or \"dynasties of conquest\" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.[98][99] For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[98]These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[100]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Naming convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"國號","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName1-A-109"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName2-110"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName3-111"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName4-112"},{"link_name":"Xia dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName3-111"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName3-111"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName4-112"},{"link_name":"Emperor Wu of Chen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Chen"},{"link_name":"Chen dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName5-113"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName4-112"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName6-114"},{"link_name":"Former Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_Yan"},{"link_name":"State of Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yan_(state)"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName6-114"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName4-112"},{"link_name":"Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guo_Wei"},{"link_name":"Later Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Zhou"},{"link_name":"Zhou dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName7-115"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName3-111"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName4-112"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Classic of Changes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName8-116"},{"link_name":"Southern Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Han"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName9-117"},{"link_name":"Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Zhu Guozhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Guozhen_(Ming_dynasty)"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName10-118"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName11-119"},{"link_name":"Toqto'a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toqto%27a_(Yuan_dynasty)"},{"link_name":"Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liao_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName12-120"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName13-121"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName11-119"},{"link_name":"The Chronicles of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Shoki"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"names of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_China"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhongguo1-122"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhongguo2-123"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Manchu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchu_language"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Nerchinsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhongguo3-124"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhongguo4-125"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhongguo5-126"},{"link_name":"Sinosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_dynasties"}],"sub_title":"Official nomenclature","text":"It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; \"name of the state\"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[101][102] During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation[103][104]\ne.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation[103]\nThe noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty[103][104]\ne.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name \"Chen\" from his pre-imperial title \"Prince of Chen\" upon the establishment of the Chen dynasty[105]\nThe name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty[104][106]\ne.g., the Former Yan was officially named \"Yan\" based on the ancient State of Yan located in the same region[106]\nThe name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable[104]\ne.g., the Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title \"Zhou\" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the Zhou dynasty[107]\nA term with auspicious or other significant connotations[103][104]\ne.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the \"Great Yuan\", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, \"dà zāi Qián Yuán\" (大哉乾元; \"Great is the Heavenly and Primal\")[108]There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name \"Yue\", only to be renamed to \"Han\" subsequently.[109]The official title of several dynasties bore the character \"dà\" (大; \"great\"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[110][111] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character \"dà\".[112][113] It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term \"dà\" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[111] For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as \"Dai Tō\" (大唐; \"Great Tang\") despite its dynastic name being simply \"Tang\".While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; \"Central State\"; usually translated as \"Middle Kingdom\" or \"China\" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.[114][115] Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed \"Zhōngguó\"—and its Manchu equivalent \"Dulimbai Gurun\" (ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the \"Great Qing\".[116][117] \"Zhōngguó\", which has become nearly synonymous with \"China\" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.[118]The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.","title":"Naming convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sui dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Jin dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)"},{"link_name":"Chinese character(s)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Periodization1-10"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName1-42"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName14-127"},{"link_name":"Northern Qi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Qi"},{"link_name":"Northern Yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Yuan"},{"link_name":"Southern Yan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Yan"},{"link_name":"Southern Tang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Tang"},{"link_name":"Eastern Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317%E2%80%93420)"},{"link_name":"Eastern Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Wei"},{"link_name":"Western Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"Western Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_Khitai"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prefix1-130"},{"link_name":"Former Qin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_Qin"},{"link_name":"Former Shu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former_Shu"},{"link_name":"[j]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prefix2-136"},{"link_name":"Later Zhao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Zhao"},{"link_name":"Later Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)"},{"link_name":"Wu Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)"},{"link_name":"Ma Chu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Chu"},{"link_name":"Shu Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_Han"},{"link_name":"Sichuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan"},{"link_name":"Hu Xia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"barbarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarian#China"},{"link_name":"Western Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han"},{"link_name":"Yang Wu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yang_Wu"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName15-137"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName16-138"},{"link_name":"Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Northern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960%E2%80%931127"},{"link_name":"Southern Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127%E2%80%931279"},{"link_name":"Jingkang Incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingkang_incident"},{"link_name":"Emperor Taizu of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Song"},{"link_name":"Emperor Gaozong of Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Song"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName17-139"},{"link_name":"Western Qin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Qin"},{"link_name":"Southern Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Liang_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Later Qin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Qin"},{"link_name":"Wu Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_dynasty_(690%E2%80%93705)"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName18-140"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName19-141"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName20-142"},{"link_name":"Northern Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Zhou"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName21-143"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DynasticName22-144"}],"sub_title":"Retroactive nomenclature","text":"In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was \"Sui\". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the \"Great Jin\".When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[8][36][119] Frequently used prefixes include:Cardinal direction\n\"Northern\" (北; běi): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan\n\"Southern\" (南; nán): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang\n\"Eastern\" (東; dōng): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei\n\"Western\" (西; xī): e.g., Western Liang, Western Liao\nSequence\n\"Former\"[i] (前; qián): e.g., Former Qin, Former Shu\n\"Later\"[j] (後; hòu): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han\nSurname of the ruling family\ne.g., Wu Zhou, Ma Chu\nOther types of prefixes\ne.g., Shu Han (the prefix \"Shu\" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at Sichuan), Hu Xia (the prefix \"Hu\", meaning \"barbarian\", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin)A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the \"Former Han\", and the Yang Wu is also called the \"Southern Wu\".[127][128]Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original \"Song\" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the \"Song\" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song.[129] In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.[130][131][132]In Chinese sources, the term \"dynasty\" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word \"dynasty\" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the \"Northern Zhou dynasty\".[133]Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word \"China\" after the dynastic name. For instance, \"Tang China\" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.[134]","title":"Naming convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_Dynasties.gif"},{"link_name":"modern Chinese borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borders_of_China"},{"link_name":"Yangtze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze"},{"link_name":"expanded beyond the region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_expansionism"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory1-145"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory2-146"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory3-147"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory4-148"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory5-149"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory7-151"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory8-152"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory9-153"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory10-154"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory11-155"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory12-156"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory13-157"},{"link_name":"Hainan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan"},{"link_name":"Macau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory1-145"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory2-146"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory3-147"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory4-148"},{"link_name":"Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Inner Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China"},{"link_name":"Outer Manchuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory5-149"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory7-151"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory8-152"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau"},{"link_name":"Inner Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Mongolia"},{"link_name":"Outer Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Mongolia"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory9-153"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_under_Chinese_rule"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory10-154"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-A-158"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory5-149"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Turkestan"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory11-155"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory7-151"},{"link_name":"Korean Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory12-156"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory13-157"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory5-A-159"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Territory6-150"},{"link_name":"Yuan dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuan_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Qing dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest1-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest2-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest3-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest4-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest5-18"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GreatYuan-22"},{"link_name":"Lake Baikal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Golden Horde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horde"},{"link_name":"Ob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob_(river)"},{"link_name":"Irtysh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irtysh"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest6-160"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest7-161"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest8-162"},{"link_name":"Chinese tributary system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tributary1-163"},{"link_name":"Western Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han"},{"link_name":"Sinocentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinocentrism"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tributary2-164"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tributary3-165"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Largest5-18"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernTerritory1-166"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernTerritory2-167"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernTerritory3-168"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ModernTerritory4-169"}],"text":"Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the modern Chinese borders.While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.[135][136][137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147]At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[135][136][137] Taiwan,[138] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[139][140] Sakhalin,[141][142] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[140][143] Vietnam,[144][148] Tibet,[139][140] Xinjiang,[145] as well as parts of Central Asia,[140][141] the Korean Peninsula,[146] Afghanistan,[147][149] and Siberia.[140]Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh.[150][151][152] In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system.[153] The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.[154][155]The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.[16][156][157][158][159]","title":"Territorial extent"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[af]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SixteenKingdoms-217"},{"link_name":"Northern and Southern dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties"},{"link_name":"Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period"},{"link_name":"[cc]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography-367"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography13-368"},{"link_name":"fengjian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fengjian"},{"link_name":"State of Deng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_(state)"},{"link_name":"State of Huo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huo_(state)"},{"link_name":"State of Chu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_(state)"},{"link_name":"State of Yiqu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiqu"},{"link_name":"jimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimi_system"},{"link_name":"玄闕州","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8E%84%E9%98%99%E5%B7%9E"},{"link_name":"燭龍州","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%83%9B%E9%BE%99%E5%B7%9E"},{"link_name":"毛憐衛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E6%80%9C%E5%8D%AB"},{"link_name":"建州左衛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%B7%9E%E5%B7%A6%E5%8D%AB"},{"link_name":"tusi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusi"},{"link_name":"Chiefdom of Bozhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Bozhou"},{"link_name":"Chiefdom of Shuidong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Shuidong"},{"link_name":"Chiefdom of Yongning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Yongning"},{"link_name":"Chiefdom of Tsanlha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefdom_of_Tsanlha"},{"link_name":"Nanyue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanyue"},{"link_name":"Tuyuhun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuyuhun"},{"link_name":"Dali Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dali_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Tungning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning"},{"link_name":"Zhai Wei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhai_Wei"},{"link_name":"Northern Liao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Liao"},{"link_name":"Chen Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Han"},{"link_name":"Shun dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shun_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Rouran Khaganate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate"},{"link_name":"Tibetan Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Empire"},{"link_name":"Bohai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balhae"},{"link_name":"Kara-Khanid Khanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate"},{"link_name":"Early Lý dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_L%C3%BD_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Thonburi dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thonburi_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EarlyL%C3%BD1-369"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EarlyL%C3%BD2-370"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thonburi1-371"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thonburi2-372"},{"link_name":"Đinh dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty"},{"link_name":"First Shō dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sh%C5%8D_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%C4%90inh-373"},{"link_name":"[293]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstSh%C5%8D-374"},{"link_name":"identified themselves as \"China\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_China_(ideology)"},{"link_name":"Joseon dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon"},{"link_name":"Nguyễn dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joseon1-375"},{"link_name":"[295]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joseon2-376"},{"link_name":"[296]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nguy%E1%BB%85n1-377"},{"link_name":"[297]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nguy%E1%BB%85n2-378"},{"link_name":"Sinicized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinicization"},{"link_name":"Baekje dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baekje"},{"link_name":"Later Lê dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[298]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baekje-379"},{"link_name":"[299]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LaterL%C3%AA-380"}],"text":"This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.Legend Dynasties of relatively great significance\n Major time periods\n Dynasties counted among the \"Three Kingdoms\"\n Dynasties counted among the \"Sixteen Kingdoms\"[af]\n Dynasties counted among the \"Northern dynasties\" within the broader \"Northern and Southern dynasties\"\n Dynasties counted among the \"Southern dynasties\" within the broader \"Northern and Southern dynasties\"\n Dynasties counted among the \"Five Dynasties\" within the broader \"Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms\"\n Dynasties counted among the \"Ten Kingdoms\" within the broader \"Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms\"Criteria for inclusionThis list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of \"China\" in the study of Chinese historical geography.[cc] These were:[287]\nDynastic regimes that existed within the fengjian system: e.g., State of Deng, State of Huo, State of Chu, State of Yiqu\nDynastic regimes that existed within the jimi system: e.g., Xuanque Prefecture (玄闕州), Zhulong Prefecture (燭龍州), Maolian Guard (毛憐衛), Jianzhou Left Guard (建州左衛)\nDynastic regimes that existed within the tusi system: e.g., Chiefdom of Bozhou, Chiefdom of Shuidong, Chiefdom of Yongning, Chiefdom of Tsanlha\nLocalized dynastic regimes: e.g., Nanyue, Tuyuhun, Dali Kingdom, Kingdom of Tungning\nShort-lived dynastic regimes: e.g., Zhai Wei, Northern Liao, Chen Han, Shun dynasty\nRegional dynastic regimes that ruled an area historically or currently associated with \"China\": e.g., Rouran Khaganate, Tibetan Empire, Bohai, Kara-Khanid Khanate\nDynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list:\n\nDynasties outside of \"China\" with full or partial Chinese ancestry: e.g., Early Lý dynasty of Vietnam, Thonburi dynasty of Siam[288][289][290][291]\nDynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of \"China\": e.g., Đinh dynasty of Vietnam, First Shō dynasty of the Ryukyu Islands[292][293]\nDynasties outside of \"China\" which identified themselves as \"China\": e.g., Joseon dynasty of Korea, Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam[294][295][296][297]\nDynasties that ruled Sinicized states outside of \"China\": e.g., Baekje dynasty of Korea, Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam[298][299]","title":"List of major Chinese dynasties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of Chinese history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history"}],"text":"Further information: Timeline of Chinese history","title":"Timelines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spring and Autumn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period"},{"link_name":"Warring States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"}],"sub_title":"Timeline of major historical periods","text":"Xia–Shang–W. ZhouSpring and AutumnWarring StatesQin–HanJin–Northern and Southern DynastiesSui–TangFive Dynasties–Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–YuanMing–QingROC–PRC","title":"Timelines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[cd]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Timeline-381"}],"sub_title":"Timeline of major regimes","text":"Legend Protodynastic rulers\n Dynastic regimes[cd]\n Non-dynastic regimes","title":"Timelines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Pre-Xia_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Pre-Xia_7-1"},{"link_name":"Xia dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Book of 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Balkhash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Balkhash"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography6-360"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography7-361"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography8-362"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography10-364"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography11-365"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography12-366"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography11-365"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricalGeography12-366"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Timeline_381-0"}],"text":"^ a b While the Xia dynasty is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the Book of Documents mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the \"Tang\" (唐) and the \"Yu\" (虞) dynasties.[2][3][4][5] The former is sometimes called the \"Ancient Tang\" (古唐) to distinguish it from other dynasties named \"Tang\".[6] Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested, Yu the Great would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.\n\n^ All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the Chinese monarchy.\n\n^ a b As per contemporary historiographical norm, the \"Yuan dynasty\" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in Dadu. However, the Han-style dynastic name \"Great Yuan\" (大元) as proclaimed by the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire.[17][18][19] In spite of this, \"Yuan dynasty\" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de facto disintegration of the Mongol Empire.\n\n^ While the character 王 (wáng) is translated as \"king\", this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles, such as \"emperor\".[22]\n\n^ In AD 1906, the Qing dynasty initiated a series of reforms under the auspices of the Empress Xiaoqinxian to transition to a constitutional monarchy. On 27 August 1908, the Outline of the Constitution Compiled by Imperial Order was promulgated and served as a preliminary version of a full constitution originally intended to take effect 10 years later.[25] On 3 November 1911, as a response to the ongoing Xinhai Revolution, the Qing dynasty issued the Nineteen Major Articles of Good Faith on the Constitution which limited the power of the Qing emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy.[26][27] The Qing dynasty, however, was overthrown on 12 February 1912.\n\n^ A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example, Wang Mang of the Xin dynasty was a nephew of the Empress Xiaoyuan who in turn was the spouse of the Western Han ruler, the Emperor Yuan of Han.[29]\n\n^ The term \"kingdom\" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the Cao Wei held the title huángdì (皇帝; \"emperor\") during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the \"Three Kingdoms\". Similarly, monarchs of the Western Qin, one of the \"Sixteen Kingdoms\", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as \"prince\" in English writings).\n\n^ As proposed by scholars such as Fu Sinian and Ray Huang, there were three major Chinese empires historically. The \"First Chinese Empire\" (中華第一帝國) included the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Cao Wei, the Western Jin, the Eastern Jin, the Liu Song, the Southern Qi, the Liang dynasty, and the Chen dynasty. The \"Second Chinese Empire\" (中華第二帝國) encompassed the Northern Wei, the Western Wei, the Northern Zhou, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang, the Later Tang, the Later Jin, the Later Han, the Later Zhou, the Northern Song, and the Southern Song. The \"Third Chinese Empire\" (中華第三帝國) consisted of the Liao dynasty, the Jin dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty. Accordingly, the terms \"Chinese Empire\" and \"Empire of China\" need not necessarily refer to imperial dynasties that had unified China proper.\n\n^ \"Anterior\" is employed in some sources in place of \"Former\".[120][121]\n\n^ \"Latter\" or \"Posterior\" is employed in some sources in place of \"Later\".[122][123][124][125][126]\n\n^ The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.\n\n^ a b The English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of Mandarin romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the Qing dynasty is rendered as \"Ch῾ing dynasty\" in Wade–Giles.[160]\n\n^ a b The Chinese characters shown are in Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the Eastern Han are written as \"東漢\" in Traditional Chinese and \"东汉\" in Simplified Chinese.\n\n^ While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.[161] For instance, the Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaoyichun.[162]\n\n^ The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the Chen dynasty held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status.\n\n^ The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the Later Jin was officially established by the Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the temple name \"Jingzu\" (靖祖) and the posthumous name \"Emperor Xiao'an\" (孝安皇帝).\n\n^ In addition to the ancestral name Si (姒), the ruling house of the Xia dynasty also bore the lineage name Xiahou (夏后).[163]\n\n^ a b Youqiong Yi, surnamed Youqiong (有窮), was of Dongyi descent.[164] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b Yun Zhuo, surnamed Yun (妘), was of Dongyi descent.[165] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b c The dates given for the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Western Zhou prior to the start of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are derived from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project.\n\n^ a b The rule of the Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[167][168] Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years.\n\n^ a b The rule of the Shang dynasty was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[167][170] Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years.\n\n^ a b The Western Zhou (西周) and the Eastern Zhou (東周) are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty (周朝; Zhōu Cháo; Chou1 Ch῾ao2; ㄓㄡ ㄔㄠˊ).[11][82]\n\n^ a b The rule of the Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[167][170] Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.\n\n^ a b c The terms \"Chinese Empire\" and \"Empire of China\" usually refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had unified China proper.[88][89]\n\n^ In addition to the ancestral name Ying (嬴), the ruling house of the Qin dynasty also bore the lineage name Zhao (趙).[172]\n\n^ a b The Western Han (西漢) and the Eastern Han (東漢) are collectively known as the Han dynasty (漢朝; Hàn Cháo; Han4 Ch῾ao2; ㄏㄢˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[83]\n\n^ a b Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the Emperor Gao of Han was proclaimed \"King of Han\", to be the start of the Western Han.[175] Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.\n\n^ Liu Ying was not officially enthroned and maintained the title huáng tàizǐ (皇太子; \"crown prince\") during the regency of Wang Mang.[176] The last Western Han monarch who was officially enthroned was the Emperor Ping of Han.\n\n^ a b The Western Jin (西晉) and the Eastern Jin (東晉) are collectively known as the Jin dynasty (晉朝; Jìn Cháo; Chin4 Ch῾ao2; ㄐㄧㄣˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[84]\n\n^ a b c The names of the Jin dynasty (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the Jin dynasty (金朝) of the Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for \"Jin\".\n\n^ a b The Sixteen Kingdoms are also referred to as the \"Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians\" (五胡十六國; Wǔ Hú Shíliù Guó), although not all dynasties counted among the 16 were ruled by the \"Five Barbarians\".[185]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Han-Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[187][188] Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao.\n\n^ As Jin Zhun, surnamed Jin (靳), was not a member of the Liu (劉) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[189]\n\n^ a b c Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han declared the era name \"Jianchu\" (建初), to be the start of the Cheng-Han.[192] Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu (蒲).[196] The Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin subsequently adopted Fu (苻) as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.[196]\n\n^ a b c Some historians consider AD 350, the year in which the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed \"Prince of Three Qins\", to be the start of the Former Qin.[197] Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.\n\n^ As Lan Han, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[198]\n\n^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[199] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.\n\n^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan could either be the last Later Yan monarch or the founder of the Northern Yan depending on the historian's characterization.[199]\n\n^ The Western Qin was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.\n\n^ a b The names of the Later Liang (後涼) of the Lü clan and the Later Liang (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for \"Liang\".\n\n^ The ruling house of the Southern Liang initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[85] Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa (禿髮) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.[85]\n\n^ The Southern Liang was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The Prince Jing of Southern Liang was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.\n\n^ a b Duan Ye, surnamed Duan (段), was of Han descent.[205] The enthronement of the Prince Wuxuan of Northern Liang was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Hu Xia initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[209] Liu (劉) was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia.[210] The Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.[210]\n\n^ a b The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[199] The enthronement of the Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Northern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[214] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 after the establishment of the Northern Wei.[214]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Eastern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[214] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Eastern Wei.[214]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Western Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[214] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname in AD 493 prior to the establishment of the Western Wei, only for the Emperor Gong of Western Wei to restore the surname Tuoba in AD 554 after the establishment of the Western Wei.[214][217]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family.[223] The Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Tang dynasty initially bore the surname Li (李). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Daye (大野) upon the family.[225] Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty.\n\n^ The Tang dynasty was interrupted by the Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪).[230] The Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.[230]\n\n^ The Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[231] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b Li Congke was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[232] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b The names of the Later Jin (後晉) of the Shi clan and the Later Jin (後金) of the Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for \"Jin\".\n\n^ The Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan.[235] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b c Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu was proclaimed \"Prince of Wu\", to be the start of the Yang Wu.[239] Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.\n\n^ As Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[241]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Jingnan initially bore the surname Gao (高). The Prince Wuxin of Chu subsequently adopted Zhu (朱) as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.[242]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Southern Tang initially bore the surname Li (李). The Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Xu (徐) as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.[243]\n\n^ a b Liu Ji'en was of Han descent. Originally surnamed Xue (薛), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[245] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b The Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of Han descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[246] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.\n\n^ a b Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Liao was proclaimed \"Khagan of the Khitans\", to be the start of the Liao dynasty.[249] Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.\n\n^ a b Kuchlug, originally without surname, was of Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[250][251]\n\n^ a b Some historians consider AD 1132, the year in which the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao was proclaimed \"Gurkhan\", to be the start of the Western Liao.[253] Accordingly, the Western Liao lasted 86 years.\n\n^ a b The Northern Song (北宋) and the Southern Song (南宋) are collectively known as the Song dynasty (宋朝; Sòng Cháo; Sung4 Ch῾ao2; ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄔㄠˊ).[86]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.[256]\n\n^ The ruling house of the Yuan dynasty initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.\n\n^ a b Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the Emperor Shizu of Yuan was proclaimed \"Khagan of the Great Mongol State\" and declared the era name \"Zhongtong\" (中統), to be the start of the Yuan dynasty.[260] Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.\n\n^ The ruling house of the Northern Yuan initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏). Borjigin Munkhag and Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan.\n\n^ a b Choros Esen, surnamed Choros (綽羅斯), was of Oirat descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[261][262]\n\n^ a b c Traditional Chinese historiography considers the Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name \"Great Yuan\" was abolished.[264][265] Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the Tianyuan Emperor or the Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as \"Dada\" (韃靼)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.[266]\n\n^ a b c Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the Dingwu Emperor came to an end, to be the end of the Southern Ming.[269] Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.\n\n^ The Jurchen ethnic group was renamed \"Manchu\" in AD 1635 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing.[270][271]\n\n^ The Articles of Favorable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperor After His Abdication allowed the Xuantong Emperor to retain his imperial title and enjoy other privileges following his abdication, resulting in the existence of a titular court in the Forbidden City known as the \"Remnant Court of the Abdicated Qing Imperial Family\" (遜清皇室小朝廷) between AD 1912 and AD 1924.[274] Following the Beijing Coup, Feng Yuxiang revoked the privileges and abolished the titular court in AD 1924.[274]\n\n^ The Qing dynasty was briefly restored between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when Zhang Xun reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne.[53] Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history.\n\n^ As proposed by scholars such as Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent of \"China\" as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the First Opium War.[275] At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:[276][277][278]\nTannu Uriankhai in the north;[279]\nStanovoy Range and Sakhalin in the northeast;[280][281][282]\nTaiwan and its adjacent islands in the southeast;[280][281]\nHainan and the South China Sea Islands in the south;[280][281][282][283]\nPamir Mountains in the west;[281][282][284]\nLake Balkhash in the northwest.[280][281][282][284]\nModern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history.[285][286] Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China.[285][286] Regions outside of the above geographical boundaries but were under Chinese rule during various historical periods are included in the histories of the respective Chinese dynasties.\n\n^ The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A depiction of Yu, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the Southern Song court painter Ma Lin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg/220px-King_Yu_of_Xia.jpg"},{"image_text":"An illustration of the Battle of Shanhai Pass, a decisive battle fought during the Ming–Qing transition. The victorious Qing dynasty extended its rule into China proper thereafter.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Shanhaiguan.gif/220px-Shanhaiguan.gif"},{"image_text":"A photograph of the Xuantong Emperor, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Puyi_%281922%29.jpg/220px-Puyi_%281922%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Imperial seal of the Qing dynasty with \"Dà Qīng Dìguó zhī xǐ\" (大清帝國之璽; \"Seal of the Great Qing Empire\") rendered in seal script. Seals were a symbol of political authority and legitimacy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg/220px-Seal_of_Qing_dynasty.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A German map of the Chinese Empire during the height of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty is considered to be a \"Central Plain dynasty\", a \"unified dynasty\", and a \"conquest dynasty\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg/220px-Chinesisches_Reich_LOC_2011585250.jpg"},{"image_text":"Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the modern Chinese borders.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/China_Dynasties.gif/220px-China_Dynasties.gif"}]
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[{"reference":"Xueqin, Li (2002-01-01). \"The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results\". Journal of East Asian Archaeology. 4 (1): 332. doi:10.1163/156852302322454585. ISSN 1387-6813.","urls":[{"url":"https://brill.com/view/journals/jeaa/4/1/article-p321.xml","url_text":"\"The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852302322454585","url_text":"10.1163/156852302322454585"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1387-6813","url_text":"1387-6813"}]},{"reference":"Nadeau, Randall (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. p. 31. ISBN 9781444361971.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FmnKSfAS4PcC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou&pg=PA31","url_text":"The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444361971","url_text":"9781444361971"}]},{"reference":"Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008). Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology. p. 24. ISBN 9780227903308.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_tDYDwAAQBAJ&q=yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA24","url_text":"Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780227903308","url_text":"9780227903308"}]},{"reference":"Chao, Yuan-ling (2009). Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850. p. 73. ISBN 9781433103810.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oiGkWyynvAMC&q=tang+yu+xia+shang+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA73","url_text":"Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781433103810","url_text":"9781433103810"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Shumin (2002). \"夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝\". Hebei Academic Journal. 22 (1): 146–147. Retrieved 20 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ixueshu.com/document/13b7db55e198eae3318947a18e7f9386.html","url_text":"\"夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝\""}]},{"reference":"\"远古时期的\"古唐朝\"？比夏朝还早1600年，如被证实历史或将改写\". Retrieved 21 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://k.sina.cn/article_7062118287_1a4ef5f8f00100ky0y.html","url_text":"\"远古时期的\"古唐朝\"？比夏朝还早1600年，如被证实历史或将改写\""}]},{"reference":"Skutsch, Carl (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. p. 287. ISBN 9781135193881.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yXYKAgAAQBAJ&q=chinese+dynasty+han+and+non-han&pg=PA287","url_text":"Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135193881","url_text":"9781135193881"}]},{"reference":"Keay, John (2010). China: A History. ISBN 9780007372089.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fcy1N5GXs4wC&q=chinese+dynasty+broken+succession&pg=PT21","url_text":"China: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780007372089","url_text":"9780007372089"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Yeyang; Zhao, Qingyun (2016). 当代中国近代史理论研究. ISBN 9787516188231.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oIlVDwAAQBAJ&q=%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3+%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2%E5%8F%99%E8%BF%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E8%84%89%E7%BB%9C&pg=PT19","url_text":"当代中国近代史理论研究"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787516188231","url_text":"9787516188231"}]},{"reference":"Atwell, William (1978). \"Ming China and the Emerging World Economy\". In Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John; Mote, Frederick (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. pp. 394–395. ISBN 9780521243339.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhvh6ibLJcC&q=ming+porcelain&pg=PA395","url_text":"\"Ming China and the Emerging World Economy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521243339","url_text":"9780521243339"}]},{"reference":"Sadow, Lauren; Peeters, Bert; Mullan, Kerry (2019). Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond). p. 100. ISBN 9789813299795.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9MO4DwAAQBAJ&q=zhou+dynasty+longest+dynasty&pg=PA100","url_text":"Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789813299795","url_text":"9789813299795"}]},{"reference":"Bauch, Martin; Schenk, Gerrit (2019). The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. p. 153. ISBN 9783110660784.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G0HEDwAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA153","url_text":"The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110660784","url_text":"9783110660784"}]},{"reference":"Ruan, Jiening; Zhang, Jie; Leung, Cynthia (2015). Chinese Language Education in the United States. p. 9. ISBN 9783319213088.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FvbpCgAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA9","url_text":"Chinese Language Education in the United States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319213088","url_text":"9783319213088"}]},{"reference":"Wei, Chao-hsin (1988). The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eXE_AAAAYAAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+largest+territory","url_text":"The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World"}]},{"reference":"Adler, Philip; Pouwels, Randall (2011). World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. p. 373. ISBN 9781133171065.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Tds8AAAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+largest+territory&pg=PA373","url_text":"World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781133171065","url_text":"9781133171065"}]},{"reference":"Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. p. 1. 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ISBN 9788120606906.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Livingstone_Nevius","url_text":"Nevius, John"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lvt8GobNM5MC&q=heavenly+dynasty+china&pg=PA22","url_text":"China and the Chinese"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120606906","url_text":"9788120606906"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Hongsheng (2007). 历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型. p. 139. ISBN 9787300081830.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EXoLAQAAMAAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3%E8%87%AA%E7%A7%B0%E5%A4%A9%E6%9C%9D","url_text":"历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787300081830","url_text":"9787300081830"}]},{"reference":"\"陆大鹏谈翻译：历史上的\"王朝\"与\"皇朝\"\". The Paper (in Chinese). Retrieved 4 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1864544","url_text":"\"陆大鹏谈翻译：历史上的\"王朝\"与\"皇朝\"\""}]},{"reference":"Ebrey, Patricia; Liu, Kwang-Ching (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. p. 10. ISBN 9780521124331.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vr81YoYK0c4C&q=yu+the+great+dynastic+rule&pg=PA10","url_text":"The Cambridge Illustrated History of China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521124331","url_text":"9780521124331"}]},{"reference":"Chan, Joseph (2013). Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy for Modern Times. p. 213. 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The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China. p. 135. ISBN 9783662456378.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6eBsBgAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA135","url_text":"The Road to the Rule of Law in Modern China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783662456378","url_text":"9783662456378"}]},{"reference":"To, Michael (2017). China's Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics. p. 54.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsEzDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+constitution+1911+19+creed&pg=PA54","url_text":"China's Quest for a Modern Constitutional Polity: from dynastic empires to modern republics"}]},{"reference":"Whitaker, Donald; Shinn, Rinn-Sup (1972). Area Handbook for the People's Republic of China. p. 37.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gXl80SVbbjoC&q=chinese+throne+inheritance+male+line&pg=PA37","url_text":"Area Handbook for the People's Republic of China"}]},{"reference":"Xiong, Deshan (2015). Social History Of China. p. 95. ISBN 9781938368264.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=90stDQAAQBAJ&q=wang+mang+wang+zhengjun+emperor+yuan&pg=PA95","url_text":"Social History Of China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781938368264","url_text":"9781938368264"}]},{"reference":"Qi, Zhixiang (2016). 中國現當代人學史：思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡. p. 21. ISBN 9789869244923.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DPcCDAAAQBAJ&q=%E5%85%AC%E5%A4%A9%E4%B8%8B&pg=PA21","url_text":"中國現當代人學史：思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789869244923","url_text":"9789869244923"}]},{"reference":"Perdue, Peter (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. p. 6. ISBN 9780674042025.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J4L-_cjmSqoC&q=dynastic+cycle+china&pg=PA6","url_text":"China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674042025","url_text":"9780674042025"}]},{"reference":"Elleman, Bruce; Paine, Sarah (2019). Modern China: Continuity and Change, 1644 to the Present. p. 19. 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Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200731074611/https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news","url_text":"\"宋和辽究竟哪个才是正统王朝？\""},{"url":"https://xw.qq.com/partner/hwbrowser/20191010A0H8X2/20191010A0H8X200?ADTAG=hwb&pgv_ref=hwb&appid=hwbrowser&ctype=news","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Biran, Michal (2005). The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. p. 93. ISBN 9780521842266.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&q=qara+khitai+legitimate+dynasty+of+china","url_text":"The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521842266","url_text":"9780521842266"}]},{"reference":"\"试论清人的辽金\"正统观\"——以辽宋金\"三史分修\"\"各与正统\"问题讨论为中心\". 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ISBN 9787508504292.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hUb_BQNkXdQC&q=western+Zhou+eastern+zhou+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA11","url_text":"Best of China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787508504292","url_text":"9787508504292"}]},{"reference":"Li, Xiaobing (2012). China at War: An Encyclopedia. p. 485. ISBN 9781598844160.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R7qNuIJJsNEC&q=han+dynasty+divided+into+two+periods&pg=PA485","url_text":"China at War: An Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598844160","url_text":"9781598844160"}]},{"reference":"Mao, Zengyin (2005). 三字经与中国民俗画. p. 90. ISBN 9787508507996.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=o_vtGt6L4GQC&q=jin+dynasty+western+jin+eastern+jin&pg=PP90","url_text":"三字经与中国民俗画"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787508507996","url_text":"9787508507996"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Yong (2018). 东亚文化环流十讲. p. 27. ISBN 9787313200105.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhRhEAAAQBAJ&dq=%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91+%E6%8B%93%E8%B7%8B%E6%B0%8F%E5%90%8C%E6%BA%90+%E7%A7%83%E5%8F%91%E5%8C%B9%E5%AD%A4&pg=PA27","url_text":"东亚文化环流十讲"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787313200105","url_text":"9787313200105"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Shoufa (2002). 中国政治制度史. p. 80. ISBN 9787209030762.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zGtMAAAAIAAJ&q=%E5%AE%8B%E6%9C%9D+%E5%8C%97%E5%AE%8B+%E5%8D%97%E5%AE%8B","url_text":"中国政治制度史"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787209030762","url_text":"9787209030762"}]},{"reference":"Li, Xiaobing; Shan, Patrick (2015). Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance. p. 5. ISBN 9781498507295.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iB0oCwAAQBAJ&q=zhongyuan+wangchao&pg=PA5","url_text":"Ethnic China: Identity, Assimilation, and Resistance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498507295","url_text":"9781498507295"}]},{"reference":"\"Chinese Empire\". Retrieved 9 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/chinese-empire","url_text":"\"Chinese Empire\""}]},{"reference":"\"经常提到的波斯帝国，那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗？\". Retrieved 13 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.360kuai.com/pc/9f72d57dccdee86f4?cota=3&kuai_so=1&sign=360_7bc3b157","url_text":"\"经常提到的波斯帝国，那你知道波斯第一、第二、第三帝国吗？\""}]},{"reference":"Feng, Tianyu; Yang, Hua (2000). 中国文化发展轨迹. p. 111. ISBN 9787208034600.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PY7kAAAAMAAJ&q=%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F+%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9","url_text":"中国文化发展轨迹"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787208034600","url_text":"9787208034600"}]},{"reference":"Jia, Bingqiang; Zhu, Xiaohong (2015). 图说治水与中华文明. ISBN 9787517031246.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UWWADwAAQBAJ&q=%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F+%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E4%BC%A0+%E9%9A%90%E5%85%AC%E5%85%83%E5%B9%B4&pg=PT60","url_text":"图说治水与中华文明"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787517031246","url_text":"9787517031246"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Xilong (2009). 历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集. ISBN 9787542114525.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=boOjDwAAQBAJ&q=%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F+%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E4%BC%A0+%E6%9C%80%E6%97%A9&pg=PT785","url_text":"历史文化探研──兰州大学历史文化学院专门史论文集"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787542114525","url_text":"9787542114525"}]},{"reference":"Yang, Faxing (2015). 世界伟人传记丛书（上）.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iqo3CgAAQBAJ&q=%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F+%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90&pg=PT969","url_text":"世界伟人传记丛书（上）"}]},{"reference":"Gao, Qi (2018). 传统文化与治国理政. ISBN 9787101127669.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mA61DwAAQBAJ&q=%E5%A4%A7%E4%B8%80%E7%BB%9F+%E5%AD%9F%E5%AD%90&pg=PT200","url_text":"传统文化与治国理政"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787101127669","url_text":"9787101127669"}]},{"reference":"\"中国历史上十个大一统王朝，其中四个国祚不过百年\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://kknews.cc/history/p5qxl3e.html","url_text":"\"中国历史上十个大一统王朝，其中四个国祚不过百年\""}]},{"reference":"\"我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝，却教科书上却极少被提及\". Retrieved 24 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://kknews.cc/history/ygblbka.html","url_text":"\"我国历史上这两大王朝均是大一统王朝，却教科书上却极少被提及\""}]},{"reference":"Graff, David; Higham, Robin (2012). A Military History of China. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0813140674.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wKpj1YfXfHEC&q=A+Military+History+of+China+sixteen+prefectures+song+emperor&pg=PA70","url_text":"A Military History of China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813140674","url_text":"978-0813140674"}]},{"reference":"Zhang, Fan (2018). \"Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history\". Chinese Studies in History. 51 (1): 52. doi:10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564. S2CID 165215790. Retrieved 2 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=mcsh20","url_text":"\"Characteristics of the Yuan dynasty: Reflections on several issues from Mongol Yuan history\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00094633.2018.1466564","url_text":"10.1080/00094633.2018.1466564"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165215790","url_text":"165215790"}]},{"reference":"van de Ven, Hans (2000). Warfare in Chinese History. p. 77. 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ISBN 9787210045892.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=aVp_DwAAQBAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%9D%E4%BB%A3%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7&pg=PT195","url_text":"中国文化ABC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787210045892","url_text":"9787210045892"}]},{"reference":"\"历代王朝国号的分类\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.diyifanwen.com/tool/lishichaodai/126900432717083.htm","url_text":"\"历代王朝国号的分类\""}]},{"reference":"\"名不正则言不顺：中国各朝代名称、国号的由来\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.ifeng.com/history/1/200709/0929_335_243492.shtml","url_text":"\"名不正则言不顺：中国各朝代名称、国号的由来\""}]},{"reference":"\"唐朝的皇帝姓李，为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝？\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://kknews.cc/history/2la3op9.html","url_text":"\"唐朝的皇帝姓李，为什么不叫李朝而叫唐朝？\""}]},{"reference":"\"先秦时期的诸侯国名，哪些最受后世的青睐？\". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html","url_text":"\"先秦时期的诸侯国名，哪些最受后世的青睐？\""},{"url":"https://new.qq.com/omn/20180701/20180701A024FI.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"后周皇帝列表及简介 后周太祖世宗恭帝简介 后周是怎么灭亡的\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.8794.cn/lishi/shijian/55356.html","url_text":"\"后周皇帝列表及简介 后周太祖世宗恭帝简介 后周是怎么灭亡的\""}]},{"reference":"Hung, Hing Ming (2016). From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang. p. 13. ISBN 9781628941524.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rf8gDAAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+da+zai+qian+yuan&pg=PA13","url_text":"From the Mongols to the Ming Dynasty: How a Begging Monk Became Emperor of China, Zhu Yuan Zhang"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628941524","url_text":"9781628941524"}]},{"reference":"\"南越国与南汉国\". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132304/http://www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm","url_text":"\"南越国与南汉国\""},{"url":"http://www.xinhuanet.com/local/2017-01/04/c_129431196.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hu, Axiang; Song, Yanmei (2008). 中国国号的故事. p. 171. ISBN 9787807135999.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kDUzAQAAIAAJ&q=%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E5%8A%A0%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%97,%E5%A7%8B%E4%BA%8E%E8%83%A1%E5%85%83%E3%80%82","url_text":"中国国号的故事"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787807135999","url_text":"9787807135999"}]},{"reference":"\"明朝为何定国号为\"大明\"，绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个\". Retrieved 6 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jianshu.com/p/a6fffb05cb05","url_text":"\"明朝为何定国号为\"大明\"，绝大部分人只知道五个原因中的一个\""}]},{"reference":"\"辽朝国号考释\". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200731132305/http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478","url_text":"\"辽朝国号考释\""},{"url":"http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=478","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chan, Hok-lam (2003). 金宋史論叢. pp. 4–5. ISBN 9789629960971.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=t21yghJHIpEC&q=%E5%A4%A7%E9%87%91+%E9%87%91%E5%8F%B2&pg=PA4","url_text":"金宋史論叢"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629960971","url_text":"9789629960971"}]},{"reference":"Fogel, Joshua (2015). The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. p. 66. ISBN 9781317457671.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=krq5CAAAQBAJ&q=It+was+the+ideal+of+every+dynasty+throughout+Chinese+history%2C+even+when+the+leaders+may+not+have+been+conscious+of+it%2C+to+make+their+dynastic+name+completely+identifiable+with+%E2%80%9CChina.%E2%80%9D&pg=PA66","url_text":"The Cultural Dimensions of Sino-Japanese Relations: Essays on the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317457671","url_text":"9781317457671"}]},{"reference":"Xie, Xuanjun (2016). 士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会. p. 379. ISBN 9781329980136.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=o-OPDAAAQBAJ&q=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8D%E6%98%AF%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%B7%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5&pg=PA379","url_text":"士商工农──等级制度构建文明社会"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781329980136","url_text":"9781329980136"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Yuanchong (2018). Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911. pp. 52–53. ISBN 9781501730511.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71","url_text":"Remaking the Chinese Empire: Manchu-Korean Relations, 1616–1911"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501730511","url_text":"9781501730511"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Fei-Ling (2017). The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power. p. 11. ISBN 9781438467504.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=chUwDwAAQBAJ&q=qing+dynasty+zhongguo+dulimbai+gurun+international+treaties&pg=PA11","url_text":"The China Order: Centralia, World Empire, and the Nature of Chinese Power"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438467504","url_text":"9781438467504"}]},{"reference":"Kang, Jung In (2015). Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought. p. 71. ISBN 9780739180990.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QF9oCgAAQBAJ&q=zhongguo+geographical+political+cultural+concept&pg=PA71","url_text":"Western-Centrism and Contemporary Korean Political Thought"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739180990","url_text":"9780739180990"}]},{"reference":"\"为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上\"东西南北\"，比如\"西汉\"呢？\". Retrieved 18 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://kknews.cc/history/bb4gb6.html","url_text":"\"为何中国古代的一些朝代前要加上\"东西南北\"，比如\"西汉\"呢？\""}]},{"reference":"Christopher, James (1970). Conflict in the Far East. p. 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KdkUAAAAIAAJ&q=anterior+han+dynasty&pg=PA5","url_text":"Conflict in the Far East"}]},{"reference":"Deghati, Reza; Giès, Jacques; Feugère, Laure; Coutin, André (2002). Painted Buddhas of Xinjiang: Hidden Treasures from the Silk Road. p. 43. 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The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44. p. 223. ISBN 9781134462094.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WRaoAgAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA223","url_text":"The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134462094","url_text":"9781134462094"}]},{"reference":"Dardess, John (2019). More Than the Great Wall: The Northern Frontier and Ming National Security, 1368–1644. p. 512. ISBN 9781538135112.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=t8y4DwAAQBAJ&q=latter+jin+dynasty&pg=PA512","url_text":"More Than the Great Wall: The Northern Frontier and Ming National Security, 1368–1644"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538135112","url_text":"9781538135112"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Guo'an (2007). A Handbook for 1,000 Basic Chinese Characters. p. 828. ISBN 9789629962838.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=c9NNC3UjRTwC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA828","url_text":"A Handbook for 1,000 Basic Chinese Characters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629962838","url_text":"9789629962838"}]},{"reference":"Zhao, Ziqiang (2001). 私家藏宝：粤桂港澳台私人藏品珍集. p. 7. ISBN 9787806740989.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YsbQaTDWseYC&q=posterior+zhou+dynasty&pg=PA7","url_text":"私家藏宝：粤桂港澳台私人藏品珍集"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787806740989","url_text":"9787806740989"}]},{"reference":"Loewe, Michael (2006). The Government of the Qin and Han Empires: 221 BCE – 220 CE. p. vi. 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Gale Researcher Guide for: The Three Kingdoms and the Jin. ISBN 9781535865692.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PfN1DwAAQBAJ&q=three+kingdoms+220-280&pg=PP4","url_text":"Gale Researcher Guide for: The Three Kingdoms and the Jin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781535865692","url_text":"9781535865692"}]},{"reference":"Dai, Meike; Wei, Weisen (2016). 幻化之龍：兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子. p. 122. ISBN 9789629966485.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UuoqDwAAQBAJ&q=%E6%9B%B9%E9%AD%8F+220-266&pg=PA122","url_text":"幻化之龍：兩千年中國歷史變遷中的孔子"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789629966485","url_text":"9789629966485"}]},{"reference":"Fu, Chonglan; Cao, Wenming (2019). Introduction to the Urban History of China. p. 123. 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The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals. ISBN 9781532058318.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=P1h7DwAAQBAJ&q=hu+xia+407-431&pg=PT610","url_text":"The Sinitic Civilization Book II: A Factual History Through the Lens of Archaeology, Bronzeware, Astronomy, Divination, Calendar and the Annals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781532058318","url_text":"9781532058318"}]},{"reference":"Tian, Hengyu (2018). Infamous Chinese Emperors: Tales of Tyranny and Misrule. p. 180. 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Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications. p. 10. ISBN 9783319622651.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_XIzDwAAQBAJ&q=little+china+%E5%B0%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E&pg=PA10","url_text":"Korea-China Relations in History and Contemporary Implications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319622651","url_text":"9783319622651"}]},{"reference":"Xie, Xuanjun (2016). 第三中国论. p. 202. ISBN 9781329800250.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3gh2CwAAQBAJ&q=%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97+%E9%98%AE%E6%9C%9D+%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E8%87%AA%E5%B1%85&pg=PA202","url_text":"第三中国论"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781329800250","url_text":"9781329800250"}]},{"reference":"Wu, Weiming (2017). 東亞易學史論：《周易》在日韓越琉的傳播與影響. p. 161. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah
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History of ancient Israel and Judah
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["1 Periods","2 Background: Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 BCE)","3 Iron Age I (1150–950 BCE)","4 Iron Age II (950–587 BCE)","5 Aftermath: Assyrian and Babylonian periods","6 Religion","6.1 Henotheism","6.2 Iron Age Yahwism","6.3 The Babylonian exile and Second Temple Judaism","7 Administrative and judicial structure","8 See also","9 References","9.1 Citations","9.2 Sources","10 Further reading"]
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Israelite and Jewish history 1200–586 BCE
This article is about Iron Age history of the Israelites, including the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. For the post-exilic period of Jewish history, see Second Temple period.
Approximate map of the Northern Kingdom of Israel (blue) and the Kingdom of Judah (gold) with their neighbours (tan) during the Iron Age (9th century BCE)
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The history of ancient Israel and Judah spans from the early appearance of the Israelites in Canaan's hill country during the late second millenium BCE, to the establishment and subsequent downfall of the two Israelite kingdoms in the mid-first millenium BCE. This history unfolds within the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. The earliest documented mention of "Israel" as a people appears on the Merneptah Stele, an ancient Egyptian inscription dating back to around 1208 BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests that ancient Israelite culture evolved from the pre-existing Canaanite civilization. During the Iron Age II period, two Israelite kingdoms emerged, covering much of Canaan: the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.
According to the Hebrew Bible, a "United Monarchy" consisting of Israel and Judah existed as early as the 11th century BCE, under the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon; the country later split into two kingdoms: Israel, containing the cities of Shechem and Samaria in the north, and Judah (containing Jerusalem and the Jewish Temple) in the south. The historicity of the United Monarchy is debated—as there are no archaeological remains of it that are accepted as consensus—but historians and archaeologists agree that Israel and Judah existed as separate kingdoms by c. 900 BCE: 169–195 and c. 850 BCE, respectively. The kingdoms' history is known in greater detail than that of other kingdoms in the Levant, primarily due to the selective narratives in the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, which were included in the Bible.
The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. While the Kingdom of Judah remained intact during this time, it became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire. However, Jewish revolts against the Babylonians led to the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE, under the rule of Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. According to the biblical account, the armies of Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem between 589–586 BCE, which led to the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the exile of the Jews to Babylon; this event was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles. The exilic period saw the development of the Israelite religion towards a monotheistic Judaism.
The exile ended with the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire c. 538 BCE. Subsequently, the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus, which authorized and encouraged exiled Jews to return to Judah. Cyrus' proclamation began the exiles' return to Zion, inaugurating the formative period in which a more distinctive Jewish identity developed in the Persian province of Yehud. During this time, the destroyed Solomon's Temple was replaced by the Second Temple, marking the beginning of the Second Temple period.
Periods
Iron Age I: 1150–950 BCE
Iron Age II: 950–586 BCE
The Iron Age II period is followed by periods named after conquering empires, such as the Neo-Babylonians becoming the "godfathers" for the Babylonian period (586–539 BCE).
Other academic terms often used are:
First Temple or Israelite period (c. 1000 – 586 BCE)
The return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple marked the beginning of the Second Temple period (c. 516 BCE – 70 CE).
Background: Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 BCE)
The eastern Mediterranean seaboard stretches 400 miles north to south from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Peninsula, and 70 to 100 miles east to west between the sea and the Arabian Desert. The coastal plain of the southern Levant, broad in the south and narrowing to the north, is backed in its southernmost portion by a zone of foothills, the Shfela; like the plain this narrows as it goes northwards, ending in the promontory of Mount Carmel. East of the plain and the Shfela is a mountainous ridge, the "hill country of Judea" in the south, the "hill country of Ephraim" north of that, then Galilee and Mount Lebanon. To the east again lie the steep-sided valley occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the wadi of the Arabah, which continues down to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. Beyond the plateau is the Syrian desert, separating the Levant from Mesopotamia. To the southwest is Egypt, to the northeast Mesopotamia. The location and geographical characteristics of the narrow Levant made the area a battleground among the powerful entities that surrounded it.
Canaan in the Late Bronze Age was a shadow of what it had been centuries earlier: many cities were abandoned, others shrank in size, and the total settled population was probably not much more than a hundred thousand. Settlement was concentrated in cities along the coastal plain and along major communication routes; the central and northern hill country which would later become the biblical kingdom of Israel was only sparsely inhabited although letters from the Egyptian archives indicate that Jerusalem was already a Canaanite city-state recognizing Egyptian overlordship. Politically and culturally it was dominated by Egypt, each city under its own ruler, constantly at odds with its neighbours, and appealing to the Egyptians to adjudicate their differences.
The Merneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel", representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.
The Canaanite city state system broke down during the Late Bronze Age collapse, and Canaanite culture was then gradually absorbed into those of the Philistines, Phoenicians and Israelites. The process was gradual and a strong Egyptian presence continued into the 12th century BCE, and, while some Canaanite cities were destroyed, others continued to exist in Iron Age I.
The name "Israel" first appears in the Merneptah Stele c. 1208 BCE: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is no more." This "Israel" was a cultural and probably political entity, well enough established for the Egyptians to perceive it as a possible challenge, but an ethnic group rather than an organized state.
Iron Age I (1150–950 BCE)
Archaeologist Paula McNutt says: "It is probably… during Iron Age I a population began to identify itself as 'Israelite'," differentiating itself from its neighbours via prohibitions on intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.
In the Late Bronze Age there were no more than about 25 villages in the highlands, but this increased to over 300 by the end of Iron Age I, while the settled population doubled from 20,000 to 40,000. The villages were more numerous and larger in the north, and probably shared the highlands with pastoral nomads, who left no remains. Archaeologists and historians attempting to trace the origins of these villagers have found it impossible to identify any distinctive features that could define them as specifically Israelite – collared-rim jars and four-room houses have been identified outside the highlands and thus cannot be used to distinguish Israelite sites, and while the pottery of the highland villages is far more limited than that of lowland Canaanite sites, it develops typologically out of Canaanite pottery that came before. Israel Finkelstein proposed that the oval or circular layout that distinguishes some of the earliest highland sites, and the notable absence of pig bones from hill sites, could be taken as markers of ethnicity, but others have cautioned that these can be a "common-sense" adaptation to highland life and not necessarily revelatory of origins. Other Aramaean sites also demonstrate a contemporary absence of pig remains at that time, unlike earlier Canaanite and later Philistine excavations.A reconstructed Israelite house, 10th–7th century BCE. Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv.
In The Bible Unearthed (2001), Finkelstein and Silberman summarized recent studies. They described how, up until 1967, the Israelite heartland in the highlands of western Palestine was virtually an archaeological terra incognita. Since then, intensive surveys have examined the traditional territories of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh. These surveys have revealed the sudden emergence of a new culture contrasting with the Philistine and Canaanite societies existing in Canaan in the Iron Age. This new culture is characterized by a lack of pork remains (whereas pork formed 20% of the Philistine diet in places), by an abandonment of the Philistine/Canaanite custom of having highly decorated pottery, and by the practice of circumcision. The Israelite ethnic identity had originated, not from the Exodus and a subsequent conquest, but from a transformation of the existing Canaanite-Philistine cultures.
These surveys revolutionized the study of early Israel. The discovery of the remains of a dense network of highland villages – all apparently established within the span of few generations – indicated that a dramatic social transformation had taken place in the central hill country of Canaan around 1200 BCE. There was no sign of violent invasion or even the infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group. Instead, it seemed to be a revolution in lifestyle. In the formerly sparsely populated highlands from the Judean hills in the south to the hills of Samaria in the north, far from the Canaanite cities that were in the process of collapse and disintegration, about two-hundred fifty hilltop communities suddenly sprang up. Here were the first Israelites.
Modern scholars therefore see Israel arising peacefully and internally from existing people in the highlands of Canaan.
Extensive archaeological excavations have provided a picture of Israelite society during the early Iron Age period. The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population. During this period, Israelites lived primarily in small villages, the largest of which had populations of up to 300 or 400. Their villages were built on hilltops. Their houses were built in clusters around a common courtyard. They built three- or four-room houses out of mudbrick with a stone foundation and sometimes with a second story made of wood. The inhabitants lived by farming and herding. They built terraces to farm on hillsides, planting various crops and maintaining orchards. The villages were largely economically self-sufficient and economic interchange was prevalent. According to the Bible, prior to the rise of the Israelite monarchy the early Israelites were led by the Biblical judges, or chieftains who served as military leaders in times of crisis. Scholars are divided over the historicity of this account. However, it is likely that regional chiefdoms and polities provided security. The small villages were unwalled but were likely subjects of the major town in the area. Writing was known and available for recording, even at small sites.
Iron Age II (950–587 BCE)
See also: Kingdom of Judah, Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), and Capital (architecture) § Proto-Aeolic
According to Israel Finkelstein, after an emergent and large polity was suddenly formed based on the Gibeon-Gibeah plateau and destroyed by Shoshenq I, the biblical Shishak, in the 10th century BCE, a return to small city-states was prevalent in the Southern Levant, but between 950 and 900 BCE another large polity emerged in the northern highlands with its capital eventually at Tirzah, that can be considered the precursor of the Kingdom of Israel. The Kingdom of Israel was consolidated as an important regional power by the first half of the 9th century BCE, before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE, and the Kingdom of Judah began to flourish in the second half of the 9th century BCE. Model of Levantine four-roomed house from c. 900 BCE
Unusually favourable climatic conditions in the first two centuries of Iron Age II brought about an expansion of population, settlements and trade throughout the region. In the central highlands this resulted in unification in a kingdom with the city of Samaria as its capital, possibly by the second half of the 10th century BCE when an inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I records a series of campaigns directed at the area. Israel had clearly emerged in the first half of the 9th century BCE, this is attested when the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III names "Ahab Sir'lit" among his enemies at the battle of Qarqar (853 BCE) on the Kurkh Monoliths. This "Sir'lit" is most often interpreted as "Israel". At this time Israel was apparently engaged in a three-way contest with Damascus and Tyre for control of the Jezreel Valley and Galilee in the north, and with Moab, Ammon and Aram Damascus in the east for control of Gilead; the Mesha Stele (c. 830 BCE), left by a king of Moab, celebrates his success in throwing off the oppression of the "House of Omri" (i.e., Israel). It bears what is generally thought to be the earliest extra-biblical reference to the name "Yahweh". A century later Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, which first split its territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria (722 BCE). Both the biblical and Assyrian sources speak of a massive deportation of people from Israel and their replacement with settlers from other parts of the empire – such population exchanges were an established part of Assyrian imperial policy, a means of breaking the old power structure – and the former Israel never again became an independent political entity.
Depiction of Jehu King of Israel giving tribute to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III from Nimrud (c. BCE – c. 841–840)
Finkelstein holds that Judah emerged as an operational kingdom somewhat later than Israel, during the second half of 9th century BCE, but the subject is one of considerable controversy. There are indications that during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE, the southern highlands had been divided between a number of centres, none with clear primacy. During the reign of Hezekiah, between c. 715 and 686 BCE, a notable increase in the power of the Judean state can be observed. This is reflected in archaeological sites and findings, such as the Broad Wall; a defensive city wall in Jerusalem; and the Siloam tunnel, an aqueduct designed to provide Jerusalem with water during an impending siege by the Neo-Assyrian Empire led by Sennacherib; and the Siloam inscription, a lintel inscription found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to comptroller Shebna. LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata in and around that formed by Sennacherib's destruction, appear to have been used throughout Sennacherib's 29-year reign, along with bullae from sealed documents, some that belonged to Hezekiah himself and others that name his servants.
"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem
Archaeological records indicate that the Kingdom of Israel was fairly prosperous. The late Iron Age saw an increase in urban development in Israel. Whereas previously the Israelites had lived mainly in small and unfortified settlements, the rise of the Kingdom of Israel saw the growth of cities and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications with walls and gates. Israel initially had to invest significant resources into defence as it was subjected to regular Aramean incursions and attacks, but after the Arameans were subjugated by the Assyrians and Israel could afford to put less resources into defending its territory, its architectural infrastructure grew dramatically. Extensive fortifications were built around cities such as Dan, Megiddo, and Hazor, including monumental and multi-towered city walls and multi-gate entry systems. Israel's economy was based on multiple industries. It had the largest olive oil production centres in the region, using at least two different types of olive oil presses, and also had a significant wine industry, with wine presses constructed next to vineyards. By contrast, the Kingdom of Judah was significantly less advanced. Some scholars believe it was no more than a small tribal entity limited to Jerusalem and its immediate surroundings. In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small and mostly unfortified settlements. The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate among scholars. According to some scholars, Jerusalem does not show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity until the 9th century BCE. Other scholars argue that recent discoveries and radiocarbon tests in the City of David seem to indicate that Jerusalem was already a significant city by the 10th century BCE. Significant administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and Large Stone Structure, which originally formed part of one structure, also contain material culture from the 10th century BCE or earlier. The ruins of a significant Judahite military fortress, Tel Arad, have also been found in the Negev, and a collection of military orders found there suggest literacy was present throughout the ranks of the Judahite army. This suggests that literacy was not limited to a tiny elite, indicating the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah.Siloam inscription found in the Siloam tunnel, Jerusalem (c. 700 BCE)In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours. This occurred at the same time that Israel was being destroyed by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was probably the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal state controlling the valuable olive industry. Judah prospered as a vassal state (despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th century BCE, Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the land led to the destruction of Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582.
Aftermath: Assyrian and Babylonian periods
Main articles: Samerina and Yehud (Babylonian province)
After its fall, the former Kingdom of Israel became the Assyrian province of Samerina, which was taken over about a century later by the Neo-Babylonian Empire, created after the revolt of the Babylonians and them defeating the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
One of the Al-Yahudu Tablets, written in Akkadian, which documented the condition of the exiled Judean community in Babylon
Babylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population and lost the Negev, the Shephelah, and part of the Judean hill country, including Hebron, to encroachments from Edom and other neighbours. Jerusalem, destroyed but probably not totally abandoned, was much smaller than previously, and the settlements surrounding it, as well as the towns in the former kingdom's western borders, were all devastated as a result of the Babylonian campaign. The town of Mizpah in Benjamin in the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud. This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkalon was conquered in 604, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location. There is also a strong probability that for most or all of the period the temple at Bethel in Benjamin replaced that at Jerusalem, boosting the prestige of Bethel's priests (the Aaronites) against those of Jerusalem (the Zadokites), now in exile in Babylon.
The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, but the liquidation of the entire infrastructure which had sustained Judah for centuries. The most significant casualty was the state ideology of "Zion theology," the idea that the god of Israel had chosen Jerusalem for his dwelling-place and that the Davidic dynasty would reign there forever. The fall of the city and the end of Davidic kingship forced the leaders of the exile community – kings, priests, scribes and prophets – to reformulate the concepts of community, faith and politics. The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible: Isaiah 40–55; Ezekiel; the final version of Jeremiah; the work of the hypothesized priestly source in the Pentateuch; and the final form of the history of Israel from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings. Theologically, the Babylonian exiles were responsible for the doctrines of individual responsibility and universalism (the concept that one god controls the entire world) and for the increased emphasis on purity and holiness. Most significantly, the trauma of the exile experience led to the development of a strong sense of Hebrew identity distinct from other peoples, with increased emphasis on symbols such as circumcision and Sabbath-observance to sustain that distinction.
Hans M. Barstad writes that the concentration of the biblical literature on the experience of the exiles in Babylon disguises that the great majority of the population remained in Judah; for them, life after the fall of Jerusalem probably went on much as it had before. It may even have improved, as they were rewarded with the land and property of the deportees, much to the anger of the community of exiles remaining in Babylon. Conversely, Avraham Faust writes that archaeological and demographic surveys show that the population of Judah was significantly reduced to barely 10% of what it had been in the time before the exile. The assassination around 582 of the Babylonian governor by a disaffected member of the former royal House of David provoked a Babylonian crackdown, possibly reflected in the Book of Lamentations, but the situation seems to have soon stabilized again. Nevertheless, those unwalled cities and towns that remained were subject to slave raids by the Phoenicians and intervention in their internal affairs by Samaritans, Arabs, and Ammonites.
Religion
Although the specific process by which the Israelites adopted monotheism is unknown, it is certain that the transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period. Yet, over time, the number of gods that the Israelites worshipped decreased, and figurative images vanished from their shrines. Yahwism, as some scholars name this belief system, is often described as a form of henotheism or monolatry. Over the same time, a folk religion continued to be practised across Israel and Judah. These practices were influenced by the polytheistic beliefs of the surrounding ethnicities, and were denounced by the prophets.
In addition to the Temple in Jerusalem, there was public worship practised all over Israel and Judah in shrines and sanctuaries, outdoors, and close to city gates. In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the kings Hezekiah and Josiah of Judah implemented a number of significant religious reforms that aimed to centre worship of the God of Israel in Jerusalem and eliminate foreign customs.
Henotheism
El, the Canaanite creator deity, Megiddo, Stratum VII, Late Bronze II, 1400–1200 BCE, bronze with gold leaf – Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago – DSC07734 The Canaanite god El, who may have been the precursor to the Israelite god Yahweh.
Henotheism is the act of worshipping a single god, without denying the existence of other deities. Many scholars believe that before monotheism in ancient Israel, there came a transitional period; in this transitional period many followers of the Israelite religion worshipped the god Yahweh, but did not deny the existence of other deities accepted throughout the region. Henotheistic worship was not uncommon in the Ancient Near East, as many Iron Age nation states worshipped an elevated national god which was nonetheless only part of a wider pantheon; examples include Chemosh in Moab, Qos in Edom, Milkom in Ammon, and Ashur in Assyria].
Canaanite religion syncretized elements from neighbouring cultures, largely from Mesopotamian religious traditions. Using Canaanite religion as a base was natural due to the fact that the Canaanite culture inhabited the same region prior to the emergence of Israelite culture. Israelite religion was no exception, as during the transitional period, Yahweh and El were syncretized in the Israelite pantheon. El already occupied a reasonably important place in the Israelite religion. Even the name "Israel" is based on the name El, rather than Yahweh. It was this initial harmonization of Israelite and Canaanite religious thought that lead to Yahweh gradually absorbing several characteristics from Canaanite deities, in turn strengthening his own position as an all-powerful "One." Even still, monotheism in the region of ancient Israel and Judah did not take hold overnight, and during the intermediate stages most people are believed to have remained henotheistic.
During this intermediate period of henotheism many families worshipped different gods. Religion was very much centred around the family, as opposed to the community. The region of Israel and Judah was sparsely populated during the time of Moses. As such many different areas worshipped different gods, due to social isolation. It was not until later on in Israelite history that people started to worship Yahweh alone and fully convert to monotheistic values. That switch occurred with the growth of power and influence of the Israelite kingdom and its rulers. Further details of this are contained in the Iron Age Yahwism section below. Evidence from the Bible suggests that henotheism did exist: "They went and served alien gods and paid homage to them, gods of whom they had no experience and whom he did not allot to them" (Deut. 29.26). Many believe that this quote demonstrates that the early Israelite kingdom followed traditions similar to ancient Mesopotamia, where each major urban centre had a supreme god. Each culture embraced their patron god but did not deny the existence of other cultures' patron gods. In Assyria, the patron god was Ashur, and in ancient Israel, it was Yahweh; however, both Israelite and Assyrian cultures recognized each other's deities during this period. Some scholars have used the Bible as evidence to argue that most of the people alive during the events recounted in the Hebrew Bible, including Moses, were most likely henotheists. There are many quotes from the Hebrew Bible that are used to support this view. One such quote from Jewish tradition is the first commandment which in its entirety reads "I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage: You shall have no other gods before me." This quote does not deny the existence of other gods; it merely states that Jews should consider Yahweh or God the supreme god, incomparable to other supernatural beings. Some scholars attribute the concept of angels and demons found in Judaism and Christianity to the tradition of henotheism. Instead of completely getting rid of the concept of other supernatural beings, these religions changed former deities into angels and demons.
Iron Age Yahwism
Main article: Yahwism
The Canaanite god Baal, 14th–12th century BCE (Louvre museum, Paris)
The religion of the Israelites of Iron Age I, like the Ancient Canaanite religion from which it evolved and other religions of the ancient Near East, was based on a cult of ancestors and worship of family gods (the "gods of the fathers"). With the emergence of the monarchy at the beginning of Iron Age II the kings promoted their family god, Yahweh, as the god of the kingdom, but beyond the royal court, religion continued to be both polytheistic and family-centred. The major deities were not numerous – El, Asherah, and Yahweh, with Baal as a fourth god, and perhaps Shamash (the sun) in the early period. At an early stage El and Yahweh became fused and Asherah did not continue as a separate state cult, although she continued to be popular at a community level until Persian times.
Yahweh, the national god of both Israel and Judah, seems to have originated in Edom and Midian in southern Canaan and may have been brought to Israel by the Kenites and Midianites at an early stage. There is a general consensus among scholars that the first formative event in the emergence of the distinctive religion described in the Bible was triggered by the destruction of Israel by Assyria in c. 722 BCE. Refugees from the northern kingdom fled to Judah, bringing with them laws and a prophetic tradition of Yahweh. This religion was subsequently adopted by the landowners of Judah, who in 640 BCE placed the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne. Judah at this time was a vassal state of Assyria, but Assyrian power collapsed in the 630s, and around 622 Josiah and his supporters launched a bid for independence expressed as loyalty to "Yahweh alone".
The Babylonian exile and Second Temple Judaism
Main article: Second Temple Judaism
According to the Deuteronomists, as scholars call these Judean nationalists, the treaty with Yahweh would enable Israel's god to preserve both the city and the king in return for the people's worship and obedience. The destruction of Jerusalem, its Temple, and the Davidic dynasty by Babylon in 587/586 BCE was deeply traumatic and led to revisions of the national mythos during the Babylonian exile. This revision was expressed in the Deuteronomistic history, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, which interpreted the Babylonian destruction as divinely-ordained punishment for the failure of Israel's kings to worship Yahweh to the exclusion of all other deities.
The Second Temple period (520 BCE – 70 CE) differed in significant ways from what had gone before. Strict monotheism emerged among the priests of the Temple establishment during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, as did beliefs regarding angels and demons. At this time, circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath-observance gained more significance as symbols of Jewish identity, and the institution of the synagogue became increasingly important, and most of the biblical literature, including the Torah, was substantially revised during this time.
Administrative and judicial structure
"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem
As was customary in the ancient Near East, a king (Hebrew: מלך, romanized: melekh) ruled over the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The national god Yahweh, who selects those to rule his realm and his people, is depicted in the Hebrew Bible as having a hand in the establishment of the royal institution. In this sense, the true king is God, and the king serves as his earthly envoy and is tasked with ruling his realm. In some Psalms that appear to be related to the coronation of kings, they are referred to as "sons of Yahweh". The kings actually had to succeed one another according to a dynastic principle, even though the succession was occasionally decided through coups d'état. The coronation seemed to take place in a sacred place, and was marked by the anointing of the king who then becomes the "anointed one (māšîaḥ ,the origin of the word Messiah) of Yahweh"; the end of the ritual seems marked by an acclamation by the people (or at least their representatives, the Elders), followed by a banquet.
The Bible's descriptions of the lists of dignitaries from the reigns of David and Solomon show that the king is supported by a group of high dignitaries. Those include the chief of the army (Hebrew: שר הצבא, romanized: śar haṣṣābā), the great scribe (Hebrew: שר הצבא, romanized: śar haṣṣābā) who was in charge of the management of the royal chancellery, the herald (Hebrew: מזכיר, romanized: mazkîr), as well as the high priest (Hebrew: כהן הגדול, romanized: kōhēn hāggādôl) and the master of the palace (Hebrew: על הבית, סוכן, romanized: ʿal-habbayit, sōkēn), who has a function of stewardship of the household of the king at the beginning and seems to become a real prime minister of Judah during the later periods. The attributions of most of these dignitaries remain debated, as illustrated in particular by the much-discussed case of the “king's friend” mentioned under Solomon.
See also
Jewish portalJudaism portal
Biblical archaeology
Chronology of the Bible
Early Israelite campaigns
Habiru
History of Israel
History of Palestine
Assyrian captivity
Babylonian captivity
History of the ancient Levant
Jewish diaspora
Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
Kings of Israel and Judah
Kings of Judah
Lachish reliefs
Shasu
Ten Lost Tribes
Timeline of Jewish history
Timeline of the Palestine region
Time periods in the Palestine region
References
Citations
^ a b Bienkowski, Piotr; Millard, Alan (2000). British Museum Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. British Museum Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 9780714111414.
^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
^ Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
^ a b c d Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."
^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
^ Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6.
^ "British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
^ "ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
^ "Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
^ Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
^ The Lester and Sally Entin Faculty of Humanities,Megiddo. in Archaeology & History of the Land of the Bible International MA in Ancient Israel Studies, Tel Aviv University: "...Megiddo has...a fascinating picture of state-formation and social evolution in the Bronze Age (ca. 3500-1150 B.C.) and Iron Age (ca. 1150-600 B.C.)..."
^ Finkelstein, Israel, (2019).First Israel, Core Israel, United (Northern) Israel, in Near Eastern Archaeology 82.1 (2019), p. 8: "...The late Iron I system came to an end during the tenth century BCE..."
^ Finkelstein, Israel, and Eli Piasetzky, 2010. "The Iron I/IIA Transition in the Levant: A Reply to Mazar and Bronk Ramsey and a New Perspective", in Radiocarbon, Vol 52, No. 4, The Arizona Board of Regents in behalf of the University of Arizona, pp. 1667 and 1674: "The Iron I/IIA transition occurred during the second half of the 10th century...We propose that the late Iron I cities came to an end in a gradual process and interpret this proposal with Bayesian Model II...The process results in a transition date of 915-898 BCE (68% range), or 927-879 BCE (95% range)..."
^ Jerusalem in the First Temple period (c.1000-586 B.C.E.) Archived 9 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar-Ilan University, last modified 1997, accessed 11 February 2019
^ Miller 1986, p. 36.
^ Coogan 1998, pp. 4–7.
^ Finkelstein 2001, p. 78.
^ a b Killebrew (2005), pp. 38–39.
^ Cahill in Vaughn 1992, pp. 27–33.
^ Kuhrt 1995, p. 317.
^ Killebrew 2005, pp. 10–16.
^ Golden 2004b, pp. 61–62.
^ McNutt (1999), p. 47.
^ Golden 2004a, p. 155.
^ Stager in Coogan 1998, p. 91.
^ Dever 2003, p. 206.
^ McNutt 1999, p. 35.
^ McNutt (1999), pp. 46–47.
^ McNutt (1999), p. 69.
^ Miller 1986, p. 72.
^ Killebrew (2005), p. 13.
^ Edelman in Brett 2002, pp. 46–47.
^ Finkelstein and Silberman (2001), p. 107
^ Avraham Faust, "How Did Israel Become a People? The Genesis of Israelite Identity", Biblical Archaeology Review 201 (2009): 62–69, 92–94.
^ Finkelstein and Silberman (2001), p. 107.
^
Compare: Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. Journal for the study of the Old Testament: Supplement series. Vol. 241. Sheffield: A&C Black. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6. Retrieved 2 June 2016. Out of the discussions a new model is beginning to emerge, which has been inspired, above all, by recent archaeological field research. There are several variations in this new theory, but they share in common the image of an Israelite community which arose peacefully and internally in the highlands of Palestine.
^ McNutt (1999), p. 70.
^ Miller 2005, p. 98.
^ McNutt (1999), p. 72.
^ Miller 2005, p. 99.
^ Miller 2005, p. 105.
^ Lehman in Vaughn 1992, pp. 156–62.
^ "Daily Life in Ancient Israel". Biblical Archaeology Society. 13 September 2022.
^ a b Finkelstein, Israel (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem". In Joachim J. Krause; Omer Sergi; Kristin Weingart (eds.). Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-88414-451-9. ...Shoshenq I, the founder of the Twenty-Second Dynasty and seemingly the more assertive of the Egyptian rulers of the time, reacted to the north Israelite challenge. He campaigned into the highlands and took over the Saulide power bases in the Gibeon plateau and the area of the Jabbok River in the western Gilead. The fortified sites of Khirbet Qeiyafa, Khirbet Dawwara, et-Tell, and Gibeon were destroyed or abandoned. Shoshenq reorganized the territory of the highlands - back to the traditional situation of two city-states under his domination... (p. 48)
^ Finkelstein, Israel (2019). "First Israel, Core Israel, United (Northern) Israel". Near Eastern Archaeology. 82 (1). American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR): 12. doi:10.1086/703321. S2CID 167052643. Retrieved 22 March 2020. ...the emergence of the 'Tirzah polity' (the first fifty years of the Northern Kingdom) in the middle of the tenth century BCE...
^ a b c Thompson (1992), p. 408.
^ Mazar in Schmidt, p. 163.
^ Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The Religion of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-0-664-22145-4.
^ Lemche 1998, p. 85.
^ Grabbe (2008), pp. 225–26.
^ Lehman in Vaughn 1992, p. 149.
^ David M. Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature, Oxford University Press, 2005, 164.
^ "LAMRYEU-HNNYEU-OBD-HZQYEU". www.lmlk.com.
^ Brown, William. "Ancient Israelite Technology". World History Encyclopedia.
^ "The Keys to the Kingdom". Haaretz.
^ Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (17 May 2011). Biblical History and Israel S Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0.
^ Sergi, Omer (2023). The Two Houses of Israel: State Formation and the Origins of Pan-Israelite Identity. SBL Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-62837-345-5.
^ Regev, Johanna; Gadot, Yuval; Uziel, Joe; Chalaf, Ortal; Shalev, Yiftah; Roth, Helena; Shalom, Nitsan; Szanton, Nahshon; Bocher, Efrat; Pearson, Charlotte L.; Brown, David M.; Mintz, Eugenia; Regev, Lior; Boaretto, Elisabetta (29 April 2024). "Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals calibration offsets and architectural developments". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 121 (19): e2321024121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2321024121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 11087761. PMID 38683984.
^ Mazar, Amihai (19 September 2010). "Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy". One God – One Cult – One Nation: 29–58. doi:10.1515/9783110223583.29. ISBN 978-3-11-022357-6 – via www.academia.edu.
^ "New look at ancient shards suggests Bible even older than thought". Times of Israel.
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^ Grabbe 2004, p. 28.
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^ Davies 2009.
^ Lipschits, Oded (1999). "The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule". Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN 0334-4355. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 B.C.E.) is the most traumatic event described in biblical historiography, and in its shadow the history of the people of Israel was reshaped. The harsh impression of the destruction left its mark on the prophetic literature also, and particular force is retained in the laments over the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in its midst. most of Judah's inhabitants remained there after the destruction of Jerusalem. They concentrated chiefly in the Benjamin region and the northern Judean hill country. This area was hardly affected by the destruction, and became the centre of the Babylonian province with its capital at Mizpah. The archaeological data reinforce the biblical account, and they indicate that Jerusalem and its close environs suffered a severe blow. Most of the small settlements near the city were destroyed, the city wall was demolished, and the buildings within were put to the torch. Excavation and survey data show that the western border of the kingdom also sustained a grave onslaught, seemingly at the time when the Babylonians went to besiege Jerusalem.
^ Lipschits 2005, p. 48.
^ Blenkinsopp in Blenkinsopp 2003, pp. 103–05.
^ Blenkinsopp 2009, p. 228.
^ Middlemas 2005, pp. 1–2.
^ Miller 1986, p. 203.
^ Middlemas 2005, p. 2.
^ a b Middlemas 2005, p. 10.
^ Middlemas 2005, p. 17.
^ Bedford 2001, p. 48.
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^ Albertz 2003a, p. 92.
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^ Albertz 2003a, pp. 95–96.
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^ a b Taliaferro, Charles; Harrison, Victoria S.; Goetz, Stewart (2012). The Routledge Companion to Theism. Routledge.
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Lipschits, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8.
Lipschits, Oded; Vanderhooft, David (2006). "Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E.". In Lipschits, Oded; et al. (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-130-6.
Mazar, Amihay (2007). "The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues". In Schmidt, Brian B. (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0.
McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22265-9.
Middlemas, Jill Anne (2005). The Troubles of Templeless Judah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928386-6.
Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. ISBN 978-0-664-21262-9.
Niehr, Herbert (1999). "Religio-Historical Aspects of the Early Post-Exilic Period". In Becking, Bob; Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds.). The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11496-8.
Nodet, Étienne (1999). A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-445-9.
Smith, Mark S. (2002). The Early History of God. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3972-5.
Soggin, Michael J. (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah. Paideia. ISBN 978-0-334-02788-1.
Stager, Lawrence E. (1998). "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.
Thompson, Thomas L. (1992). Early History of the Israelite People. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09483-3.
Van der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10410-5.
Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2d ed.). Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-0-8028-2491-2.
Wylen, Stephen M. (1996). The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-3610-0.
Further reading
Arnold, Bill T.; Hess, Richard S., "Ancient Israel's History: An Introduction to Issues and Sources" (Baker, 2014)
Brettler, Marc Z., "The Creation of History in Ancient Israel" (Routledge, 1995)
Cook, Stephen L., "The social roots of biblical Yahwism" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004)
Day, John (ed.), "In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar" (T&T Clark International, 2004)
Frevel, Christian, "History of Ancient Israel" (SBL Press, 2023)
Hess, Richard S., "Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey" (Baker, 2007)
Keimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A. (eds.), "The Ancient Israelite World" (Taylor & Francis, 2022)
Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.), "The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible" (Oxford University Press, 2020)
Knauf, Ernst Axel; Niemann, Hermann Michael "Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum" (Walter de Gruyter, 2021)
Lemche, Neils Peter, "The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)
Levine, Lee I., "Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.–70 C.E.)" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002)
Na'aman, Nadav, "Ancient Israel and its neighbours" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)
Niditch, Susan (ed.), "The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel" (John Wiley & Sons, 2016)
Sparks, Kenton L., "Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel" (Eisenbrauns, 1998)
Vanderkam, James, "An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)" (Eerdmans, 2022)
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second Temple period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg"},{"link_name":"Northern Kingdom of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Kingdom_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"Israelites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelites"},{"link_name":"Canaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan"},{"link_name":"Southern Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Levant"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"Merneptah Stele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah_Stele"},{"link_name":"ancient Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Canaanite civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanite_civilization"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"Hebrew Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_Bible"},{"link_name":"United Monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)"},{"link_name":"Saul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul"},{"link_name":"David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David"},{"link_name":"Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon"},{"link_name":"Shechem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shechem"},{"link_name":"Samaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Jewish Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"archaeological remains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein2-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wright-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein,_Israel,_(2020)-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitcher-5"},{"link_name":"Books of Samuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Samuel"},{"link_name":"Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"Chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"Neo-Assyrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Neo-Babylonian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Jewish revolts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judah%27s_revolts_against_Babylon"},{"link_name":"Nebuchadnezzar II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II"},{"link_name":"besieged Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)"},{"link_name":"Solomon's Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple"},{"link_name":"exile of the Jews to Babylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_captivity"},{"link_name":"Babylonian Chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BabylonianChronicles-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"monotheistic Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism"},{"link_name":"fall of Babylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon"},{"link_name":"Achaemenid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Cyrus the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Edict of Cyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Cyrus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rennert-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"return to Zion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_Zion"},{"link_name":"province of Yehud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)"},{"link_name":"Second Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple"},{"link_name":"Second Temple period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_period"}],"text":"This article is about Iron Age history of the Israelites, including the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. For the post-exilic period of Jewish history, see Second Temple period.Approximate map of the Northern Kingdom of Israel (blue) and the Kingdom of Judah (gold) with their neighbours (tan) during the Iron Age (9th century BCE)The history of ancient Israel and Judah spans from the early appearance of the Israelites in Canaan's hill country during the late second millenium BCE, to the establishment and subsequent downfall of the two Israelite kingdoms in the mid-first millenium BCE. This history unfolds within the Southern Levant during the Iron Age. The earliest documented mention of \"Israel\" as a people appears on the Merneptah Stele, an ancient Egyptian inscription dating back to around 1208 BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests that ancient Israelite culture evolved from the pre-existing Canaanite civilization. During the Iron Age II period, two Israelite kingdoms emerged, covering much of Canaan: the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south.[1]According to the Hebrew Bible, a \"United Monarchy\" consisting of Israel and Judah existed as early as the 11th century BCE, under the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon; the country later split into two kingdoms: Israel, containing the cities of Shechem and Samaria in the north, and Judah (containing Jerusalem and the Jewish Temple) in the south. The historicity of the United Monarchy is debated—as there are no archaeological remains of it that are accepted as consensus—but historians and archaeologists agree that Israel and Judah existed as separate kingdoms by c. 900 BCE[2]: 169–195 [3] and c. 850 BCE,[4] respectively.[5] The kingdoms' history is known in greater detail than that of other kingdoms in the Levant, primarily due to the selective narratives in the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, which were included in the Bible.[1]The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[6] While the Kingdom of Judah remained intact during this time, it became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire. However, Jewish revolts against the Babylonians led to the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE, under the rule of Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. According to the biblical account, the armies of Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem between 589–586 BCE, which led to the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the exile of the Jews to Babylon; this event was also recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles.[7][8] The exilic period saw the development of the Israelite religion towards a monotheistic Judaism.The exile ended with the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire c. 538 BCE. Subsequently, the Achaemenid king Cyrus the Great issued a proclamation known as the Edict of Cyrus, which authorized and encouraged exiled Jews to return to Judah.[9][10] Cyrus' proclamation began the exiles' return to Zion, inaugurating the formative period in which a more distinctive Jewish identity developed in the Persian province of Yehud. During this time, the destroyed Solomon's Temple was replaced by the Second Temple, marking the beginning of the Second Temple period.","title":"History of ancient Israel and Judah"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age#Near_East_timeline"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"return to Zion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_to_Zion"},{"link_name":"Second Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple"},{"link_name":"Second Temple period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_period"}],"text":"Iron Age I: 1150[11]–950 BCE[12]\nIron Age II: 950[13]–586 BCEThe Iron Age II period is followed by periods named after conquering empires, such as the Neo-Babylonians becoming the \"godfathers\" for the Babylonian period (586–539 BCE).Other academic terms often used are:First Temple or Israelite period (c. 1000 – 586 BCE)[14]The return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple marked the beginning of the Second Temple period (c. 516 BCE – 70 CE).","title":"Periods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"eastern Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"Taurus Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Sinai Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Arabian Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Desert"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"Shfela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shfela"},{"link_name":"Mount Carmel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Carmel"},{"link_name":"Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea"},{"link_name":"hill country of Ephraim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ephraim"},{"link_name":"Galilee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee"},{"link_name":"Mount Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Jordan River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_River"},{"link_name":"Dead Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea"},{"link_name":"wadi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi"},{"link_name":"Arabah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabah"},{"link_name":"Red Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Canaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killebrew38-18"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killebrew38-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merneptah_Steli_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Merneptah Stele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah_Stele"},{"link_name":"biblical archaeologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_archeology"},{"link_name":"Late Bronze Age collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Philistines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philistines"},{"link_name":"Phoenicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Israelites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelites"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcnutt47-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Merneptah Stele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah_Stele"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"ethnic group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The eastern Mediterranean seaboard stretches 400 miles north to south from the Taurus Mountains to the Sinai Peninsula, and 70 to 100 miles east to west between the sea and the Arabian Desert.[15] The coastal plain of the southern Levant, broad in the south and narrowing to the north, is backed in its southernmost portion by a zone of foothills, the Shfela; like the plain this narrows as it goes northwards, ending in the promontory of Mount Carmel. East of the plain and the Shfela is a mountainous ridge, the \"hill country of Judea\" in the south, the \"hill country of Ephraim\" north of that, then Galilee and Mount Lebanon. To the east again lie the steep-sided valley occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the wadi of the Arabah, which continues down to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. Beyond the plateau is the Syrian desert, separating the Levant from Mesopotamia. To the southwest is Egypt, to the northeast Mesopotamia. The location and geographical characteristics of the narrow Levant made the area a battleground among the powerful entities that surrounded it.[16]Canaan in the Late Bronze Age was a shadow of what it had been centuries earlier: many cities were abandoned, others shrank in size, and the total settled population was probably not much more than a hundred thousand.[17] Settlement was concentrated in cities along the coastal plain and along major communication routes; the central and northern hill country which would later become the biblical kingdom of Israel was only sparsely inhabited[18] although letters from the Egyptian archives indicate that Jerusalem was already a Canaanite city-state recognizing Egyptian overlordship.[19] Politically and culturally it was dominated by Egypt,[20] each city under its own ruler, constantly at odds with its neighbours, and appealing to the Egyptians to adjudicate their differences.[18]The Merneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as \"Israel\", representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.The Canaanite city state system broke down during the Late Bronze Age collapse,[21] and Canaanite culture was then gradually absorbed into those of the Philistines, Phoenicians and Israelites.[22] The process was gradual[23] and a strong Egyptian presence continued into the 12th century BCE, and, while some Canaanite cities were destroyed, others continued to exist in Iron Age I.[24]The name \"Israel\" first appears in the Merneptah Stele c. 1208 BCE: \"Israel is laid waste and his seed is no more.\"[25] This \"Israel\" was a cultural and probably political entity, well enough established for the Egyptians to perceive it as a possible challenge, but an ethnic group rather than an organized state.[26]","title":"Background: Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 BCE)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"family history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_history"},{"link_name":"genealogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogy"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcnutt70-28"},{"link_name":"nomads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomad"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcnutt69-29"},{"link_name":"collared-rim jars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithos"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killebrew13-31"},{"link_name":"Israel Finkelstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_reconstructed_israelite_house,_Monarchy_period3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eretz Israel Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eretz_Israel_Museum"},{"link_name":"The Bible Unearthed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bible_Unearthed"},{"link_name":"Finkelstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein"},{"link_name":"Silberman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Asher_Silberman"},{"link_name":"Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region)"},{"link_name":"Canaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein-33"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"the Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Exodus"},{"link_name":"conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Biblical judges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_judges"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Archaeologist Paula McNutt says: \"It is probably… during Iron Age I [that] a population began to identify itself as 'Israelite',\" differentiating itself from its neighbours via prohibitions on intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.[27]In the Late Bronze Age there were no more than about 25 villages in the highlands, but this increased to over 300 by the end of Iron Age I, while the settled population doubled from 20,000 to 40,000.[28] The villages were more numerous and larger in the north, and probably shared the highlands with pastoral nomads, who left no remains.[29] Archaeologists and historians attempting to trace the origins of these villagers have found it impossible to identify any distinctive features that could define them as specifically Israelite – collared-rim jars and four-room houses have been identified outside the highlands and thus cannot be used to distinguish Israelite sites,[30] and while the pottery of the highland villages is far more limited than that of lowland Canaanite sites, it develops typologically out of Canaanite pottery that came before.[31] Israel Finkelstein proposed that the oval or circular layout that distinguishes some of the earliest highland sites, and the notable absence of pig bones from hill sites, could be taken as markers of ethnicity, but others have cautioned that these can be a \"common-sense\" adaptation to highland life and not necessarily revelatory of origins.[32] Other Aramaean sites also demonstrate a contemporary absence of pig remains at that time, unlike earlier Canaanite and later Philistine excavations.A reconstructed Israelite house, 10th–7th century BCE. Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv.In The Bible Unearthed (2001), Finkelstein and Silberman summarized recent studies. They described how, up until 1967, the Israelite heartland in the highlands of western Palestine was virtually an archaeological terra incognita. Since then, intensive surveys have examined the traditional territories of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh. These surveys have revealed the sudden emergence of a new culture contrasting with the Philistine and Canaanite societies existing in Canaan in the Iron Age.[33] This new culture is characterized by a lack of pork remains (whereas pork formed 20% of the Philistine diet in places), by an abandonment of the Philistine/Canaanite custom of having highly decorated pottery, and by the practice of circumcision.[clarification needed] The Israelite ethnic identity had originated, not from the Exodus and a subsequent conquest, but from a transformation of the existing Canaanite-Philistine cultures.[34]These surveys revolutionized the study of early Israel. The discovery of the remains of a dense network of highland villages – all apparently established within the span of few generations – indicated that a dramatic social transformation had taken place in the central hill country of Canaan around 1200 BCE. There was no sign of violent invasion or even the infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group. Instead, it seemed to be a revolution in lifestyle. In the formerly sparsely populated highlands from the Judean hills in the south to the hills of Samaria in the north, far from the Canaanite cities that were in the process of collapse and disintegration, about two-hundred fifty hilltop communities suddenly sprang up. Here were the first Israelites.[35]Modern scholars therefore see Israel arising peacefully and internally from existing people in the highlands of Canaan.[36]Extensive archaeological excavations have provided a picture of Israelite society during the early Iron Age period. The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population. During this period, Israelites lived primarily in small villages, the largest of which had populations of up to 300 or 400.[37][38] Their villages were built on hilltops. Their houses were built in clusters around a common courtyard. They built three- or four-room houses out of mudbrick with a stone foundation and sometimes with a second story made of wood. The inhabitants lived by farming and herding. They built terraces to farm on hillsides, planting various crops and maintaining orchards. The villages were largely economically self-sufficient and economic interchange was prevalent. According to the Bible, prior to the rise of the Israelite monarchy the early Israelites were led by the Biblical judges, or chieftains who served as military leaders in times of crisis. Scholars are divided over the historicity of this account. However, it is likely that regional chiefdoms and polities provided security. The small villages were unwalled but were likely subjects of the major town in the area. Writing was known and available for recording, even at small sites.[39][40][41][42][43]","title":"Iron Age I (1150–950 BCE)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kingdom of Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)"},{"link_name":"Capital (architecture) § Proto-Aeolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)#Proto-Aeolic"},{"link_name":"Israel Finkelstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein"},{"link_name":"Gibeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibeon_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"Gibeah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibeah"},{"link_name":"Shoshenq I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoshenq_I"},{"link_name":"Shishak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shishak"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Saul-44"},{"link_name":"city-states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state"},{"link_name":"Southern Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Levant"},{"link_name":"Tirzah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirzah_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Core-45"},{"link_name":"regional power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_power"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein,_Israel,_(2020)-4"},{"link_name":"Neo-Assyrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein,_Israel,_(2020)-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Israelite_pillared_house.jpg"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson408-46"},{"link_name":"city of Samaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson408-46"},{"link_name":"Shoshenq I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoshenq_I"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mazar163-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Saul-44"},{"link_name":"Shalmaneser III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalmaneser_III"},{"link_name":"Ahab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahab"},{"link_name":"battle of Qarqar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Qarqar"},{"link_name":"Kurkh Monoliths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurkh_Monoliths#%22Ahab_of_Israel%22"},{"link_name":"Jezreel Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezreel_Valley"},{"link_name":"Moab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moab"},{"link_name":"Ammon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammon"},{"link_name":"Aram Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram_Damascus"},{"link_name":"Gilead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilead"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson408-46"},{"link_name":"Mesha Stele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele"},{"link_name":"Omri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omri"},{"link_name":"Yahweh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahweh"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller2000-48"},{"link_name":"Neo-Assyrian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"population exchanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jehu-Obelisk-cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jehu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehu"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Shalmaneser III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalmaneser_III"},{"link_name":"Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III"},{"link_name":"Nimrud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrud"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finkelstein,_Israel,_(2020)-4"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Hezekiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezekiah"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Broad Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Wall_(Jerusalem)"},{"link_name":"Siloam tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloam_tunnel"},{"link_name":"Sennacherib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacherib"},{"link_name":"Siloam inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloam_inscription"},{"link_name":"Shebna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebna"},{"link_name":"LMLK seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LMLK_seal"},{"link_name":"bullae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulla_(seal)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"self-published source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMLK,_Ezekiah_seals.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hezekiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezekiah"},{"link_name":"Ahaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahaz"},{"link_name":"seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(emblem)"},{"link_name":"Ophel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophel"},{"link_name":"Aramean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameans"},{"link_name":"Dan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_(ancient_city)"},{"link_name":"Megiddo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Megiddo"},{"link_name":"Hazor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Hazor"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"City of David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_David_(archaeological_site)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Stepped Stone Structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Stone_Structure"},{"link_name":"Large Stone Structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Stone_Structure"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Tel Arad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Arad"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shiloach.jpg"},{"link_name":"Siloam inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloam_inscription"},{"link_name":"Siloam tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloam_tunnel"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson410-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson410-61"},{"link_name":"disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacherib#War_with_Judah"},{"link_name":"Neo-Babylonian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thompson410-61"}],"text":"See also: Kingdom of Judah, Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), and Capital (architecture) § Proto-AeolicAccording to Israel Finkelstein, after an emergent and large polity was suddenly formed based on the Gibeon-Gibeah plateau and destroyed by Shoshenq I, the biblical Shishak, in the 10th century BCE,[44] a return to small city-states was prevalent in the Southern Levant, but between 950 and 900 BCE another large polity emerged in the northern highlands with its capital eventually at Tirzah, that can be considered the precursor of the Kingdom of Israel.[45] The Kingdom of Israel was consolidated as an important regional power by the first half of the 9th century BCE,[4] before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE, and the Kingdom of Judah began to flourish in the second half of the 9th century BCE.[4]Model of Levantine four-roomed house from c. 900 BCEUnusually favourable climatic conditions in the first two centuries of Iron Age II brought about an expansion of population, settlements and trade throughout the region.[46] In the central highlands this resulted in unification in a kingdom with the city of Samaria as its capital,[46] possibly by the second half of the 10th century BCE when an inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I records a series of campaigns directed at the area.[47] Israel had clearly emerged in the first half of the 9th century BCE,[44] this is attested when the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III names \"Ahab Sir'lit\" among his enemies at the battle of Qarqar (853 BCE) on the Kurkh Monoliths. This \"Sir'lit\" is most often interpreted as \"Israel\". At this time Israel was apparently engaged in a three-way contest with Damascus and Tyre for control of the Jezreel Valley and Galilee in the north, and with Moab, Ammon and Aram Damascus in the east for control of Gilead;[46] the Mesha Stele (c. 830 BCE), left by a king of Moab, celebrates his success in throwing off the oppression of the \"House of Omri\" (i.e., Israel). It bears what is generally thought to be the earliest extra-biblical reference to the name \"Yahweh\".[48] A century later Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, which first split its territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria (722 BCE). Both the biblical and Assyrian sources speak of a massive deportation of people from Israel and their replacement with settlers from other parts of the empire – such population exchanges were an established part of Assyrian imperial policy, a means of breaking the old power structure – and the former Israel never again became an independent political entity.[49]Depiction of Jehu King of Israel giving tribute to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III from Nimrud (c. BCE – c. 841–840)Finkelstein holds that Judah emerged as an operational kingdom somewhat later than Israel, during the second half of 9th century BCE,[4] but the subject is one of considerable controversy.[50] There are indications that during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE, the southern highlands had been divided between a number of centres, none with clear primacy.[51] During the reign of Hezekiah, between c. 715 and 686 BCE, a notable increase in the power of the Judean state can be observed.[52] This is reflected in archaeological sites and findings, such as the Broad Wall; a defensive city wall in Jerusalem; and the Siloam tunnel, an aqueduct designed to provide Jerusalem with water during an impending siege by the Neo-Assyrian Empire led by Sennacherib; and the Siloam inscription, a lintel inscription found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to comptroller Shebna. LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata in and around that formed by Sennacherib's destruction, appear to have been used throughout Sennacherib's 29-year reign, along with bullae from sealed documents, some that belonged to Hezekiah himself and others that name his servants.[53][self-published source?]\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in JerusalemArchaeological records indicate that the Kingdom of Israel was fairly prosperous. The late Iron Age saw an increase in urban development in Israel. Whereas previously the Israelites had lived mainly in small and unfortified settlements, the rise of the Kingdom of Israel saw the growth of cities and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications with walls and gates. Israel initially had to invest significant resources into defence as it was subjected to regular Aramean incursions and attacks, but after the Arameans were subjugated by the Assyrians and Israel could afford to put less resources into defending its territory, its architectural infrastructure grew dramatically. Extensive fortifications were built around cities such as Dan, Megiddo, and Hazor, including monumental and multi-towered city walls and multi-gate entry systems. Israel's economy was based on multiple industries. It had the largest olive oil production centres in the region, using at least two different types of olive oil presses, and also had a significant wine industry, with wine presses constructed next to vineyards.[54] By contrast, the Kingdom of Judah was significantly less advanced. Some scholars believe it was no more than a small tribal entity limited to Jerusalem and its immediate surroundings.[55] In the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE, the territory of Judah appears to have been sparsely populated, limited to small and mostly unfortified settlements. The status of Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE is a major subject of debate among scholars. According to some scholars, Jerusalem does not show evidence of significant Israelite residential activity until the 9th century BCE.[56] Other scholars argue that recent discoveries and radiocarbon tests in the City of David seem to indicate that Jerusalem was already a significant city by the 10th century BCE.[57][58] Significant administrative structures such as the Stepped Stone Structure and Large Stone Structure, which originally formed part of one structure, also contain material culture from the 10th century BCE or earlier.[59] The ruins of a significant Judahite military fortress, Tel Arad, have also been found in the Negev, and a collection of military orders found there suggest literacy was present throughout the ranks of the Judahite army. This suggests that literacy was not limited to a tiny elite, indicating the presence of a substantial educational infrastructure in Judah.[60]Siloam inscription found in the Siloam tunnel, Jerusalem (c. 700 BCE)In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours.[61] This occurred at the same time that Israel was being destroyed by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was probably the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal state controlling the valuable olive industry.[61] Judah prospered as a vassal state (despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th century BCE, Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the land led to the destruction of Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582.[61]","title":"Iron Age II (950–587 BCE)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Samerina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samerina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-Yahudu_Tablets3_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Al-Yahudu Tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Yahudu_Tablets"},{"link_name":"Akkadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Mizpah in Benjamin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizpah_in_Benjamin"},{"link_name":"Yehud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-65"},{"link_name":"Ashkalon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkalon"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Bethel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethel"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Davidic dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davidic_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Isaiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah"},{"link_name":"Ezekiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel"},{"link_name":"Jeremiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah"},{"link_name":"priestly source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priestly_source"},{"link_name":"Pentateuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentateuch"},{"link_name":"Deuteronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteronomy"},{"link_name":"2 Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-middlemas10-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-middlemas10-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Hans M. Barstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_M._Barstad"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Avraham Faust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avraham_Faust"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Book of Lamentations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Lamentations"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Samaritans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaritan"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"text":"After its fall, the former Kingdom of Israel became the Assyrian province of Samerina, which was taken over about a century later by the Neo-Babylonian Empire, created after the revolt of the Babylonians and them defeating the Neo-Assyrian Empire.One of the Al-Yahudu Tablets, written in Akkadian, which documented the condition of the exiled Judean community in BabylonBabylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population[62] and lost the Negev, the Shephelah, and part of the Judean hill country, including Hebron, to encroachments from Edom and other neighbours.[63] Jerusalem, destroyed but probably not totally abandoned, was much smaller than previously, and the settlements surrounding it, as well as the towns in the former kingdom's western borders, were all devastated as a result of the Babylonian campaign. The town of Mizpah in Benjamin in the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud.[64][65] This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkalon was conquered in 604, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location.[66] There is also a strong probability that for most or all of the period the temple at Bethel in Benjamin replaced that at Jerusalem, boosting the prestige of Bethel's priests (the Aaronites) against those of Jerusalem (the Zadokites), now in exile in Babylon.[67]The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, but the liquidation of the entire infrastructure which had sustained Judah for centuries.[68] The most significant casualty was the state ideology of \"Zion theology,\"[69] the idea that the god of Israel had chosen Jerusalem for his dwelling-place and that the Davidic dynasty would reign there forever.[70] The fall of the city and the end of Davidic kingship forced the leaders of the exile community – kings, priests, scribes and prophets – to reformulate the concepts of community, faith and politics.[71] The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible: Isaiah 40–55; Ezekiel; the final version of Jeremiah; the work of the hypothesized priestly source in the Pentateuch; and the final form of the history of Israel from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings.[72] Theologically, the Babylonian exiles were responsible for the doctrines of individual responsibility and universalism (the concept that one god controls the entire world) and for the increased emphasis on purity and holiness.[72] Most significantly, the trauma of the exile experience led to the development of a strong sense of Hebrew identity distinct from other peoples,[73] with increased emphasis on symbols such as circumcision and Sabbath-observance to sustain that distinction.[74]Hans M. Barstad writes that the concentration of the biblical literature on the experience of the exiles in Babylon disguises that the great majority of the population remained in Judah; for them, life after the fall of Jerusalem probably went on much as it had before.[75] It may even have improved, as they were rewarded with the land and property of the deportees, much to the anger of the community of exiles remaining in Babylon.[76] Conversely, Avraham Faust writes that archaeological and demographic surveys show that the population of Judah was significantly reduced to barely 10% of what it had been in the time before the exile.[77] The assassination around 582 of the Babylonian governor by a disaffected member of the former royal House of David provoked a Babylonian crackdown, possibly reflected in the Book of Lamentations, but the situation seems to have soon stabilized again.[78] Nevertheless, those unwalled cities and towns that remained were subject to slave raids by the Phoenicians and intervention in their internal affairs by Samaritans, Arabs, and Ammonites.[79]","title":"Aftermath: Assyrian and Babylonian periods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"monotheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-80"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Yahwism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahwism"},{"link_name":"henotheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henotheism"},{"link_name":"monolatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolatry"},{"link_name":"folk religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religion"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Temple in Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"text":"Although the specific process by which the Israelites adopted monotheism is unknown, it is certain that the transition was a gradual one and was not totally accomplished during the First Temple period.[80][page needed] Yet, over time, the number of gods that the Israelites worshipped decreased, and figurative images vanished from their shrines. Yahwism, as some scholars name this belief system, is often described as a form of henotheism or monolatry. Over the same time, a folk religion continued to be practised across Israel and Judah. These practices were influenced by the polytheistic beliefs of the surrounding ethnicities, and were denounced by the prophets.[81][82][page needed][83]In addition to the Temple in Jerusalem, there was public worship practised all over Israel and Judah in shrines and sanctuaries, outdoors, and close to city gates. In the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, the kings Hezekiah and Josiah of Judah implemented a number of significant religious reforms that aimed to centre worship of the God of Israel in Jerusalem and eliminate foreign customs.[84][85][86]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:El,_the_Canaanite_creator_deity,_Megiddo,_Stratum_VII,_Late_Bronze_II,_1400-1200_BC,_bronze_with_gold_leaf_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum,_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC07734.JPG"},{"link_name":"Henotheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henotheism"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-80"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"national god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_god"},{"link_name":"Chemosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosh"},{"link_name":"Moab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moab"},{"link_name":"Qos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qos_(deity)"},{"link_name":"Edom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom"},{"link_name":"Milkom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkom"},{"link_name":"Ammon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammon"},{"link_name":"Ashur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashur_(god)"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levine-88"},{"link_name":"Canaanite religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Canaanite_religion"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamian religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meek-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dever-90"},{"link_name":"El","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_(deity)"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dever-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Coogan-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meek-89"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caquot-94"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caquot-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meek-89"}],"sub_title":"Henotheism","text":"El, the Canaanite creator deity, Megiddo, Stratum VII, Late Bronze II, 1400–1200 BCE, bronze with gold leaf – Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago – DSC07734 The Canaanite god El, who may have been the precursor to the Israelite god Yahweh.Henotheism is the act of worshipping a single god, without denying the existence of other deities.[87] Many scholars believe that before monotheism in ancient Israel, there came a transitional period; in this transitional period many followers of the Israelite religion worshipped the god Yahweh, but did not deny the existence of other deities accepted throughout the region.[80][page needed] Henotheistic worship was not uncommon in the Ancient Near East, as many Iron Age nation states worshipped an elevated national god which was nonetheless only part of a wider pantheon; examples include Chemosh in Moab, Qos in Edom, Milkom in Ammon, and Ashur in Assyria].[88]Canaanite religion syncretized elements from neighbouring cultures, largely from Mesopotamian religious traditions.[89] Using Canaanite religion as a base was natural due to the fact that the Canaanite culture inhabited the same region prior to the emergence of Israelite culture.[90] Israelite religion was no exception, as during the transitional period, Yahweh and El were syncretized in the Israelite pantheon.[90] El already occupied a reasonably important place in the Israelite religion. Even the name \"Israel\" is based on the name El, rather than Yahweh.[91][92][93] It was this initial harmonization of Israelite and Canaanite religious thought that lead to Yahweh gradually absorbing several characteristics from Canaanite deities, in turn strengthening his own position as an all-powerful \"One.\" Even still, monotheism in the region of ancient Israel and Judah did not take hold overnight, and during the intermediate stages most people are believed to have remained henotheistic.[89]During this intermediate period of henotheism many families worshipped different gods. Religion was very much centred around the family, as opposed to the community. The region of Israel and Judah was sparsely populated during the time of Moses. As such many different areas worshipped different gods, due to social isolation.[94] It was not until later on in Israelite history that people started to worship Yahweh alone and fully convert to monotheistic values. That switch occurred with the growth of power and influence of the Israelite kingdom and its rulers. Further details of this are contained in the Iron Age Yahwism section below. Evidence from the Bible suggests that henotheism did exist: \"They [the Hebrews] went and served alien gods and paid homage to them, gods of whom they had no experience and whom he [Yahweh] did not allot to them\" (Deut. 29.26). Many believe that this quote demonstrates that the early Israelite kingdom followed traditions similar to ancient Mesopotamia, where each major urban centre had a supreme god. Each culture embraced their patron god but did not deny the existence of other cultures' patron gods. In Assyria, the patron god was Ashur, and in ancient Israel, it was Yahweh; however, both Israelite and Assyrian cultures recognized each other's deities during this period.[94] Some scholars have used the Bible as evidence to argue that most of the people alive during the events recounted in the Hebrew Bible, including Moses, were most likely henotheists. There are many quotes from the Hebrew Bible that are used to support this view. One such quote from Jewish tradition is the first commandment which in its entirety reads \"I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage: You shall have no other gods before me.\"[95] This quote does not deny the existence of other gods; it merely states that Jews should consider Yahweh or God the supreme god, incomparable to other supernatural beings. Some scholars attribute the concept of angels and demons found in Judaism and Christianity to the tradition of henotheism. Instead of completely getting rid of the concept of other supernatural beings, these religions changed former deities into angels and demons.[89]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canaanite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanites"},{"link_name":"Baal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"Ancient Canaanite religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Canaanite_religion"},{"link_name":"religions of the ancient Near East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Asherah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asherah"},{"link_name":"Baal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal"},{"link_name":"Shamash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamash"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith57-99"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith57-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"national god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_god"},{"link_name":"Edom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edom"},{"link_name":"Midian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midian"},{"link_name":"Kenites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenites"},{"link_name":"Midianites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midianites"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Josiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"sub_title":"Iron Age Yahwism","text":"The Canaanite god Baal, 14th–12th century BCE (Louvre museum, Paris)The religion of the Israelites of Iron Age I, like the Ancient Canaanite religion from which it evolved and other religions of the ancient Near East, was based on a cult of ancestors and worship of family gods (the \"gods of the fathers\").[96][97] With the emergence of the monarchy at the beginning of Iron Age II the kings promoted their family god, Yahweh, as the god of the kingdom, but beyond the royal court, religion continued to be both polytheistic and family-centred.[98] The major deities were not numerous – El, Asherah, and Yahweh, with Baal as a fourth god, and perhaps Shamash (the sun) in the early period.[99] At an early stage El and Yahweh became fused and Asherah did not continue as a separate state cult,[99] although she continued to be popular at a community level until Persian times.[100]Yahweh, the national god of both Israel and Judah, seems to have originated in Edom and Midian in southern Canaan and may have been brought to Israel by the Kenites and Midianites at an early stage.[101] There is a general consensus among scholars that the first formative event in the emergence of the distinctive religion described in the Bible was triggered by the destruction of Israel by Assyria in c. 722 BCE. Refugees from the northern kingdom fled to Judah, bringing with them laws and a prophetic tradition of Yahweh. This religion was subsequently adopted by the landowners of Judah, who in 640 BCE placed the eight-year-old Josiah on the throne. Judah at this time was a vassal state of Assyria, but Assyrian power collapsed in the 630s, and around 622 Josiah and his supporters launched a bid for independence expressed as loyalty to \"Yahweh alone\".[102]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deuteronomists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteronomist"},{"link_name":"mythos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_story"},{"link_name":"Deuteronomistic history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteronomistic_history"},{"link_name":"Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Joshua"},{"link_name":"Judges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Judges"},{"link_name":"Samuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Samuel"},{"link_name":"Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dunn-103"},{"link_name":"Second Temple period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple_period"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel"},{"link_name":"demons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"circumcision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_male_circumcision#In_the_Tanakh"},{"link_name":"Sabbath-observance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat"},{"link_name":"Jewish identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_identity"},{"link_name":"synagogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"}],"sub_title":"The Babylonian exile and Second Temple Judaism","text":"According to the Deuteronomists, as scholars call these Judean nationalists, the treaty with Yahweh would enable Israel's god to preserve both the city and the king in return for the people's worship and obedience. The destruction of Jerusalem, its Temple, and the Davidic dynasty by Babylon in 587/586 BCE was deeply traumatic and led to revisions of the national mythos during the Babylonian exile. This revision was expressed in the Deuteronomistic history, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, which interpreted the Babylonian destruction as divinely-ordained punishment for the failure of Israel's kings to worship Yahweh to the exclusion of all other deities.[103]The Second Temple period (520 BCE – 70 CE) differed in significant ways from what had gone before.[104] Strict monotheism emerged among the priests of the Temple establishment during the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, as did beliefs regarding angels and demons.[105] At this time, circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath-observance gained more significance as symbols of Jewish identity, and the institution of the synagogue became increasingly important, and most of the biblical literature, including the Torah, was substantially revised during this time.[106]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMLK,_Ezekiah_seals.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hezekiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezekiah"},{"link_name":"Ahaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahaz"},{"link_name":"seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(emblem)"},{"link_name":"Ophel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophel"},{"link_name":"ancient Near East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_East"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew"},{"link_name":"Psalms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalms"},{"link_name":"coups d'état","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"anointing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_anointing_oil"},{"link_name":"Messiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"text":"\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in JerusalemAs was customary in the ancient Near East, a king (Hebrew: מלך, romanized: melekh) ruled over the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The national god Yahweh, who selects those to rule his realm and his people, is depicted in the Hebrew Bible as having a hand in the establishment of the royal institution. In this sense, the true king is God, and the king serves as his earthly envoy and is tasked with ruling his realm. In some Psalms that appear to be related to the coronation of kings, they are referred to as \"sons of Yahweh\". The kings actually had to succeed one another according to a dynastic principle, even though the succession was occasionally decided through coups d'état. The coronation seemed to take place in a sacred place, and was marked by the anointing of the king who then becomes the \"anointed one (māšîaḥ ,the origin of the word Messiah) of Yahweh\"; the end of the ritual seems marked by an acclamation by the people (or at least their representatives, the Elders), followed by a banquet.[107]The Bible's descriptions of the lists of dignitaries from the reigns of David and Solomon show that the king is supported by a group of high dignitaries. Those include the chief of the army (Hebrew: שר הצבא, romanized: śar haṣṣābā), the great scribe (Hebrew: שר הצבא, romanized: śar haṣṣābā) who was in charge of the management of the royal chancellery, the herald (Hebrew: מזכיר, romanized: mazkîr), as well as the high priest (Hebrew: כהן הגדול, romanized: kōhēn hāggādôl) and the master of the palace (Hebrew: על הבית, סוכן, romanized: ʿal-habbayit, sōkēn), who has a function of stewardship of the household of the king at the beginning and seems to become a real prime minister of Judah during the later periods. The attributions of most of these dignitaries remain debated, as illustrated in particular by the much-discussed case of the “king's friend” mentioned under Solomon.[107][108]","title":"Administrative and judicial structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arnold, Bill T.; Hess, Richard S., \"Ancient Israel's History: An Introduction to Issues and Sources\" (Baker, 2014)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=aTpBBAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Brettler, Marc Z., \"The Creation of History in Ancient Israel\" (Routledge, 1995)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xvfCESeU_hwC&pg=PA196"},{"link_name":"Cook, Stephen L., \"The social roots of biblical Yahwism\" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4LEA7FnNi-kC"},{"link_name":"Day, John (ed.), \"In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar\" (T&T Clark International, 2004)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C"},{"link_name":"Frevel, Christian, \"History of Ancient Israel\" (SBL Press, 2023)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Yvy6EAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Hess, Richard S., \"Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey\" (Baker, 2007)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2jNoqNRDYDUC"},{"link_name":"Keimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A. (eds.), \"The Ancient Israelite World\" (Taylor & Francis, 2022)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.), \"The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible\" (Oxford University Press, 2020)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Knauf, Ernst Axel; Niemann, Hermann Michael \"Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum\" (Walter de Gruyter, 2021)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/73668469"},{"link_name":"Lemche, Neils Peter, \"The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey\" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=RWqLVc7ccG0C"},{"link_name":"Levine, Lee I., \"Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.–70 C.E.)\" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA196"},{"link_name":"Na'aman, Nadav, \"Ancient Israel and its neighbours\" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1RgRPAkLqLUC"},{"link_name":"Niditch, Susan (ed.), \"The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel\" (John Wiley & Sons, 2016)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"Sparks, Kenton L., \"Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel\" (Eisenbrauns, 1998)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=KztVonFGqcsC"},{"link_name":"Vanderkam, James, \"An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)\" (Eerdmans, 2022)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1cuAEAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:The_Bible_and_history"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:The_Bible_and_history"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Bible_and_history"},{"link_name":"The Bible and history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible"},{"link_name":"Biblical criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_criticism"},{"link_name":"Biblical studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_studies"},{"link_name":"History of ancient Israel and Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Quest for the historical Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quest_for_the_historical_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Jesus in comparative mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_in_comparative_mythology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg"},{"link_name":"Biblical archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_archaeology"},{"link_name":"Historicity of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_for_the_historicity_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Historicity of the Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible"},{"link_name":"Historical reliability of the Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels"},{"link_name":"List of artifacts in biblical archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artifacts_in_biblical_archaeology"},{"link_name":"List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources"},{"link_name":"List of burial places of biblical figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_burial_places_of_biblical_figures"},{"link_name":"List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hebrew_Bible_manuscripts"},{"link_name":"List of New Testament papyri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri"},{"link_name":"List of New Testament uncials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials"},{"link_name":"Historical Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Criticism of the Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible"},{"link_name":"Christ myth theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_myth_theory"},{"link_name":"Bible 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Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain"},{"link_name":"Kairouan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kairouan"},{"link_name":"Byzantium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Crusades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_the_Crusades"},{"link_name":"Expulsion of Jews from Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain"},{"link_name":"Anusim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anusim"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Medieval antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_antisemitism"},{"link_name":"Jewish question","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_question"},{"link_name":"Disabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilities_(Jewish)"},{"link_name":"Emancipation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_emancipation"},{"link_name":"Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskalah"},{"link_name":"Reform Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Judaism"},{"link_name":"Zionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Zionism"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"The Holocaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust"},{"link_name":"Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe"},{"link_name":"Israeli history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"New Yishuv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Yishuv"},{"link_name":"WP:Jewish history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:JH"}],"text":"Arnold, Bill T.; Hess, Richard S., \"Ancient Israel's History: An Introduction to Issues and Sources\" (Baker, 2014)\nBrettler, Marc Z., \"The Creation of History in Ancient Israel\" (Routledge, 1995)\nCook, Stephen L., \"The social roots of biblical Yahwism\" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004)\nDay, John (ed.), \"In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar\" (T&T Clark International, 2004)\nFrevel, Christian, \"History of Ancient Israel\" (SBL Press, 2023)\nHess, Richard S., \"Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey\" (Baker, 2007)\nKeimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A. (eds.), \"The Ancient Israelite World\" (Taylor & Francis, 2022)\nKelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.), \"The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible\" (Oxford University Press, 2020)\nKnauf, Ernst Axel; Niemann, Hermann Michael \"Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum\" (Walter de Gruyter, 2021)\nLemche, Neils Peter, \"The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey\" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)\nLevine, Lee I., \"Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.–70 C.E.)\" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002)\nNa'aman, Nadav, \"Ancient Israel and its neighbours\" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)\nNiditch, Susan (ed.), \"The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel\" (John Wiley & Sons, 2016)\nSparks, Kenton L., \"Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel\" (Eisenbrauns, 1998)\nVanderkam, James, \"An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)\" (Eerdmans, 2022)vteThe Bible and historyGeneral studies\nBiblical criticism\nBiblical studies\nHistory of ancient Israel and Judah\nQuest for the historical Jesus\nJesus in comparative mythology\nHistoricity\nBiblical archaeology\nHistoricity of Jesus\nsources\nHistoricity of the Bible\nHistorical reliability of the Gospels\nList of artifacts in biblical archaeology\nList of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources\nList of burial places of biblical figures\nList of Hebrew Bible manuscripts\nList of New Testament papyri\nList of New Testament uncials\nHistorical Jesus\nCriticism\nCriticism of the Bible\nChrist myth theory\nBible PortalvteIsrael articlesHistory\nAntiquity\nSecond Temple period\nMiddle Ages\nOttoman Syria\nOld Yishuv\nZionism\nYishuv\nBritish mandate\nIndependence\nArab–Israeli conflict\nIsraeli–Palestinian conflict\nPeace process\nIran–Israel proxy conflict\nTimeline\nby year\nGeography\nBorders\nCities\nDistricts\nLakes\nDead Sea\nSea of Galilee\nLand of Israel\nNational parks and nature reserves\nRivers\nJordan River\nWildlife\nPolitics\nCabinet\nPrime Minister\nElections\nForeign relations\nKnesset\nParties\nLaw\nBasic Laws\nJudiciary\nPresident\nSystem of government\nSecurity\nCensorship\nCivil defense\nIntelligence Community\nAman\nMossad\nShin Bet\nIsrael Defense Forces\nConscription\nStructure\nPolice\nWars\nWest Bank barrier\nEconomy\nAgriculture\nBanking\nCompanies\nDiamond industry\nEnergy\nScience and technology\nTaxation\nTel Aviv Stock Exchange\nTourism\nTransport\nWater supply and sanitation\nSociety\nCrime\nDemographics\nAliyah\nPeople\nEducation\nHealthcare\nHuman rights\nLGBT\nKibbutz\nLanguages\nHebrew\nArabic\nRacism\nReligion\nStandard of living\nWomen\nFeminism\nCulture\nArchaeology\nArchitecture\nCinema\nCuisine\nLiterature\nMedia\nMuseums\nMusic\nNational symbols\nPublic holidays\nSport\nVisual arts\nWorld Heritage Sites\nOutlineIndex\nCategory\nPortalvteJewish historyOverviews\nHistoriography\nJewish history in Israel/Palestine\nPopulation history\nMilitary history\nGenetic history\nLanguages\nExpulsions and exoduses\nSchisms\nPolitical movements\nTimeline\nAncient Israel and Judah\nIsraelites\nOrigins of Judaism\nAncient Israel and Judah\nKingdom of Judah\nKingdom of Israel\nAssyrian Captivity\nJudah's revolts against Babylon\nBabylonian captivity\nBabylonian Yehud\nSecond Temple periodand late antiquity\nYehud Medinata\nHasmonean dynasty\nHerodian dynasty\nRoman Judaea\nSecond Temple Judaism\nHellenistic Judaism\n Wars and revolts\nMaccabean Revolt\nJudean Civil War\nJewish-Roman Wars\nFirst Jewish-Roman War\nBattle of Beth Horon\nGalilee campaign\nSiege of Masada\nKitos War\nBar Kokhba revolt\nRevolt against Gallus\nRevolt against Heraclius\nMohammedan Wars\nSiege of Banu Qurayza\nSiege of Banu Qaynuqa\nBattle of Khaybar\nInvasion of Banu Nadir\nDiaspora\nRoman Empire\nByzantine Empire\nGreece\nCarthage\nEgypt\nPersia\nMesopotamia\nRabbinic Judaism\nSynagogal Judaism\nNasi\nSanhedrin\nChazal\nTannaim\nAmoraim\nSavoraim\nGeonim\nTalmudic academies in Babylonia\n\nMiddle Ages\nUnder Muslim rule\nSephardic Golden Age\nKairouan\nByzantium\nCrusades\nExpulsion of Jews from Spain\nAnusim\nOttoman Empire\nMedieval antisemitism\nModern\nJewish question\nDisabilities\nEmancipation\nEnlightenment\nReform Judaism\nZionism\nSoviet Union\nUnited States\nWorld War II\nThe Holocaust\nResistance\nIsraeli history\nNew Yishuv\n\nSee also\nWP:Jewish history","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Approximate map of the Northern Kingdom of Israel (blue) and the Kingdom of Judah (gold) with their neighbours (tan) during the Iron Age (9th century BCE)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg/220px-Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah_map_830.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Merneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as \"Israel\", representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Merneptah_Steli_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Merneptah_Steli_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A reconstructed Israelite house, 10th–7th century BCE. Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg/220px-A_reconstructed_israelite_house%2C_Monarchy_period3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Model of Levantine four-roomed house from c. 900 BCE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Israelite_pillared_house.jpg/220px-Israelite_pillared_house.jpg"},{"image_text":"Depiction of Jehu King of Israel giving tribute to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III from Nimrud (c. BCE – c. 841–840)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Jehu-Obelisk-cropped.jpg/220px-Jehu-Obelisk-cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/LMLK%2C_Ezekiah_seals.jpg/220px-LMLK%2C_Ezekiah_seals.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siloam inscription found in the Siloam tunnel, Jerusalem (c. 700 BCE)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Shiloach.jpg/220px-Shiloach.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of the Al-Yahudu Tablets, written in Akkadian, which documented the condition of the exiled Judean community in Babylon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Al-Yahudu_Tablets3_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Al-Yahudu_Tablets3_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"El, the Canaanite creator deity, Megiddo, Stratum VII, Late Bronze II, 1400–1200 BCE, bronze with gold leaf – Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago – DSC07734 The Canaanite god El, who may have been the precursor to the Israelite god Yahweh.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/El%2C_the_Canaanite_creator_deity%2C_Megiddo%2C_Stratum_VII%2C_Late_Bronze_II%2C_1400-1200_BC%2C_bronze_with_gold_leaf_-_Oriental_Institute_Museum%2C_University_of_Chicago_-_DSC07734.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Canaanite god Baal, 14th–12th century BCE (Louvre museum, Paris)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg/220px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"To Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah\" – royal seal found at the Ophel excavations in Jerusalem","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/LMLK%2C_Ezekiah_seals.jpg/220px-LMLK%2C_Ezekiah_seals.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Jewish portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Jewish"},{"title":"Judaism portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Judaism"},{"title":"Biblical archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_archaeology"},{"title":"Chronology of the Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible"},{"title":"Early Israelite campaigns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Israelite_campaigns"},{"title":"Habiru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habiru"},{"title":"History of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Israel"},{"title":"History of Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Palestine"},{"title":"Assyrian captivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_captivity"},{"title":"Babylonian captivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_captivity"},{"title":"History of the ancient Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant"},{"title":"Jewish diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_diaspora"},{"title":"Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)"},{"title":"Kings of Israel and Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Israel_and_Judah"},{"title":"Kings of Judah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_of_Judah"},{"title":"Lachish reliefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lachish_reliefs"},{"title":"Shasu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shasu"},{"title":"Ten Lost Tribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes"},{"title":"Timeline of Jewish history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history"},{"title":"Timeline of the Palestine region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Palestine_region"},{"title":"Time periods in the Palestine region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_periods_in_the_Palestine_region"}]
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[{"reference":"Bienkowski, Piotr; Millard, Alan (2000). British Museum Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. British Museum Press. pp. 157–158. ISBN 9780714111414.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780714111414","url_text":"9780714111414"}]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86912-4","url_text":"978-0-684-86912-4"}]},{"reference":"Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). \"David, King of Judah (Not Israel)\". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml","url_text":"\"David, King of Judah (Not Israel)\""},{"url":"http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HrvUAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174","url_text":"Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6","url_text":"978-1-84127-201-6"}]},{"reference":"\"British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)\". Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx","url_text":"\"British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)\""},{"url":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius\". www.livius.org. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html","url_text":"\"ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius\""},{"url":"https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule\". Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 15 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html","url_text":"\"Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule\""}]},{"reference":"Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. Journal for the study of the Old Testament: Supplement series. Vol. 241. Sheffield: A&C Black. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6. Retrieved 2 June 2016. Out of the discussions a new model is beginning to emerge, which has been inspired, above all, by recent archaeological field research. There are several variations in this new theory, but they share in common the image of an Israelite community which arose peacefully and internally in the highlands of Palestine.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kf1ZwDifdAC","url_text":"No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-657-6","url_text":"978-1-85075-657-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Daily Life in Ancient Israel\". Biblical Archaeology Society. 13 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/daily-life-in-ancient-israel/","url_text":"\"Daily Life in Ancient Israel\""}]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Israel (2020). \"Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem\". In Joachim J. Krause; Omer Sergi; Kristin Weingart (eds.). Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-88414-451-9. ...Shoshenq I, the founder of the Twenty-Second Dynasty and seemingly the more assertive of the Egyptian rulers of the time, reacted to the north Israelite challenge. He campaigned into the highlands and took over the Saulide power bases in the Gibeon plateau and the area of the Jabbok River in the western Gilead. The fortified sites of Khirbet Qeiyafa, Khirbet Dawwara, et-Tell, and Gibeon were destroyed or abandoned. Shoshenq reorganized the territory of the highlands - back to the traditional situation of two city-states under his domination... (p. 48)","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Finkelstein","url_text":"Finkelstein, Israel"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33","url_text":"\"Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-451-9","url_text":"978-0-88414-451-9"}]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Israel (2019). \"First Israel, Core Israel, United (Northern) Israel\". Near Eastern Archaeology. 82 (1). American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR): 12. doi:10.1086/703321. S2CID 167052643. Retrieved 22 March 2020. ...the emergence of the 'Tirzah polity' (the first fifty years of the Northern Kingdom) in the middle of the tenth century BCE...","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel","url_text":"Finkelstein, Israel"},{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/42018894","url_text":"\"First Israel, Core Israel, United (Northern) Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_Eastern_Archaeology_(journal)","url_text":"Near Eastern Archaeology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Schools_of_Oriental_Research","url_text":"American Schools of Oriental Research"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F703321","url_text":"10.1086/703321"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:167052643","url_text":"167052643"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Patrick D. (2000). The Religion of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-0-664-22145-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_D._Miller","url_text":"Miller, Patrick D."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JBhY9BQ7hIQC&pg=PA40","url_text":"The Religion of Ancient Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22145-4","url_text":"978-0-664-22145-4"}]},{"reference":"\"LAMRYEU-HNNYEU-OBD-HZQYEU\". www.lmlk.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lmlk.com/research/lmlk_ahoh.htm","url_text":"\"LAMRYEU-HNNYEU-OBD-HZQYEU\""}]},{"reference":"Brown, William. \"Ancient Israelite Technology\". World History Encyclopedia.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/Israelite_Technology/","url_text":"\"Ancient Israelite Technology\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Keys to the Kingdom\". Haaretz.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.haaretz.com/2011-05-06/ty-article/the-keys-to-the-kingdom/0000017f-f749-d47e-a37f-ff7ddabf0000","url_text":"\"The Keys to the Kingdom\""}]},{"reference":"Sergi, Omer (2023). The Two Houses of Israel: State Formation and the Origins of Pan-Israelite Identity. SBL Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-62837-345-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4nLMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187","url_text":"The Two Houses of Israel: State Formation and the Origins of Pan-Israelite Identity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62837-345-5","url_text":"978-1-62837-345-5"}]},{"reference":"Regev, Johanna; Gadot, Yuval; Uziel, Joe; Chalaf, Ortal; Shalev, Yiftah; Roth, Helena; Shalom, Nitsan; Szanton, Nahshon; Bocher, Efrat; Pearson, Charlotte L.; Brown, David M.; Mintz, Eugenia; Regev, Lior; Boaretto, Elisabetta (29 April 2024). \"Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals calibration offsets and architectural developments\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 121 (19): e2321024121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2321024121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 11087761. PMID 38683984.","urls":[{"url":"https://pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2321024121","url_text":"\"Radiocarbon chronology of Iron Age Jerusalem reveals calibration offsets and architectural developments\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2321024121","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.2321024121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","url_text":"0027-8424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11087761","url_text":"11087761"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38683984","url_text":"38683984"}]},{"reference":"Mazar, Amihai (19 September 2010). \"Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy\". One God – One Cult – One Nation: 29–58. doi:10.1515/9783110223583.29. ISBN 978-3-11-022357-6 – via www.academia.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/2503754","url_text":"\"Archaeology and the Biblical Narrative: The Case of the United Monarchy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110223583.29","url_text":"10.1515/9783110223583.29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022357-6","url_text":"978-3-11-022357-6"}]},{"reference":"\"New look at ancient shards suggests Bible even older than thought\". Times of Israel.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.timesofisrael.com/new-look-at-ancient-shards-suggests-bible-even-older-than-thought/","url_text":"\"New look at ancient shards suggests Bible even older than thought\""}]},{"reference":"Lipschits, Oded (1999). \"The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule\". Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN 0334-4355. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (586 B.C.E.) is the most traumatic event described in biblical historiography, and in its shadow the history of the people of Israel was reshaped. The harsh impression of the destruction left its mark on the prophetic literature also, and particular force is retained in the laments over the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in its midst. [...] most of Judah's inhabitants remained there after the destruction of Jerusalem. They concentrated chiefly in the Benjamin region and the northern Judean hill country. This area was hardly affected by the destruction, and became the centre of the Babylonian province with its capital at Mizpah. [...] The archaeological data reinforce the biblical account, and they indicate that Jerusalem and its close environs suffered a severe blow. Most of the small settlements near the city were destroyed, the city wall was demolished, and the buildings within were put to the torch. Excavation and survey data show that the western border of the kingdom also sustained a grave onslaught, seemingly at the time when the Babylonians went to besiege Jerusalem.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155","url_text":"\"The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1179%2Ftav.1999.1999.2.155","url_text":"10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0334-4355","url_text":"0334-4355"}]},{"reference":"Taliaferro, Charles; Harrison, Victoria S.; Goetz, Stewart (2012). The Routledge Companion to Theism. Routledge.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dever, William G. (12 December 2019). \"Archaeology and Folk or Family Religion in Ancient Israel\". Religions. 10 (12): 667. doi:10.3390/rel10120667. ISSN 2077-1444.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel10120667","url_text":"\"Archaeology and Folk or Family Religion in Ancient Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel10120667","url_text":"10.3390/rel10120667"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444","url_text":"2077-1444"}]},{"reference":"Becking, Bob (2002). Only One God? : Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-23212-0. OCLC 1052587466.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/1052587466","url_text":"Only One God? : Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-23212-0","url_text":"978-0-567-23212-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1052587466","url_text":"1052587466"}]},{"reference":"Stern, Ephraim (2001). \"Pagan Yahwism: The folk religion of ancient Israel\". Biblical Archaeology Review. 27 (3): 20–29.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2006). \"Temple and Dynasty: Hezekiah, the Remaking of Judah and the Rise of the Pan-Israelite Ideology\". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 30 (3): 259–285. doi:10.1177/0309089206063428. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 145087584.","urls":[{"url":"http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309089206063428","url_text":"\"Temple and Dynasty: Hezekiah, the Remaking of Judah and the Rise of the Pan-Israelite Ideology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0309089206063428","url_text":"10.1177/0309089206063428"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0309-0892","url_text":"0309-0892"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145087584","url_text":"145087584"}]},{"reference":"Moulis, David Rafael (8 November 2019), \"Hezekiah's Cultic Reforms according to the Archaeological Evidence\", The Last Century in the History of Judah, SBL Press, pp. 167–180, doi:10.2307/j.ctvr7fc18.11, S2CID 211652647, retrieved 18 February 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvr7fc18.11","url_text":"\"Hezekiah's Cultic Reforms according to the Archaeological Evidence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvr7fc18.11","url_text":"10.2307/j.ctvr7fc18.11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211652647","url_text":"211652647"}]},{"reference":"Na’aman, Nadav (1 January 2011). \"The Discovered Book and the Legitimation of Josiah's Reform\". Journal of Biblical Literature. 130 (1): 47–62. doi:10.2307/41304187. ISSN 0021-9231. JSTOR 41304187. S2CID 153646048.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307/41304187","url_text":"\"The Discovered Book and the Legitimation of Josiah's Reform\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F41304187","url_text":"10.2307/41304187"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9231","url_text":"0021-9231"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/41304187","url_text":"41304187"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153646048","url_text":"153646048"}]},{"reference":"\"the definition of henotheism\". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 26 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/henotheism","url_text":"\"the definition of henotheism\""}]},{"reference":"Levine, Baruch A. (2005). \"Assyrian Ideology and Israelite Monotheism\". British Institute for the Study of Iraq. 67 (1): 411–27. JSTOR 4200589.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_A._Levine","url_text":"Levine, Baruch A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200589","url_text":"4200589"}]},{"reference":"Meek, Theophile James (1942). \"Monotheism and the Religion of Israel\". Journal of Biblical Literature. 61 (1): 21–43. doi:10.2307/3262264. JSTOR 3262264.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophile_James_Meek","url_text":"Meek, Theophile James"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Biblical_Literature","url_text":"Journal of Biblical Literature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3262264","url_text":"10.2307/3262264"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3262264","url_text":"3262264"}]},{"reference":"Dever, William (1987). \"Archaeological Sources for the History of Palestine: The Middle Bronze Age: The Zenith of the Urban Canaanite Era\". The Biblical Archaeologist. 50 (3): 149–77. doi:10.2307/3210059. JSTOR 3210059. S2CID 165335710.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Biblical_Archaeologist","url_text":"The Biblical Archaeologist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3210059","url_text":"10.2307/3210059"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210059","url_text":"3210059"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165335710","url_text":"165335710"}]},{"reference":"Coogan, Michael David (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2. Retrieved 3 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&q=name+Israel+comes+from+El&pg=PA54","url_text":"The Oxford History of the Biblical World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513937-2","url_text":"978-0-19-513937-2"}]},{"reference":"Giliad, Elon (20 April 2015). \"Why Is Israel Called Israel?\". Haaretz. Retrieved 3 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.haaretz.com/.premium-why-is-israel-called-israel-1.5353207","url_text":"\"Why Is Israel Called Israel?\""}]},{"reference":"Caquot, André (2000). \"At the Origins of the Bible\". Near Eastern Archaeology. 63 (4): 225–27. doi:10.2307/3210793. JSTOR 3210793. S2CID 164106346.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Caquot","url_text":"Caquot, André"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_Eastern_Archaeology_(journal)","url_text":"Near Eastern Archaeology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3210793","url_text":"10.2307/3210793"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3210793","url_text":"3210793"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164106346","url_text":"164106346"}]},{"reference":"\"Exodus 20:2\". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 21 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sefaria.org/Exodus.20.3?lang=bi&aliyot=0","url_text":"\"Exodus 20:2\""}]},{"reference":"Coogan, Michael David (8 January 2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 261. 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OCLC 213021257.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/213021257","url_text":"Civilizations of the Ancient Near East"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56563-607-1","url_text":"978-1-56563-607-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/213021257","url_text":"213021257"}]},{"reference":"Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22719-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yvZUWbTftSgC&pg=RA1-PA145","url_text":"A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22719-7","url_text":"978-0-664-22719-7"}]},{"reference":"Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion, Volume II: From the Exile to the Maccabees. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22720-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=exjyhvRy7YUC","url_text":"A History of Israelite Religion, Volume II: From the Exile to the Maccabees"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22720-3","url_text":"978-0-664-22720-3"}]},{"reference":"Albertz, Rainer (2003a). Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-055-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&q=Rainer+Albertz,+%22Israel+in+exile%22","url_text":"Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-055-4","url_text":"978-1-58983-055-4"}]},{"reference":"Avery-Peck, Alan; et al., eds. (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-57718-059-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&pg=PA230","url_text":"The Blackwell Companion to Judaism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57718-059-3","url_text":"978-1-57718-059-3"}]},{"reference":"Barstad, Hans M. (2008). History and the Hebrew Bible. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149809-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_M._Barstad","url_text":"Barstad, Hans M."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zqJxkKy-cMMC","url_text":"History and the Hebrew Bible"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149809-1","url_text":"978-3-16-149809-1"}]},{"reference":"Becking, Bob (2003b). \"Law as Expression of Religion (Ezra 7–10)\". In Albertz, Rainer; Becking, Bob (eds.). Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era. Koninklijke Van Gorcum. ISBN 978-90-232-3880-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hwExATCqwvwC","url_text":"Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-232-3880-5","url_text":"978-90-232-3880-5"}]},{"reference":"Bedford, Peter Ross (2001). Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11509-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MOd320e710IC&q=Osarsiph","url_text":"Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11509-5","url_text":"978-90-04-11509-5"}]},{"reference":"Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6","url_text":"978-0-674-39731-6"}]},{"reference":"Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1988). Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-664-22186-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3PvirfZkfvQC&q=Ezra-Nehemiah:+A+Commentary++By+Joseph+Blenkinsopp","url_text":"Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22186-7","url_text":"978-0-664-22186-7"}]},{"reference":"Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2003). \"Bethel in the Neo-Babylonian Period\". In Blenkinsopp, Joseph; Lipschits, Oded (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-073-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R65fhpcUFcgC","url_text":"Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-073-6","url_text":"978-1-57506-073-6"}]},{"reference":"Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2009). Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6450-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C&q=Judaism,+the+first+phase:+the+place+of+Ezra+and+Nehemiah","url_text":"Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6450-5","url_text":"978-0-8028-6450-5"}]},{"reference":"Cahill, Jane M. (1992). \"Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy\". In Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E. (eds.). Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period. Sheffield. ISBN 978-1-58983-066-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C","url_text":"Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-066-0","url_text":"978-1-58983-066-0"}]},{"reference":"Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1998). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C","url_text":"The Oxford History of the Biblical World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513937-2","url_text":"978-0-19-513937-2"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Philip R. (1992). In Search of Ancient Israel. Sheffield. ISBN 978-1-85075-737-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pMcM8GGO_n8C","url_text":"In Search of Ancient Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-737-5","url_text":"978-1-85075-737-5"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Philip R. (2006). \"The Origin of Biblical Israel\". In Amit, Yaira; et al. (eds.). Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na'aman. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-128-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&pg=PA467","url_text":"\"The Origin of Biblical Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-128-3","url_text":"978-1-57506-128-3"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Philip R. (2009). \"The Origin of Biblical Israel\". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9 (47). Archived from the original on 28 May 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080528230034/http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_47.htm","url_text":"\"The Origin of Biblical Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Hebrew_Scriptures","url_text":"Journal of Hebrew Scriptures"},{"url":"http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_47.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dever, William (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-0975-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_G._Dever","url_text":"Dever, William"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC","url_text":"Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0975-9","url_text":"978-0-8028-0975-9"}]},{"reference":"Dever, William (2005). Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-2852-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6AOE9sxg3bMC","url_text":"Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2852-1","url_text":"978-0-8028-2852-1"}]},{"reference":"Dever, William (2017). Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah. SBL Press. ISBN 978-0-88414-217-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mog6DwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88414-217-1","url_text":"978-0-88414-217-1"}]},{"reference":"Dunn, James D.G.; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153","url_text":"Eerdmans commentary on the Bible"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3711-0","url_text":"978-0-8028-3711-0"}]},{"reference":"Edelman, Diana (2002). \"Ethnicity and Early Israel\". In Brett, Mark G. (ed.). Ethnicity and the Bible. Brill. ISBN 978-0-391-04126-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RfFRhC4FpZkC&pg=PA45","url_text":"\"Ethnicity and Early Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-391-04126-4","url_text":"978-0-391-04126-4"}]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC","url_text":"The Bible Unearthed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2338-6","url_text":"978-0-7432-2338-6"}]},{"reference":"Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kf1ZwDifdAC","url_text":"No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-657-6","url_text":"978-1-85075-657-6"}]},{"reference":"Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004a). Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537985-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&q=Ancient+Canaan+and+Israel:+An+Introduction++By+Jonathan+M+Golden","url_text":"Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537985-3","url_text":"978-0-19-537985-3"}]},{"reference":"Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004b). Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-897-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA62","url_text":"Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-897-6","url_text":"978-1-57607-897-6"}]},{"reference":"Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. T&T Clark International. ISBN 978-0-567-04352-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C","url_text":"A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-04352-8","url_text":"978-0-567-04352-8"}]},{"reference":"Grabbe, Lester L., ed. (2008). Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). T&T Clark International. ISBN 978-0-567-02726-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tR0Qpz2zRogC","url_text":"Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-02726-9","url_text":"978-0-567-02726-9"}]},{"reference":"Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-097-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC","url_text":"Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-097-4","url_text":"978-1-58983-097-4"}]},{"reference":"King, Philip J.; Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. 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ISBN 978-0-415-16763-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V_sfMzRPTgoC&q=Am%C3%A9lie+Kuhrt+The+ancient+Near+East","url_text":"The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BCE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16763-5","url_text":"978-0-415-16763-5"}]},{"reference":"Lehman, Gunnar (1992). \"The United Monarchy in the Countryside\". In Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E. (eds.). Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period. Sheffield. ISBN 978-1-58983-066-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C","url_text":"Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-066-0","url_text":"978-1-58983-066-0"}]},{"reference":"Lemaire, André (2003). \"Nabonidus in Arabia and Judea During the Neo-Babylonian Period\". In Blenkinsopp, Joseph; Lipschits, Oded (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-073-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lemaire","url_text":"Lemaire, André"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R65fhpcUFcgC&q=Judah+and+the+Judeans+in+the+neo-Babylonian+period","url_text":"Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-073-6","url_text":"978-1-57506-073-6"}]},{"reference":"Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JIoY7PagAOAC","url_text":"The Israelites in History and Tradition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22727-2","url_text":"978-0-664-22727-2"}]},{"reference":"Lipschits, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise","url_text":"The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-095-8","url_text":"978-1-57506-095-8"}]},{"reference":"Lipschits, Oded; Vanderhooft, David (2006). \"Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E.\". In Lipschits, Oded; et al. (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-130-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6NsxZRnxE70C&pg=PA75","url_text":"\"Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-130-6","url_text":"978-1-57506-130-6"}]},{"reference":"Mazar, Amihay (2007). \"The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues\". In Schmidt, Brian B. (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC","url_text":"The Quest for the Historical Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-277-0","url_text":"978-1-58983-277-0"}]},{"reference":"McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22265-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33","url_text":"Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22265-9","url_text":"978-0-664-22265-9"}]},{"reference":"Middlemas, Jill Anne (2005). The Troubles of Templeless Judah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928386-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrpx-op_-XkC&q=lester+grabbe+1995","url_text":"The Troubles of Templeless Judah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928386-6","url_text":"978-0-19-928386-6"}]},{"reference":"Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. ISBN 978-0-664-21262-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Maxwell_Miller_(biblical_scholar)","url_text":"Miller, James Maxwell"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill","url_text":"A History of Ancient Israel and Judah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-21262-9","url_text":"978-0-664-21262-9"}]},{"reference":"Niehr, Herbert (1999). \"Religio-Historical Aspects of the Early Post-Exilic Period\". In Becking, Bob; Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds.). The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11496-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC","url_text":"The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11496-8","url_text":"978-90-04-11496-8"}]},{"reference":"Nodet, Étienne (1999). A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-445-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC","url_text":"A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-445-9","url_text":"978-1-85075-445-9"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Mark S. (2002). The Early History of God. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3972-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC","url_text":"The Early History of God"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3972-5","url_text":"978-0-8028-3972-5"}]},{"reference":"Soggin, Michael J. (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah. Paideia. ISBN 978-0-334-02788-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC","url_text":"An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-334-02788-1","url_text":"978-0-334-02788-1"}]},{"reference":"Stager, Lawrence E. (1998). \"Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel\". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C","url_text":"The Oxford History of the Biblical World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513937-2","url_text":"978-0-19-513937-2"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Thomas L. (1992). Early History of the Israelite People. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09483-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofis00thom","url_text":"Early History of the Israelite People"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09483-3","url_text":"978-90-04-09483-3"}]},{"reference":"Van der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel. Brill. 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Judah"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3PvirfZkfvQC&q=Ezra-Nehemiah:+A+Commentary++By+Joseph+Blenkinsopp","external_links_name":"Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R65fhpcUFcgC","external_links_name":"Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C&q=Judaism,+the+first+phase:+the+place+of+Ezra+and+Nehemiah","external_links_name":"Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C","external_links_name":"Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C","external_links_name":"The Oxford History of the Biblical World"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pMcM8GGO_n8C","external_links_name":"In Search of Ancient Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku4OKVrEd4MC&pg=PA467","external_links_name":"\"The Origin of Biblical Israel\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080528230034/http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_47.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Origin of Biblical Israel\""},{"Link":"http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_47.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC","external_links_name":"Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6AOE9sxg3bMC","external_links_name":"Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mog6DwAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Beyond the Texts: An Archaeological Portrait of Ancient Israel and Judah"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153","external_links_name":"Eerdmans commentary on the Bible"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RfFRhC4FpZkC&pg=PA45","external_links_name":"\"Ethnicity and Early Israel\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC","external_links_name":"The Bible Unearthed"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0Kf1ZwDifdAC","external_links_name":"No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&q=Ancient+Canaan+and+Israel:+An+Introduction++By+Jonathan+M+Golden","external_links_name":"Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA62","external_links_name":"Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C","external_links_name":"A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tR0Qpz2zRogC","external_links_name":"Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC","external_links_name":"Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/lifeinbiblicalis0000king","external_links_name":"Life in Biblical Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6NsxZRnxE70C&pg=PA75","external_links_name":"\"And They Did Not Care to Speak Yehudit\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V_sfMzRPTgoC&q=Am%C3%A9lie+Kuhrt+The+ancient+Near+East","external_links_name":"The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BCE"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C","external_links_name":"Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=R65fhpcUFcgC&q=Judah+and+the+Judeans+in+the+neo-Babylonian+period","external_links_name":"Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JIoY7PagAOAC","external_links_name":"The Israelites in History and Tradition"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise","external_links_name":"The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6NsxZRnxE70C&pg=PA75","external_links_name":"\"Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E.\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC","external_links_name":"The Quest for the Historical Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33","external_links_name":"Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrpx-op_-XkC&q=lester+grabbe+1995","external_links_name":"The Troubles of Templeless Judah"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill","external_links_name":"A History of Ancient Israel and Judah"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC","external_links_name":"The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC","external_links_name":"A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC","external_links_name":"The Early History of God"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC","external_links_name":"An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C","external_links_name":"The Oxford History of the Biblical World"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofis00thom","external_links_name":"Early History of the Israelite People"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&q=Family+religion+in+Babylonia,+Syria,+and+Israel","external_links_name":"Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&q=Dictionary+of+Deities","external_links_name":"Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/jewsintimeofjesu0000wyle","external_links_name":"The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=aTpBBAAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Arnold, Bill T.; Hess, Richard S., \"Ancient Israel's History: An Introduction to Issues and Sources\" (Baker, 2014)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xvfCESeU_hwC&pg=PA196","external_links_name":"Brettler, Marc Z., \"The Creation of History in Ancient Israel\" (Routledge, 1995)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4LEA7FnNi-kC","external_links_name":"Cook, Stephen L., \"The social roots of biblical Yahwism\" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C","external_links_name":"Day, John (ed.), \"In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar\" (T&T Clark International, 2004)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Yvy6EAAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Frevel, Christian, \"History of Ancient Israel\" (SBL Press, 2023)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2jNoqNRDYDUC","external_links_name":"Hess, Richard S., \"Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey\" (Baker, 2007)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4beREAAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Keimer, Kyle H.; Pierce, George A. (eds.), \"The Ancient Israelite World\" (Taylor & Francis, 2022)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.), \"The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible\" (Oxford University Press, 2020)"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/73668469","external_links_name":"Knauf, Ernst Axel; Niemann, Hermann Michael \"Geschichte Israels und Judas im Altertum\" (Walter de Gruyter, 2021)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RWqLVc7ccG0C","external_links_name":"Lemche, Neils Peter, \"The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey\" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA196","external_links_name":"Levine, Lee I., \"Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.–70 C.E.)\" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1RgRPAkLqLUC","external_links_name":"Na'aman, Nadav, \"Ancient Israel and its neighbours\" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMACgAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Niditch, Susan (ed.), \"The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Ancient Israel\" (John Wiley & Sons, 2016)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KztVonFGqcsC","external_links_name":"Sparks, Kenton L., \"Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel\" (Eisenbrauns, 1998)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1cuAEAAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"Vanderkam, James, \"An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)\" (Eerdmans, 2022)"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTA_format
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FASTA format
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["1 Overview","1.1 Original format","2 Description line","2.1 NCBI identifiers","3 Sequence representation","4 FASTA file","4.1 Filename extension","4.2 Compression","4.3 Encryption","5 Extensions","6 Working with FASTA files","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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File format for DNA or protein sequences
FASTA formatFilename extensions
.fasta, .fas, .fa, .fna, .ffn, .faa, .mpfa, .frnInternet media type
text/x-fastaUniform Type Identifier (UTI)noDeveloped byDavid J. LipmanWilliam R. PearsonInitial release1985Type of formatBioinformaticsExtended fromASCII for FASTAExtended toFASTQ formatWebsitewww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST/fasta.shtml
In bioinformatics and biochemistry, the FASTA format is a text-based format for representing either nucleotide sequences or amino acid (protein) sequences, in which nucleotides or amino acids are represented using single-letter codes.
The format allows for sequence names and comments to precede the sequences. It originated from the FASTA software package and has since become a near-universal standard in bioinformatics.
The simplicity of FASTA format makes it easy to manipulate and parse sequences using text-processing tools and scripting languages.
Overview
A sequence begins with a greater-than character (">") followed by a description of the sequence (all in a single line). The lines immediately following the description line are the sequence representation, with one letter per amino acid or nucleic acid, and are typically no more than 80 characters in length.
For example:
>MCHU - Calmodulin - Human, rabbit, bovine, rat, and chicken
MADQLTEEQIAEFKEAFSLFDKDGDGTITTKELGTVMRSLGQNPTEAELQDMINEVDADGNGTID
FPEFLTMMARKMKDTDSEEEIREAFRVFDKDGNGYISAAELRHVMTNLGEKLTDEEVDEMIREA
DIDGDGQVNYEEFVQMMTAK*
Original format
The original FASTA/Pearson format is described in the documentation for the FASTA suite of programs. It can be downloaded with any free distribution of FASTA (see fasta20.doc, fastaVN.doc, or fastaVN.me—where VN is the Version Number).
In the original format, a sequence was represented as a series of lines, each of which was no longer than 120 characters and usually did not exceed 80 characters. This probably was to allow for the preallocation of fixed line sizes in software: at the time most users relied on Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VT220 (or compatible) terminals which could display 80 or 132 characters per line. Most people preferred the bigger font in 80-character modes and so it became the recommended fashion to use 80 characters or less (often 70) in FASTA lines. Also, the width of a standard printed page is 70 to 80 characters (depending on the font). Hence, 80 characters became the norm.
The first line in a FASTA file started either with a ">" (greater-than) symbol or, less frequently, a ";" (semicolon) was taken as a comment. Subsequent lines starting with a semicolon would be ignored by software. Since the only comment used was the first, it quickly became used to hold a summary description of the sequence, often starting with a unique library accession number, and with time it has become commonplace to always use ">" for the first line and to not use ";" comments (which would otherwise be ignored).
Following the initial line (used for a unique description of the sequence) was the actual sequence itself in the standard one-letter character string. Anything other than a valid character would be ignored (including spaces, tabulators, asterisks, etc...). It was also common to end the sequence with an "*" (asterisk) character (in analogy with use in PIR formatted sequences) and, for the same reason, to leave a blank line between the description and the sequence. Below are a few sample sequences:
;LCBO - Prolactin precursor - Bovine
; a sample sequence in FASTA format
MDSKGSSQKGSRLLLLLVVSNLLLCQGVVSTPVCPNGPGNCQVSLRDLFDRAVMVSHYIHDLSS
EMFNEFDKRYAQGKGFITMALNSCHTSSLPTPEDKEQAQQTHHEVLMSLILGLLRSWNDPLYHL
VTEVRGMKGAPDAILSRAIEIEEENKRLLEGMEMIFGQVIPGAKETEPYPVWSGLPSLQTKDED
ARYSAFYNLLHCLRRDSSKIDTYLKLLNCRIIYNNNC*
>MCHU - Calmodulin - Human, rabbit, bovine, rat, and chicken
MADQLTEEQIAEFKEAFSLFDKDGDGTITTKELGTVMRSLGQNPTEAELQDMINEVDADGNGTID
FPEFLTMMARKMKDTDSEEEIREAFRVFDKDGNGYISAAELRHVMTNLGEKLTDEEVDEMIREA
DIDGDGQVNYEEFVQMMTAK*
>gi|5524211|gb|AAD44166.1| cytochrome b
LCLYTHIGRNIYYGSYLYSETWNTGIMLLLITMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSFWGATVITNLFSAIPYIGTNLV
EWIWGGFSVDKATLNRFFAFHFILPFTMVALAGVHLTFLHETGSNNPLGLTSDSDKIPFHPYYTIKDFLG
LLILILLLLLLALLSPDMLGDPDNHMPADPLNTPLHIKPEWYFLFAYAILRSVPNKLGGVLALFLSIVIL
GLMPFLHTSKHRSMMLRPLSQALFWTLTMDLLTLTWIGSQPVEYPYTIIGQMASILYFSIILAFLPIAGX
IENY
A multiple-sequence FASTA format, or multi-FASTA format, would be obtained by concatenating several single-sequence FASTA files in one file. This does not imply a contradiction with the format as only the first line in a FASTA file may start with a ";" or ">", forcing all subsequent sequences to start with a ">" in order to be taken as separate sequences (and further forcing the exclusive reservation of ">" for the sequence definition line). Thus, the examples above would be a multi-FASTA file if taken together.
Modern bioinformatics programs that rely on the FASTA format expect the sequence headers to be preceded by ">". The sequence is generally represented as "interleaved", or on multiple lines as in the above example, but may also be "sequential", or on a single line. Running different bioinformatics programs may require conversions between "sequential" and "interleaved" FASTA formats.
Description line
The description line (defline) or header/identifier line, which begins with ">", gives a name and/or a unique identifier for the sequence, and may also contain additional information. In a deprecated practice, the header line sometimes contained more than one header, separated by a ^A (Control-A) character. In the original Pearson FASTA format, one or more comments, distinguished by a semi-colon at the beginning of the line, may occur after the header. Some databases and bioinformatics applications do not recognize these comments and follow the NCBI FASTA specification. An example of a multiple sequence FASTA file follows:
>SEQUENCE_1
MTEITAAMVKELRESTGAGMMDCKNALSETNGDFDKAVQLLREKGLGKAAKKADRLAAEG
LVSVKVSDDFTIAAMRPSYLSYEDLDMTFVENEYKALVAELEKENEERRRLKDPNKPEHK
IPQFASRKQLSDAILKEAEEKIKEELKAQGKPEKIWDNIIPGKMNSFIADNSQLDSKLTL
MGQFYVMDDKKTVEQVIAEKEKEFGGKIKIVEFICFEVGEGLEKKTEDFAAEVAAQL
>SEQUENCE_2
SATVSEINSETDFVAKNDQFIALTKDTTAHIQSNSLQSVEELHSSTINGVKFEEYLKSQI
ATIGENLVVRRFATLKAGANGVVNGYIHTNGRVGVVIAAACDSAEVASKSRDLLRQICMH
NCBI identifiers
The NCBI defined a standard for the unique identifier used for the sequence (SeqID) in the header line. This allows a sequence that was obtained from a database to be labelled with a reference to its database record. The database identifier format is understood by the NCBI tools like makeblastdb and table2asn. The following list describes the NCBI FASTA defined format for sequence identifiers.
Type
Format(s)
Example(s)
local (i.e. no database reference)
lcl|integer
lcl|string
lcl|123
lcl|hmm271
GenInfo backbone seqid
bbs|integer
bbs|123
GenInfo backbone moltype
bbm|integer
bbm|123
GenInfo import ID
gim|integer
gim|123
GenBank
gb|accession|locus
gb|M73307|AGMA13GT
EMBL
emb|accession|locus
emb|CAM43271.1|
PIR
pir|accession|name
pir||G36364
SWISS-PROT
sp|accession|name
sp|P01013|OVAX_CHICK
patent
pat|country|patent|sequence-number
pat|US|RE33188|1
pre-grant patent
pgp|country|application-number|sequence-number
pgp|EP|0238993|7
RefSeq
ref|accession|name
ref|NM_010450.1|
general database reference(a reference to a database that's not in this list)
gnl|database|integer
gnl|database|string
gnl|taxon|9606
gnl|PID|e1632
GenInfo integrated database
gi|integer
gi|21434723
DDBJ
dbj|accession|locus
dbj|BAC85684.1|
PRF
prf|accession|name
prf||0806162C
PDB
pdb|entry|chain
pdb|1I4L|D
third-party GenBank
tpg|accession|name
tpg|BK003456|
third-party EMBL
tpe|accession|name
tpe|BN000123|
third-party DDBJ
tpd|accession|name
tpd|FAA00017|
TrEMBL
tr|accession|name
tr|Q90RT2|Q90RT2_9HIV1
The vertical bars ("|") in the above list are not separators in the sense of the Backus–Naur form but are part of the format. Multiple identifiers can be concatenated, also separated by vertical bars.
Sequence representation
Following the header line, the actual sequence is represented. Sequences may be protein sequences or nucleic acid sequences, and they can contain gaps or alignment characters (see sequence alignment). Sequences are expected to be represented in the standard IUB/IUPAC amino acid and nucleic acid codes, with these exceptions: lower-case letters are accepted and are mapped into upper-case; a single hyphen or dash can be used to represent a gap character; and in amino acid sequences, U and * are acceptable letters (see below). Numerical digits are not allowed but are used in some databases to indicate the position in the sequence. The nucleic acid codes supported are:
Nucleic Acid Code
Meaning
Mnemonic
A
A
Adenine
C
C
Cytosine
G
G
Guanine
T
T
Thymine
U
U
Uracil
(i)
i
inosine (non-standard)
R
A or G (I)
puRine
Y
C, T or U
pYrimidines
K
G, T or U
bases which are Ketones
M
A or C
bases with aMino groups
S
C or G
Strong interaction
W
A, T or U
Weak interaction
B
not A (i.e. C, G, T or U)
B comes after A
D
not C (i.e. A, G, T or U)
D comes after C
H
not G (i.e., A, C, T or U)
H comes after G
V
neither T nor U (i.e. A, C or G)
V comes after U
N
A C G T U
Nucleic acid
-
gap of indeterminate length
The amino acid codes supported (22 amino acids and 3 special codes) are:
Amino Acid Code
Meaning
A
Alanine
B
Aspartic acid (D) or Asparagine (N)
C
Cysteine
D
Aspartic acid
E
Glutamic acid
F
Phenylalanine
G
Glycine
H
Histidine
I
Isoleucine
J
Leucine (L) or Isoleucine (I)
K
Lysine
L
Leucine
M
Methionine/Start codon
N
Asparagine
O
Pyrrolysine (rare)
P
Proline
Q
Glutamine
R
Arginine
S
Serine
T
Threonine
U
Selenocysteine (rare)
V
Valine
W
Tryptophan
Y
Tyrosine
Z
Glutamic acid (E) or Glutamine (Q)
X
any
*
translation stop
-
gap of indeterminate length
FASTA file
Filename extension
There is no standard filename extension for a text file containing FASTA formatted sequences. The table below shows each extension and its respective meaning.
Extension
Meaning
Notes
fasta, fas, fa
generic FASTA
Any generic FASTA file
fna
FASTA nucleic acid
Used generically to specify nucleic acids
ffn
FASTA nucleotide of gene regions
Contains coding regions for a genome
faa
FASTA amino acid
Contains amino acid sequences
mpfa
FASTA amino acids
Contains multiple protein sequences
frn
FASTA non-coding RNA
Contains non-coding RNA regions for a genome, e.g. tRNA, rRNA
Compression
The compression of FASTA files requires a specific compressor to handle both channels of information: identifiers and sequence. For improved compression results, these are mainly divided into two streams where the compression is made assuming independence. For example, the algorithm MFCompress performs lossless compression of these files using context modelling and arithmetic encoding. Genozip, a software package for compressing genomic files, uses an extensible context-based model. Benchmarks of FASTA file compression algorithms have been reported by Hosseini et al. in 2016, and Kryukov et al. in 2020.
Encryption
The encryption of FASTA files can be performed with various tools, including Cryfa and Genozip. Cryfa uses AES encryption and also enables data compression. Similarly, Genozip can encrypt FASTA files with AES-256 during compression.
Extensions
FASTQ format is a form of FASTA format extended to indicate information related to sequencing. It is created by the Sanger Centre in Cambridge.
A2M/A3M are a family of FASTA-derived formats used for sequence alignments. In A2M/A3M sequences, lowercase characters are taken to mean insertions, which are then indicated in the other sequences as the dot (".") character. The dots can be discarded for compactness without loss of information. As with typical FASTA files used in alignments, the gap ("-") is taken to mean exactly one position. A3M is similar to A2M, with the added rule that gaps aligned to insertions can too be discarded.
Working with FASTA files
A plethora of user-friendly scripts are available from the community to perform FASTA file manipulations. Online toolboxes, such as FaBox or the FASTX-Toolkit within Galaxy servers, are also available. These can be used to segregate sequence headers/identifiers, rename them, shorten them, or extract sequences of interest from large FASTA files based on a list of wanted identifiers (among other available functions). A tree-based approach to sorting multi-FASTA files (TREE2FASTA) also exists based on the coloring and/or annotation of sequences of interest in the FigTree viewer. Additionally, the Bioconductor Biostrings package can be used to read and manipulate FASTA files in R.
Several online format converters exist to rapidly reformat multi-FASTA files to different formats (e.g. NEXUS, PHYLIP) for use with different phylogenetic programs, such as the converter available on phylogeny.fr.
See also
The FASTQ format, used to represent DNA sequencer reads along with quality scores.
The SAM and CRAM formats, used to represent genome sequencer reads that have been aligned to genome sequences.
The GVF format (Genome Variation Format), an extension based on the GFF3 format.
References
^ Lipman DJ, Pearson WR (March 1985). "Rapid and sensitive protein similarity searches". Science. 227 (4693): 1435–41. Bibcode:1985Sci...227.1435L. doi:10.1126/science.2983426. PMID 2983426.
^ Pearson WR, Lipman DJ (April 1988). "Improved tools for biological sequence comparison". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 85 (8): 2444–8. Bibcode:1988PNAS...85.2444P. doi:10.1073/pnas.85.8.2444. PMC 280013. PMID 3162770.
^ a b Cock PJ, Fields CJ, Goto N, Heuer ML, Rice PM (April 2010). "The Sanger FASTQ file format for sequences with quality scores, and the Solexa/Illumina FASTQ variants". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (6): 1767–71. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp1137. PMC 2847217. PMID 20015970.
^ "What is FASTA format?". Zhang Lab. Archived from the original on 2022-12-04. Retrieved 2022-12-04.
^ Landsteiner, mass:werk, Norbert (2019-02-20). "(Now Go Bang!) Raster CRT Typography (According to DEC)". Now Go Bang! — mass:werk / Blog. Retrieved 2024-03-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "VT220 Built-in Glyphs". VT100. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ "Why is 80 characters the 'standard' limit for code width?". Software Engineering Stack Exchange. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ "FASTA Database Format". www.loc.gov. 2023-08-01. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ NCBI C++ Toolkit Book. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 2018-12-19.
^
Tao Tao (2011-08-24). "Single Letter Codes for Nucleotides". . National Center for Biotechnology Information. Archived from the original on 2012-09-14. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
^ "IUPAC code table". NIAS DNA Bank. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11.
^ "anysymbol". MAFFT - a multiple sequence alignment program.
^ "Alignment Fileformats". 22 May 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
^ Pinho AJ, Pratas D (January 2014). "MFCompress: a compression tool for FASTA and multi-FASTA data". Bioinformatics. 30 (1): 117–8. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btt594. PMC 3866555. PMID 24132931.
^ a b Lan, Divon; Tobler, Ray; Souilmi, Yassine; Llamas, Bastien (2021-02-15). "Genozip: a universal extensible genomic data compressor". Bioinformatics. 37 (16): 2225–2230. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btab102. ISSN 1367-4803. PMC 8388020. PMID 33585897.
^ Hosseini, Morteza; Pratas, Diogo; Pinho, Armando J. (2016). "A Survey on Data Compression Methods for Biological Sequences". Information. 7 (4): 56. doi:10.3390/info7040056. ISSN 2078-2489.
^ Kryukov K, Ueda MT, Nakagawa S, Imanishi T (July 2020). "Sequence Compression Benchmark (SCB) database—A comprehensive evaluation of reference-free compressors for FASTA-formatted sequences". GigaScience. 9 (7): giaa072. doi:10.1093/gigascience/giaa072. PMC 7336184. PMID 32627830.
^ Pratas D, Hosseini M, Pinho A (2017). "Cryfa: a tool to compact and encrypt FASTA files". 11th International Conference on Practical Applications of Computational Biology & Bioinformatics (PACBB). Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Vol. 616. Springer. pp. 305–312. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60816-7_37. ISBN 978-3-319-60815-0.
^ Hosseini, Morteza; Pratas, Diogo; Pinho, Armando J (2019-01-01). Berger, Bonnie (ed.). "Cryfa: a secure encryption tool for genomic data". Bioinformatics. 35 (1): 146–148. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bty645. ISSN 1367-4803. PMC 6298042. PMID 30020420.
^ "Description of A2M alignment format". SAMtools. Archived from the original on 2022-08-15.
^ "soedinglab/hh-suite: reformat.pl". GitHub. 20 November 2022.
^ Villesen, P. (2007). "FaBox: an online toolbox for fasta sequences". Molecular Ecology Notes. 7 (6): 965–968. doi:10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01821.x. ISSN 1471-8278.
^ Blankenberg D, Von Kuster G, Bouvier E, Baker D, Afgan E, Stoler N, Galaxy Team, Taylor J, Nekrutenko A (2014). "Dissemination of scientific software with Galaxy ToolShed". Genome Biology. 15 (2): 403. doi:10.1186/gb4161. PMC 4038738. PMID 25001293.
^ Sauvage T, Plouviez S, Schmidt WE, Fredericq S (March 2018). "TREE2FASTA: a flexible Perl script for batch extraction of FASTA sequences from exploratory phylogenetic trees". BMC Research Notes. 11 (1): 403. doi:10.1186/s13104-018-3268-y. PMC 5838971. PMID 29506565.
^ Pagès, H; Aboyoun, P; Gentleman, R; DebRoy, S (2018). "Biostrings: Efficient manipulation of biological strings". Bioconductor.org. R package version 2.48.0. doi:10.18129/B9.bioc.Biostrings.
^ Dereeper A, Guignon V, Blanc G, Audic S, Buffet S, Chevenet F, Dufayard JF, Guindon S, Lefort V, Lescot M, Claverie JM, Gascuel O (July 2008). "Phylogeny.fr: robust phylogenetic analysis for the non-specialist". Nucleic Acids Research. 36 (Web Server issue): W465–9. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn180. PMC 2447785. PMID 18424797.
External links
Bioconductor
FASTX-Toolkit
FigTree viewer
Phylogeny.fr
GTO
vteBioinformaticsDatabases
Sequence databases: GenBank, European Nucleotide Archive, DNA Data Bank of Japan and China National GeneBank
Secondary databases: UniProt, database of protein sequences grouping together Swiss-Prot, TrEMBL and Protein Information Resource
Other databases: BioNumbers, Protein Data Bank, Ensembl, InterPro, KEGG, and Gene Ontology
Specialised genomic databases: BOLD, Saccharomyces Genome Database, FlyBase, VectorBase, WormBase, Rat Genome Database, PHI-base, Arabidopsis Information Resource, GISAID and Zebrafish Information Network
Software
BLAST
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PANGOLIN
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Server: ExPASy
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Institutions
Broad Institute
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Organizations
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Meetings
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Research in Computational Molecular Biology (RECOMB)
File formats
CRAM format
FASTA format
FASTQ format
NeXML format
Nexus format
Pileup format
SAM format
Stockholm format
VCF format
GFF format
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Related topics
Computational biology
List of biobanks
List of biological databases
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Category
Commons
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bioinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"},{"link_name":"biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry"},{"link_name":"format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format"},{"link_name":"nucleotide sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide_sequence"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"FASTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTA"},{"link_name":"bioinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"scripting languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language"}],"text":"In bioinformatics and biochemistry, the FASTA format is a text-based format for representing either nucleotide sequences or amino acid (protein) sequences, in which nucleotides or amino acids are represented using single-letter codes.The format allows for sequence names and comments to precede the sequences. It originated from the FASTA software package and has since become a near-universal standard in bioinformatics.[4]The simplicity of FASTA format makes it easy to manipulate and parse sequences using text-processing tools and scripting languages.","title":"FASTA format"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A sequence begins with a greater-than character (\">\") followed by a description of the sequence (all in a single line). The lines immediately following the description line are the sequence representation, with one letter per amino acid or nucleic acid, and are typically no more than 80 characters in length.For example:>MCHU - Calmodulin - Human, rabbit, bovine, rat, and chicken\nMADQLTEEQIAEFKEAFSLFDKDGDGTITTKELGTVMRSLGQNPTEAELQDMINEVDADGNGTID\nFPEFLTMMARKMKDTDSEEEIREAFRVFDKDGNGYISAAELRHVMTNLGEKLTDEEVDEMIREA\nDIDGDGQVNYEEFVQMMTAK*","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pearson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pearson_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"FASTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTA"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"VT220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VT220"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Original format","text":"The original FASTA/Pearson format is described in the documentation for the FASTA suite of programs. It can be downloaded with any free distribution of FASTA (see fasta20.doc, fastaVN.doc, or fastaVN.me—where VN is the Version Number).In the original format, a sequence was represented as a series of lines, each of which was no longer than 120 characters and usually did not exceed 80 characters. This probably was to allow for the preallocation of fixed line sizes in software: at the time most users relied on Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VT220 (or compatible) terminals which could display 80 or 132 characters per line.[5][6] Most people preferred the bigger font in 80-character modes and so it became the recommended fashion to use 80 characters or less (often 70) in FASTA lines. Also, the width of a standard printed page is 70 to 80 characters (depending on the font). Hence, 80 characters became the norm.[7]The first line in a FASTA file started either with a \">\" (greater-than) symbol or, less frequently, a \";\"[8] (semicolon) was taken as a comment. Subsequent lines starting with a semicolon would be ignored by software. Since the only comment used was the first, it quickly became used to hold a summary description of the sequence, often starting with a unique library accession number, and with time it has become commonplace to always use \">\" for the first line and to not use \";\" comments (which would otherwise be ignored).Following the initial line (used for a unique description of the sequence) was the actual sequence itself in the standard one-letter character string. Anything other than a valid character would be ignored (including spaces, tabulators, asterisks, etc...). It was also common to end the sequence with an \"*\" (asterisk) character (in analogy with use in PIR formatted sequences) and, for the same reason, to leave a blank line between the description and the sequence. Below are a few sample sequences:;LCBO - Prolactin precursor - Bovine\n; a sample sequence in FASTA format\nMDSKGSSQKGSRLLLLLVVSNLLLCQGVVSTPVCPNGPGNCQVSLRDLFDRAVMVSHYIHDLSS\nEMFNEFDKRYAQGKGFITMALNSCHTSSLPTPEDKEQAQQTHHEVLMSLILGLLRSWNDPLYHL\nVTEVRGMKGAPDAILSRAIEIEEENKRLLEGMEMIFGQVIPGAKETEPYPVWSGLPSLQTKDED\nARYSAFYNLLHCLRRDSSKIDTYLKLLNCRIIYNNNC*\n\n>MCHU - Calmodulin - Human, rabbit, bovine, rat, and chicken\nMADQLTEEQIAEFKEAFSLFDKDGDGTITTKELGTVMRSLGQNPTEAELQDMINEVDADGNGTID\nFPEFLTMMARKMKDTDSEEEIREAFRVFDKDGNGYISAAELRHVMTNLGEKLTDEEVDEMIREA\nDIDGDGQVNYEEFVQMMTAK*\n\n>gi|5524211|gb|AAD44166.1| cytochrome b [Elephas maximus maximus]\nLCLYTHIGRNIYYGSYLYSETWNTGIMLLLITMATAFMGYVLPWGQMSFWGATVITNLFSAIPYIGTNLV\nEWIWGGFSVDKATLNRFFAFHFILPFTMVALAGVHLTFLHETGSNNPLGLTSDSDKIPFHPYYTIKDFLG\nLLILILLLLLLALLSPDMLGDPDNHMPADPLNTPLHIKPEWYFLFAYAILRSVPNKLGGVLALFLSIVIL\nGLMPFLHTSKHRSMMLRPLSQALFWTLTMDLLTLTWIGSQPVEYPYTIIGQMASILYFSIILAFLPIAGX\nIENYA multiple-sequence FASTA format, or multi-FASTA format, would be obtained by concatenating several single-sequence FASTA files in one file. This does not imply a contradiction with the format as only the first line in a FASTA file may start with a \";\" or \">\", forcing all subsequent sequences to start with a \">\" in order to be taken as separate sequences (and further forcing the exclusive reservation of \">\" for the sequence definition line). Thus, the examples above would be a multi-FASTA file if taken together.Modern bioinformatics programs that rely on the FASTA format expect the sequence headers to be preceded by \">\". The sequence is generally represented as \"interleaved\", or on multiple lines as in the above example, but may also be \"sequential\", or on a single line. Running different bioinformatics programs may require conversions between \"sequential\" and \"interleaved\" FASTA formats.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pearson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pearson_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"the NCBI FASTA specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/fasta.shtml"}],"text":"The description line (defline) or header/identifier line, which begins with \">\", gives a name and/or a unique identifier for the sequence, and may also contain additional information. In a deprecated practice, the header line sometimes contained more than one header, separated by a ^A (Control-A) character. In the original Pearson FASTA format, one or more comments, distinguished by a semi-colon at the beginning of the line, may occur after the header. Some databases and bioinformatics applications do not recognize these comments and follow the NCBI FASTA specification. An example of a multiple sequence FASTA file follows:>SEQUENCE_1\nMTEITAAMVKELRESTGAGMMDCKNALSETNGDFDKAVQLLREKGLGKAAKKADRLAAEG\nLVSVKVSDDFTIAAMRPSYLSYEDLDMTFVENEYKALVAELEKENEERRRLKDPNKPEHK\nIPQFASRKQLSDAILKEAEEKIKEELKAQGKPEKIWDNIIPGKMNSFIADNSQLDSKLTL\nMGQFYVMDDKKTVEQVIAEKEKEFGGKIKIVEFICFEVGEGLEKKTEDFAAEVAAQL\n>SEQUENCE_2\nSATVSEINSETDFVAKNDQFIALTKDTTAHIQSNSLQSVEELHSSTINGVKFEEYLKSQI\nATIGENLVVRRFATLKAGANGVVNGYIHTNGRVGVVIAAACDSAEVASKSRDLLRQICMH","title":"Description line"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NCBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Backus–Naur form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form"}],"sub_title":"NCBI identifiers","text":"The NCBI defined a standard for the unique identifier used for the sequence (SeqID) in the header line. This allows a sequence that was obtained from a database to be labelled with a reference to its database record. The database identifier format is understood by the NCBI tools like makeblastdb and table2asn. The following list describes the NCBI FASTA defined format for sequence identifiers.[9]The vertical bars (\"|\") in the above list are not separators in the sense of the Backus–Naur form but are part of the format. Multiple identifiers can be concatenated, also separated by vertical bars.","title":"Description line"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protein sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_structure"},{"link_name":"nucleic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"sequence alignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_alignment"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"nucleic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Following the header line, the actual sequence is represented. Sequences may be protein sequences or nucleic acid sequences, and they can contain gaps or alignment characters (see sequence alignment). Sequences are expected to be represented in the standard IUB/IUPAC amino acid and nucleic acid codes, with these exceptions: lower-case letters are accepted and are mapped into upper-case; a single hyphen or dash can be used to represent a gap character; and in amino acid sequences, U and * are acceptable letters (see below). Numerical digits are not allowed but are used in some databases to indicate the position in the sequence. The nucleic acid codes supported are:[10][11][12]The amino acid codes supported (22 amino acids and 3 special codes) are:","title":"Sequence representation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"FASTA file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"filename extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename_extension"}],"sub_title":"Filename extension","text":"There is no standard filename extension for a text file containing FASTA formatted sequences. The table below shows each extension and its respective meaning.","title":"FASTA file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MFCompress-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Genozip-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morteza-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SCB-17"}],"sub_title":"Compression","text":"The compression of FASTA files requires a specific compressor to handle both channels of information: identifiers and sequence. For improved compression results, these are mainly divided into two streams where the compression is made assuming independence. For example, the algorithm MFCompress[14] performs lossless compression of these files using context modelling and arithmetic encoding. Genozip,[15] a software package for compressing genomic files, uses an extensible context-based model. Benchmarks of FASTA file compression algorithms have been reported by Hosseini et al. in 2016,[16] and Kryukov et al. in 2020.[17]","title":"FASTA file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRYFA1-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRYFA2-19"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Genozip-15"}],"sub_title":"Encryption","text":"The encryption of FASTA files can be performed with various tools, including Cryfa and Genozip. Cryfa uses AES encryption and also enables data compression.[18][19] Similarly, Genozip can encrypt FASTA files with AES-256 during compression.[15]","title":"FASTA file"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FASTQ format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTQ_format"},{"link_name":"Sanger Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanger_Centre"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fastq-3"},{"link_name":"sequence alignments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_alignment"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"FASTQ format is a form of FASTA format extended to indicate information related to sequencing. It is created by the Sanger Centre in Cambridge.[3]A2M/A3M are a family of FASTA-derived formats used for sequence alignments. In A2M/A3M sequences, lowercase characters are taken to mean insertions, which are then indicated in the other sequences as the dot (\".\") character. The dots can be discarded for compactness without loss of information. As with typical FASTA files used in alignments, the gap (\"-\") is taken to mean exactly one position.[20] A3M is similar to A2M, with the added rule that gaps aligned to insertions can too be discarded.[21]","title":"Extensions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FaBox-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galaxyserver-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tree2fasta-24"},{"link_name":"Bioconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioconductor"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phylodotfr-26"}],"text":"A plethora of user-friendly scripts are available from the community to perform FASTA file manipulations. Online toolboxes, such as FaBox[22] or the FASTX-Toolkit within Galaxy servers, are also available.[23] These can be used to segregate sequence headers/identifiers, rename them, shorten them, or extract sequences of interest from large FASTA files based on a list of wanted identifiers (among other available functions). A tree-based approach to sorting multi-FASTA files (TREE2FASTA[24]) also exists based on the coloring and/or annotation of sequences of interest in the FigTree viewer. Additionally, the Bioconductor Biostrings package can be used to read and manipulate FASTA files in R.[25]Several online format converters exist to rapidly reformat multi-FASTA files to different formats (e.g. NEXUS, PHYLIP) for use with different phylogenetic programs, such as the converter available on phylogeny.fr.[26]","title":"Working with FASTA files"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"FASTQ format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTQ_format"},{"title":"SAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAM_(file_format)"},{"title":"CRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRAM_(file_format)"},{"title":"GFF3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GFF3"}]
|
[{"reference":"Lipman DJ, Pearson WR (March 1985). \"Rapid and sensitive protein similarity searches\". Science. 227 (4693): 1435–41. Bibcode:1985Sci...227.1435L. doi:10.1126/science.2983426. PMID 2983426.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985Sci...227.1435L","url_text":"1985Sci...227.1435L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.2983426","url_text":"10.1126/science.2983426"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2983426","url_text":"2983426"}]},{"reference":"Pearson WR, Lipman DJ (April 1988). \"Improved tools for biological sequence comparison\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 85 (8): 2444–8. Bibcode:1988PNAS...85.2444P. doi:10.1073/pnas.85.8.2444. PMC 280013. PMID 3162770.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC280013","url_text":"\"Improved tools for biological sequence comparison\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PNAS...85.2444P","url_text":"1988PNAS...85.2444P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.85.8.2444","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.85.8.2444"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC280013","url_text":"280013"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3162770","url_text":"3162770"}]},{"reference":"Cock PJ, Fields CJ, Goto N, Heuer ML, Rice PM (April 2010). \"The Sanger FASTQ file format for sequences with quality scores, and the Solexa/Illumina FASTQ variants\". Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (6): 1767–71. doi:10.1093/nar/gkp1137. PMC 2847217. PMID 20015970.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2847217","url_text":"\"The Sanger FASTQ file format for sequences with quality scores, and the Solexa/Illumina FASTQ variants\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnar%2Fgkp1137","url_text":"10.1093/nar/gkp1137"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2847217","url_text":"2847217"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20015970","url_text":"20015970"}]},{"reference":"\"What is FASTA format?\". Zhang Lab. Archived from the original on 2022-12-04. 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PMID 29506565.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5838971","url_text":"\"TREE2FASTA: a flexible Perl script for batch extraction of FASTA sequences from exploratory phylogenetic trees\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13104-018-3268-y","url_text":"10.1186/s13104-018-3268-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5838971","url_text":"5838971"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29506565","url_text":"29506565"}]},{"reference":"Pagès, H; Aboyoun, P; Gentleman, R; DebRoy, S (2018). \"Biostrings: Efficient manipulation of biological strings\". Bioconductor.org. R package version 2.48.0. doi:10.18129/B9.bioc.Biostrings.","urls":[{"url":"https://bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/Biostrings.html","url_text":"\"Biostrings: Efficient manipulation of biological strings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.18129%2FB9.bioc.Biostrings","url_text":"10.18129/B9.bioc.Biostrings"}]},{"reference":"Dereeper A, Guignon V, Blanc G, Audic S, Buffet S, Chevenet F, Dufayard JF, Guindon S, Lefort V, Lescot M, Claverie JM, Gascuel O (July 2008). \"Phylogeny.fr: robust phylogenetic analysis for the non-specialist\". Nucleic Acids Research. 36 (Web Server issue): W465–9. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn180. PMC 2447785. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin_Shunshin
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Chin Shunshin
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["1 Major works","2 Awards","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
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Taiwanese and Japanese novelist, translator and cultural critic (1924–2015)
Chen SunchenNative name陳 舜臣Born(1924-02-18)18 February 1924Kobe, JapanDied21 January 2015(2015-01-21) (aged 90)Kobe, JapanOccupationwriter, criticNationalityTaiwan, Japan (1990 ~)Genrenovels, cultural criticsNotable awards
Naoki Prize
Yoshikawa Eiji Prize for Literature
In this Chinese name, the family name is Chen.
Chin Shunshin or Chen Shunchen (陳 舜臣) (18 February 1924 – 21 January 2015) was a Taiwanese and Japanese novelist, translator and cultural critic. He is best known for his historical fictions and mystery novels based on Chinese and Asian history, including First Opium War, Chinese History, Ryukyu Wind. He won numerous literary awards, including the Yoshikawa Eiji Prize for Literature and the Naoki Prize.
Major works
Roots of Dried Grass (枯草の根)
House Three Colors - Showa Treasure Mysteries (三色の家), Fusosha
The Sapphire Lion Incense Burner (青玉獅子香炉)
Chinese History (中国の歴史)
Ryukyu Wind (琉球の風)
Genghis Khan's Family (チンギス・ハーンの一族)
The Taiping Rebellion. Translated by Joshua A. Fogel. orig. Taihei Tengoku. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. 2001. ISBN 0765601001.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
Awards
The 23rd Mystery Writers of Japan Award
The 7th Edogawa Rampo Prize in 1961 for 枯草の根
The 60th Naoki Prize (1968下) for The Sapphire Lion Incense Burner
The 26th Yoshikawa Eiji Prize for Literature (1992) for Shokatsu Kōmei (諸葛孔明)
See also
Novels portal
Ryōtarō Shiba
Japanese literature
List of Japanese authors
References
^ "小説家の陳舜臣さん 死去". 21 January 2015. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
^ "전세계 지성인들의 삶을 전하는 문학사상사". Archived from the original on 2012-07-15. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
^ "直木賞受賞者一覧" (in Japanese). 日本文学振興会. Retrieved September 13, 2018.
^ "吉川英治文学賞過去受賞作" (in Japanese). Kodansha. Archived from the original on July 22, 2018. Retrieved September 13, 2018.
External links
INTERVIEW/ Chin Shunshin: History is invariably written by conquerors at Asahi Shimbun
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Latvia
Japan
Australia
Korea
2
Netherlands
Poland
Academics
CiNii
People
Trove
Other
IdRef
This article about a Chinese writer or poet is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about a Japanese writer, poet, or screenwriter is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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[]
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[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_collection.jpg"},{"title":"Novels portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Novels"},{"title":"Ryōtarō Shiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dtar%C5%8D_Shiba"},{"title":"Japanese literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_literature"},{"title":"List of Japanese authors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_authors"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Award_for_Best_Young_Adult_Book
|
Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book
|
["1 Winners","2 References","3 External links"]
|
Winners of the Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book, awarded by the Locus magazine. Awards presented in a given year are for works published in the previous calendar year.
The award for Best Young Adult Book was first presented in 2003, and is among the awards still presented.
Winners
Winners are as follows:
Year
Novel
Author
Ref.
2003
Coraline
Neil Gaiman
2004
The Wee Free Men
Terry Pratchett
2005
A Hat Full of Sky
Terry Pratchett
2006
Pay the Piper: A Rock 'N' Roll Fairy Tale
Jane Yolen and Adam Stemple
2007
Wintersmith
Terry Pratchett
2008
Un Lun Dun
China Miéville
2009
The Graveyard Book
Neil Gaiman
2010
Leviathan
Scott Westerfeld
2011
Ship Breaker
Paolo Bacigalupi
2012
The Girl Who Circumnavigated Fairyland in a Ship of Her Own Making
Catherynne M. Valente
2013
Railsea
China Miéville
2014
The Girl Who Soared Over Fairyland and Cut the Moon in Two
Catherynne M. Valente
2015
Half a King
Joe Abercrombie
2016
The Shepherd's Crown
Terry Pratchett
2017
Revenger
Alastair Reynolds
2018
Akata Warrior
Nnedi Okorafor
2019
Dread Nation
Justina Ireland
2020
Dragon Pearl
Yoon Ha Lee
2021
A Wizard's Guide to Defensive Baking
T. Kingfisher
2022
Victories Greater Than Death
Charlie Jane Anders
2023
Dreams Bigger Than Heartbreak
Charlie Jane Anders
References
^ "Locus YA Award Winners & Nominees". Worlds Without End. Archived from the original on 2015-03-22. Retrieved 2015-03-04.
^ "Awards: Locus; John W. Campbell; Frank O'Connor Shortlist". Shelf Awareness. 2009-06-30. Archived from the original on 2017-10-02. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ "Awards: Trillium Book Awards; Locus Awards". Shelf Awareness. 2010-06-28. Archived from the original on 2017-10-02. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ "Awards: Locus Winners". Shelf Awareness. 2011-06-27. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ "Awards: Locus Winners; Guardian Children's Fiction". Shelf Awareness. 2014-06-30. Archived from the original on 2023-03-20. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ "Awards: Locus; Guardian & 4th Estate BAME". Shelf Awareness. 2016-06-28. Archived from the original on 2022-08-15. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2017". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-18. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ Tor.com (2017-06-25). "Announcing the 2017 Locus Awards Winners". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "2017 Locus Award Winners Announced". LITSTACK. 2017-06-26. Archived from the original on 2022-05-20. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ locusmag (2018-06-23). "2018 Locus Awards Winners". Locus Online. Archived from the original on 2023-05-09. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2018". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-24. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ Tor.com (2018-06-23). "Announcing the 2018 Locus Awards Winners". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-16. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2019". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-15. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ Tor.com (2019-06-29). "Announcing the 2019 Locus Award Winners". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-18. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "Awards: Locus Winners; Branford Boase Winner". Shelf Awareness. 2019-07-02. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2024-04-17.
^ locusmag (2020-07-04). "2020 Locus Awards Winners". Locus Online. Archived from the original on 2020-06-29. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2020". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-07. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ Liptak, Andrew (2020-06-27). "Announcing the 2020 Locus Awards Winners". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-08-18. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ locusmag (2021-06-26). "2021 Locus Awards Winners". Locus Online. Archived from the original on 2021-06-26. Retrieved 2021-08-18.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2021". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-07. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ Templeton, Molly (2021-06-26). "Announcing the 2021 Locus Awards Winners". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-05-16. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "2022 Locus Awards Winners". Locus Online. 2022-06-25. Archived from the original on 2022-07-17. Retrieved 2022-06-26.
^ Armstrong, Vanessa (2022-05-11). "Here Are the Finalists for the 2022 Locus Awards". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
^ "2022 Locus Awards Announced". LITSTACK. 2022-06-27. Archived from the original on 2022-07-14. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
Children and Young Adult Literature portal
External links
Graphical listing of awards and nominees with excerpts and synopses—Worlds Without End
Official Locus Awards page
vteLocus Award for Best Young Adult Book2000s
Coraline by Neil Gaiman (2003)
The Wee Free Men by Terry Pratchett (2004)
A Hat Full of Sky by Terry Pratchett (2005)
Pay the Piper by Jane Yolen & Adam Stemple (2006)
Wintersmith by Terry Pratchett (2007)
Un Lun Dun by China Miéville (2008)
The Graveyard Book by Neil Gaiman (2009)
2010s
Leviathan by Scott Westerfeld (2010)
Ship Breaker by Paolo Bacigalupi (2011)
The Girl Who Circumnavigated Fairyland in a Ship of Her Own Making by Catherynne M. Valente (2012)
Railsea by China Miéville (2013)
The Girl Who Soared Over Fairyland and Cut the Moon in Two by Catherynne M. Valente (2014)
Half a King by Joe Abercrombie (2015)
The Shepherd's Crown by Terry Pratchett (2016)
Revenger by Alastair Reynolds (2017)
Akata Warrior by Nnedi Okorafor (2018)
Dread Nation by Justina Ireland (2019)
2020s
Dragon Pearl by Yoon Ha Lee (2020)
A Wizard's Guide to Defensive Baking by T. Kingfisher (2021)
Victories Greater Than Death by Charlie Jane Anders (2022)
Dreams Bigger Than Heartbreak by Charlie Jane Anders (2023)
Best Novel (1971–1981)
Best SF Novel (1980–present)
Best Fantasy Novel (1978–present)
Best First Novel (1981–present)
Best Horror Novel (1989–1997, 1999, 2017–present)
Best Young Adult Book (2003–present)
Best Novella (1973–present)
Best Novelette (1975–present)
Best Short Story (1971–present)
vteLocus AwardNovels
Novel
Science Fiction Novel
Fantasy Novel
Horror Novel
First Novel
Young Adult Book
Other
Novella
Novelette
Short Story
|
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[]
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Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://locusmag.com/2018/06/2018-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"\"2018 Locus Awards Winners\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230509005826/https://locusmag.com/2018/06/2018-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2018\". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-24. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2018","url_text":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2018\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220724042047/https://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2018","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tor.com (2018-06-23). \"Announcing the 2018 Locus Awards Winners\". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-16. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tor.com/2018/06/23/announcing-the-2018-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"\"Announcing the 2018 Locus Awards Winners\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180816130221/https://www.tor.com/2018/06/23/announcing-the-2018-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2019\". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-15. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2019","url_text":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2019\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220715214506/http://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2019","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tor.com (2019-06-29). \"Announcing the 2019 Locus Award Winners\". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-18. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tor.com/2019/06/29/announcing-the-2019-locus-award-winners/","url_text":"\"Announcing the 2019 Locus Award Winners\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220718121114/https://www.tor.com/2019/06/29/announcing-the-2019-locus-award-winners/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Awards: Locus Winners; Branford Boase Winner\". Shelf Awareness. 2019-07-02. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2024-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.shelf-awareness.com/issue.html?issue=3528","url_text":"\"Awards: Locus Winners; Branford Boase Winner\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelf_Awareness","url_text":"Shelf Awareness"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210419183231/https://www.shelf-awareness.com/issue.html?issue=3528","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"locusmag (2020-07-04). \"2020 Locus Awards Winners\". Locus Online. Archived from the original on 2020-06-29. Retrieved 2020-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://locusmag.com/2020/06/locus-awards-winners-2020/","url_text":"\"2020 Locus Awards Winners\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200629152930/https://locusmag.com/2020/06/locus-awards-winners-2020/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2020\". www.sfadb.com. Archived from the original on 2022-07-07. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2020","url_text":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2020\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220707071523/https://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2020","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Liptak, Andrew (2020-06-27). \"Announcing the 2020 Locus Awards Winners\". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-08-18. 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Retrieved 2022-06-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://locusmag.com/2022/06/2022-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"\"2022 Locus Awards Winners\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220717134614/https://locusmag.com/2022/06/2022-locus-awards-winners/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Armstrong, Vanessa (2022-05-11). \"Here Are the Finalists for the 2022 Locus Awards\". Tor.com. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12. Retrieved 2022-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tor.com/2022/05/11/finalists-2022-locus-awards/","url_text":"\"Here Are the Finalists for the 2022 Locus Awards\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220512000714/https://www.tor.com/2022/05/11/finalists-2022-locus-awards/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2022 Locus Awards Announced\". LITSTACK. 2022-06-27. Archived from the original on 2022-07-14. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty
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Idrisid dynasty
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["1 History","1.1 Founders of the Idrisid state: Idris I and Idris II","1.2 The successors of Idris II","1.3 Decline and fall","2 Religion","3 Legacy","4 The dynasty","4.1 Rulers","4.2 Genealogical chart","4.3 Timeline","5 See also","6 Notes and references","7 Sources","8 External links"]
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788–974 Arab dynasty ruling Morocco
For the dynasty that ruled Asir, see Idrisid Emirate of Asir.
Idrisid dynastyالأدارسة788–974Idrisid state, around 820 CE, showing its maximal extent.CapitalWalilli (788–808) Fez (808–927) Hajar an-Nasar (927–985)Common languagesArabic, Berber languagesReligion Islam – Sunni or Zaydi Shia (disputed)GovernmentHereditary monarchyEmir • 788–791 Idris I• 954–974 Al-Hasan ibn al-Qasim
Historical eraMedieval• Established 788• Disestablished 974
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Berber revolt
Zenata kingdoms
Caliphate of Córdoba
Part of a series on the
History of Morocco
Prehistory
Acheulean
Mousterian
Aterian
Iberomaurusian
Capsian
Classical to Late Antiquity(8th century BC – 7th century AD)
Carthaginian
Roman
Mauretania
Mauretania Tingitana
Exarchate of Africa
Early Islamic(8th–10th century AD)
Muslim conquest
Umayyad Caliphate
Berber Revolt
Emirate of Nekor
Emirate of Sijilmasa
Barghwata confederacy
Idrisid dynasty
Territorial fragmentation(10th–11th century AD)
Caliphate of Córdoba
Fatimid Caliphate
Ifranids
Miknasas
Maghrawas
Empire(beginning 11th century AD)
Almoravids
Almohads
Marinids
Wattasids
Saadis
Alawis
other political entities
Zawiya Dila'iya
Principality of Debdou
Republic of Salé
Decline(beginning 19th century AD)
Franco-Moroccan War
Anglo-Moroccan Treaty of 1856
Hispano-Moroccan War
Protégé system
Treaty of Wad Ras
Treaty of Madrid
Tangier Crisis
Treaty of Algeciras
Agadir Crisis
Hafidiya
Bombardment of Casablanca (1907)
French conquest of Morocco
Protectorate(1912–56)
Treaty of Fez
French protectorate
Spanish protectorate
French Conquest
Zaian War
Rif War
Tangier Protocol
Tangier International Zone
Opposition to European control
Revolution of the King and the People
Modern(1956–present)
Ifni War
Sand War
Moroccanization
Coup d'état attempt in 1971 / in 1972
Moulay Bouazza plot
Years of lead
Madrid Accords
Green March
Western Sahara conflict
2011–2012 protests
Hirak Rif Movement
Abraham Accords
Related topics
Morocco in the1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
History by topic
Jewish
Economic
Military
Postal
Imperial cities
Morocco portal History portalvte
Historical Arab states and dynasties
Ancient Arab states Kingdom of Qedar 800 BC–300 BC Kingdom of Lihyan 600 BC–100 BC Nabataean Kingdom 400 BC–106 AD Kingdom of Osroene 132 BC–244 AD Emesene Dynasty 64 BC–300s AD Kingdom of Hatra 100s–241 AD Tanukhids 196–1100 AD Ghassanids 220–638 AD Salihids 300s–500s AD Lakhmids 300s–602 AD Kingdom of Kinda 450 AD–550 AD
Arab empires and caliphates Rashidun 632–661 Umayyads 661–750 Abbasids 750–1258 Fatimids 909–1171
Eastern dynasties Emirate of Armenia 654–884 Emirate of Tbilisi 736–1122 Emirate of Crete 824–961 Dulafids 840–897 Habbarids 854–1011 Kaysites 860–964 Shirvanshah 861–1538 Alavids 864–928 Hamdanids 890–1004 Rawadids 955–1071 Mazyadids 961–1150 Jarrahids 970–1107 Uqaylids 990–1096 Numayrids 990–1081 Mirdasids 1024–1080 Munqidhites 1025–1157 Ma'nids 1517–1697 Turabays 1480–1677 Harfushs 1517–1865 Shihabs 1697–1842
Western dynasties and caliphates Salihids710–1019 Umayyads of Córdoba756–929 Muhallabids771–793 Idrisids788–974 Aghlabids800–909 Sulaymanids814–922 Muslim Sicily831–1091 Caliphate of Córdoba929–1031 Kanzids1004–1412 Bakrids1012–1051 Tujibids1013–1039 Amirids1020–1086 Abbadids1023–1091 Yahsubids1023–1062 Hammudids1026–1057 Muzaynids1027–1063 Jawharids1031–1091 Hudids1039–1110 Sumadihids1041–1091 Tahirids1049–1078 Nasrids1230–1492 Saadids1554–1659 Senussids1837–1969
Arabian Peninsula Imamate of Oman 751–1970 Ziyadids 819–1138 Yufirids 847–997 Ukhaidhirds 865–1066 Rassids 897–1962 Qarmatians 899–1077 Wajihids 926–965 Sharifate of Mecca 968–1925 Sulayhids 1047–1138 Sulaymanids 1063–1174 Uyunids 1076–1253 Zurayids 1083–1174 Nabhanids 1154–1624 Mahdids 1159–1174 Rasulids 1229–1454 Usfurids 1253–1320 Jarwanids 1305–1487 Kathirids 1395–1967 Tahirids 1454–1526 Jabrids 1463–1521 Qasimids 1597–1872 Ya'arubids 1624–1742 Upper Yafa 1800–1967 Muscat and Oman 1820–1970 Rashidids 1836–1921 Qu'aitids 1858–1967 Emirate of Beihan 1903–1967 Idrisids 1906–1934 Mutawakkilite Kingdom 1926–1970
East Africa Makhzumi dynasty (Shewa) 896–1279 Nabahani dynasty (Pate Island) 1203–1894 Mahdali dynasty (Kilwa) 1277–1495 Mazrui dynasty (Mombasa) 1746–1828 Sultanate of Zanzibar 1856–1964 Nabahani dynasty (Wituland) 1858–1895 Tippu Tip's State 1860–1887
Current monarchies 'Alawis (Morocco) 1631–present Al Qasimi (Ras al Khaymah) 1727–present Al Qasimi (Sharjah) 1727–present Al Saud (Saudi Arabia) 1744–present Al Said (Oman) 1749–present Al Sabah (Kuwait) 1752–present Al Nahyan (Abu Dhabi) 1761–present Al Mualla (Umm al-Quwain) 1775–present Al Khalifa (Bahrain) 1783–present Al Nuaimi (Ajman) 1810–present Al Maktoum (Dubai) 1833–present Al Thani (Qatar) 1868–present Al Sharqi (Fujairah) 1900–present Hashemites (Jordan) 1921–present
vte
The Idrisid dynasty or Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Adārisah) were an Arab Muslim dynasty from 788 to 974, ruling most of present-day Morocco and parts of present-day western Algeria. Named after the founder, Idris I, the Idrisids were an Alid dynasty descended from Muhammad through his grandson Hasan. The Idrisids are traditionally considered to be the founders of the first Moroccan state, setting the stage for subsequent dynasties and states centered in this region. Their reign played an important role in the early Islamization of Morocco and also presided over an increase in Arab immigration and Arabization in major urban centers.: 52 : 83–84
Fleeing the Abbasid Caliphate to the east in the aftermath of the Battle of Fakhkh, Idris I first established himself in 788 at Volubilis in present-day Morocco with the help of local Berber allies. He and his son, Idris II, subsequently founded what became the city of Fez further east. Fez became the capital of an Idrisid state which ruled most of present-day Morocco and part of western Algeria. After Idris II's death, the realm was divided between his rival sons. After a period of conflict, the dynasty's authority resumed and remained relatively stable between 836 and 863. In the late 9th century, however, they faced repeated challenges and local opposition. In the 10th century the region came under the political domination of Zenata tribes who fought proxy battles on behalf of two rival powers in the region, the Fatimid Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba. The Idrisids were definitively expelled from Fez in 927, but held onto to a reduced territory in the north of Morocco from their base at Hajar an-Nasr. They were finally defeated and removed from power in 974, and a brief attempt to regain power in 985 also failed.
History
Founders of the Idrisid state: Idris I and Idris II
By the second half of the 8th century the westernmost regions of the Maghreb, including present-day Morocco, had been effectively independent of the Umayyad Caliphate since the Khariji-led Berber revolts that started in 739–40. The Abbasid Caliphate after 750 had no more success in re-establishing control over Morocco.: 41 The overthrow of eastern authority meant that Morocco was controlled by various local Berber tribes and principalities which emerged around this time, such as the Barghwata Confederacy on the Atlantic coast and the Midrarid Emirate in Sijilmasa.
The founder of the Idrisid dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib (died 661) and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He was the great-grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali.: 81 After the Battle of Fakhkh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and supporters of the descendants of Muhammad, Idris ibn Abdallah fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, the most important city of Morocco at the time, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis (known as Walili in Arabic).: 51
The powerful Awraba Berbers of Volubilis took in Idris and made him their 'imam' (religious leader).: 51 : 81 The Awraba tribe had supported Kusayla in his struggle against the Ummayad armies in the 670s and 680s. By the second half of the 8th century they had settled in northern Morocco, where their leader Ishak had his base in the Roman town of Volubilis. By this time the Awraba were already Muslim, but lived in an area where most tribes were either Christian, Jewish, Khariji or pagan. The Awraba seem to have welcomed a Sharifi imam as a way to strengthen their political position. Idris I, who was very active in the political organization of the Awraba, began by asserting his authority and working toward the subjugation of the Christian and Jewish tribes. In 789 he founded a settlement south east of Volubilis, called Medinat Fas. In 791 Idris I was poisoned and killed by an Abbasid agent. Even though he left no male heir, shortly after his death, his wife Lalla Kanza bint Uqba al-Awrabi, bore him his only son and successor, Idris II. Idris' loyal Arab ex-slave and companion Rashid brought up the boy and took on himself the regency of the state, on behalf of the Awraba. In 801 Rashid was killed by the Abbasids. In the following year, at the age of 11 years, Idris II was proclaimed imam by the Awraba.: 51
Even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west as Tlemcen, Idris I had been completely dependent on the Awraba leadership. Idris II began his rule with the weakening of Awraba power by welcoming Arab settlers in Walili and by appointing two Arabs as his vizier and qadi. Thus he transformed himself from a protégé of the Awraba into their sovereign. The Awraba leader Ishak responded by plotting against his life with the Aghlabids of Tunisia. Idris reacted by having his former protector Ishak killed, and in 809 moved his seat of government from the Awraba dominated Walili to Fes, where he founded a new settlement named Al-'Aliya. Idris II (791–828) developed the city of Fez, established earlier by his father as a Berber market town. Here he welcomed two waves of Arab immigration: one in 818 from Cordoba and another in 824 from Aghlabid Tunisia, giving Fes a more Arab character than other Maghrebi cities. When Idris II died in 828, the Idrisid state spanned from western Algeria to the Sous in southern Morocco and had become the leading state of Morocco, ahead of the principalities of Sijilmasa, Barghawata and Nekor which remained outside their control.: 51–52 : 86
The successors of Idris II
The dynasty's power would slowly decline following Idris II's death. Under his son and successor Muhammad (828–836) the kingdom was divided amongst seven of his brothers, whereby eight Idrisid statelets formed in Morocco and western Algeria. Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with only nominal power over his brothers. His brother Al-Qasim ruled Tangier and its surroundings. 'Umar ruled over the Sanhaja and the Ghumara in the Rif region. Isa was given control of the coastal Tamesna regions near the Bou Regreg, including Shallah (Chellah), and was based at Wazeqqūr (a town near modern-day Khenifra). Yahya was given Hiṣn Daī (a site probably near modern Beni Mellal). Hamza was given Walili. 'Ubayd Allah (or 'Abd Allah) was given the south, including the territory of the Lamta tribes and a town named Tamdult. Agadir (later Tlemcen) was left under the control of Muhammad Ibn Sulayman, Idris II's cousin and the son of Sulayman, the brother of Idris I whom the latter had left in charge of the city, constituting the Sulaymanid dynasty.
Soon after this territorial division Isa revolted against his brother Muhammad. Muhammad entrusted his other brother Umar to punish him. Umar successfully drove Isa from power, who was forced to take refuge in Chellah. Umar then turned north to punish his other brother, al-Qasim, because the latter had refused to join him and Muhammad against Isa. Al-Qasim fled to Asilah and settled nearby, while Muhammad gave Umar governorship of Tangier as a reward. Upon Umar's death in September or October 835 his son Ali ibn Umar was granted all of his father's domains in turn. Muhammad himself died seven months later in the March or April 836. His son Ali ibn Muhammad inherited his position and ruled for 13 years (836–849) in a competent manner, ensuring the stability of the state. After his death in 849 he was succeeded by his brother Yahya ibn Muhammad (or Yahya I), who also enjoyed a peaceful reign.Idrisid dirham, minted at al-'Aliyah (Fes), Morocco, 840 CE. The coin features the name of Ali: a son-in-law of Muhammad, the fourth Caliph, and an ancestor of the Idrisids.During this time Islamic and Arabic culture gained a stronghold in the towns and Morocco profited from the trans-Saharan trade, which came to be dominated by Muslim (mostly Berber) traders. The city of Fes also flourished and became an important religious center.: 52 During Yahya's reign more Arab immigrants arrived and the famous mosques of al-Qarawiyyin and al-Andalusiyyin were founded. Even so, the Islamic and Arabic culture only made its influence felt in the towns, with the vast majority of Morocco's population still using the Berber languages and often adhering to Islamic heterodox and heretical doctrines. The Idrisids were principally rulers of the towns and had little power over the majority of the country's population.: 52
Decline and fall
After the death of Yahya I in 863 he was succeeded by his less competent son, Yahya II, who divided up the Idrisid realm yet again among the extended families. Yahya II died in uncertain circumstances in 866 after fleeing his palace. After an episode of disorder in Fes his cousin Ali ibn Umar took over power. In 868, under the leadership of the Abd al-Razzaq the Berber Khariji Sufri tribes of Madyuna, Ghayata and Miknasa of the Fes region formed a common front against the Idrisids. From their base in Sefrou they were able to defeat Ali ibn Umar and occupy Fes. Fes refused to submit, however, and another Yahya, the son of al-Qasim, was able to retake the city and establish himself as the new ruler, Yahya III. Thus the ruling line had passed from the sons of Muhammad to the son of Umar and now the sons of al-Qasim.: 52
Yahya III ruled over the entire Idrisid realm and continued to attack the Sufris. In 905 however he died in battle against another family member, Yahya ibn Idris ibn Umar (a grandson of Umar), who then took power as Yahya IV. At this point, however, the Fatimids in the east began to intervene in Morocco, hoping to expand their influence. In 917 the Miknasa and its leader Masala ibn Habus, acting on behalf of their Fatimid allies, attacked Fes and forced Yahya IV to recognize Fatimid suzerainty, before deposing him in 919 or 921.: 63 He was succeeded by his cousin Musa ibn Abul 'Afiya, who had already been given charge over the rest of the country. The Idrisid Hassan I al-Hajam, a grandson of al-Qasim, managed to wrest control of Fez from 925 but in 927 Musa returned, captured Hassan and killed him, marking the last time the Idrisids held power in Fes.
From Fes, the Miknasa began pursuing the Idrisid family across Morocco. The family took refuge at the fortress of Hajar an-Nasr in northern Morocco, where the Miknasa besieged them. Soon after, however, civil war broke out among the Miknasa when Musa switched allegiance to the Umayyads of Cordoba in 931 in an attempt to gain more independence. The Fatimids sent Humayd ibn Yasal (or Hamid), the nephew of Masala ibn Habus, to confront Musa, defeating him in 933 and forcing him to fall back into line.: 63 The Idrisids took advantage of the situation to break the siege of their fortress and defeat the Mikanasa Zenata troops. Once the Fatimids were gone, however, Musa once again threw off their authority and recognized the Umayyad caliph. The Fatimids sent their general Maysur to confront him again, and this time he fled. He was pursued and killed by the Idrisids.
After this Idrisids settled among the Jbala tribes in the Rif region of north-west Morocco where they partially rebuilt their power base from Hajar an-Nasr, alternately acknowledging either the Umayyads of Cordoba (under Abd ar-Rahman III) or the Fatimids as overlords. Al-Qasim al-Gannun ibn Muhammad ruled here from 938 until 948 in the name of the Fatimids. His son and successor, Ahmad, known as Abul-'Aysh, recognized the Umayyads instead but ran afoul of them when he refused to let them occupy Tangier. He was besieged there and forced to retreat, retaining only the areas around al-Basra and Asilah while the Umayyads occupied the rest of northern Morocco. He eventually left for Al-Andalus, leaving his brother Hasan ibn al-Qasim al-Gannun as the new leader in 954. In 958 the Fatimids sent a new general, Jawhar, to invade Morocco. His success forced the Idrisids to again accept Fatimid overlordship.: 75 Soon afterwards, however, when Jawhar and the Fatimids were busy taking control of Egypt, the Umayyads made a comeback. In 973 their general, Ghalib, invaded Morocco. The Idrisids were expelled from their territories and al-Hasan, along with many other Idrisids or their sons, were taken as hostages to Cordoba in 974. The remaining Idrisids in Morocco acknowledged Umayyad rule. Al-Hasan was later expelled from Cordoba and fled to Egypt, which was now under Fatimid rule. In 979 Buluggin ibn Ziri, the Fatimid governor of Ifriqiya (after the Fatimid Caliphs had their capital to Cairo), returned to defeat the Umayyads and impose Fatimid overlordship in the western Maghreb again. In 985 he returned to Morocco with Fatimid support, but that same year he was defeated by another Umayyad general sent by al-Mansur and then assassinated on the way to Cordoba. This brought a final end to the Idrisid dynasty. The Umayyads kept control over northern Morocco until their caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century. Following this, Morocco was dominated by various Zenata Berber tribes.: 91 : 82 Until the rise of the Sanhaja Almoravids later in the century, the Maghrawa controlled Fes, Sijilmasa and Aghmat while the Banu Ifran ruled over Tlemcen, Salé (Chellah), and the Tadla region.: 91
Religion
According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "although Idrīs I had Shīʿite sympathies, the state founded by his son was Sunni in matters of religious doctrine." Primary source material and contemporary scholars have described them as a Sunni Muslim dynasty.: 50 Certain contemporary academics have described them as Shi'a or Zaydi Shi'a to one extent or another, most likely because of their political affiliation. The Idrisids were political opponents of the Abbasid Caliphate. Others have criticized this claim for conflating Shia theology with a political movement in a historical period where there was no Shia theology distinct from Sunni theology in this area as of yet. Amira Bennison argues that Idrisid coinage suggests that Idris I portrayed himself as a religious leader whose legitimacy was based on his descent from Muhammad, which Bennison describes as a "proto-Shi'i or 'Alid position."
The Awraba Berbers who welcomed Idris I in Volubilis were Muʿtazila and Idris relied widely on the support of Muʿtazila Berber tribes to found his state. He is also likely to have had ties to Muʿtazila figures in the Hijaz and further east, as he was accompanied on his journey to the Maghreb by a Muʿtazila khatib from Basra who aided him in gaining the support of the tribes. It is unclear, however, to what extent the community he established was Muʿtazila in character.
Legacy
Despite having fallen from power, the Idrisids spawned many sharifian families which continued to be present for centuries to come. Some Moroccans today still claim descent from them. In the 11th century, an Idrisid family descended from Umar (son of Idris II), the Hammudids, were able to gain power in several cities of northern Morocco and southern Spain.
In Fes and in the town of Moulay Idriss (near Volubilis), the tombs of Idris II and Idris I, respectively, eventually developed into important religious complexes and pilgrimage sites, like the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II. Several prominent sharifian families in Fez traced their lineages to Idris I,: 488 and some of these played a role in maintaining or rebuilding the Zawiya of Idris II in the city.
The Idrisid period also played an important role in the Islamization of the region, particularly in the spread of Islam to the Berber tribes that occupied the interior territories of present-day Morocco, outside the northern coastal regions where the earliest Muslim presence was initially concentrated.: 52 : 84 The new city of Fes also became a center of Arabization that spread to some of the surrounding Berber tribes in the area.: 84 Idrisid towns also formed a part of the wider trade network that linked the Maghreb with the Sahara and the Sudan region (south of the Sahara). This trade network and the Muslim merchants who came to dominate it in the 9th century were important in turn to the Islamization of the Sudan.: 52
The Idrisid state set a precedent for Sharifian rule, which inspired the rise of Sharifism in Morocco during the 15th century and which is maintained by the present-day ruling dynasty of Morocco, the 'Alawis. From the 14th century, local writers began to portray the Idrisids as the starting point of an Islamic Maghrib al-Aqsa ("Furthest West", corresponding to present-day Morocco).: 81 Both the Marinid dynasty (13th–15th centuries) and the Wattasid dynasty (15th–16th centuries) attempted at times to associate themselves with the Idrisid dynasty as a way to legitimize their own rule. The Rawd al-Qirtas, written by Ibn Abi Zar in the 14th century, is one of the best-known chronicles of this period and promoted the idea of continuity between Idrisid rule and contemporary Marinid rule, while at the same time downplaying the potential Shi'a character of Idris I. In the national narratives of modern Morocco, the Idrisids are often portrayed as the first Moroccan dynasty and as the start of an uninterrupted tradition of monarchy to the present day.: 81
The dynasty
Rulers
Idris I – (788–791)
Idris II – (791–828)
Muhammad ibn Idris – (828–836)
Ali (I) ibn Muhammad – (836–849)
Yahya (I) ibn Muhammad – (849–863)
Yahya (II) ibn Yahya – (863–866)
Ali (II) ibn Umar – (866–?)
Yahya (III) ibn al-Qasim – (?–905)
Yahya (IV) ibn Idris – (905–919 or 921): 63
Miknasa control on behalf of the Fatimids – (919–925)
Al-Hajjam al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Qasim – (925–927), last Idrisid ruler in Fes
Idrisid rule in northern Morocco:
Al-Qasim Gannun – (938–948)
Abul-Aish Ahmad – (948–954)
Al-Hasan ibn al-Qasim – (954–974, 985)
Genealogical chart
vteFamily tree of the Idrisid dynasty
Prophet Muhammad
Ali al-MurtadaFatima al-Zahra
Hasan al-Mujtaba
Hasan al-Muthanna
Abdallah al-Kamil
Idris I al-Akbar (1)r. 788–791
Idris II (2)r. 803–828
Muhammad (3)r. 828–836Umaral-QasimDawud (8)r. c. 877
Ali I (4)r. 836–849Yahya I (5)r. 849–863Ali II (7)r. 866–unknownIdrisMuhammadYahya III (9)r. unknown–905
Yahya II (6)r. 863–866Yahya IV (10)r. 905–919/922Hasan I (11)r. 928–930al-Qasim (12)r. 937–949
Abu'l-Aysh (13)r. 949–952Hasan II (14)r. 952–974, 985
Hammudids
denotes ruling emirs, (1) denotes the sequence of rulershipSource: Benchekroun, Chafik T. (2018). "Idrīsids". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
Timeline
See also
Muhammad al-Idrisi (descendant of the Idrisid dynasty)
List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties
Notes and references
^ a b c d Eustache, D. (1971). "Idrīs I". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 1031. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492. OCLC 495469525.
^ Brett, Michael (2017). Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4744-2151-5.
^ Ali, Syed Nazim; Oseni, Umar A. (2021-11-29). Waqf Development and Innovation: Socio-Economic and Legal Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-48184-6.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337674.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI. Fayard.
^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780791418277. At this point, the rebels had control of all modern Morocco, most of which was not to see rule by the universal caliphate again.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Eustache, D. (1971). "Idrīsids". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1035–1037. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495. OCLC 495469525.
^ a b c d Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes; Moreno, Eduardo Manzano (1998). "Légitimité et villes idrissides". In Cressier, Patrice; Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes (eds.). Genèse de la ville islamique en al-Andalus et au Maghreb occidental (in French). Casa de Velázquez; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). pp. 257–284. ISBN 978-84-00-07766-2.
^ Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar (2006). "Beni Mellal". Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Scarecrow Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8108-6511-2.
^ Brett, Michael (1978). "The Arab conquest and the rise of Islam in North Africa". In Fage, J. D. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.
^ "Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum - object_ISL_ma_Mus01_F_2_en". islamicart.museumwnf.org. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
^ a b c d e f g h i Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). "The Idrisids". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748621378.
^ "North Africa - The Rustamid state of Tāhart". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-19.
^ Al-Bayan Al-Maghreb (Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, 13th century), Vol.1, p.118 (Arabic - Dr. Bashar A. Marouf & Mahmoud B. Awad, 2013)
^ Tarikh al-Tabari (Al-Tabari, 9th century) – English translation: The History of al-Tabari vol.26, p.37-38
^ Meis Al-Kaisi, "The Development of Politico-Religious Movements: A General Overview", Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, ed. Imed Nsiri, (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019), 124.Ludwig W. Adamec, The Historical Dictionary of Islam, page 145, "Idrisid Dynasty (788-985). First Shi'ite dynasty in Islamic history, founded by Idris ibn Abdullah....".C.E. BosworthThe New Islamic Dynasties, page 25, "The Idrisids were the first dynasty who attempted to introduce the doctrines of Shi'ism, albeit in a very attenuated form, into the Maghrib...".Ignác Goldziher and Bernard Lewis, Introduction to Islamic theology and law, Princeton University Press (1981), p. 218Mara A. Leichtman, Shi'i Cosmopolitanisms in Africa: Lebanese Migration and Religious Conversion in Senegal, page 216;"Senegalese Shi'a also refer to the spread of Shi'i Islam to Senegal through the Idrisid dynasty and evidence of Shi'i roots in Morocco through 'Alaouis (Hydarah 2008:132-135). Cornell writes that Moulay Idris and his successors, descendants of the Prophet's grandson Hasan, brought with them to Morocco from the Arabian Peninsula "a form of archaic Shi'ism that was similar in many respects to Zaydism" (1998:200)."
^ Hillenbrand, Carole, ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-88706-810-2.
^ De Geschiedenis van Marokko & Noord-Afrika (Sofyan al Kandoussi, 2019), p.179 (Dutch history book on Morocco and North-Africa)
^ Bennison, Amira K. (2016). Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 233. ISBN 9780748646821.
^ a b c Ess, Josef van (2018). Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 4: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam. Brill. pp. 291–292. ISBN 978-90-04-38159-9.
^ "Qantara - The Idrisids (789- 974)". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
^ Huici Miranda, A. (1971). "Ḥammūdids". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 147. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685. OCLC 495469525.
^ Achouar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.
^ Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. pp. 123–131. ISBN 2723301591.
^ Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.
^ Mezzine, Mohamed. "Mulay Idris Mausoleum". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved January 6, 2018.
^ a b Stephen, Cory (2012). "Idris I". In Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates Jr., Henry Louis (eds.). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
^ Naylor, Phillip (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-292-76192-6.
^ Clancy-Smith, Julia (2013). North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-135-31213-8.
^ a b Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (2014). "Reformer le royaume idrisside : Fès et l'historiographie officielle mérinide". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne (in French). Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 452–454. ISBN 9782350314907.
^ Loimeier, Roman (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-253-00797-1.
Sources
Ibn Abi Zar, Rawd al-Qirtas (contains a chronicle of the dynasty).
Charles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, Payot 1994.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Idrisid dynasty.
External links
(in English) Y. Benhima, "The Idrisids (789- 974)" in qantara-med.org (2008)
(in French) C. El Briga, "Idrisides", in Encyclopédie berbère, vol.24 (Edisud 2001)
(in English) B. Duignan, "Idrīsid dynasty", in Encyclopædia Britannica (2007)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Idrisid Emirate of Asir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrisid_Emirate_of_Asir"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs"},{"link_name":"Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Idris I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_I_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Alid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alids"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Hasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Islamization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamization"},{"link_name":"Arabization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabization"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fakhkh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fakhkh"},{"link_name":"Volubilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volubilis"},{"link_name":"Berber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbers"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Zenata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenata"},{"link_name":"Fatimid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"Hajar an-Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajar_an-Nasar"}],"text":"For the dynasty that ruled Asir, see Idrisid Emirate of Asir.The Idrisid dynasty or Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Adārisah) were an Arab Muslim dynasty from 788 to 974, ruling most of present-day Morocco and parts of present-day western Algeria. Named after the founder, Idris I, the Idrisids were an Alid dynasty descended from Muhammad through his grandson Hasan.[1][2] The Idrisids are traditionally considered to be the founders of the first Moroccan state, setting the stage for subsequent dynasties and states centered in this region.[3] Their reign played an important role in the early Islamization of Morocco and also presided over an increase in Arab immigration and Arabization in major urban centers.[4]: 52 [5]: 83–84Fleeing the Abbasid Caliphate to the east in the aftermath of the Battle of Fakhkh, Idris I first established himself in 788 at Volubilis in present-day Morocco with the help of local Berber allies. He and his son, Idris II, subsequently founded what became the city of Fez further east. Fez became the capital of an Idrisid state which ruled most of present-day Morocco and part of western Algeria. After Idris II's death, the realm was divided between his rival sons. After a period of conflict, the dynasty's authority resumed and remained relatively stable between 836 and 863. In the late 9th century, however, they faced repeated challenges and local opposition. In the 10th century the region came under the political domination of Zenata tribes who fought proxy battles on behalf of two rival powers in the region, the Fatimid Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba. The Idrisids were definitively expelled from Fez in 927, but held onto to a reduced territory in the north of Morocco from their base at Hajar an-Nasr. They were finally defeated and removed from power in 974, and a brief attempt to regain power in 985 also failed.","title":"Idrisid dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maghreb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghreb"},{"link_name":"Umayyad Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Khariji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharijites"},{"link_name":"Berber revolts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_Revolt"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Abbasid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Barghwata Confederacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barghawata"},{"link_name":"Midrarid Emirate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrarid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Sijilmasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmasa"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Idris ibn Abdallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_ibn_Abdallah"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-1"},{"link_name":"Ali ibn Abi Talib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-1"},{"link_name":"Fatimah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimah"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Hasan ibn Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0523-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fakhkh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fakhkh"},{"link_name":"Mecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca"},{"link_name":"Abbasids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasids"},{"link_name":"Tangier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"},{"link_name":"Volubilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volubilis"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Awraba Berbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awraba"},{"link_name":"imam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Kusayla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusayla"},{"link_name":"Ummayad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummayad"},{"link_name":"Khariji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khariji"},{"link_name":"Medinat Fas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Abbasids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasids"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Tlemcen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlemcen"},{"link_name":"Aghlabids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aghlabids"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II_of_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Fez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fes"},{"link_name":"Aghlabid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aghlabid"},{"link_name":"Sous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sous"},{"link_name":"Sijilmasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmasa"},{"link_name":"Barghawata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barghawata"},{"link_name":"Nekor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"sub_title":"Founders of the Idrisid state: Idris I and Idris II","text":"By the second half of the 8th century the westernmost regions of the Maghreb, including present-day Morocco, had been effectively independent of the Umayyad Caliphate since the Khariji-led Berber revolts that started in 739–40.[4][6] The Abbasid Caliphate after 750 had no more success in re-establishing control over Morocco.[4]: 41 The overthrow of eastern authority meant that Morocco was controlled by various local Berber tribes and principalities which emerged around this time, such as the Barghwata Confederacy on the Atlantic coast and the Midrarid Emirate in Sijilmasa.[4][5]The founder of the Idrisid dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791),[1] who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib (died 661)[1] and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He was the great-grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali.[1][5]: 81 After the Battle of Fakhkh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and supporters of the descendants of Muhammad, Idris ibn Abdallah fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, the most important city of Morocco at the time, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis (known as Walili in Arabic).[4]: 51The powerful Awraba Berbers of Volubilis took in Idris and made him their 'imam' (religious leader).[4]: 51 [5]: 81 The Awraba tribe had supported Kusayla in his struggle against the Ummayad armies in the 670s and 680s. By the second half of the 8th century they had settled in northern Morocco, where their leader Ishak had his base in the Roman town of Volubilis. By this time the Awraba were already Muslim, but lived in an area where most tribes were either Christian, Jewish, Khariji or pagan. The Awraba seem to have welcomed a Sharifi imam as a way to strengthen their political position. Idris I, who was very active in the political organization of the Awraba, began by asserting his authority and working toward the subjugation of the Christian and Jewish tribes. In 789 he founded a settlement south east of Volubilis, called Medinat Fas. In 791 Idris I was poisoned and killed by an Abbasid agent. Even though he left no male heir, shortly after his death, his wife Lalla Kanza bint Uqba al-Awrabi, bore him his only son and successor, Idris II. Idris' loyal Arab ex-slave and companion Rashid brought up the boy and took on himself the regency of the state, on behalf of the Awraba. In 801 Rashid was killed by the Abbasids. In the following year, at the age of 11 years, Idris II was proclaimed imam by the Awraba.[4]: 51Even though he had spread his authority across much of northern Morocco, as far west as Tlemcen, Idris I had been completely dependent on the Awraba leadership. Idris II began his rule with the weakening of Awraba power by welcoming Arab settlers in Walili and by appointing two Arabs as his vizier and qadi. Thus he transformed himself from a protégé of the Awraba into their sovereign. The Awraba leader Ishak responded by plotting against his life with the Aghlabids of Tunisia. Idris reacted by having his former protector Ishak killed, and in 809 moved his seat of government from the Awraba dominated Walili to Fes, where he founded a new settlement named Al-'Aliya. Idris II (791–828) developed the city of Fez, established earlier by his father as a Berber market town. Here he welcomed two waves of Arab immigration: one in 818 from Cordoba and another in 824 from Aghlabid Tunisia, giving Fes a more Arab character than other Maghrebi cities. When Idris II died in 828, the Idrisid state spanned from western Algeria to the Sous in southern Morocco and had become the leading state of Morocco, ahead of the principalities of Sijilmasa, Barghawata and Nekor which remained outside their control.[4]: 51–52 [5]: 86","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Idris"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Tangier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"},{"link_name":"Ghumara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghomaras"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Tamesna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamasna"},{"link_name":"Bou Regreg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bou_Regreg"},{"link_name":"Shallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chellah"},{"link_name":"Khenifra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khenifra"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"Beni Mellal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_Mellal"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Tamdult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamdoult"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"Sulayman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulyaman_I_of_Tlemcen"},{"link_name":"Sulaymanid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulaymanid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Asilah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilah"},{"link_name":"Ali ibn Umar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Umar"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Ali ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Yahya ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Idrisids_coin_minted_at_Al_Aliyah_Morocco_840_CE.jpg"},{"link_name":"Idrisid dirham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idrissid_dirham"},{"link_name":"Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Caliph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_as_Caliph"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Islamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Arabic culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_culture"},{"link_name":"trans-Saharan trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"al-Qarawiyyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin"},{"link_name":"al-Andalusiyyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_Mosque"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Berber languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"}],"sub_title":"The successors of Idris II","text":"The dynasty's power would slowly decline following Idris II's death. Under his son and successor Muhammad (828–836) the kingdom was divided amongst seven of his brothers, whereby eight Idrisid statelets formed in Morocco and western Algeria.[7] Muhammad himself came to rule Fes, with only nominal power over his brothers. His brother Al-Qasim ruled Tangier and its surroundings. 'Umar ruled over the Sanhaja and the Ghumara in the Rif region.[7] Isa was given control of the coastal Tamesna regions near the Bou Regreg, including Shallah (Chellah), and was based at Wazeqqūr (a town near modern-day Khenifra).[7][8] Yahya was given Hiṣn Daī (a site probably near modern Beni Mellal).[7][8][9] Hamza was given Walili. 'Ubayd Allah (or 'Abd Allah) was given the south, including the territory of the Lamta tribes and a town named Tamdult.[7][8] Agadir (later Tlemcen) was left under the control of Muhammad Ibn Sulayman, Idris II's cousin and the son of Sulayman, the brother of Idris I whom the latter had left in charge of the city, constituting the Sulaymanid dynasty.[7][8][10]Soon after this territorial division Isa revolted against his brother Muhammad. Muhammad entrusted his other brother Umar to punish him. Umar successfully drove Isa from power, who was forced to take refuge in Chellah.[7] Umar then turned north to punish his other brother, al-Qasim, because the latter had refused to join him and Muhammad against Isa. Al-Qasim fled to Asilah and settled nearby, while Muhammad gave Umar governorship of Tangier as a reward. Upon Umar's death in September or October 835 his son Ali ibn Umar was granted all of his father's domains in turn.[7] Muhammad himself died seven months later in the March or April 836. His son Ali ibn Muhammad inherited his position and ruled for 13 years (836–849) in a competent manner, ensuring the stability of the state. After his death in 849 he was succeeded by his brother Yahya ibn Muhammad (or Yahya I), who also enjoyed a peaceful reign.[7]Idrisid dirham, minted at al-'Aliyah (Fes), Morocco, 840 CE. The coin features the name of Ali: a son-in-law of Muhammad, the fourth Caliph, and an ancestor of the Idrisids.[11]During this time Islamic and Arabic culture gained a stronghold in the towns and Morocco profited from the trans-Saharan trade, which came to be dominated by Muslim (mostly Berber) traders. The city of Fes also flourished and became an important religious center.[4]: 52 During Yahya's reign more Arab immigrants arrived and the famous mosques of al-Qarawiyyin and al-Andalusiyyin were founded.[7] Even so, the Islamic and Arabic culture only made its influence felt in the towns, with the vast majority of Morocco's population still using the Berber languages and often adhering to Islamic heterodox and heretical doctrines. The Idrisids were principally rulers of the towns and had little power over the majority of the country's population.[4]: 52","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Khariji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khariji"},{"link_name":"Sufri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufri"},{"link_name":"Miknasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miknasa"},{"link_name":"Sefrou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sefrou"},{"link_name":"Yahya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_al-Qasim"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Yahya ibn Idris ibn Umar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Idris_ibn_Umar"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Fatimids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Miknasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miknasa"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Hassan I al-Hajam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_I_al-Hajam"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Hajar an-Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajar_an-Nasar"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Umayyads of Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Jbala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jbala"},{"link_name":"Umayyads of Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba"},{"link_name":"Abd ar-Rahman III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_III"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Al-Qasim al-Gannun ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_Jannun"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"Abul-'Aysh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul-Aish_Ahmad"},{"link_name":"al-Basra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basra,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Hasan ibn al-Qasim al-Gannun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasan_ibn_al-Qasim_Jannun"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"Jawhar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawhar_(general)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Buluggin ibn Ziri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buluggin_ibn_Ziri"},{"link_name":"Cairo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"al-Mansur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almanzor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Sanhaja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhaja"},{"link_name":"Almoravids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Maghrawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrawa"},{"link_name":"Fes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fez,_Morocco"},{"link_name":"Sijilmasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmasa"},{"link_name":"Aghmat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aghmat"},{"link_name":"Banu Ifran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banu_Ifran"},{"link_name":"Salé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Tadla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadla"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"sub_title":"Decline and fall","text":"After the death of Yahya I in 863 he was succeeded by his less competent son, Yahya II, who divided up the Idrisid realm yet again among the extended families. Yahya II died in uncertain circumstances in 866 after fleeing his palace. After an episode of disorder in Fes his cousin Ali ibn Umar took over power.[7] In 868, under the leadership of the Abd al-Razzaq the Berber Khariji Sufri tribes of Madyuna, Ghayata and Miknasa of the Fes region formed a common front against the Idrisids. From their base in Sefrou they were able to defeat Ali ibn Umar and occupy Fes. Fes refused to submit, however, and another Yahya, the son of al-Qasim, was able to retake the city and establish himself as the new ruler, Yahya III. Thus the ruling line had passed from the sons of Muhammad to the son of Umar and now the sons of al-Qasim.[4]: 52 [7]Yahya III ruled over the entire Idrisid realm and continued to attack the Sufris. In 905 however he died in battle against another family member, Yahya ibn Idris ibn Umar (a grandson of Umar), who then took power as Yahya IV.[7] At this point, however, the Fatimids in the east began to intervene in Morocco, hoping to expand their influence. In 917 the Miknasa and its leader Masala ibn Habus, acting on behalf of their Fatimid allies, attacked Fes and forced Yahya IV to recognize Fatimid suzerainty, before deposing him in 919[7][12] or 921.[4]: 63 He was succeeded by his cousin Musa ibn Abul 'Afiya, who had already been given charge over the rest of the country. The Idrisid Hassan I al-Hajam, a grandson of al-Qasim, managed to wrest control of Fez from 925 but in 927 Musa returned, captured Hassan and killed him, marking the last time the Idrisids held power in Fes.[7]From Fes, the Miknasa began pursuing the Idrisid family across Morocco. The family took refuge at the fortress of Hajar an-Nasr in northern Morocco, where the Miknasa besieged them.[7] Soon after, however, civil war broke out among the Miknasa when Musa switched allegiance to the Umayyads of Cordoba in 931 in an attempt to gain more independence. The Fatimids sent Humayd ibn Yasal (or Hamid[4]), the nephew of Masala ibn Habus, to confront Musa, defeating him in 933 and forcing him to fall back into line.[7][4]: 63 The Idrisids took advantage of the situation to break the siege of their fortress and defeat the Mikanasa Zenata troops. Once the Fatimids were gone, however, Musa once again threw off their authority and recognized the Umayyad caliph. The Fatimids sent their general Maysur to confront him again, and this time he fled. He was pursued and killed by the Idrisids.[7]After this Idrisids settled among the Jbala tribes in the Rif region of north-west Morocco where they partially rebuilt their power base from Hajar an-Nasr, alternately acknowledging either the Umayyads of Cordoba (under Abd ar-Rahman III) or the Fatimids as overlords.[7] Al-Qasim al-Gannun ibn Muhammad ruled here from 938 until 948 in the name of the Fatimids.[7][12] His son and successor, Ahmad, known as Abul-'Aysh, recognized the Umayyads instead but ran afoul of them when he refused to let them occupy Tangier. He was besieged there and forced to retreat, retaining only the areas around al-Basra and Asilah while the Umayyads occupied the rest of northern Morocco.[7] He eventually left for Al-Andalus, leaving his brother Hasan ibn al-Qasim al-Gannun as the new leader in 954.[7][12] In 958 the Fatimids sent a new general, Jawhar, to invade Morocco. His success forced the Idrisids to again accept Fatimid overlordship.[7][4]: 75 Soon afterwards, however, when Jawhar and the Fatimids were busy taking control of Egypt, the Umayyads made a comeback. In 973 their general, Ghalib, invaded Morocco.[4] The Idrisids were expelled from their territories and al-Hasan, along with many other Idrisids or their sons, were taken as hostages to Cordoba in 974.[7] The remaining Idrisids in Morocco acknowledged Umayyad rule.[4] Al-Hasan was later expelled from Cordoba and fled to Egypt, which was now under Fatimid rule. In 979 Buluggin ibn Ziri, the Fatimid governor of Ifriqiya (after the Fatimid Caliphs had their capital to Cairo), returned to defeat the Umayyads and impose Fatimid overlordship in the western Maghreb again. In 985[12] he returned to Morocco with Fatimid support, but that same year he was defeated by another Umayyad general sent by al-Mansur and then assassinated on the way to Cordoba.[7] This brought a final end to the Idrisid dynasty. The Umayyads kept control over northern Morocco until their caliphate's collapse in the early 11th century. Following this, Morocco was dominated by various Zenata Berber tribes.[5]: 91 [4]: 82 Until the rise of the Sanhaja Almoravids later in the century, the Maghrawa controlled Fes, Sijilmasa and Aghmat while the Banu Ifran ruled over Tlemcen, Salé (Chellah), and the Tadla region.[5]: 91","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"Shīʿite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam"},{"link_name":"Sunni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Sunni Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam"},{"link_name":"dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Shi'a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam"},{"link_name":"Zaydi Shi'a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaidiyyah"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Abbasid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Amira Bennison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amira_Bennison"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Muʿtazila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Hijaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz"},{"link_name":"khatib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khatib"},{"link_name":"Basra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basra"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-20"}],"text":"According to Encyclopædia Britannica, \"although Idrīs I had Shīʿite sympathies, the state founded by his son was Sunni in matters of religious doctrine.\"[13] Primary source material and contemporary scholars have described them as a Sunni Muslim dynasty.[4]: 50 [14][15] Certain contemporary academics have described them as Shi'a or Zaydi Shi'a to one extent or another, most likely because of their political affiliation.[16] The Idrisids were political opponents of the Abbasid Caliphate.[17] Others have criticized this claim for conflating Shia theology with a political movement in a historical period where there was no Shia theology distinct from Sunni theology in this area as of yet.[18] Amira Bennison argues that Idrisid coinage suggests that Idris I portrayed himself as a religious leader whose legitimacy was based on his descent from Muhammad, which Bennison describes as a \"proto-Shi'i or 'Alid position.\"[19]The Awraba Berbers who welcomed Idris I in Volubilis were Muʿtazila and Idris relied widely on the support of Muʿtazila Berber tribes to found his state.[20][21] He is also likely to have had ties to Muʿtazila figures in the Hijaz and further east, as he was accompanied on his journey to the Maghreb by a Muʿtazila khatib from Basra who aided him in gaining the support of the tribes.[20] It is unclear, however, to what extent the community he established was Muʿtazila in character.[20]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Hammudids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammudid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:05233-22"},{"link_name":"Moulay Idriss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulay_Idriss_Zerhoun"},{"link_name":"Zawiya of Moulay Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:62-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-26"},{"link_name":"Islamization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamization"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-27"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Arabization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabization"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Sudan region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_(region)"},{"link_name":"Islamization of the Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamization_of_the_Sudan_region"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Sharifian rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharifism"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-27"},{"link_name":"'Alawis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Alawis"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:28-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"Marinid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Wattasid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wattasid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1322-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Rawd al-Qirtas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawd_al-Qirtas"},{"link_name":"Ibn Abi Zar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zar"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1322-30"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"Despite having fallen from power, the Idrisids spawned many sharifian families which continued to be present for centuries to come. Some Moroccans today still claim descent from them.[7] In the 11th century, an Idrisid family descended from Umar (son of Idris II), the Hammudids, were able to gain power in several cities of northern Morocco and southern Spain.[7][22]In Fes and in the town of Moulay Idriss (near Volubilis), the tombs of Idris II and Idris I, respectively, eventually developed into important religious complexes and pilgrimage sites, like the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II.[23][24] Several prominent sharifian families in Fez traced their lineages to Idris I,[25]: 488 and some of these played a role in maintaining or rebuilding the Zawiya of Idris II in the city.[26]The Idrisid period also played an important role in the Islamization of the region, particularly in the spread of Islam to the Berber tribes that occupied the interior territories of present-day Morocco, outside the northern coastal regions where the earliest Muslim presence was initially concentrated.[12][27][4]: 52 [5]: 84 The new city of Fes also became a center of Arabization that spread to some of the surrounding Berber tribes in the area.[5]: 84 Idrisid towns also formed a part of the wider trade network that linked the Maghreb with the Sahara and the Sudan region (south of the Sahara). This trade network and the Muslim merchants who came to dominate it in the 9th century were important in turn to the Islamization of the Sudan.[4]: 52The Idrisid state set a precedent for Sharifian rule, which inspired the rise of Sharifism in Morocco during the 15th century[27] and which is maintained by the present-day ruling dynasty of Morocco, the 'Alawis.[28] From the 14th century, local writers began to portray the Idrisids as the starting point of an Islamic Maghrib al-Aqsa (\"Furthest West\", corresponding to present-day Morocco[29]).[5]: 81 Both the Marinid dynasty (13th–15th centuries) and the Wattasid dynasty (15th–16th centuries) attempted at times to associate themselves with the Idrisid dynasty as a way to legitimize their own rule.[30][31] The Rawd al-Qirtas, written by Ibn Abi Zar in the 14th century, is one of the best-known chronicles of this period and promoted the idea of continuity between Idrisid rule and contemporary Marinid rule, while at the same time downplaying the potential Shi'a character of Idris I.[30] In the national narratives of modern Morocco, the Idrisids are often portrayed as the first Moroccan dynasty and as the start of an uninterrupted tradition of monarchy to the present day.[5]: 81","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Idris I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_I"},{"link_name":"Idris II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_II"},{"link_name":"Muhammad ibn Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Idris"},{"link_name":"Ali (I) ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Yahya (I) ibn Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Yahya (II) ibn Yahya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Yahya"},{"link_name":"Ali (II) ibn Umar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Umar"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Yahya (III) ibn al-Qasim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_al-Qasim"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"Yahya (IV) ibn Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Idris_ibn_Umar"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:052-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-4"},{"link_name":"Miknasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miknasa"},{"link_name":"Fatimids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Al-Hajjam al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Qasim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hajjam_al-Hasan_ibn_Muhammad_ibn_al-Qasim"},{"link_name":"Al-Qasim Gannun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasim_Jannun"},{"link_name":"Abul-Aish Ahmad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul-Aish_Ahmad"},{"link_name":"Al-Hasan ibn al-Qasim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hasan_ibn_al-Qasim_Jannun"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-12"}],"sub_title":"Rulers","text":"Idris I – (788–791)\nIdris II – (791–828)\nMuhammad ibn Idris – (828–836)\nAli (I) ibn Muhammad – (836–849)\nYahya (I) ibn Muhammad – (849–863)\nYahya (II) ibn Yahya – (863–866)\nAli (II) ibn Umar – (866–?)[12][7]\nYahya (III) ibn al-Qasim – (?–905)[12][7]\nYahya (IV) ibn Idris – (905–919 or 921)[12][7][4]: 63 \nMiknasa control on behalf of the Fatimids – (919–925)\nAl-Hajjam al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn al-Qasim – (925–927), last Idrisid ruler in FesIdrisid rule in northern Morocco:Al-Qasim Gannun – (938–948)\nAbul-Aish Ahmad – (948–954)\nAl-Hasan ibn al-Qasim – (954–974, 985)[12]","title":"The dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Genealogical chart","title":"The dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Timeline","title":"The dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0523_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0523_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0523_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0523_1-3"},{"link_name":"\"Idrīs I\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492"},{"link_name":"Lewis, B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lewis"},{"link_name":"Ménage, V. 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(1971). \"Idrīs I\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 1031. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492. OCLC 495469525.\n\n^ Brett, Michael (2017). Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4744-2151-5.\n\n^ Ali, Syed Nazim; Oseni, Umar A. (2021-11-29). Waqf Development and Innovation: Socio-Economic and Legal Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-48184-6.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337674.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI. Fayard.\n\n^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780791418277. At this point, the rebels had control of all modern Morocco, most of which was not to see rule by the universal caliphate again.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Eustache, D. (1971). \"Idrīsids\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1035–1037. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495. OCLC 495469525.\n\n^ a b c d Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes; Moreno, Eduardo Manzano (1998). \"Légitimité et villes idrissides\". In Cressier, Patrice; Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes (eds.). Genèse de la ville islamique en al-Andalus et au Maghreb occidental (in French). Casa de Velázquez; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). pp. 257–284. ISBN 978-84-00-07766-2.\n\n^ Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar (2006). \"Beni Mellal\". Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Scarecrow Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8108-6511-2.\n\n^ Brett, Michael (1978). \"The Arab conquest and the rise of Islam in North Africa\". In Fage, J. D. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.\n\n^ \"Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum - object_ISL_ma_Mus01_F_2_en\". islamicart.museumwnf.org. Retrieved 2020-07-25.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). \"The Idrisids\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748621378.\n\n^ \"North Africa - The Rustamid state of Tāhart\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-19.\n\n^ Al-Bayan Al-Maghreb (Ibn Idhari al-Marrakushi, 13th century), Vol.1, p.118 (Arabic - Dr. Bashar A. Marouf & Mahmoud B. Awad, 2013)\n\n^ Tarikh al-Tabari (Al-Tabari, 9th century) – English translation: The History of al-Tabari vol.26, p.37-38\n\n^ Meis Al-Kaisi, \"The Development of Politico-Religious Movements: A General Overview\", Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, ed. Imed Nsiri, (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2019), 124.Ludwig W. Adamec, The Historical Dictionary of Islam, page 145, \"Idrisid Dynasty (788-985). First Shi'ite dynasty in Islamic history, founded by Idris ibn Abdullah....\".C.E. BosworthThe New Islamic Dynasties, page 25, \"The Idrisids were the first dynasty who attempted to introduce the doctrines of Shi'ism, albeit in a very attenuated form, into the Maghrib...\".Ignác Goldziher and Bernard Lewis, Introduction to Islamic theology and law, Princeton University Press (1981), p. 218Mara A. Leichtman, Shi'i Cosmopolitanisms in Africa: Lebanese Migration and Religious Conversion in Senegal, page 216;\"Senegalese Shi'a also refer to the spread of Shi'i Islam to Senegal through the Idrisid dynasty and evidence of Shi'i roots in Morocco through 'Alaouis (Hydarah 2008:132-135). Cornell writes that Moulay Idris and his successors, descendants of the Prophet's grandson Hasan, brought with them to Morocco from the Arabian Peninsula \"a form of archaic Shi'ism that was similar in many respects to Zaydism\" (1998:200).\"\n\n^ Hillenbrand, Carole, ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-88706-810-2.\n\n^ De Geschiedenis van Marokko & Noord-Afrika (Sofyan al Kandoussi, 2019), p.179 (Dutch history book on Morocco and North-Africa)\n\n^ Bennison, Amira K. (2016). Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 233. ISBN 9780748646821.\n\n^ a b c Ess, Josef van (2018). Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 4: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam. Brill. pp. 291–292. ISBN 978-90-04-38159-9.\n\n^ \"Qantara - The Idrisids (789- 974)\". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 2021-01-05.\n\n^ Huici Miranda, A. (1971). \"Ḥammūdids\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 147. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685. OCLC 495469525.\n\n^ Achouar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.\n\n^ Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. pp. 123–131. ISBN 2723301591.\n\n^ Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.\n\n^ Mezzine, Mohamed. \"Mulay Idris Mausoleum\". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved January 6, 2018.\n\n^ a b Stephen, Cory (2012). \"Idris I\". In Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates Jr., Henry Louis (eds.). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.\n\n^ Naylor, Phillip (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-292-76192-6.\n\n^ Clancy-Smith, Julia (2013). North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-135-31213-8.\n\n^ a b Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (2014). \"Reformer le royaume idrisside : Fès et l'historiographie officielle mérinide\". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne (in French). Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 452–454. ISBN 9782350314907.\n\n^ Loimeier, Roman (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-253-00797-1.","title":"Notes and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ibn Abi Zar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Zar"},{"link_name":"Rawd al-Qirtas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawd_al-Qirtas"},{"link_name":"Idrisid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Idrisid_dynasty"}],"text":"Ibn Abi Zar, Rawd al-Qirtas (contains a chronicle of the dynasty).\nCharles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830, Payot 1994.Wikimedia Commons has media related to Idrisid dynasty.","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"Idrisid dirham, minted at al-'Aliyah (Fes), Morocco, 840 CE. The coin features the name of Ali: a son-in-law of Muhammad, the fourth Caliph, and an ancestor of the Idrisids.[11]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Idrisids_coin_minted_at_Al_Aliyah_Morocco_840_CE.jpg/170px-Idrisids_coin_minted_at_Al_Aliyah_Morocco_840_CE.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Muhammad al-Idrisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi"},{"title":"List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Shi%27a_Muslim_dynasties"}]
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[{"reference":"Eustache, D. (1971). \"Idrīs I\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 1031. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492. OCLC 495469525.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492","url_text":"\"Idrīs I\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lewis","url_text":"Lewis, B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage","url_text":"Ménage, V. L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Pellat","url_text":"Pellat, Ch."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schacht","url_text":"Schacht, J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2","url_text":"The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492","url_text":"10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3492"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525","url_text":"495469525"}]},{"reference":"Brett, Michael (2017). Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4744-2151-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZC5WDwAAQBAJ&dq=idrisids+descent+hasan&pg=PA27","url_text":"Fatimid Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-2151-5","url_text":"978-1-4744-2151-5"}]},{"reference":"Ali, Syed Nazim; Oseni, Umar A. (2021-11-29). Waqf Development and Innovation: Socio-Economic and Legal Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-48184-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Nazim_Ali","url_text":"Ali, Syed Nazim"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_vtNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT253","url_text":"Waqf Development and Innovation: Socio-Economic and Legal Perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-48184-6","url_text":"978-1-000-48184-6"}]},{"reference":"Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337674.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&q=A%20history%20of%20the%20Maghrib%20in%20the%20Islamic%20period&pg=PP1","url_text":"A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521337674","url_text":"0521337674"}]},{"reference":"Rivet, Daniel (2012). Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI. Fayard.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780791418277. At this point, the rebels had control of all modern Morocco, most of which was not to see rule by the universal caliphate again.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C&q=morocco&pg=PA207","url_text":"The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791418277","url_text":"9780791418277"}]},{"reference":"Eustache, D. (1971). \"Idrīsids\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1035–1037. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495. OCLC 495469525.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495","url_text":"\"Idrīsids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lewis","url_text":"Lewis, B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage","url_text":"Ménage, V. L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Pellat","url_text":"Pellat, Ch."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schacht","url_text":"Schacht, J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2","url_text":"The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495","url_text":"10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3495"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525","url_text":"495469525"}]},{"reference":"Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes; Moreno, Eduardo Manzano (1998). \"Légitimité et villes idrissides\". In Cressier, Patrice; Garcia-Arenal, Mercedes (eds.). Genèse de la ville islamique en al-Andalus et au Maghreb occidental (in French). Casa de Velázquez; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC). pp. 257–284. ISBN 978-84-00-07766-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BwXpacrOE-YC&dq=Wazeqq%C5%ABr+morocco&pg=PA278","url_text":"\"Légitimité et villes idrissides\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-00-07766-2","url_text":"978-84-00-07766-2"}]},{"reference":"Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar (2006). \"Beni Mellal\". Historical Dictionary of Morocco. Scarecrow Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8108-6511-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8KiCl5-MxMMC&dq=idrisid+yahya+morocco&pg=PA62","url_text":"\"Beni Mellal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6511-2","url_text":"978-0-8108-6511-2"}]},{"reference":"Brett, Michael (1978). \"The Arab conquest and the rise of Islam in North Africa\". In Fage, J. D. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTNTz3POoZUC","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Africa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21592-3","url_text":"978-0-521-21592-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum - object_ISL_ma_Mus01_F_2_en\". islamicart.museumwnf.org. Retrieved 2020-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object;ISL;ma;Mus01_F;2;en","url_text":"\"Discover Islamic Art - Virtual Museum - object_ISL_ma_Mus01_F_2_en\""}]},{"reference":"Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). \"The Idrisids\". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748621378.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SaMkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA9-IA1","url_text":"\"The Idrisids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748621378","url_text":"9780748621378"}]},{"reference":"\"North Africa - The Rustamid state of Tāhart\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-08-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Africa/The-Rustamid-state-of-Tahart","url_text":"\"North Africa - The Rustamid state of Tāhart\""}]},{"reference":"Hillenbrand, Carole, ed. (1989). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-88706-810-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carole_Hillenbrand","url_text":"Hillenbrand, Carole"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MxTWmfKEloAC","url_text":"The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-810-2","url_text":"978-0-88706-810-2"}]},{"reference":"Bennison, Amira K. (2016). Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 233. ISBN 9780748646821.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748646821","url_text":"9780748646821"}]},{"reference":"Ess, Josef van (2018). Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 4: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam. Brill. pp. 291–292. ISBN 978-90-04-38159-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tIN1DwAAQBAJ&dq=idrisid+mu%27tazila&pg=PA291","url_text":"Theology and Society in the Second and Third Centuries of the Hijra. Volume 4: A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38159-9","url_text":"978-90-04-38159-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Qantara - The Idrisids (789- 974)\". www.qantara-med.org. Retrieved 2021-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.qantara-med.org/public/show_document.php?do_id=867&lang=en","url_text":"\"Qantara - The Idrisids (789- 974)\""}]},{"reference":"Huici Miranda, A. (1971). \"Ḥammūdids\". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 147. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685. OCLC 495469525.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685","url_text":"\"Ḥammūdids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lewis","url_text":"Lewis, B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage","url_text":"Ménage, V. L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Pellat","url_text":"Pellat, Ch."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schacht","url_text":"Schacht, J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2","url_text":"The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685","url_text":"10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2685"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525","url_text":"495469525"}]},{"reference":"Achouar, Amina (2005). Fès, Meknès. Flammarion.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gaudio, Attilio (1982). Fès: Joyau de la civilisation islamique. Paris: Les Presse de l'UNESCO: Nouvelles Éditions Latines. pp. 123–131. ISBN 2723301591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2723301591","url_text":"2723301591"}]},{"reference":"Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mezzine, Mohamed. \"Mulay Idris Mausoleum\". Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers. Retrieved January 6, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.discoverislamicart.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;ma;mon01;20;en","url_text":"\"Mulay Idris Mausoleum\""}]},{"reference":"Stephen, Cory (2012). \"Idris I\". In Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; Gates Jr., Henry Louis (eds.). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA140","url_text":"\"Idris I\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538207-5","url_text":"978-0-19-538207-5"}]},{"reference":"Naylor, Phillip (2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-292-76192-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SSUKBgAAQBAJ","url_text":"North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-76192-6","url_text":"978-0-292-76192-6"}]},{"reference":"Clancy-Smith, Julia (2013). North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-135-31213-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=seH9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12","url_text":"North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-31213-8","url_text":"978-1-135-31213-8"}]},{"reference":"Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (2014). \"Reformer le royaume idrisside : Fès et l'historiographie officielle mérinide\". In Lintz, Yannick; Déléry, Claire; Tuil Leonetti, Bulle (eds.). Maroc médiéval: Un empire de l'Afrique à l'Espagne (in French). Paris: Louvre éditions. pp. 452–454. ISBN 9782350314907.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782350314907","url_text":"9782350314907"}]},{"reference":"Loimeier, Roman (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-253-00797-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dR5yCmUejWEC&dq=idrisids+first+dynasty+of+morocco&pg=PA50","url_text":"Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00797-1","url_text":"978-0-253-00797-1"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SickKids
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Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto)
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["1 History","2 Contributions to medicine","2.1 COVID-19 pandemic","3 Unqualified forensic testing","4 Future","5 Notable patients","6 Notable staff","7 References","7.1 Footnotes","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 43°39′26″N 79°23′19″W / 43.6571°N 79.3885°W / 43.6571; -79.3885Hospital in Toronto, OntarioThe Hospital for Sick ChildrenUniversity Avenue facadeLocation in TorontoGeographyLocation555 University AvenueToronto, OntarioM5G 1X8Coordinates43°39′26″N 79°23′19″W / 43.6571°N 79.3885°W / 43.6571; -79.3885OrganisationCare systemMedicareFundingPublic hospitalTypeSpecialistAffiliated universityUniversity of Toronto Faculty of MedicineServicesEmergency departmentPediatric Level 1 Trauma Centre (Tertiary)Beds453SpecialityChildren's hospitalHelipadTC LID: CNW8HistoryOpened1875LinksWebsitewww.sickkids.ca
The Hospital for Sick Children (HSC), corporately branded as SickKids, is a major pediatric teaching hospital located on University Avenue in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Affiliated with the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Toronto, the hospital was ranked the top pediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek in 2021.
The hospital's Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning is believed to be the largest pediatric research tower in the world, at 69,677.28 square metres (750,000.0 sq ft).
History
Victoria Hospital for Sick Children
Nurse and orderly transport child to operating room, c. 1915
Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning
Atrium designed by Eberhard Zeidler
During 1875, an eleven-room house was rented for CA$320 (equivalent to $9,327 in 2023) a year by a Toronto women's bible study group, led by Elizabeth McMaster. Opened on March 1, it set up six iron cots and "declared open a hospital 'for the admission and treatment of all sick children.'" The first patient, a scalding victim named Maggie, came in on April 3. In its first year of operation, 44 patients were admitted to the hospital, and 67 others were treated in outpatient clinics.
In 1876, the hospital moved to larger facilities. In 1891, it moved from rented premises to a purposely-constructed building at College and Elizabeth Streets. It would remain there for 60 years. The building, known as the Victoria Hospital for Sick Children, is now the Toronto area headquarters of Canadian Blood Services. In 1951, the hospital moved to its present University Avenue location. On its grounds once stood the childhood home of the Canadian-born movie star Mary Pickford.
In 1972, the hospital became equipped with a rooftop helipad (CNW8).
From 1980 to 1981, the hospital was the site of a series of baby deaths.
In December 2022, the hospital was attacked by the LockBit ransomware gang, who apologized 13 days later and provided a decryptor to the hospital for free.
Contributions to medicine
The hospital was an early leader in the fields of food safety and nutrition. In 1908, a pasteurization facility for milk was established at the hospital, the first in Toronto, 30 years before milk pasteurization became mandatory. Researchers at the hospital invented an infant cereal, Pablum. The research that led to the discovery of insulin took place at the nearby University of Toronto and was soon applied in the hospital by Gladys Boyd. Dr. Frederick Banting, one of the researchers, had served his internship at the hospital and went on to become an attending physician there. In 1963, William Thornton Mustard developed the Mustard surgical procedure to help correct heart problems in blue baby syndrome. In 1989, a team of researchers at the hospital discovered the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis.
SickKids is a member of the Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), the world's largest advocacy organization representing the biotechnology industry.
COVID-19 pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, SickKids engaged in several campaigns to promote COVID-19 vaccines.
SickKids received $99,680.00 from the Government of Canada for two projects through a grant program titled "Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada." The grant was jointly administered by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).
One of the funded proposals was titled “Building COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence: Educating the Educators.” The result was a promotional video titled “COVID-19 Vaccination Information for Education & Child Care Sector Staff” narrated by Dr. Danielle Martin. It was produced by 19 to Zero, and distributed by the Ontario Ministry of Education to school boards, private schools and child care centres to use in COVID-19 vaccination educational programs.
A second proposal was titled “Stop COVID in Kids - School based vaccine education outreach to build trust and empower families”, which received additional funding in the form of a $440,000 grant from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund.
Unqualified forensic testing
The hospital housed the Motherisk Drug Testing Laboratory. At the request of various child protection agencies, 16,000 hair samples were tested from 2005 to 2015. The former Ontario Appeal Court judge Susan Lang reviewed Motherisk Drug Testing Laboratory and determined that it was not qualified to do forensic testing. Lang also stated, "That SickKids failed to exercise meaningful oversight over MDTL's work must be considered in the context of the hospital's experience with Dr. Charles Smith." The 2008 Goudge Report found also that Dr. Charles Smith, whose forensic testimony led to wrongful convictions in the deaths of children, was not qualified to do forensic testing.
Future
The hospital is in its initial stages of expansion. In 2017, it established the "SickKids VS Limits" fundraising campaign, which will continue until 2022 to raise $1.5 billion for the expansion project. The funds will be used to build a patient care centre on University Avenue and a support centre on Elizabeth Street, to renovate the atrium, and to fund pediatric health research.
To provide the required area for the buildings, demolition of existing structures was required. That included the removal of a skyway spanning Elizabeth Street, the demolition of the Elizabeth McMaster Building at the northeast corner of Elizabeth Street and Elm Street, and the demolition of the laboratory and administrative building.: 26–31
Construction of the 22-storey Patient Support Centre administrative building occurred on the site of the Elizabeth McMaster Building. Groundbreaking took place in October 2019, topping out took place in September 2022, and it opened in September 2023. The Peter Gilgan Family Patient Care Tower is expected to open in 2029, and the atrium's renovation is expected to be completed by 2031.
Notable patients
Peter Czerwinski (born 1985), competitive eater known as "Furious Pete"; admitted as a teen while battling anorexia
Mel Hague (1943-2023), author and country singer; admitted at 9 for infantile paralysis (now known as cerebral palsy)
Morgan Holmes, sociologist; had a clitorectomy at 7
Peter G. Kavanagh (1953-2016), radio and television producer; was treated for paralytic poliomyelitis in infancy and childhood
Aqsa Parvez (1991-2007), murder victim; died at the hospital
Leonard Thompson (1908-1935), the first diabetic patient to be treated with insulin; received treatment as a teen
Peter Woodcock (1939-2010), serial killer; was treated extensively throughout his childhood
Notable staff
This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (July 2022)
Benjamin Alman, professor and head of the division of orthopedic surgery, senior scientist in developmental and stem cell biology
Jean Augustine (born 1937), member of the Board of Trustees
Harry Bain (1921-2001), paediatrician (1951-85)
Frederick Banting (1891-1941), resident surgeon
Sonia Baxendale, member of the Board of Trustees
Jalynn Bennett (1943-2015), member of the Board of Directors
Zulfiqar Bhutta, co-director of the centre for global child health
Gladys Boyd (1894-1969), paediatrician, head of endocrine services
Susan Bradley (born 1940), head of the division of child psychiatry and psychiatrist-in-chief
Manuel Buchwald (born 1940), staff geneticist, scientist, senior scientist, and director of the research institute
Kevin Chan, emergency physician
Jim Coutts (1938-2013), member of the board and foundation
A. Jamie Cuticchia (born 1966), director of bioinformatics
Arlington Franklin Dungy (????-2016), chief of paedodontics
John Taylor Fotheringham (1860-1940), staff member
Julie Forman-Kay, scientist
Vicky Forster, postdoctoral researcher
Anna Goldenberg, senior scientist
William A. Goldie (1873-1950), chief of the infection division
Camilla Gryski, therapeutic clown
Mary Jo Haddad, president and CEO for ten years
Mark Henkelman, senior scientist emeritus
Lisa Houghton, worked at the hospital
Sanford Jackson, research biochemist and biochemist-in-chief
Monica Justice, program head of genetics and genome biology
Lewis E. Kay (born 1961), senior scientist in molecular medicine
Shaf Keshavjee, became a director of the Toronto lung transplant program in 1997 and later a scientist in 2012
Gideon Koren (born 1947), doctor
Arlette Lefebvre (born 1947), child psychiatrist
Kellie Leitch (born 1970), orthopaedic pediatric surgeon
James MacCallum (1860-1943), ophthalmologist
Sabi Marwah (born 1951), board member
Michael McCain (born 1958), member of the Board of Trustees
Kathryn McGarry, critical care nurse
Pleasantine Mill, cell biologist who worked at the hospital
Freda Miller, developmental neurobiologist
Caroline Mulroney (born 1974), board member
Edward G. Murphy (1921-2020), senior staff member
Aideen Nicholson (1927-2019), social worker
Isaac Odame, staff physician
Edmund Boyd Osler (1845-1924), trustee
Blake Papsin (born 1959), otolaryngologist
Rulan S. Parekh, former senior scientist in child health evaluative sciences and associate chief of clinical research
Tom Pashby, former senior staff ophthalmologist and sport safety advocate
Debra Pepler, senior associate scientist
Audrius V. Plioplys, chief resident of child neurology
John Russell Reynolds (1828-1896), assistant physician
Lisa Robinson, former head of the division of nephrology
Edward S. Rogers III (born 1969), director
Johanna Rommens, senior scientist emeritus
Miriam Rossi (1937-2018), pediatrician in the division of adolescent medicine
James Rutka (born 1956), subspecializes in pediatric neurosurgery
Robert B. Salter (1924-2010), surgeon
Bibudhendra Sarkar (born 1935), head of the Division of Biochemistry Research from 1990-2002
Harry Schachter (born 1933), head of the division of biochemistry research
Chandrakant Shah (born 1936), honorary staff
Louis Siminovitch (1920-2021), helped establish the department of genetics and became geneticist-in-chief
Sheila Singh, neurosurgeon
Charles R. Smith, head forensic pathologist
Valerie Speirs, professor
Ambrose Thomas Stanton (1875-1938), house surgeon
Martin J. Steinbach (1941-2017), senior scientist in department of ophthalmology
Anna Taddio (born 1967), adjunct senior scientist and clinical pharmacist
Kathleen P. Taylor (born 1957), member of the Board of Trustees
Ahmad Teebi (1949-2010), clinical geneticist
John M. Thompson (born 1949), vice chairman of the Board of Trustees
Margaret W. Thompson (1920-2014), genetics researcher
Richard M. Thomson (born 1933), member on the Board of Directors
James Thorburn (1830-1905), physician of the boys' home
Frederick Tisdall (1893-1949), pediatrician
James Marshall Tory (1930-2013), chairman of the board
Lap-Chee Tsui (born 1950), member of department of genetics
Norma Ford Walker (1893-1968), first director of the department of genetics
Prem Watsa (born 1950), member of the Board of Trustees
Bryan R.G. Williams, held various positions at the hospital
Ronald Worton (born 1942), director of the diagnostic cytogenetics laboratory
Stanley Zlotkin, clinical nutritionist
References
Braithwaite, Max (1974). Sick Kids: the story of the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-1636-0.
Newton, Michael (2006). The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers (2nd ed.). New York: Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-73947-249-1.
Wright, David (2016). SickKids: The History of the Hospital for Sick Children. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1442647237.
Footnotes
^ "SickKids named No.1 paediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek". Sick Kids. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
^ Ionova, Mariana (August 26, 2013). "Sick Kids honours donor Peter Gilgan for $40 million donation". Toronto Star.
^ Dueck, Lorna (2016-03-16). "Doctor-assisted dying: Why religious conscience must be part of the debate". The Globe and Mail.
^ Jea, Andrew; Al-Otibi, Merdas; Rutka, James; Drake, James; Dirks, Peter; Kulkarni, Abhaya; Taylor, Michael; Humphreys, Robin (September 2007). "The History of Neurosurgery at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto" (PDF). Neurosurgery. 61 (3): 612–625. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E. hdl:1807/24716. PMID 17881976. S2CID 28061565.
^ a b "SickKids History". Hospital for Sick Children. 2005-12-15. Archived from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-09-14.
^ "Opened first hospital rooftop heliport for emergency transfer of patients (1972)". Hospital for Sick Children. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
^ Canada Flight Supplement. Effective 0901Z 16 July 2020 to 0901Z 10 September 2020.
^ Newton (2006), pp. 120–121.
^ "Breaking news: Ransomware gang gives decryptor to Toronto's SickKids Hospital | IT Business". www.itworldcanada.com. 2023-01-01. Retrieved 2023-01-02.
^ a b Hospital - About SickKids - History and milestones - Milestones - 1951–1975, accessed 12 June 2015.
^ Hospital - About SickKids - History and milestones - Milestones - 1976–2000, accessed 20 June 2015
^ "BIO Member Directory". Biotechnology Innovation Organization. Archived from the original on 2022-09-30. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
^ a b "Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada - Competition Results". Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). 2021-07-26. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
^ "NSERC - Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada". Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. 2021-03-03. Archived from the original on 2022-11-05. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
^ COVID-19 Vaccination Information for Education & Child Care Sector Staff, retrieved 2022-11-05
^ "Resources for Healthcare Workers". 19 to Zero. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
^ Public Health Agency of Canada (2022-10-12). "Immunization Partnership Fund". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 2022-11-04. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
^ Lang, Hon. Susan E. (December 15, 2015). "Report of the Motherisk Hair Analysis Independent Review" (PDF). Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved August 26, 2019.
^ Charles, Ron (February 8, 2016). "Motherisk scandal highlights risk of deferring to experts without questioning credentials". CBC News. Retrieved August 26, 2019.
^ Goudge, Stephen T. (September 30, 2008). Inquiry into Pediatric Forensic Pathology in Ontario (PDF). Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. ISBN 978-1-4249-7794-9. Retrieved August 26, 2019. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
^ Lombardo, Christopher (2019-10-15). "SickKids zeroes in on why it needs more space". Strategy. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
^ a b Westoll, Nick (2019-09-18). "SickKids highlights crowded ICU conditions amid massive redevelopment project". Global News. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
^ a b Kennedy, David (2020-02-24). "Demolition of eight-storey Toronto hospital building sets stage for multibillion-dollar SickKids expansion". On-Site. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
^ "A new phase begins: Patient Support Centre groundbreaking". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ "We're reaching new heights on the Patient Support Centre!". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ "Celebrating the Patient Support Centre, a critical first step in our campus redevelopment journey". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.
^ "Furious Pete: From anorexic to world-class competitive eater". The Toronto Star. 9 July 2012.
^ "Is Growing up in Silence Better Than Growing up Different? | Intersex Society of North America".
^ Fitterman, Lisa (2 October 2016). "Peter Kavanagh: Author and radio producer had a 'furious intellect'". The Globe and Mail.
^ https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071212.wgirl12/BNStory/National/home
^ Bliss, Michael (15 February 2013). The Discovery of Insulin. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226075631.
^ Colbourn, Glen; Kalchman, Lois (August 27, 2005). "Heads Above the Rest: Hockeys' Dr. Safety dies at 90". Toronto Star. Toronto, Ontario. p. A1.; Colbourn, Glen; Kalchman, Lois (August 27, 2005). "Hockey pioneer saved many players: Safety (From A1)". Toronto Star. Toronto, Ontario. p. A19.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hospital for Sick Children.
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Affiliated with the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Toronto, the hospital was ranked the top pediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek in 2021.[1]The hospital's Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning is believed to be the largest pediatric research tower in the world, at 69,677.28 square metres (750,000.0 sq ft).[2]","title":"Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Hospital_for_Sick_Children.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toronto_Hospital_for_Sick_Children._c._1915.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Peter_Gilgan_Centre_for_Research_and_Learning.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atrium,_The_Hospital_for_Sick_Children,_Toronto,_Canada_(2019).jpg"},{"link_name":"Eberhard Zeidler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eberhard_Zeidler_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth McMaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_McMaster"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Street_(Toronto)"},{"link_name":"Victoria Hospital for Sick Children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Hospital_for_Sick_Children"},{"link_name":"Canadian Blood Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Blood_Services"},{"link_name":"University Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Avenue_(Toronto)"},{"link_name":"Mary Pickford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Pickford"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"series of baby deaths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_hospital_baby_deaths"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton2006120%E2%80%93121-8"},{"link_name":"LockBit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockbit"},{"link_name":"ransomware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Victoria Hospital for Sick ChildrenNurse and orderly transport child to operating room, c. 1915Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and LearningAtrium designed by Eberhard ZeidlerDuring 1875, an eleven-room house was rented for CA$320 (equivalent to $9,327 in 2023) a year by a Toronto women's bible study group, led by Elizabeth McMaster.[3] Opened on March 1,[4] it set up six iron cots and \"declared open a hospital 'for the admission and treatment of all sick children.'\" The first patient, a scalding victim named Maggie, came in on April 3. In its first year of operation, 44 patients were admitted to the hospital, and 67 others were treated in outpatient clinics.[5]In 1876, the hospital moved to larger facilities. In 1891, it moved from rented premises to a purposely-constructed building at College and Elizabeth Streets. It would remain there for 60 years. The building, known as the Victoria Hospital for Sick Children, is now the Toronto area headquarters of Canadian Blood Services. In 1951, the hospital moved to its present University Avenue location. On its grounds once stood the childhood home of the Canadian-born movie star Mary Pickford.[5]In 1972,[6] the hospital became equipped with a rooftop helipad (CNW8).[7]From 1980 to 1981, the hospital was the site of a series of baby deaths.[8]In December 2022, the hospital was attacked by the LockBit ransomware gang, who apologized 13 days later and provided a decryptor to the hospital for free.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"food safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_safety"},{"link_name":"nutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition"},{"link_name":"pasteurization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurization"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m5175-10"},{"link_name":"Pablum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablum"},{"link_name":"insulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin"},{"link_name":"University of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"Gladys Boyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Boyd"},{"link_name":"Frederick Banting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Banting"},{"link_name":"William Thornton Mustard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thornton_Mustard"},{"link_name":"Mustard surgical procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_procedure"},{"link_name":"blue baby syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_baby_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m5175-10"},{"link_name":"cystic fibrosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m7600-11"},{"link_name":"Biotechnology Innovation Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology_Innovation_Organization"},{"link_name":"biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The hospital was an early leader in the fields of food safety and nutrition. In 1908, a pasteurization facility for milk was established at the hospital, the first in Toronto, 30 years before milk pasteurization became mandatory.[10] Researchers at the hospital invented an infant cereal, Pablum. The research that led to the discovery of insulin took place at the nearby University of Toronto and was soon applied in the hospital by Gladys Boyd. Dr. Frederick Banting, one of the researchers, had served his internship at the hospital and went on to become an attending physician there. In 1963, William Thornton Mustard developed the Mustard surgical procedure to help correct heart problems in blue baby syndrome.[10] In 1989, a team of researchers at the hospital discovered the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis.[11]SickKids is a member of the Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), the world's largest advocacy organization representing the biotechnology industry.[12]","title":"Contributions to medicine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 vaccines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine"},{"link_name":"Government of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_and_Engineering_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Sciences_and_Humanities_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Institutes_of_Health_Research"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Danielle Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danielle_Martin"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"19 to Zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19_to_Zero"},{"link_name":"Ontario Ministry of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Ministry_of_Education"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Public Health Agency of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19 pandemic","text":"During the COVID-19 pandemic, SickKids engaged in several campaigns to promote COVID-19 vaccines.SickKids received $99,680.00 from the Government of Canada for two projects through a grant program titled \"Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada.\"[13] The grant was jointly administered by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR).[14]One of the funded proposals was titled “Building COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence: Educating the Educators.” The result was a promotional video titled “COVID-19 Vaccination Information for Education & Child Care Sector Staff” narrated by Dr. Danielle Martin.[15] It was produced by 19 to Zero, and distributed by the Ontario Ministry of Education to school boards, private schools and child care centres to use in COVID-19 vaccination educational programs.[16]A second proposal was titled “Stop COVID in Kids - School based vaccine education outreach to build trust and empower families”, which received additional funding in the form of a $440,000 grant from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund.[13][17]","title":"Contributions to medicine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Motherisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherisk"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Charles Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Smith_(pathologist)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The hospital housed the Motherisk Drug Testing Laboratory.[18] At the request of various child protection agencies, 16,000 hair samples were tested from 2005 to 2015. The former Ontario Appeal Court judge Susan Lang reviewed Motherisk Drug Testing Laboratory and determined that it was not qualified to do forensic testing. Lang also stated, \"That SickKids failed to exercise meaningful oversight over MDTL's work must be considered in the context of the hospital's experience with Dr. Charles Smith.\"[19] The 2008 Goudge Report found also that Dr. Charles Smith, whose forensic testimony led to wrongful convictions in the deaths of children, was not qualified to do forensic testing.[20]","title":"Unqualified forensic testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Westoll-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Westoll-22"},{"link_name":"skyway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-On-Site-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-On-Site-23"}],"text":"The hospital is in its initial stages of expansion. In 2017, it established the \"SickKids VS Limits\" fundraising campaign, which will continue until 2022 to raise $1.5 billion for the expansion project.[21][22] The funds will be used to build a patient care centre on University Avenue and a support centre on Elizabeth Street, to renovate the atrium, and to fund pediatric health research.[22]To provide the required area for the buildings, demolition of existing structures was required. That included the removal of a skyway spanning Elizabeth Street, the demolition of the Elizabeth McMaster Building at the northeast corner of Elizabeth Street and Elm Street, and the demolition of the laboratory and administrative building.[23]: 26–31Construction of the 22-storey Patient Support Centre administrative building occurred on the site of the Elizabeth McMaster Building. Groundbreaking took place in October 2019, topping out took place in September 2022, and it opened in September 2023.[24][25][26] The Peter Gilgan Family Patient Care Tower is expected to open in 2029, and the atrium's renovation is expected to be completed by 2031.[23]","title":"Future"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Czerwinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furious_Pete"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Mel Hague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel_Hague"},{"link_name":"infantile paralysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantile_paralysis"},{"link_name":"cerebral palsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_palsy"},{"link_name":"Morgan Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Holmes"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Peter G. Kavanagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kavanagh_(producer)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Aqsa Parvez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Aqsa_Parvez"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Leonard Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Thompson_(diabetic)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Peter Woodcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Woodcock"}],"text":"Peter Czerwinski (born 1985), competitive eater known as \"Furious Pete\"; admitted as a teen while battling anorexia[27]\nMel Hague (1943-2023), author and country singer; admitted at 9 for infantile paralysis (now known as cerebral palsy)\nMorgan Holmes, sociologist; had a clitorectomy at 7[28]\nPeter G. Kavanagh (1953-2016), radio and television producer; was treated for paralytic poliomyelitis in infancy and childhood[29]\nAqsa Parvez (1991-2007), murder victim; died at the hospital[30]\nLeonard Thompson (1908-1935), the first diabetic patient to be treated with insulin; received treatment as a teen[31]\nPeter Woodcock (1939-2010), serial killer; was treated extensively throughout his childhood","title":"Notable patients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benjamin Alman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Alman"},{"link_name":"Jean Augustine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Augustine"},{"link_name":"Harry Bain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Bain"},{"link_name":"Frederick Banting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Banting"},{"link_name":"Sonia Baxendale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonia_Baxendale"},{"link_name":"Jalynn Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalynn_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Zulfiqar Bhutta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulfiqar_Bhutta"},{"link_name":"Gladys Boyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladys_Boyd"},{"link_name":"Susan Bradley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Bradley"},{"link_name":"Manuel Buchwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Buchwald"},{"link_name":"Kevin Chan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Chan"},{"link_name":"Jim Coutts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Coutts"},{"link_name":"A. Jamie Cuticchia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Jamie_Cuticchia"},{"link_name":"Arlington Franklin Dungy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington_Franklin_Dungy"},{"link_name":"John Taylor Fotheringham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Taylor_Fotheringham"},{"link_name":"Julie Forman-Kay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Forman-Kay"},{"link_name":"Vicky Forster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicky_Forster"},{"link_name":"Anna Goldenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Goldenberg"},{"link_name":"William A. Goldie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Goldie_(physician)"},{"link_name":"Camilla Gryski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilla_Gryski"},{"link_name":"Mary Jo Haddad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Jo_Haddad"},{"link_name":"Mark Henkelman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Henkelman"},{"link_name":"Lisa Houghton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Houghton"},{"link_name":"Sanford Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanford_Jackson_(biochemist)"},{"link_name":"Monica Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_Justice"},{"link_name":"Lewis E. Kay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_E._Kay"},{"link_name":"Shaf Keshavjee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaf_Keshavjee"},{"link_name":"Gideon Koren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Koren"},{"link_name":"Arlette Lefebvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlette_Lefebvre"},{"link_name":"Kellie Leitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellie_Leitch"},{"link_name":"James MacCallum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_MacCallum"},{"link_name":"Sabi Marwah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_Marwah"},{"link_name":"Michael McCain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_McCain"},{"link_name":"Kathryn McGarry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn_McGarry"},{"link_name":"Pleasantine Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasantine_Mill"},{"link_name":"Freda Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freda_Miller"},{"link_name":"Caroline Mulroney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Mulroney"},{"link_name":"Edward G. Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Murphy_(cricketer)"},{"link_name":"Aideen Nicholson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aideen_Nicholson"},{"link_name":"Isaac Odame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Odame"},{"link_name":"Edmund Boyd Osler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Boyd_Osler_(Ontario_politician)"},{"link_name":"Blake Papsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blake_Papsin"},{"link_name":"Rulan S. Parekh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rulan_S._Parekh"},{"link_name":"Tom Pashby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Pashby"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Star-obituary-32"},{"link_name":"Debra Pepler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debra_Pepler"},{"link_name":"Audrius V. Plioplys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrius_V._Plioplys"},{"link_name":"John Russell Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Lisa Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Robinson_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"Edward S. Rogers III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_S._Rogers_III"},{"link_name":"Johanna Rommens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_Rommens"},{"link_name":"Miriam Rossi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miriam_Rossi"},{"link_name":"James Rutka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rutka"},{"link_name":"Robert B. Salter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Salter"},{"link_name":"Bibudhendra Sarkar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibudhendra_Sarkar"},{"link_name":"Harry Schachter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Schachter"},{"link_name":"Chandrakant Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrakant_Shah"},{"link_name":"Louis Siminovitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Siminovitch"},{"link_name":"Sheila Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila_Singh"},{"link_name":"Charles R. Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Smith_(pathologist)"},{"link_name":"Valerie Speirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valerie_Speirs"},{"link_name":"Ambrose Thomas Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrose_Thomas_Stanton"},{"link_name":"Martin J. Steinbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_J._Steinbach"},{"link_name":"Anna Taddio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Taddio"},{"link_name":"Kathleen P. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Taylor_(business_executive)"},{"link_name":"Ahmad Teebi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Teebi"},{"link_name":"John M. Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thompson_(TD_banker)"},{"link_name":"Margaret W. Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_W._Thompson"},{"link_name":"Richard M. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Thomson"},{"link_name":"James Thorburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Thorburn_(physician)"},{"link_name":"Frederick Tisdall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Tisdall"},{"link_name":"James Marshall Tory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Marshall_Tory"},{"link_name":"Lap-Chee Tsui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap-Chee_Tsui"},{"link_name":"Norma Ford Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norma_Ford_Walker"},{"link_name":"Prem Watsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prem_Watsa"},{"link_name":"Bryan R.G. Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_Williams_(professor)"},{"link_name":"Ronald Worton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Worton"},{"link_name":"Stanley Zlotkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Zlotkin"}],"text":"Benjamin Alman, professor and head of the division of orthopedic surgery, senior scientist in developmental and stem cell biology\nJean Augustine (born 1937), member of the Board of Trustees\nHarry Bain (1921-2001), paediatrician (1951-85)\nFrederick Banting (1891-1941), resident surgeon\nSonia Baxendale, member of the Board of Trustees\nJalynn Bennett (1943-2015), member of the Board of Directors\nZulfiqar Bhutta, co-director of the centre for global child health\nGladys Boyd (1894-1969), paediatrician, head of endocrine services\nSusan Bradley (born 1940), head of the division of child psychiatry and psychiatrist-in-chief\nManuel Buchwald (born 1940), staff geneticist, scientist, senior scientist, and director of the research institute\nKevin Chan, emergency physician\nJim Coutts (1938-2013), member of the board and foundation\nA. Jamie Cuticchia (born 1966), director of bioinformatics\nArlington Franklin Dungy (????-2016), chief of paedodontics\nJohn Taylor Fotheringham (1860-1940), staff member\nJulie Forman-Kay, scientist\nVicky Forster, postdoctoral researcher\nAnna Goldenberg, senior scientist\nWilliam A. Goldie (1873-1950), chief of the infection division\nCamilla Gryski, therapeutic clown\nMary Jo Haddad, president and CEO for ten years\nMark Henkelman, senior scientist emeritus\nLisa Houghton, worked at the hospital\nSanford Jackson, research biochemist and biochemist-in-chief\nMonica Justice, program head of genetics and genome biology\nLewis E. Kay (born 1961), senior scientist in molecular medicine\nShaf Keshavjee, became a director of the Toronto lung transplant program in 1997 and later a scientist in 2012\nGideon Koren (born 1947), doctor\nArlette Lefebvre (born 1947), child psychiatrist\nKellie Leitch (born 1970), orthopaedic pediatric surgeon\nJames MacCallum (1860-1943), ophthalmologist\nSabi Marwah (born 1951), board member\nMichael McCain (born 1958), member of the Board of Trustees\nKathryn McGarry, critical care nurse\nPleasantine Mill, cell biologist who worked at the hospital\nFreda Miller, developmental neurobiologist\nCaroline Mulroney (born 1974), board member\nEdward G. Murphy (1921-2020), senior staff member\nAideen Nicholson (1927-2019), social worker\nIsaac Odame, staff physician\nEdmund Boyd Osler (1845-1924), trustee\nBlake Papsin (born 1959), otolaryngologist\nRulan S. Parekh, former senior scientist in child health evaluative sciences and associate chief of clinical research\nTom Pashby, former senior staff ophthalmologist and sport safety advocate[32]\nDebra Pepler, senior associate scientist\nAudrius V. Plioplys, chief resident of child neurology\nJohn Russell Reynolds (1828-1896), assistant physician\nLisa Robinson, former head of the division of nephrology\nEdward S. Rogers III (born 1969), director\nJohanna Rommens, senior scientist emeritus\nMiriam Rossi (1937-2018), pediatrician in the division of adolescent medicine\nJames Rutka (born 1956), subspecializes in pediatric neurosurgery\nRobert B. Salter (1924-2010), surgeon\nBibudhendra Sarkar (born 1935), head of the Division of Biochemistry Research from 1990-2002\nHarry Schachter (born 1933), head of the division of biochemistry research\nChandrakant Shah (born 1936), honorary staff\nLouis Siminovitch (1920-2021), helped establish the department of genetics and became geneticist-in-chief\nSheila Singh, neurosurgeon\nCharles R. Smith, head forensic pathologist\nValerie Speirs, professor\nAmbrose Thomas Stanton (1875-1938), house surgeon\nMartin J. Steinbach (1941-2017), senior scientist in department of ophthalmology\nAnna Taddio (born 1967), adjunct senior scientist and clinical pharmacist\nKathleen P. Taylor (born 1957), member of the Board of Trustees\nAhmad Teebi (1949-2010), clinical geneticist\nJohn M. Thompson (born 1949), vice chairman of the Board of Trustees\nMargaret W. Thompson (1920-2014), genetics researcher\nRichard M. Thomson (born 1933), member on the Board of Directors\nJames Thorburn (1830-1905), physician of the boys' home\nFrederick Tisdall (1893-1949), pediatrician\nJames Marshall Tory (1930-2013), chairman of the board\nLap-Chee Tsui (born 1950), member of department of genetics\nNorma Ford Walker (1893-1968), first director of the department of genetics\nPrem Watsa (born 1950), member of the Board of Trustees\nBryan R.G. Williams, held various positions at the hospital\nRonald Worton (born 1942), director of the diagnostic cytogenetics laboratory\nStanley Zlotkin, clinical nutritionist","title":"Notable staff"}]
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[{"image_text":"Victoria Hospital for Sick Children","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Old_Hospital_for_Sick_Children.jpg/170px-Old_Hospital_for_Sick_Children.jpg"},{"image_text":"Nurse and orderly transport child to operating room, c. 1915","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Toronto_Hospital_for_Sick_Children._c._1915.jpg/220px-Toronto_Hospital_for_Sick_Children._c._1915.jpg"},{"image_text":"Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Peter_Gilgan_Centre_for_Research_and_Learning.jpg/170px-The_Peter_Gilgan_Centre_for_Research_and_Learning.jpg"},{"image_text":"Atrium designed by Eberhard Zeidler","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Atrium%2C_The_Hospital_for_Sick_Children%2C_Toronto%2C_Canada_%282019%29.jpg/170px-Atrium%2C_The_Hospital_for_Sick_Children%2C_Toronto%2C_Canada_%282019%29.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Braithwaite, Max (1974). Sick Kids: the story of the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-1636-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto","url_text":"Toronto"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McClelland_and_Stewart","url_text":"McClelland and Stewart"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7710-1636-0","url_text":"0-7710-1636-0"}]},{"reference":"Newton, Michael (2006). The Encyclopedia of Serial Killers (2nd ed.). New York: Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-73947-249-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-73947-249-1","url_text":"978-0-73947-249-1"}]},{"reference":"Wright, David (2016). SickKids: The History of the Hospital for Sick Children. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1442647237.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.utppublishing.com/SickKids-The-History-of-the-Hospital-for-Sick-Children.html","url_text":"SickKids: The History of the Hospital for Sick Children"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto","url_text":"Toronto"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press","url_text":"University of Toronto Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442647237","url_text":"978-1442647237"}]},{"reference":"\"SickKids named No.1 paediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek\". Sick Kids. Retrieved 20 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2021/sickkids-named-top-paediatric-hospital-world-newsweek/","url_text":"\"SickKids named No.1 paediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek\""}]},{"reference":"Ionova, Mariana (August 26, 2013). \"Sick Kids honours donor Peter Gilgan for $40 million donation\". Toronto Star.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2013/08/26/sick_kids_honours_donor_peter_gilgan_for_40_million_donation.html","url_text":"\"Sick Kids honours donor Peter Gilgan for $40 million donation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star","url_text":"Toronto Star"}]},{"reference":"Dueck, Lorna (2016-03-16). \"Doctor-assisted dying: Why religious conscience must be part of the debate\". The Globe and Mail.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/doctor-assisted-dying-why-religious-conscience-must-be-part-of-the-debate/article29252574/","url_text":"\"Doctor-assisted dying: Why religious conscience must be part of the debate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail","url_text":"The Globe and Mail"}]},{"reference":"Jea, Andrew; Al-Otibi, Merdas; Rutka, James; Drake, James; Dirks, Peter; Kulkarni, Abhaya; Taylor, Michael; Humphreys, Robin (September 2007). \"The History of Neurosurgery at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto\" (PDF). Neurosurgery. 61 (3): 612–625. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E. hdl:1807/24716. PMID 17881976. S2CID 28061565.","urls":[{"url":"https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/24716/1/The_History_of_Neurosurgery_At_the_Hospital_for.24.pdf","url_text":"\"The History of Neurosurgery at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery","url_text":"Neurosurgery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1227%2F01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E","url_text":"10.1227/01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F24716","url_text":"1807/24716"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881976","url_text":"17881976"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28061565","url_text":"28061565"}]},{"reference":"\"SickKids History\". Hospital for Sick Children. 2005-12-15. Archived from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060908220655/http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutHSC/section.asp?s=History+and+Milestones&sID=11889&ss=SickKids+History&ssID=211","url_text":"\"SickKids History\""},{"url":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutHSC/section.asp?s=History+and+Milestones&sID=11889&ss=SickKids+History&ssID=211","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Opened first hospital rooftop heliport for emergency transfer of patients (1972)\". Hospital for Sick Children. Retrieved 2013-06-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutSickKids/History-and-Milestones/Archive-Photos/Helicopter-1972-photo-page.html","url_text":"\"Opened first hospital rooftop heliport for emergency transfer of patients (1972)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Breaking news: Ransomware gang gives decryptor to Toronto's SickKids Hospital | IT Business\". www.itworldcanada.com. 2023-01-01. Retrieved 2023-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itworldcanada.com/article/breaking-news-ransomware-gang-gives-decryptor-to-torontos-sickkids-hospital/519841","url_text":"\"Breaking news: Ransomware gang gives decryptor to Toronto's SickKids Hospital | IT Business\""}]},{"reference":"\"BIO Member Directory\". Biotechnology Innovation Organization. Archived from the original on 2022-09-30. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bio.org/bio-member-directory","url_text":"\"BIO Member Directory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology_Innovation_Organization","url_text":"Biotechnology Innovation Organization"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220930103715/https://www.bio.org/bio-member-directory","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada - Competition Results\". Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). 2021-07-26. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/NSERC-CRSNG/FundingDecisions-DecisionsFinancement/2021/Vaccine_eng.asp","url_text":"\"Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada - Competition Results\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_and_Engineering_Research_Council_of_Canada","url_text":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20220115100237/https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/NSERC-CRSNG/FundingDecisions-DecisionsFinancement/2021/Vaccine_eng.asp%23tphp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NSERC - Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada\". Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. 2021-03-03. Archived from the original on 2022-11-05. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/Promoter-Promotion/VaccineConfidence_eng.asp","url_text":"\"NSERC - Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_and_Engineering_Research_Council_of_Canada","url_text":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221105180543/https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/Promoter-Promotion/VaccineConfidence_eng.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"COVID-19 Vaccination Information for Education & Child Care Sector Staff, retrieved 2022-11-05","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lylv8yFnjcM","url_text":"COVID-19 Vaccination Information for Education & Child Care Sector Staff"}]},{"reference":"\"Resources for Healthcare Workers\". 19 to Zero. Archived from the original on 2022-01-15. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.19tozero.ca/healthcare-worker-resources","url_text":"\"Resources for Healthcare Workers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19_to_Zero","url_text":"19 to Zero"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20220115101049/https://www.19tozero.ca/healthcare-worker-resources","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Public Health Agency of Canada (2022-10-12). \"Immunization Partnership Fund\". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 2022-11-04. Retrieved 2022-11-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada","url_text":"Public Health Agency of Canada"},{"url":"https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/immunization-vaccine-priorities/immunization-partnership-fund.html","url_text":"\"Immunization Partnership Fund\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada","url_text":"Government of Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221104154209/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/immunization-vaccine-priorities/immunization-partnership-fund.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lang, Hon. Susan E. (December 15, 2015). \"Report of the Motherisk Hair Analysis Independent Review\" (PDF). Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. Toronto, Ontario. Retrieved August 26, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.m-hair.ca/docs/default-source/default-document-library/motherisk_enbfb30b45b7f266cc881aff0000960f99.pdf?sfvrsn=2","url_text":"\"Report of the Motherisk Hair Analysis Independent Review\""}]},{"reference":"Charles, Ron (February 8, 2016). \"Motherisk scandal highlights risk of deferring to experts without questioning credentials\". CBC News. Retrieved August 26, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/health/motherisk-experts-forensic-testimony-1.3433881","url_text":"\"Motherisk scandal highlights risk of deferring to experts without questioning credentials\""}]},{"reference":"Goudge, Stephen T. (September 30, 2008). Inquiry into Pediatric Forensic Pathology in Ontario (PDF). Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General. ISBN 978-1-4249-7794-9. Retrieved August 26, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/inquiries/goudge/report/v1_en_pdf/Vol_1_Eng.pdf","url_text":"Inquiry into Pediatric Forensic Pathology in Ontario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4249-7794-9","url_text":"978-1-4249-7794-9"}]},{"reference":"Lombardo, Christopher (2019-10-15). \"SickKids zeroes in on why it needs more space\". Strategy. Retrieved 2020-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://strategyonline.ca/2019/10/15/sickkids-zeroes-in-on-why-it-needs-more-space/","url_text":"\"SickKids zeroes in on why it needs more space\""}]},{"reference":"Westoll, Nick (2019-09-18). \"SickKids highlights crowded ICU conditions amid massive redevelopment project\". Global News. Retrieved 2020-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://globalnews.ca/news/5920164/hospital-for-sick-children-airbnb-suite/","url_text":"\"SickKids highlights crowded ICU conditions amid massive redevelopment project\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_News","url_text":"Global News"}]},{"reference":"Kennedy, David (2020-02-24). \"Demolition of eight-storey Toronto hospital building sets stage for multibillion-dollar SickKids expansion\". On-Site. Retrieved 2020-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.on-sitemag.com/features/demolition-of-eight-storey-toronto-hospital-building-sets-stage-for-multibillion-dollar-sickkids-expansion/","url_text":"\"Demolition of eight-storey Toronto hospital building sets stage for multibillion-dollar SickKids expansion\""}]},{"reference":"\"A new phase begins: Patient Support Centre groundbreaking\". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2019/patient-support-centre-groundbreaking/","url_text":"\"A new phase begins: Patient Support Centre groundbreaking\""}]},{"reference":"\"We're reaching new heights on the Patient Support Centre!\". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2022/PSC-topping-off/","url_text":"\"We're reaching new heights on the Patient Support Centre!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Celebrating the Patient Support Centre, a critical first step in our campus redevelopment journey\". SickKids. Retrieved 2024-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2023/psc-ribbon-cutting/","url_text":"\"Celebrating the Patient Support Centre, a critical first step in our campus redevelopment journey\""}]},{"reference":"\"Furious Pete: From anorexic to world-class competitive eater\". The Toronto Star. 9 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2012/07/09/furious_pete_from_anorexic_to_worldclass_competitive_eater.html","url_text":"\"Furious Pete: From anorexic to world-class competitive eater\""}]},{"reference":"\"Is Growing up in Silence Better Than Growing up Different? | Intersex Society of North America\".","urls":[{"url":"https://isna.org/node/743/","url_text":"\"Is Growing up in Silence Better Than Growing up Different? | Intersex Society of North America\""}]},{"reference":"Fitterman, Lisa (2 October 2016). \"Peter Kavanagh: Author and radio producer had a 'furious intellect'\". The Globe and Mail.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/television/peter-kavanagh-author-and-radio-producer-had-a-furious-intellect/article32204841/","url_text":"\"Peter Kavanagh: Author and radio producer had a 'furious intellect'\""}]},{"reference":"Bliss, Michael (15 February 2013). The Discovery of Insulin. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226075631.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NEW8NwCXjGoC&pg=PA112","url_text":"The Discovery of Insulin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226075631","url_text":"9780226075631"}]},{"reference":"Colbourn, Glen; Kalchman, Lois (August 27, 2005). \"Heads Above the Rest: Hockeys' Dr. Safety dies at 90\". Toronto Star. Toronto, Ontario. p. A1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star","url_text":"Toronto Star"}]},{"reference":"Colbourn, Glen; Kalchman, Lois (August 27, 2005). \"Hockey pioneer saved many players: Safety (From A1)\". Toronto Star. Toronto, Ontario. p. A19.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star","url_text":"Toronto Star"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Hospital_for_Sick_Children_(Toronto)¶ms=43.6571_N_79.3885_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"43°39′26″N 79°23′19″W / 43.6571°N 79.3885°W / 43.6571; -79.3885"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Hospital_for_Sick_Children_(Toronto)¶ms=43.6571_N_79.3885_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"43°39′26″N 79°23′19″W / 43.6571°N 79.3885°W / 43.6571; -79.3885"},{"Link":"http://www.sickkids.ca/","external_links_name":"www.sickkids.ca"},{"Link":"http://www.utppublishing.com/SickKids-The-History-of-the-Hospital-for-Sick-Children.html","external_links_name":"SickKids: The History of the Hospital for Sick Children"},{"Link":"https://www.sickkids.ca/en/news/archive/2021/sickkids-named-top-paediatric-hospital-world-newsweek/","external_links_name":"\"SickKids named No.1 paediatric hospital in the world by Newsweek\""},{"Link":"https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2013/08/26/sick_kids_honours_donor_peter_gilgan_for_40_million_donation.html","external_links_name":"\"Sick Kids honours donor Peter Gilgan for $40 million donation\""},{"Link":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/doctor-assisted-dying-why-religious-conscience-must-be-part-of-the-debate/article29252574/","external_links_name":"\"Doctor-assisted dying: Why religious conscience must be part of the debate\""},{"Link":"https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/24716/1/The_History_of_Neurosurgery_At_the_Hospital_for.24.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The History of Neurosurgery at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1227%2F01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E","external_links_name":"10.1227/01.NEU.0000290910.32600.7E"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F24716","external_links_name":"1807/24716"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17881976","external_links_name":"17881976"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28061565","external_links_name":"28061565"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060908220655/http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutHSC/section.asp?s=History+and+Milestones&sID=11889&ss=SickKids+History&ssID=211","external_links_name":"\"SickKids History\""},{"Link":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutHSC/section.asp?s=History+and+Milestones&sID=11889&ss=SickKids+History&ssID=211","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutSickKids/History-and-Milestones/Archive-Photos/Helicopter-1972-photo-page.html","external_links_name":"\"Opened first hospital rooftop heliport for emergency transfer of patients (1972)\""},{"Link":"https://www.itworldcanada.com/article/breaking-news-ransomware-gang-gives-decryptor-to-torontos-sickkids-hospital/519841","external_links_name":"\"Breaking news: Ransomware gang gives decryptor to Toronto's SickKids Hospital | IT Business\""},{"Link":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutSickKids/History-and-Milestones/Milestones/1951-1975/index.html","external_links_name":"Hospital - About SickKids - History and milestones - Milestones - 1951–1975"},{"Link":"http://www.sickkids.ca/AboutSickKids/History-and-Milestones/Milestones/1976-2000/index.html","external_links_name":"Hospital - About SickKids - History and milestones - Milestones - 1976–2000"},{"Link":"https://www.bio.org/bio-member-directory","external_links_name":"\"BIO Member Directory\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220930103715/https://www.bio.org/bio-member-directory","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/NSERC-CRSNG/FundingDecisions-DecisionsFinancement/2021/Vaccine_eng.asp","external_links_name":"\"Encouraging vaccine confidence in Canada - Competition Results\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20220115100237/https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/NSERC-CRSNG/FundingDecisions-DecisionsFinancement/2021/Vaccine_eng.asp%23tphp","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/Promoter-Promotion/VaccineConfidence_eng.asp","external_links_name":"\"NSERC - 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_five_tetrahedra
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Compound of five tetrahedra
|
["1 As a compound","2 As a stellation","3 As a faceting","4 Group theory","5 An unusual dual property","6 In 4-dimensional space","7 See also","8 Citations","9 References","10 External links"]
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Compound polyhedron
Compound of five tetrahedra
Type
Regular compound
Coxeter symbol
{5,3} {3,5}
Index
UC5, W24
Elements(As a compound)
5 tetrahedra:F = 20, E = 30, V = 20
Dual compound
Self-dual
Symmetry group
chiral icosahedral (I)
Subgroup restricting to one constituent
chiral tetrahedral (T)
3D model of a compound of five tetrahedra
The compound of five tetrahedra is one of the five regular polyhedral compounds. This compound polyhedron is also a stellation of the regular icosahedron. It was first described by Edmund Hess in 1876.
It can be seen as a faceting of a regular dodecahedron.
As a compound
It can be constructed by arranging five tetrahedra in rotational icosahedral symmetry (I), as colored in the upper right model. It is one of five regular compounds which can be constructed from identical Platonic solids.
It shares the same vertex arrangement as a regular dodecahedron.
There are two enantiomorphous forms (the same figure but having opposite chirality) of this compound polyhedron. Both forms together create the reflection symmetric compound of ten tetrahedra.
It has a density of higher than 1.
As a spherical tiling
Transparent Models(Animation)
Five interlocked tetrahedra
As a stellation
It can also be obtained by stellating the icosahedron, and is given as Wenninger model index 24.
Stellation diagram
Stellation core
Convex hull
Icosahedron
Dodecahedron
As a faceting
Five tetrahedra in a dodecahedron.
It is a faceting of a dodecahedron, as shown at left.
Group theory
The compound of five tetrahedra is a geometric illustration of the notion of orbits and stabilizers, as follows.
The symmetry group of the compound is the (rotational) icosahedral group I of order 60, while the stabilizer of a single chosen tetrahedron is the (rotational) tetrahedral group T of order 12, and the orbit space I/T (of order 60/12 = 5) is naturally identified with the 5 tetrahedra – the coset gT corresponds to which tetrahedron g sends the chosen tetrahedron to.
An unusual dual property
Compound of five tetrahedra
This compound is unusual, in that the dual figure is the enantiomorph of the original. If the faces are twisted to the right, then the vertices are twisted to the left. When we dualise, the faces dualise to right-twisted vertices and the vertices dualise to left-twisted faces, giving the chiral twin. Figures with this property are extremely rare.
In 4-dimensional space
The compound of five tetrahedra is related to the regular 5-cell, the 4-simplex regular 4-polytope, which is also composed of 5 regular tetrahedra. In the 5-cell the tetrahedra are bonded face-to-face such that each triangular face is shared by two tetrahedral cells.
The compound of five tetrahedra occurs embedded in 4-dimensional space, inscribed in the 120 dodecahedral cells of the 120-cell. The 120-cell is the largest and most comprehensive regular 4-polytope; the regular 5-cell is the smallest and most elemental. The 120-cell contains inscribed within itself instances of every other regular 4-polytope. In each of the 120-cell's dodecahedral cells, there are two inscribed instances of the compound of 5 tetrahedra (in other words, one instance of the compound of ten tetrahedra). The 5 tetrahedra of each compound of five occur as cells of another regular 4-polytope inscribed within the 120-cell, the 600-cell, which has 600 regular tetrahedra as its cells. The 120-cell is a compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, and each of its dodecahedral cells is a compound of 5 tetrahedral cells, one cell from each of the 5 disjoint 600-cells.
See also
Compound of ten tetrahedra
Compound of five cubes
Compound of five truncated tetrahedra
Citations
^ Coxeter 1973, p. 98.
^ Coxeter 1973, pp. 47–50, §3.6 The five regular compounds.
^ Coxeter 1973, pp. 96–104, §6.2 Stellating the Platonic solids.
^ Coxeter 1973, p. 269, Compounds; "It is remarkable that the vertices of {5, 3, 3} include the vertices of all the other fifteen regular polytopes in four dimensions."
References
Wenninger, Magnus (1974). Polyhedron Models. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09859-9.
Coxeter, H.S.M. (1973) . Regular Polytopes (3rd ed.). New York: Dover.
Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald; Du Val, P.; Flather, H. T.; Petrie, J. F. (1999) . The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra (3rd ed.). Tarquin. ISBN 978-1-899618-32-3. MR 0676126.
External links
Weisstein, Eric W. "Tetrahedron 5-Compound". MathWorld.
Metal Sculpture of Five Tetrahedra Compound
VRML model:
Compounds of 5 and 10 Tetrahedra by Sándor Kabai, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Klitzing, Richard. "3D compound".
Notable stellations of the icosahedron
Regular
Uniform duals
Regular compounds
Regular star
Others
(Convex) icosahedron
Small triambic icosahedron
Medial triambic icosahedron
Great triambic icosahedron
Compound of five octahedra
Compound of five tetrahedra
Compound of ten tetrahedra
Great icosahedron
Excavated dodecahedron
Final stellation
The stellation process on the icosahedron creates a number of related polyhedra and compounds with icosahedral symmetry.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compound_of_five_tetrahedra_(full).stl"},{"link_name":"compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedral_compound"},{"link_name":"tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedron"},{"link_name":"compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedral_compound"},{"link_name":"polyhedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedron"},{"link_name":"stellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellation"},{"link_name":"icosahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedron"},{"link_name":"Edmund Hess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hess"},{"link_name":"faceting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#As_a_faceting"},{"link_name":"regular dodecahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_dodecahedron"}],"text":"3D model of a compound of five tetrahedraThe compound of five tetrahedra is one of the five regular polyhedral compounds. This compound polyhedron is also a stellation of the regular icosahedron. It was first described by Edmund Hess in 1876.It can be seen as a faceting of a regular dodecahedron.","title":"Compound of five tetrahedra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedron"},{"link_name":"rotational icosahedral symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_icosahedral_symmetry"},{"link_name":"five regular compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope_compound#Regular_compounds"},{"link_name":"Platonic solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_solid"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxeter197347%E2%80%9350%C2%A73.6_The_five_regular_compounds-2"},{"link_name":"vertex arrangement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_arrangement"},{"link_name":"regular dodecahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_dodecahedron"},{"link_name":"enantiomorphous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"compound of ten tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_ten_tetrahedra"},{"link_name":"density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_(polyhedra)"}],"text":"It can be constructed by arranging five tetrahedra in rotational icosahedral symmetry (I), as colored in the upper right model. It is one of five regular compounds which can be constructed from identical Platonic solids.[2]It shares the same vertex arrangement as a regular dodecahedron.There are two enantiomorphous forms (the same figure but having opposite chirality) of this compound polyhedron. Both forms together create the reflection symmetric compound of ten tetrahedra.It has a density of higher than 1.","title":"As a compound"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stellating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellation"},{"link_name":"icosahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedron"},{"link_name":"Wenninger model index 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wenninger_polyhedron_models#Stellations_of_icosahedron"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxeter197396%E2%80%93104%C2%A76.2_Stellating_the_Platonic_solids-3"}],"text":"It can also be obtained by stellating the icosahedron, and is given as Wenninger model index 24.[3]","title":"As a stellation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chiroicosahedron-in-dodecahedron.png"},{"link_name":"faceting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faceting"}],"text":"Five tetrahedra in a dodecahedron.It is a faceting of a dodecahedron, as shown at left.","title":"As a faceting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orbits and stabilizers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_action_(mathematics)#orbstab"},{"link_name":"icosahedral group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedral_group"},{"link_name":"tetrahedral group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedral_group"}],"text":"The compound of five tetrahedra is a geometric illustration of the notion of orbits and stabilizers, as follows.The symmetry group of the compound is the (rotational) icosahedral group I of order 60, while the stabilizer of a single chosen tetrahedron is the (rotational) tetrahedral group T of order 12, and the orbit space I/T (of order 60/12 = 5) is naturally identified with the 5 tetrahedra – the coset gT corresponds to which tetrahedron g sends the chosen tetrahedron to.","title":"Group theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Second_compound_stellation_of_icosahedron.svg"},{"link_name":"dual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_polyhedron"},{"link_name":"enantiomorph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enantiomorph"},{"link_name":"dualise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_polyhedron"}],"text":"Compound of five tetrahedraThis compound is unusual, in that the dual figure is the enantiomorph of the original. If the faces are twisted to the right, then the vertices are twisted to the left. When we dualise, the faces dualise to right-twisted vertices and the vertices dualise to left-twisted faces, giving the chiral twin. Figures with this property are extremely rare.","title":"An unusual dual property"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"5-cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-cell"},{"link_name":"regular 4-polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_4-polytope"},{"link_name":"4-dimensional space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"120-cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120-cell"},{"link_name":"largest and most comprehensive regular 4-polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120-cell#Geometry"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoxeter1973269Compounds-4"},{"link_name":"compound of ten tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_ten_tetrahedra"},{"link_name":"600-cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/600-cell"},{"link_name":"compound of 5 tetrahedral cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/120-cell#Cell_rotations_of_inscribed_duals"}],"text":"The compound of five tetrahedra is related to the regular 5-cell, the 4-simplex regular 4-polytope, which is also composed of 5 regular tetrahedra. In the 5-cell the tetrahedra are bonded face-to-face such that each triangular face is shared by two tetrahedral cells.The compound of five tetrahedra occurs embedded in 4-dimensional space, inscribed in the 120 dodecahedral cells of the 120-cell. The 120-cell is the largest and most comprehensive regular 4-polytope; the regular 5-cell is the smallest and most elemental. The 120-cell contains inscribed within itself instances of every other regular 4-polytope.[4] In each of the 120-cell's dodecahedral cells, there are two inscribed instances of the compound of 5 tetrahedra (in other words, one instance of the compound of ten tetrahedra). The 5 tetrahedra of each compound of five occur as cells of another regular 4-polytope inscribed within the 120-cell, the 600-cell, which has 600 regular tetrahedra as its cells. The 120-cell is a compound of 5 disjoint 600-cells, and each of its dodecahedral cells is a compound of 5 tetrahedral cells, one cell from each of the 5 disjoint 600-cells.","title":"In 4-dimensional space"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxeter197398_1-0"},{"link_name":"Coxeter 1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCoxeter1973"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxeter197347%E2%80%9350%C2%A73.6_The_five_regular_compounds_2-0"},{"link_name":"Coxeter 1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCoxeter1973"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxeter197396%E2%80%93104%C2%A76.2_Stellating_the_Platonic_solids_3-0"},{"link_name":"Coxeter 1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCoxeter1973"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoxeter1973269Compounds_4-0"},{"link_name":"Coxeter 1973","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCoxeter1973"}],"text":"^ Coxeter 1973, p. 98.\n\n^ Coxeter 1973, pp. 47–50, §3.6 The five regular compounds.\n\n^ Coxeter 1973, pp. 96–104, §6.2 Stellating the Platonic solids.\n\n^ Coxeter 1973, p. 269, Compounds; \"It is remarkable that the vertices of {5, 3, 3} include the vertices of all the other fifteen regular polytopes in four dimensions.\"","title":"Citations"}]
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[{"title":"Compound of ten tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_ten_tetrahedra"},{"title":"Compound of five cubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_five_cubes"},{"title":"Compound of five truncated tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_of_five_truncated_tetrahedra"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_City,_Arkansas
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Y City, Arkansas
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["1 References"]
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Coordinates: 34°44′05″N 94°04′38″W / 34.73472°N 94.07722°W / 34.73472; -94.07722Place in Arkansas, United States
Unincorporated community in Arkansas, United StatesY CityUnincorporated communityCountry United StatesStateArkansasCountyScott County
Y City is an unincorporated community in Scott County, Arkansas, United States. It is located at the junction of U.S. Highway 71 and U.S. Highway 270 in the southern part of the county on Mill Creek.
References
^ "Encyclopedia of Arkansas". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
^ Dale, Tina Alvey (October 13, 2022). "Officials break ground on the next section of I-49". Talk Business & Politics. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
vteMunicipalities and communities of Scott County, Arkansas, United StatesCounty seat: WaldronCities
Mansfield‡
Waldron
Map of Arkansas highlighting Scott CountyCDP
Boles
Other unincorporatedcommunities
Abbott
Anderson
Bates
Black Fork
Blue Ball‡
Bryan
Cauthron
Cedar Creek
Elm Park
Evening Shade
Gipson
Green Ridge
Harvey
Hon
Needmore
Nella
Nola
Oliver
Parks
Pleasant Hill
The Pines
Weeks
Winfield
Y City
Ghost towns
Blansett
Forester
Gate
Nebraska
Sensation
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Arkansas portal
United States portal
34°44′05″N 94°04′38″W / 34.73472°N 94.07722°W / 34.73472; -94.07722
This article about a location in Scott County, Arkansas is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"image_text":"Map of Arkansas highlighting Scott County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Map_of_Arkansas_highlighting_Scott_County.svg/180px-Map_of_Arkansas_highlighting_Scott_County.svg.png"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_50_Business_(Salisbury,_Maryland)
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U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, Maryland)
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["1 Route description","2 History","3 Junction list","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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Route map: Highway in Maryland
U.S. Route 50 BusinessRoute informationAuxiliary route of US 50Maintained by MDSHALength6.88 mi (11.07 km)Existed2002–presentTouristroutes Chesapeake Country Scenic BywayMajor junctionsWest end US 50 west of SalisburyMajor intersections MD 349 in Salisbury
US 13 Bus. in Salisbury
MD 346 in SalisburyEast end US 13 / US 50 east of Salisbury
LocationCountryUnited StatesStateMarylandCountiesWicomico
Highway system
United States Numbered Highway System
List
Special
Divided
Maryland highway system
Interstate
US
State
Scenic Byways
U.S. Route 50 Business (US 50 Business) is a business route of U.S. Route 50 in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs 6.88 miles (11.07 km) from US 50 on the northwest side of Salisbury to US 13 and US 50 on the east side of Salisbury in central Wicomico County. US 50 Business is a four- to six-lane divided highway within and on either side of the central business district of Salisbury, where the highway intersects MD 349, US 13 Business, and MD 346. US 50 Business west of MD 349 is a mid-1950s upgrade of the original highway entering Salisbury from the northwest. The business route between MD 349 and MD 346 was a relocation of US 50 from Main Street built in the early 1960s. East of MD 346, US 50 Business is part of the relocation of US 50 between Salisbury and Berlin completed in the mid-1960s. US 50 Business was designated when the US 50 portion of the Salisbury Bypass was completed in 2002.
Route description
US 50 Bus. at Tilghman Road in Salisbury.
View east along US 50 Bus. at Civic Avenue in Salisbury
US 50 Business begins at a partial interchange with US 50, with ramps from US 50 east to US 50 Business east and US 50 Business west to US 50 west. One lane of westbound US 50 Business continues beyond the ramp to an intersection with Stanton Avenue, a service road for residences detached from US 50 when the interchange was built. The movements missing from the interchange are completed via Naylor Mill Road just to the east of the partial interchange. US 50 Business heads southeast toward downtown Salisbury as a four-lane divided highway. After passing American Legion Road, the business route enters the city limits of Salisbury and its name changes to Salisbury Parkway. At the intersection with MD 349 (Nanticoke Road) and Isabella Street, US 50 Business turns east, expands to six lanes, becomes a partially controlled access highway, and begins to parallel Main Street, the original alignment of US 50.
After crossing the North Prong of the Wicomico River on a drawbridge, the business route intersects Division Street, the original alignment of US 13. The highway drops to four lanes as ramps to Baptist Street heading eastbound and from Broad Street heading westbound leave the highway; these streets are used to access US 13 Business (Salisbury Boulevard). US 50 Business expands to six lanes again after passing under US 13 Business and the Delmarva Subdivision track of the Delmarva Central Railroad. The business route returns to four lanes after the intersection with MD 346 (Main Street), which is the original alignment of US 50. The median expands as US 50 Business passes commercial and industrial properties. A park and ride lot is located at the southeast corner of the Phillip Morris Drive intersection. Shortly after the intersection with Tilghman Road, the business route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Salisbury Bypass, which features US 13 and US 50 west. The divided highway continues east as US 50 (Ocean Gateway) toward Ocean City.
US 50 Business is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial for its entire length.
History
The original east–west highway through Salisbury entered the city from Hebron along its present course from the northwest to Isabella Street. The highway then followed Main Street to downtown Salisbury. The highway followed Broad Street to Church Street, which the road followed east toward Parsonsburg. This highway was one of the original state roads designated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission (SRC) in 1909. The state roads from Hebron to the western limit of Salisbury and from the eastern limit of Salisbury to Parsonsburg were both completed in 1914. The SRC directed two major changes on Main Street in the mid-1920s. First, the SRC took over maintenance of the drawbridge over the North Prong of the Wicomico River in 1924 and completed its replacement in 1928. While Main Street is no longer a state highway, MDSHA continues to maintain the Main Street drawbridge. The drawbridge was reconstructed in 1980 and is designated as MD 991, which is unsigned. Secondly, the SRC extended Main Street east from downtown along its present course east and then northeast to Church Street in 1926. US 213 was designated as the main east–west highway through Salisbury in 1927. US 213 was moved from Church Street to Main Street around 1940. US 50 replaced US 213 through Salisbury in 1949.
US 50 through Salisbury was upgraded in three portions in the 1950s and 1960s. US 50 west of Isabella Street was expanded to a four-lane divided highway northwest to Naylor Mill Road in 1954. Planning for what became Salisbury Parkway between Isabella Street and Main Street east of downtown began after World War II, when right-of-way estimates were made on routes along Isabella Street and Church Street. By 1956, right-of-way purchases and condemnation of buildings had begun; the highway was completed by 1964. US 50 east of Main Street was relocated in 1965 when the four-lane highway from there to Berlin was completed. While the US 13 portion of the Salisbury Bypass was completed in 1981, construction on the extension west to US 50 to allow that highway to bypass downtown Salisbury did not begin until May 2000. The US 50 portion of the bypass was completed in October 2002; US 50 Business was assigned to the highway through Salisbury at the same time.
Junction list
The entire route is in Wicomico County.
LocationmikmDestinationsNotes
0.000.00 US 50 west (Ocean Gateway) – Cambridge, Bay BridgeWestern terminus of US 50 Business and Salisbury Bypass; eastbound exit and westbound entrance from US 50
0.600.97 Naylor Mill Road east to US 50 east (Salisbury Bypass) – Ocean City
Salisbury2.524.06 MD 349 west (Nanticoke Road) / Isabella Street east – Quantico, NanticokeEastern terminus of MD 349
3.625.83 US 13 Bus. (Salisbury Boulevard) – Fruitland, DelmarEastbound exit and westbound entrance
4.397.07 MD 346 east (Main Street) / Main Street west – ParsonsburgWestern terminus of MD 346; old alignment of US 50
6.8811.07 US 13 (Salisbury Bypass) / US 50 (Ocean Gateway) – Cambridge, Ocean City, Dover, NorfolkEastern terminus of US 50 Business; partial cloverleaf interchange
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi Incomplete access
See also
Maryland Roads portal
References
KML file (edit • help)
Template:Attached KML/U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, Maryland)KML is from Wikidata
^ a b c d e f Highway Information Services Division (December 31, 2013). Highway Location Reference. Maryland State Highway Administration. Retrieved 2010-10-21.
Wicomico County (PDF).
^ a b Google (2010-04-23). "U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, MD)" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ National Highway System: Salisbury, MD (PDF) (Map). Federal Highway Administration. October 1, 2012. Retrieved 2015-05-15.
^ Salisbury, MD Quadrangle (Map) (1901 ed.). 1:48,000. 15 Minute Series (Topographic). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ Maryland Geological Survey (1910). Map of Maryland (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland Geological Survey.
^ Weller, O.E.; Parran, Thomas; Miller, W.B.; Perry, John M.; Ramsay, Andrew; Smith, J. Frank (May 1916). Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1912–1915 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 114. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ a b Mackall, John N.; Darnall, R. Bennett; Brown, W.W. (January 1927). Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1924–1926 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. pp. 26–27. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ a b Federal Highway Administration (2012). "NBI Structure Number: 100000220009010". National Bridge Inventory. Federal Highway Administration.
^ Maryland Geological Survey (1927). Map of Maryland: Showing State Road System and State Aid Roads (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland Geological Survey.
^ Maryland State Roads Commission (1940). Map of Maryland Showing Highways and Points of Interest (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.
^ Maryland State Roads Commission (1949). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.
^ McCain, Russell H.; Bennett, Edgar T.; Kelly, Bramwell (November 12, 1954). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1953–1954 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. pp. 136–137. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ Maryland State Roads Commission (1955). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.
^ Reindollar, Robert M.; Webb, P. Watson; McCain, Russell H. (February 1, 1947). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1945–1946 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 43. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ Bonnell, Robert O.; Bennett, Edgar T.; McMullen, John J. (November 2, 1956). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1955–1956 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 127. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ Maryland State Roads Commission (1964). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.
^ Maryland State Roads Commission (1965). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.
^ Maryland State Highway Administration (1981). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map) (1981–1982 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Highway Administration.
^ The Associated Press (2000-05-06). "Project to speed trip to Maryland beach". The Free Lance–Star. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Free Lance–Star Publishing Company. p. A14. Retrieved 2010-04-24.
^ Highway Information Services Division (December 31, 2002). Highway Location Reference. Maryland State Highway Administration. Retrieved 2010-10-21.
Wicomico County (PDF).
^ A Sun Staff Writer (2002-10-23). "$94 million bypass around Salisbury to open today, 6 months ahead of schedule". The Baltimore Sun. Baltimore: Tribune Company. p. 4B. Retrieved 2010-04-24.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, Maryland).
Maryland Roads - Bus. US 50
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"business route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_route"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_50_in_Maryland"},{"link_name":"U.S. state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland"},{"link_name":"Salisbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"US 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_13_in_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Wicomico County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicomico_County,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"central business district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district"},{"link_name":"MD 349","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland_Route_349"},{"link_name":"US 13 Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_13_Business_(Salisbury,_Maryland)"},{"link_name":"MD 346","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland_Route_346"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin,_Maryland"}],"text":"Highway in MarylandU.S. Route 50 Business (US 50 Business) is a business route of U.S. Route 50 in the U.S. state of Maryland. The highway runs 6.88 miles (11.07 km) from US 50 on the northwest side of Salisbury to US 13 and US 50 on the east side of Salisbury in central Wicomico County. US 50 Business is a four- to six-lane divided highway within and on either side of the central business district of Salisbury, where the highway intersects MD 349, US 13 Business, and MD 346. US 50 Business west of MD 349 is a mid-1950s upgrade of the original highway entering Salisbury from the northwest. The business route between MD 349 and MD 346 was a relocation of US 50 from Main Street built in the early 1960s. East of MD 346, US 50 Business is part of the relocation of US 50 between Salisbury and Berlin completed in the mid-1960s. US 50 Business was designated when the US 50 portion of the Salisbury Bypass was completed in 2002.","title":"U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, Maryland)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2006_01_06_-_50_BU_@_Tilghman_Dr_2.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2017-08-21_18_30_26_View_east_along_U.S._Route_50_Business_(Ocean_Gateway)_at_Civic_Avenue_in_Salisbury,_Wicomico_County,_Maryland.jpg"},{"link_name":"controlled access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited-access_road"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maryland_HLR-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google_Maps_US_50_Bus-2"},{"link_name":"Wicomico River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicomico_River_(Maryland_eastern_shore)"},{"link_name":"drawbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moveable_bridge"},{"link_name":"Delmarva Central Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delmarva_Central_Railroad"},{"link_name":"park and ride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_and_ride"},{"link_name":"partial cloverleaf interchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_cloverleaf_interchange"},{"link_name":"Ocean City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_City,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maryland_HLR-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google_Maps_US_50_Bus-2"},{"link_name":"National Highway System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Highway_System_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maryland_HLR-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-National_Highway_System-3"}],"text":"US 50 Bus. at Tilghman Road in Salisbury.View east along US 50 Bus. at Civic Avenue in SalisburyUS 50 Business begins at a partial interchange with US 50, with ramps from US 50 east to US 50 Business east and US 50 Business west to US 50 west. One lane of westbound US 50 Business continues beyond the ramp to an intersection with Stanton Avenue, a service road for residences detached from US 50 when the interchange was built. The movements missing from the interchange are completed via Naylor Mill Road just to the east of the partial interchange. US 50 Business heads southeast toward downtown Salisbury as a four-lane divided highway. After passing American Legion Road, the business route enters the city limits of Salisbury and its name changes to Salisbury Parkway. At the intersection with MD 349 (Nanticoke Road) and Isabella Street, US 50 Business turns east, expands to six lanes, becomes a partially controlled access highway, and begins to parallel Main Street, the original alignment of US 50.[1][2]After crossing the North Prong of the Wicomico River on a drawbridge, the business route intersects Division Street, the original alignment of US 13. The highway drops to four lanes as ramps to Baptist Street heading eastbound and from Broad Street heading westbound leave the highway; these streets are used to access US 13 Business (Salisbury Boulevard). US 50 Business expands to six lanes again after passing under US 13 Business and the Delmarva Subdivision track of the Delmarva Central Railroad. The business route returns to four lanes after the intersection with MD 346 (Main Street), which is the original alignment of US 50. The median expands as US 50 Business passes commercial and industrial properties. A park and ride lot is located at the southeast corner of the Phillip Morris Drive intersection. Shortly after the intersection with Tilghman Road, the business route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Salisbury Bypass, which features US 13 and US 50 west. The divided highway continues east as US 50 (Ocean Gateway) toward Ocean City.[1][2]US 50 Business is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial for its entire length.[1][3]","title":"Route description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hebron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebron,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Parsonsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsonsburg,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USGS_1901_Salisbury-4"},{"link_name":"Maryland State Roads Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland_State_Highway_Administration"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1910_map-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1915_src_report-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1926_src_report-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NBI_Main_Street_Drawbridge-8"},{"link_name":"MD 991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland_Route_991"},{"link_name":"unsigned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsigned_highway"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maryland_HLR-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NBI_Main_Street_Drawbridge-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1926_src_report-7"},{"link_name":"US 213","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_213"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1927_map-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1940_map-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1949_map-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1954_src_report-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1955_map-13"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1946_src_report-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1956_src_report-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1964_map-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1965_map-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1981_map-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bypass_Groundbreaking-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maryland_HLR_2002-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bypass_Opens-21"}],"text":"The original east–west highway through Salisbury entered the city from Hebron along its present course from the northwest to Isabella Street. The highway then followed Main Street to downtown Salisbury. The highway followed Broad Street to Church Street, which the road followed east toward Parsonsburg.[4] This highway was one of the original state roads designated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission (SRC) in 1909.[5] The state roads from Hebron to the western limit of Salisbury and from the eastern limit of Salisbury to Parsonsburg were both completed in 1914.[6] The SRC directed two major changes on Main Street in the mid-1920s. First, the SRC took over maintenance of the drawbridge over the North Prong of the Wicomico River in 1924 and completed its replacement in 1928.[7][8] While Main Street is no longer a state highway, MDSHA continues to maintain the Main Street drawbridge. The drawbridge was reconstructed in 1980 and is designated as MD 991, which is unsigned.[1][8] Secondly, the SRC extended Main Street east from downtown along its present course east and then northeast to Church Street in 1926.[7] US 213 was designated as the main east–west highway through Salisbury in 1927.[9] US 213 was moved from Church Street to Main Street around 1940.[10] US 50 replaced US 213 through Salisbury in 1949.[11]US 50 through Salisbury was upgraded in three portions in the 1950s and 1960s. US 50 west of Isabella Street was expanded to a four-lane divided highway northwest to Naylor Mill Road in 1954.[12][13] Planning for what became Salisbury Parkway between Isabella Street and Main Street east of downtown began after World War II, when right-of-way estimates were made on routes along Isabella Street and Church Street.[14] By 1956, right-of-way purchases and condemnation of buildings had begun; the highway was completed by 1964.[15][16] US 50 east of Main Street was relocated in 1965 when the four-lane highway from there to Berlin was completed.[17] While the US 13 portion of the Salisbury Bypass was completed in 1981, construction on the extension west to US 50 to allow that highway to bypass downtown Salisbury did not begin until May 2000.[18][19] The US 50 portion of the bypass was completed in October 2002; US 50 Business was assigned to the highway through Salisbury at the same time.[20][21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wicomico County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicomico_County,_Maryland"}],"text":"The entire route is in Wicomico County.","title":"Junction list"}]
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[{"image_text":"US 50 Bus. at Tilghman Road in Salisbury.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/2006_01_06_-_50_BU_%40_Tilghman_Dr_2.JPG/220px-2006_01_06_-_50_BU_%40_Tilghman_Dr_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"View east along US 50 Bus. at Civic Avenue in Salisbury","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/2017-08-21_18_30_26_View_east_along_U.S._Route_50_Business_%28Ocean_Gateway%29_at_Civic_Avenue_in_Salisbury%2C_Wicomico_County%2C_Maryland.jpg/220px-2017-08-21_18_30_26_View_east_along_U.S._Route_50_Business_%28Ocean_Gateway%29_at_Civic_Avenue_in_Salisbury%2C_Wicomico_County%2C_Maryland.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Maryland Roads portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Maryland_Roads"}]
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[{"reference":"Highway Information Services Division (December 31, 2013). Highway Location Reference. Maryland State Highway Administration. Retrieved 2010-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/mdotsha/pages/Index.aspx?PageId=832","url_text":"Highway Location Reference"}]},{"reference":"Wicomico County (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/Location/2013_Wicomico.pdf","url_text":"Wicomico County"}]},{"reference":"Google (2010-04-23). \"U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, MD)\" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google","url_text":"Google"},{"url":"https://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=MD-349+N%2FNanticoke+Rd&daddr=Nanticoke+Rd&hl=en&geocode=FWaCRwIdkNJ5-w%3BFfB4SQId1jd--w&mra=ls&sll=38.367082,-75.612266&sspn=0.007722,0.01929&ie=UTF8&t=h&z=11","url_text":"\"U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, MD)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Maps","url_text":"Google Maps"}]},{"reference":"National Highway System: Salisbury, MD (PDF) (Map). Federal Highway Administration. October 1, 2012. Retrieved 2015-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/national_highway_system/nhs_maps/maryland/salisbury_md.pdf","url_text":"National Highway System: Salisbury, MD"}]},{"reference":"Salisbury, MD Quadrangle (Map) (1901 ed.). 1:48,000. 15 Minute Series (Topographic). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://historical.mytopo.com/quad.cfm?quadname=Salisbury&state=MD&series=15","url_text":"Salisbury, MD Quadrangle"}]},{"reference":"Maryland Geological Survey (1910). Map of Maryland (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland Geological Survey.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000002/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-61.pdf","url_text":"Map of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Weller, O.E.; Parran, Thomas; Miller, W.B.; Perry, John M.; Ramsay, Andrew; Smith, J. Frank (May 1916). Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1912–1915 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 114. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/annualreportsofs1912mary","url_text":"Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Mackall, John N.; Darnall, R. Bennett; Brown, W.W. (January 1927). Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1924–1926 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. pp. 26–27. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/annualreportsofs1924mary","url_text":"Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Federal Highway Administration (2012). \"NBI Structure Number: 100000220009010\". National Bridge Inventory. Federal Highway Administration.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Maryland Geological Survey (1927). Map of Maryland: Showing State Road System and State Aid Roads (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland Geological Survey.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000008/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-60.pdf","url_text":"Map of Maryland: Showing State Road System and State Aid Roads"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Roads Commission (1940). Map of Maryland Showing Highways and Points of Interest (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000016/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-46.pdf","url_text":"Map of Maryland Showing Highways and Points of Interest"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Roads Commission (1949). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000019/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-43.pdf","url_text":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"}]},{"reference":"McCain, Russell H.; Bennett, Edgar T.; Kelly, Bramwell (November 12, 1954). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1953–1954 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. pp. 136–137. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1953mary","url_text":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Roads Commission (1955). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000025/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-38.pdf","url_text":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"}]},{"reference":"Reindollar, Robert M.; Webb, P. Watson; McCain, Russell H. (February 1, 1947). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1945–1946 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 43. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1945mary","url_text":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Bonnell, Robert O.; Bennett, Edgar T.; McMullen, John J. (November 2, 1956). Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland (1955–1956 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission. p. 127. Retrieved 2010-04-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1955mary","url_text":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Roads Commission (1964). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000034/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-30.pdf","url_text":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Roads Commission (1965). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map). Baltimore: Maryland State Roads Commission.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000035/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-29.pdf","url_text":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"}]},{"reference":"Maryland State Highway Administration (1981). Maryland: Official Highway Map (PDF) (Map) (1981–1982 ed.). Baltimore: Maryland State Highway Administration.","urls":[{"url":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000054/restricted/1981_sha.pdf","url_text":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"}]},{"reference":"The Associated Press (2000-05-06). \"Project to speed trip to Maryland beach\". The Free Lance–Star. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Free Lance–Star Publishing Company. p. A14. Retrieved 2010-04-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=20000506&id=RgUzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zQgGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3221,1217141","url_text":"\"Project to speed trip to Maryland beach\""}]},{"reference":"Highway Information Services Division (December 31, 2002). Highway Location Reference. Maryland State Highway Administration. Retrieved 2010-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/mdotsha/pages/Index.aspx?PageId=832","url_text":"Highway Location Reference"}]},{"reference":"Wicomico County (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/Location/2002_Wicomico.pdf","url_text":"Wicomico County"}]},{"reference":"A Sun Staff Writer (2002-10-23). \"$94 million bypass around Salisbury to open today, 6 months ahead of schedule\". The Baltimore Sun. Baltimore: Tribune Company. p. 4B. Retrieved 2010-04-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2002-10-23/news/0210230026_1_salisbury-ahead-of-schedule-bypass","url_text":"\"$94 million bypass around Salisbury to open today, 6 months ahead of schedule\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribune_Company","url_text":"Tribune Company"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/U.S._Route_50_Business_(Salisbury,_Maryland)&action=raw","external_links_name":"KML file"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/U.S._Route_50_Business_(Salisbury,_Maryland)&action=edit","external_links_name":"edit"},{"Link":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/mdotsha/pages/Index.aspx?PageId=832","external_links_name":"Highway Location Reference"},{"Link":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/Location/2013_Wicomico.pdf","external_links_name":"Wicomico County"},{"Link":"https://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=MD-349+N%2FNanticoke+Rd&daddr=Nanticoke+Rd&hl=en&geocode=FWaCRwIdkNJ5-w%3BFfB4SQId1jd--w&mra=ls&sll=38.367082,-75.612266&sspn=0.007722,0.01929&ie=UTF8&t=h&z=11","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Route 50 Business (Salisbury, MD)\""},{"Link":"http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/national_highway_system/nhs_maps/maryland/salisbury_md.pdf","external_links_name":"National Highway System: Salisbury, MD"},{"Link":"http://historical.mytopo.com/quad.cfm?quadname=Salisbury&state=MD&series=15","external_links_name":"Salisbury, MD Quadrangle"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000002/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-61.pdf","external_links_name":"Map of Maryland"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/annualreportsofs1912mary","external_links_name":"Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/annualreportsofs1924mary","external_links_name":"Annual Reports of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000008/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-60.pdf","external_links_name":"Map of Maryland: Showing State Road System and State Aid Roads"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000016/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-46.pdf","external_links_name":"Map of Maryland Showing Highways and Points of Interest"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000019/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-43.pdf","external_links_name":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1953mary","external_links_name":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000025/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-38.pdf","external_links_name":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1945mary","external_links_name":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/reportofstateroa1955mary","external_links_name":"Report of the State Roads Commission of Maryland"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000034/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-30.pdf","external_links_name":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000035/restricted/msa_sc_5458_51_3145-29.pdf","external_links_name":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"},{"Link":"http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4400/sc4409/000002/000000/000054/restricted/1981_sha.pdf","external_links_name":"Maryland: Official Highway Map"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=20000506&id=RgUzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zQgGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3221,1217141","external_links_name":"\"Project to speed trip to Maryland beach\""},{"Link":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/mdotsha/pages/Index.aspx?PageId=832","external_links_name":"Highway Location Reference"},{"Link":"https://www.roads.maryland.gov/Location/2002_Wicomico.pdf","external_links_name":"Wicomico County"},{"Link":"http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2002-10-23/news/0210230026_1_salisbury-ahead-of-schedule-bypass","external_links_name":"\"$94 million bypass around Salisbury to open today, 6 months ahead of schedule\""},{"Link":"https://www.alpsroads.net/roads/md/bus_50/","external_links_name":"Maryland Roads - Bus. US 50"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Cameron_County,_Texas
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National Register of Historic Places listings in Cameron County, Texas
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[]
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Location of Cameron County in Texas
This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Cameron County, Texas.
This is intended to be a complete list of properties and districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Cameron County, Texas, United States. The publicly disclosed locations of National Register properties and districts may be seen in a mapping service provided. There are 35 properties and districts listed on the National Register in the county, including 4 National Historic Landmarks. Another property that was formerly listed has been removed.
This National Park Service list is complete through NPS recent listings posted February 9, 2024.
Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap
Download coordinates as:
KML
GPX (all coordinates)
GPX (primary coordinates)
GPX (secondary coordinates)
Current listings
Name on the Register
Image
Date listed
Location
City or town
Description
1
Baxter Building
Baxter Building
March 6, 2019(#100003420)
106 S. A St. 26°11′33″N 97°41′49″W / 26.192451°N 97.696836°W / 26.192451; -97.696836 (Baxter Building)
Harlingen
2
Brazos Santiago Depot
Upload image
July 14, 1971(#71000923)
Address restricted
Port Isabel
3
Samuel Wallace Brooks House
Samuel Wallace Brooks House
November 22, 1988(#88002530)
623 E St. Charles St. 25°54′14″N 97°30′12″W / 25.90375°N 97.503472°W / 25.90375; -97.503472 (Samuel Wallace Brooks House)
Brownsville
4
Brown-Wagner House
Brown-Wagner House More images
August 29, 1977(#77001430)
245 E St. Charles St. 25°54′23″N 97°30′22″W / 25.90625°N 97.506042°W / 25.90625; -97.506042 (Brown-Wagner House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
5
Brownsville City Cemetery and Hebrew Cemetery
Brownsville City Cemetery and Hebrew Cemetery
March 31, 2010(#10000143)
Bound by E. 5th St., Madison St., E 2nd St., and Town Resaca 25°54′34″N 97°30′00″W / 25.909514°N 97.5°W / 25.909514; -97.5 (Brownsville City Cemetery and Hebrew Cemetery)
Brownsville
6
Brownsville City Hall and Market House
Brownsville City Hall and Market House
September 30, 2019(#100004474)
1150 Market Square 25°54′08″N 97°29′51″W / 25.902356°N 97.497521°W / 25.902356; -97.497521 (Brownsville City Hall and Market House)
Brownsville
7
Brownsville Freight Depot and Warehouse District
Brownsville Freight Depot and Warehouse District
March 26, 2018(#100002266)
Roughly bounded by former RR alignment, E Fronton, E 4th & E 9th Sts. 25°54′09″N 97°30′22″W / 25.902504°N 97.506088°W / 25.902504; -97.506088 (Brownsville Freight Depot and Warehouse District)
Brownsville
8
Old Brulay Plantation
Upload image
October 10, 1975(#75001961)
East of Brownsville off of TX 4 25°51′16″N 97°24′01″W / 25.854531°N 97.400289°W / 25.854531; -97.400289 (Old Brulay Plantation)
Brownsville
Also known as the Nye Plantation
9
Cameron County Courthouse
Cameron County Courthouse More images
September 27, 1980(#80004084)
1150 E Madison St. 25°54′15″N 97°29′43″W / 25.904167°N 97.495347°W / 25.904167; -97.495347 (Cameron County Courthouse)
Brownsville
State Antiquities Landmark, Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
10
Old Cameron County Jail
Old Cameron County Jail More images
January 24, 1995(#94001594)
1201 E Van Buren 25°54′19″N 97°29′34″W / 25.905278°N 97.492847°W / 25.905278; -97.492847 (Old Cameron County Jail)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
11
Augustine Celaya House
Augustine Celaya House
April 11, 1986(#86000726)
504 E St. Francis St. 25°54′13″N 97°30′19″W / 25.903681°N 97.505347°W / 25.903681; -97.505347 (Augustine Celaya House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
12
Celaya-Creager House
Celaya-Creager House
May 5, 1988(#88000523)
441 E Washington St. 25°54′25″N 97°30′09″W / 25.906806°N 97.5025°W / 25.906806; -97.5025 (Celaya-Creager House)
Brownsville
13
Central Brownsville Historic District
Upload image
May 31, 2019(#100004008)
Roughly bounded by E. Levee, E. 10th, E. Monroe, E. 14th & E. 15th Sts. & 2 blk. extension along 800 & 900 blks. of E. Elizabeth St. 25°54′10″N 97°29′51″W / 25.9029°N 97.4975°W / 25.9029; -97.4975 (Central Brownsville Historic District)
Brownsville
14
Lillian and George K. Aziz Essey House
Upload image
September 8, 2021(#100006889)
1205 West Elizabeth St. 25°55′03″N 97°30′57″W / 25.9175°N 97.5157°W / 25.9175; -97.5157 (Lillian and George K. Aziz Essey House)
Brownsville
15
Fernandez and Laiseca Building
Upload image
May 11, 2018(#100002433)
1142-1154 Madison St. 25°54′13″N 97°29′44″W / 25.903539°N 97.495647°W / 25.903539; -97.495647 (Fernandez and Laiseca Building)
Brownsville
16
Miguel Fernandez Hide Yard
Miguel Fernandez Hide Yard
October 1, 1990(#90001485)
1101-1121 E Adams St. 25°54′11″N 97°29′51″W / 25.902947°N 97.497414°W / 25.902947; -97.497414 (Miguel Fernandez Hide Yard)
Brownsville
also known as El Aleman
17
Fort Brown
Fort Brown More images
October 15, 1966(#66000811)
S edge of Brownsville off of International Blvd. 25°53′50″N 97°29′26″W / 25.897222°N 97.490556°W / 25.897222; -97.490556 (Fort Brown)
Brownsville
18
M.E. and Estela Cueto Garcia House
M.E. and Estela Cueto Garcia House
June 5, 2017(#100001038)
155 Calle Anacua 25°55′01″N 97°30′11″W / 25.916861°N 97.503116°W / 25.916861; -97.503116 (M.E. and Estela Cueto Garcia House)
Brownsville
19
Garcia Pasture Site
Upload image
February 23, 1972(#72001355)
Address restricted
Port Isabel
20
The Gem
The Gem
June 28, 1991(#91000852)
400 E 13th St. 25°54′00″N 97°29′52″W / 25.89989°N 97.49768°W / 25.89989; -97.49768 (The Gem)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
21
Cieta Friedman and Harry W. Hollowell House
Upload image
March 25, 2019(#100003533)
622 E. Saint Charles St. 25°54′13″N 97°30′14″W / 25.903495°N 97.503767°W / 25.903495; -97.503767 (Cieta Friedman and Harry W. Hollowell House)
Brownsville
22
Hicks-Gregg House
Hicks-Gregg House
July 1, 2009(#09000486)
1249 W. Washington 25°55′06″N 97°30′56″W / 25.918375°N 97.515536°W / 25.918375; -97.515536 (Hicks-Gregg House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
23
Immaculate Conception Church
Immaculate Conception Church More images
March 26, 1980(#80004085)
1218 E Jefferson St. 25°54′09″N 97°29′45″W / 25.9025°N 97.495972°W / 25.9025; -97.495972 (Immaculate Conception Church)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
24
La Madrilena
La Madrilena More images
November 17, 1988(#88002384)
1002 E Madison 25°54′17″N 97°29′49″W / 25.904722°N 97.496806°W / 25.904722; -97.496806 (La Madrilena)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
25
Manautou House
Manautou House
July 14, 1983(#83003130)
5 E Elizabeth St. 25°54′33″N 97°30′23″W / 25.909236°N 97.506458°W / 25.909236; -97.506458 (Manautou House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
26
McNair House
McNair House
November 24, 2015(#15000836)
39 Sunset Drive 25°55′08″N 97°29′52″W / 25.918960°N 97.497848°W / 25.918960; -97.497848 (McNair House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
27
Morris-Browne House
Morris-Browne House
October 25, 2006(#06000955)
204 E Levee St. 25°54′25″N 97°30′22″W / 25.90695°N 97.506111°W / 25.90695; -97.506111 (Morris-Browne House)
Brownsville
28
La Nueva Libertad
La Nueva Libertad More images
April 11, 1986(#84001628)
1301 E Madison 25°54′10″N 97°29′40″W / 25.902778°N 97.494375°W / 25.902778; -97.494375 (La Nueva Libertad)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark; also known as the Cueto Building
29
Palmito Ranch Battlefield
Palmito Ranch Battlefield More images
October 15, 1996(#93000266)
Between TX 4 and the Rio Grande, 12 mi. E of Brownsville 25°56′48″N 97°17′07″W / 25.946667°N 97.285278°W / 25.946667; -97.285278 (Palmito Ranch Battlefield)
Brownsville
30
Palmville
Upload image
October 20, 2021(#100007077)
1400 North Reagan St. 26°08′29″N 97°37′18″W / 26.1415°N 97.6216°W / 26.1415; -97.6216 (Palmville)
San Benito
31
Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park
Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park More images
October 15, 1966(#66000812)
6.3 miles N of Brownsville at intersection of FM 1847 and FM 511 26°01′04″N 97°28′50″W / 26.017886°N 97.480617°W / 26.017886; -97.480617 (Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park)
Brownsville
32
Point Isabel Lighthouse
Point Isabel Lighthouse More images
April 30, 1976(#76002014)
Corner of TX 100 and Garcia St. 26°04′39″N 97°12′27″W / 26.077633°N 97.207583°W / 26.077633; -97.207583 (Point Isabel Lighthouse)
Port Isabel
State Antiquities Landmark
33
Resaca de la Palma Battlefield
Resaca de la Palma Battlefield More images
April 11, 1986(#66000813)
North of intersection of Paredes Line Rd and Price Rd. 25°56′15″N 97°29′10″W / 25.9375°N 97.486111°W / 25.9375; -97.486111 (Resaca de la Palma Battlefield)
Brownsville
Now a portion of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park
34
Rio Grande Valley Gas Company Building
Upload image
August 8, 2022(#100007983)
355 West Elizabeth St. 25°54′42″N 97°30′35″W / 25.911679°N 97.509743°W / 25.911679; -97.509743 (Rio Grande Valley Gas Company Building)
Brownsville
35
Southern Pacific Railroad Passenger Depot
Southern Pacific Railroad Passenger Depot More images
November 17, 1978(#78002903)
601 E Madison St. 25°54′27″N 97°29′57″W / 25.9075°N 97.499236°W / 25.9075; -97.499236 (Southern Pacific Railroad Passenger Depot)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
36
Charles Stillman House
Charles Stillman House More images
November 19, 1979(#79003448)
1305 E Washington St. 25°54′03″N 97°29′47″W / 25.900833°N 97.496319°W / 25.900833; -97.496319 (Charles Stillman House)
Brownsville
Recorded Texas Historic Landmark
Former listing
Name on the Register
Image
Date listedDate removed
Location
City or town
Description
1
USS Cabot
USS Cabot More images
June 21, 1990(#90000334)August 7, 2001
Port of Brownsville 25°57′03″N 97°24′39″W / 25.950835°N 97.410844°W / 25.950835; -97.410844 (USS Cabot)
Brownsville
Previously berthed in New Orleans until 1999; scrapped in 2002
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Register of Historic Places in Cameron County, Texas.
National Register of Historic Places portalTexas portal
National Register of Historic Places listings in Texas
List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks in Cameron County
References
^ The latitude and longitude information provided in this table was derived originally from the National Register Information System, which has been found to be fairly accurate for about 99% of listings. Some locations in this table may have been corrected to current GPS standards.
^ National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, "National Register of Historic Places: Weekly List Actions", retrieved February 9, 2024.
^ a b Numbers represent an alphabetical ordering by significant words. Various colorings, defined here, differentiate National Historic Landmarks and historic districts from other NRHP buildings, structures, sites or objects.
^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
^ The eight-digit number below each date is the number assigned to each location in the National Register Information System database, which can be viewed by clicking the number.
^ a b Federal and state laws and practices restrict general public access to information regarding the specific location of this resource. In some cases, this is to protect archeological sites from vandalism, while in other cases it is restricted at the request of the owner. See: Knoerl, John; Miller, Diane; Shrimpton, Rebecca H. (1990), Guidelines for Restricting Information about Historic and Prehistoric Resources, National Register Bulletin, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, OCLC 20706997.
^ http://www.advancedmastergardener.org/Section106/Brulay%20Plantation%20Historical%20Study/Brulay.pdf
Places adjacent to National Register of Historic Places listings in Cameron County, Texas
Willacy County
Hidalgo County
Cameron County, Texas
Gulf of Mexico
Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico
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vteMunicipalities and communities of Cameron County, Texas, United StatesCounty seat: BrownsvilleCities
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Cameron County mapTowns
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Texas portal
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House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/McNair_House%2C_Brownsville%2C_TX.jpg/100px-McNair_House%2C_Brownsville%2C_TX.jpg"},{"image_text":"Morris-Browne House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Morris-Browne_House.jpg/100px-Morris-Browne_House.jpg"},{"image_text":"La Nueva Libertad","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/La_Nueva_Liberdad_Cueto_Building.jpg/100px-La_Nueva_Liberdad_Cueto_Building.jpg"},{"image_text":"Palmito Ranch Battlefield","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Palmito_Ranch_Battlefield_2012-09-30_11-15-36.jpg/100px-Palmito_Ranch_Battlefield_2012-09-30_11-15-36.jpg"},{"image_text":"Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Palo_Alto_Battlefield_NHP.JPG/100px-Palo_Alto_Battlefield_NHP.JPG"},{"image_text":"Point Isabel Lighthouse","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Port_Isabel_Texas_Lighthouse.jpg/100px-Port_Isabel_Texas_Lighthouse.jpg"},{"image_text":"Resaca de la Palma Battlefield","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Resaca_De_La_Palma_Battlefield_2012-09-04_11-05-42.jpg/100px-Resaca_De_La_Palma_Battlefield_2012-09-04_11-05-42.jpg"},{"image_text":"Southern Pacific Railroad Passenger Depot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Passenger_Depot_Brownsville_Texas.jpg/100px-Southern_Pacific_Railroad_Passenger_Depot_Brownsville_Texas.jpg"},{"image_text":"Charles Stillman House","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Stillman_House_Brownsville_Texas.jpg/100px-Stillman_House_Brownsville_Texas.jpg"},{"image_text":"USS Cabot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spanish_aircraft_carrier_D%C3%A9dalo_%28R01%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_on_1_June_1988_%286430232%29.jpg/100px-Spanish_aircraft_carrier_D%C3%A9dalo_%28R01%29_underway_in_the_Mediterranean_Sea_on_1_June_1988_%286430232%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cameron County map","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Map_of_Texas_highlighting_Cameron_County.svg/100px-Map_of_Texas_highlighting_Cameron_County.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"National Register of Historic Places in Cameron County, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:National_Register_of_Historic_Places_in_Cameron_County,_Texas"},{"title":"National Register of Historic Places portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"title":"Texas portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Texas"},{"title":"National Register of Historic Places listings in Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Texas"},{"title":"List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Texas"},{"title":"Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks in Cameron County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Recorded_Texas_Historic_Landmarks_(Cameron-Duval)#Cameron_County"}]
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[{"reference":"\"National Register Information System\". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP","url_text":"\"National Register Information System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places","url_text":"National Register of Historic Places"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service","url_text":"National Park Service"}]},{"reference":"Knoerl, John; Miller, Diane; Shrimpton, Rebecca H. (1990), Guidelines for Restricting Information about Historic and Prehistoric Resources, National Register Bulletin, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, OCLC 20706997","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/guidelinesforres00knoe","url_text":"Guidelines for Restricting Information about Historic and Prehistoric Resources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service","url_text":"National Park Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior","url_text":"U.S. Department of the Interior"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20706997","url_text":"20706997"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Mills,_Illinois
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London Mills, Illinois
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["1 Geography","2 Demographics","3 Notable people","4 Schools","5 References"]
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Coordinates: 40°42′38″N 90°15′58″W / 40.71056°N 90.26611°W / 40.71056; -90.26611
Village in Illinois, United StatesLondon Mills, IllinoisVillageLady Liberty of London MillsLocation of London Mills in Fulton County, Illinois.Location of Illinois in the United StatesCoordinates: 40°42′38″N 90°15′58″W / 40.71056°N 90.26611°W / 40.71056; -90.26611CountryUnited StatesStateIllinoisCountiesFulton, KnoxTownshipsYoung Hickory, ChestnutArea • Total0.68 sq mi (1.77 km2) • Land0.68 sq mi (1.77 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Elevation541 ft (165 m)Population (2020) • Total350 • Density511.70/sq mi (197.60/km2)Time zoneUTC-6 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC-5 (CDT)ZIP Code(s)61544Area code309FIPS code17-44446GNIS ID2398469Wikimedia CommonsLondon Mills, Illinois
London Mills is a village in Fulton and Knox counties in the U.S. state of Illinois. The population was 350 at the 2020 census.
The Fulton County portion of London Mills is part of the Canton Micropolitan Statistical Area and the wider Peoria Consolidated Statistical Area, while the Knox County portion is part of the Galesburg Micropolitan Statistical Area.
Geography
London Mills is located along the boundary between Fulton and Knox counties. In the 2000 census, 442 of London Mills' 447 residents (98.9%) lived in Fulton County and 5 (1.2%) lived in Knox County.
The village is bordered to the northwest by the Spoon River, a south-flowing tributary of the Illinois River. Illinois Route 116 forms the southern edge of the village. The highway leads east 14 miles (23 km) to Farmington and west 8 miles (13 km) to St. Augustine. Canton, the largest city in Fulton County, is 22 miles (35 km) to the southeast.
According to the 2010 census, London Mills has a total area of 0.68 square miles (1.76 km2), all land.
Demographics
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
1890661—1900528−20.1%19105555.1%1920546−1.6%1930432−20.9%194057934.0%19505810.3%19606176.2%1970610−1.1%1980587−3.8%1990485−17.4%2000447−7.8%2010392−12.3%2020350−10.7%U.S. Decennial Census
As of the 2020 census there were 350 people, 152 households, and 98 families residing in the village. The population density was 511.70 inhabitants per square mile (197.57/km2). There were 160 housing units at an average density of 233.92 per square mile (90.32/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.00% White, 0.57% African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 3.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.71% of the population.
There were 152 households, out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.68% were married couples living together, 9.21% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.53% were non-families. 30.26% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.18% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.14.
The village's age distribution consisted of 17.5% under the age of 18, 3.4% from 18 to 24, 27.3% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 23.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.1 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $43,750, and the median income for a family was $55,833. Males had a median income of $34,688 versus $16,458 for females. The per capita income for the village was $34,731. About 4.1% of families and 9.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
Notable people
Gale Schisler, US congressman (Illinois's 19th congressional district)
Schools
London Mills is home to Spoon River Valley Community Unit District 4. The schools include Spoon River Valley High School, Spoon River Valley Junior High School, and Spoon River Valley Elementary School. The facility is located east of town at the intersection of Illinois routes 97 and 116.
References
^ a b c U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: London Mills, Illinois
^ "2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 15, 2022.
^ a b "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
^ "Subcounty population estimates 2000-2006: Illinois". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. June 28, 2007. Archived from the original (CSV) on October 8, 2008. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
^ "G001 - Geographic Identifiers - 2010 Census Summary File 1". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved August 4, 2015.
^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
^ "Spoon River Valley C.U.S.D. #4". Retrieved February 9, 2010.
vteMunicipalities and communities of Fulton County, Illinois, United StatesCounty seat: LewistownCities
Canton
Cuba
Farmington‡
Lewistown
Map of Illinois highlighting Fulton CountyTown
Astoria
Villages
Avon‡
Banner
Bryant
Dunfermline
Ellisville
Fairview
Ipava
Liverpool
London Mills‡
Marietta
Norris
Smithfield
St. David
Table Grove
Vermont
Townships
Astoria
Banner
Bernadotte
Buckheart
Canton
Cass
Deerfield
Ellisville
Fairview
Farmers
Farmington
Harris
Isabel
Joshua
Kerton
Lee
Lewistown
Liverpool
Orion
Pleasant
Putman
Union
Vermont
Waterford
Woodland
Young Hickory
Unincorporatedcommunities
Babylon
Beaty
Bernadotte
Blyton
Breeds
Brereton
Checkrow
Depler Springs
Duncan Mills
Enion
Fiatt
Gilchrist
Leesburg
Little America
Manley
Maples Mill
Marbletown
Middlegrove
Monterey
Poverty Ridge
Rawalts
Sepo
Seville
Summum
Ghost towns
Bybee
Civer
Midway
Sugarville
Tuscumbia
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Illinois portal
United States portal
vteMunicipalities and communities of Knox County, Illinois, United StatesCounty seat: GalesburgCities
Abingdon
Galesburg
Knoxville
Oneida
Map of Illinois highlighting Knox CountyVillages
Altona
East Galesburg
Henderson
London Mills‡
Maquon
Rio
St. Augustine
Victoria
Wataga
Williamsfield
Yates City
Townships
Cedar
Chestnut
Copley
Elba
Galesburg City
Galesburg
Haw Creek
Henderson
Indian Point
Knox
Lynn
Maquon
Ontario
Orange
Persifer
Rio
Salem
Sparta
Truro
Victoria
Walnut Grove
CDPs
Gilson
Oak Run
Otherunincorporatedcommunities
Centerville
Columbia Heights
Dahinda
DeLong
Douglas
Elba Center
Henderson Grove
Hermon
Knox
Ontario
Rapatee
Saluda
Soperville
Trenton Corners
Truro
Uniontown
Ghost towns
Appleton
Etherly
Footnotes‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Illinois portal
United States portal
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The population was 350 at the 2020 census.[3]The Fulton County portion of London Mills is part of the Canton Micropolitan Statistical Area and the wider Peoria Consolidated Statistical Area, while the Knox County portion is part of the Galesburg Micropolitan Statistical Area.","title":"London Mills, Illinois"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Spoon River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoon_River"},{"link_name":"Illinois River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_River"},{"link_name":"Illinois Route 116","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Route_116"},{"link_name":"Farmington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmington,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"St. Augustine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Augustine,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Canton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-census-g001-5"}],"text":"London Mills is located along the boundary between Fulton and Knox counties. In the 2000 census, 442 of London Mills' 447 residents (98.9%) lived in Fulton County and 5 (1.2%) lived in Knox County.[4]The village is bordered to the northwest by the Spoon River, a south-flowing tributary of the Illinois River. Illinois Route 116 forms the southern edge of the village. The highway leads east 14 miles (23 km) to Farmington and west 8 miles (13 km) to St. Augustine. Canton, the largest city in Fulton County, is 22 miles (35 km) to the southeast.According to the 2010 census, London Mills has a total area of 0.68 square miles (1.76 km2), all land.[5]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Pacific Islander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Islander_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"other races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(United_States_Census)"},{"link_name":"Hispanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_(U.S._Census)"},{"link_name":"per capita income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita_income"},{"link_name":"poverty line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty_line"}],"text":"As of the 2020 census[3] there were 350 people, 152 households, and 98 families residing in the village. The population density was 511.70 inhabitants per square mile (197.57/km2). There were 160 housing units at an average density of 233.92 per square mile (90.32/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.00% White, 0.57% African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 3.14% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.71% of the population.There were 152 households, out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.68% were married couples living together, 9.21% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.53% were non-families. 30.26% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.18% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.14.The village's age distribution consisted of 17.5% under the age of 18, 3.4% from 18 to 24, 27.3% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 23.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.1 males.The median income for a household in the village was $43,750, and the median income for a family was $55,833. Males had a median income of $34,688 versus $16,458 for females. The per capita income for the village was $34,731. About 4.1% of families and 9.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gale Schisler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale_Schisler"},{"link_name":"Illinois's 19th congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%27s_19th_congressional_district"}],"text":"Gale Schisler, US congressman (Illinois's 19th congressional district)","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spoon River Valley Community Unit District 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spoon_River_Valley_Community_Unit_District_4&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Spoon River Valley High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoon_River_Valley_High_School"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"London Mills is home to Spoon River Valley Community Unit District 4. The schools include Spoon River Valley High School, Spoon River Valley Junior High School, and Spoon River Valley Elementary School. The facility is located east of town at the intersection of Illinois routes 97 and 116.[7]","title":"Schools"}]
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[{"image_text":"Map of Illinois highlighting Fulton County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Fulton_County.svg/42px-Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Fulton_County.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Map of Illinois highlighting Knox County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Knox_County.svg/42px-Map_of_Illinois_highlighting_Knox_County.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 15, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_17.txt","url_text":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"Explore Census Data\". data.census.gov. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1744446","url_text":"\"Explore Census Data\""}]},{"reference":"\"Subcounty population estimates 2000-2006: Illinois\". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. June 28, 2007. Archived from the original (CSV) on October 8, 2008. Retrieved June 8, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081008131340/http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2006_17.csv","url_text":"\"Subcounty population estimates 2000-2006: Illinois\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"},{"url":"https://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2006_17.csv","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma-separated_values","url_text":"CSV"}]},{"reference":"\"G001 - Geographic Identifiers - 2010 Census Summary File 1\". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved August 4, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20200213090113/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US1744446","url_text":"\"G001 - Geographic Identifiers - 2010 Census Summary File 1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau","url_text":"United States Census Bureau"},{"url":"http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US1744446","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Census of Population and Housing\". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","url_text":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spoon River Valley C.U.S.D. #4\". Retrieved February 9, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://spoon-river.k12.il.us/index.htm","url_text":"\"Spoon River Valley C.U.S.D. #4\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=London_Mills,_Illinois¶ms=40_42_38_N_90_15_58_W_type:city(350)_region:US-IL","external_links_name":"40°42′38″N 90°15′58″W / 40.71056°N 90.26611°W / 40.71056; -90.26611"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=London_Mills,_Illinois¶ms=40_42_38_N_90_15_58_W_type:city(350)_region:US-IL","external_links_name":"40°42′38″N 90°15′58″W / 40.71056°N 90.26611°W / 40.71056; -90.26611"},{"Link":"https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/search/names/2398469","external_links_name":"U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: London Mills, Illinois"},{"Link":"https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_17.txt","external_links_name":"\"2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\""},{"Link":"https://data.census.gov/cedsci/profile?g=1600000US1744446","external_links_name":"\"Explore Census Data\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081008131340/http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2006_17.csv","external_links_name":"\"Subcounty population estimates 2000-2006: Illinois\""},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/popest/cities/files/SUB-EST2006_17.csv","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20200213090113/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US1744446","external_links_name":"\"G001 - Geographic Identifiers - 2010 Census Summary File 1\""},{"Link":"http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_SF1/G001/1600000US1744446","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html","external_links_name":"\"Census of Population and Housing\""},{"Link":"http://spoon-river.k12.il.us/index.htm","external_links_name":"\"Spoon River Valley C.U.S.D. #4\""}]
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